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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Bookbinding, by Paul Adam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Practical Bookbinding
+
+Author: Paul Adam
+
+Translator: Thos. E. Maw
+
+Release Date: March 31, 2012 [EBook #39318]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Hazel Batey and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING.
+
+  Illustration
+
+  PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING
+
+  BY PAUL ADAM,
+
+  _Director of the Düsseldorf Technical School of Artistic and
+  Practical Bookbinding._
+
+  TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY THOS. E. MAW,
+  LIBRARIAN KING'S LYNN PUBLIC LIBRARY.
+
+  WITH 127 ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  LONDON SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO. 19 LUDGATE HILL, E.C.
+
+  NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. 23 MURRAY STREET 1903
+
+  (_The sole right of translation into English rests with Scott,
+  Greenwood & Co._)
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+
+  METRIC AND BRITISH SYSTEMS COMPARED                            vi.
+
+  PREFACE                                                       vii.
+
+  Introductory Remarks on Working Methods and Materials           1
+
+      _A._--Materials for Sewing and Pasting                      1
+
+      _B._--Materials for Covering the Book                       4
+
+      _C._--Materials for Decorating and Finishing                7
+
+      _D._--Tools                                                 9
+
+
+  PART I.
+
+  FORWARDING.
+
+  Chapter   I.--General Preparatory Work                          13
+
+  Chapter  II.--Sewing                                            40
+
+  Chapter III.--Forwarding: Cutting, Rounding, and Backing        54
+
+  Chapter  IV.--Forwarding: Decoration, of Edges and Headbanding  62
+
+  Chapter   V.--Boarding                                          85
+
+
+  PART II.
+
+  FINISHING.
+
+  The Book Cover                                                  93
+
+  Chapter   VI.--Making the Cover                                 95
+
+  Chapter  VII.--Work with the Blocking Press                    103
+
+  Chapter VIII.--Treatment of Sewn Books, Fastening in Covers,
+                 and Finishing Off                               119
+
+  Chapter   IX.--Hand Finishing                                  129
+
+  Chapter    X.--Account Books                                   157
+
+  Chapter   XI.--School Books, Mounting Maps, Drawings, &c.      169
+
+  Conclusion                                                     177
+
+  Index                                                          180
+
+
+
+
+List of Illustrations
+
+
+                                                                Page.
+  Fig. 1           Glue-pot for heating by petroleum.               3
+  Figs. 2 & 3      Holding whilst folding.                         15
+  Fig. 4           Lifting into the Press.                         19
+  Fig. 5           Open sheets laid out for gathering.             20
+  Fig. 6           Sections fanned out for drawing out.            22
+  Fig. 7           Sections fanned out for pasting.                23
+  Fig. 8           Suggestions for mounting on guards.             25
+  Figs. 9-13       Suggestions for folding plates and maps.        26
+  Fig. 14          Collating.                                      28
+  Fig. 15          Rolling machine.                                31
+  Fig. 16          Sewing frame.                                   33
+  Fig. 17          Arrangement on the sewing frame.                33
+  Fig. 18          Arrangement of threads in holländering.         35
+  Fig. 19          Small stapling machine for single sheets.       35
+  Fig. 20          Arrangement of staples in brochures.            35
+  Fig. 21          Arrangement of threads in old style of sewing.  41
+  Fig. 22          Arrangement of threads with double cords.       41
+  Fig. 23          Divisions for sawing-in.                        42
+  Fig. 24          Machine for sawing-in.                          43
+  Fig. 25          Suggestions for single and double end papers.   45
+  Fig. 26          Suggestion for double end paper with tear-off.  45
+  Fig. 27          Overcast end paper.                             46
+  Fig. 28          Loops for attaching to frame hooks.             47
+  Fig. 29          Loops for taking frame keys.                    47
+  Fig. 30          Suggestion for sewing on four cords.            48
+  Fig. 31          Suggestion for sewing on six cords.             48
+  Fig. 32          Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on.            50
+  Fig. 33          Thread-sewing machine.                          53
+  Fig. 34          Wire-sewing machine.                            53
+  Fig. 35          Rotary guillotine.                              54
+  Fig. 36          Lever guillotine.                               55
+  Fig. 37          Top edge arranged for when trimming
+                     three edges.                                  56
+  Fig. 38          Rounding the book.                              57
+  Fig. 39          Rounding machine.                               58
+  Fig. 40          Backing machine for small shops.                59
+  Fig. 41          Backing machine for large shops.                59
+  Fig. 42          Backed book arranged for trimming.              60
+  Fig. 43          Marbling outfit.                                66
+  Fig. 44          Suggestion for sprinkling colour.               68
+  Fig. 45          Comb marbling.                                  69
+  Fig. 46          Suggestion for curl marbling.                   69
+  Fig. 47          Bouquet or peacock marbling.                    70
+  Fig. 48          Eye marbling.                                   70
+  Figs. 49 & 50    Arrangement of flat and rounded edges.          74
+  Fig. 51          Top edge arranged for gilding.                  80
+  Fig. 52          Headband shears.                                82
+  Fig. 53          Headband working.                               83
+  Fig. 54          Board-cutting machine.                          86
+  Fig. 55          Spring back.                                    87
+  Fig. 56          Boarded book.                                   88
+  Fig. 57          Section of edge rule.                           89
+  Fig. 58          English style of lacing boards.                 90
+  Fig. 59          View of the most general styles of binding,
+                     showing the divisions of the work.  (Table)   94
+  Fig. 60          Corners cut for turning in.                     96
+  Fig. 61          Corners: Right and wrong.                       96
+  Fig. 62          Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife.          97
+  Fig. 63          Paring with French knife.                       99
+  Fig. 64          Blocking press.                                105
+  Fig. 65          Appliances used in blocking backs.             107
+  Fig. 66          Colour roller.                                 115
+  Fig. 67          Stuck-on gauges.                               118
+  Fig. 68          Turning in the head.                           121
+  Figs. 69 & 70    The head: good and bad.                        122
+  Fig. 71          The pasted-down book.                          125
+  Fig. 72          Treatment of tear-off.                         128
+  Figs. 73 & 74    Simple line designs.                           131
+  Fig. 75          Half-calf extra tooled in blind.               133
+  Fig. 76          Leather binding with simple design in blind.   134
+  Fig. 77          Simple gold tooling on sides.                  135
+  Fig. 78          Tooled cover.                                  136
+  Fig. 79          Specimen of tooling done in the Düsseldorf
+                     Technical School.                            137
+  Fig. 80          Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.          138
+  Fig. 81          Cover with laurel motive done in the
+                     Düsseldorf Technical School.                 139
+  Fig. 82          Leather binding with fern motive done in the
+                     Düsseldorf Technical School.                 143
+  Fig. 83          Simple gold tooling on squares.                144
+  Fig. 84          Design in gold for squares. Tools by,
+                     F. Clement Leipzig.                          145
+  Figs. 85 & 86    Two designs in gold for squares.               145
+  Figs. 87,        Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T =
+    88, & 89         Sub Title.                                   147
+  Fig. 90          Type-holder with centre position.              148
+  Figs. 91, 92,    Four backs tooled in the Düsseldorf Technical
+    93, & 94         School.                                      149
+  Fig. 95          Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical
+                     School.                                      150
+  Figs. 96 & 97    Two richly decorated insides done in the
+                     Düsseldorf Technical School.                 150
+  Figs. 98, 99,    Four richly tooled backs
+    100 & 102                                                     151
+  Fig. 102         Rich half-calf extra binding.                  152
+  Figs. 103 & 104  Tooling on heads.                              153
+  Figs. 105,       Tooling on the edges of the boards.
+    106, & 107                                                    154
+  Fig. 108         Motive executed in the Düsseldorf Technical
+                     School.                                      154
+  Fig. 109         Case to protect book.                          155
+  Fig. 110         Cut-out case.                                  155
+  Fig. 111         Book cover.                                    155
+  Fig. 112         Cover in case form.                            155
+  Figs. 113 & 114  End papers for account books.                  158
+  Fig. 115         Boards cut out at head.                        160
+  Fig. 116         Suggestion for account book back.
+                     _K_ Pared edge; _T_ Part to be pasted.       161
+  Fig. 117         Suggestion for account book back.              162
+  Fig. 118         Boarded account book.                          163
+  Fig. 119         To show where turn-in is to be cut.            164
+  Fig. 120         Hand numbering machine.                        165
+  Fig. 121         Suggestion for back of guard book.             166
+  Fig. 122         Pattern for dust flaps. (Leinwand =
+                     Linen hinge.)                                167
+  Fig. 123         Eyeleting machine.                             172
+  Figs. 124-127    Showing stages of pinning down for stretching. 173
+
+
+
+
+THE METRIC AND BRITISH SYSTEMS.
+
+TABLE OF COMPARISON.
+
+
+    +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+
+    |Metres.|Decimetres.|Centimetres.|Millimetres.|Inches.|
+    +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+
+    | .001  |   .01     |     .1     |     1      |  .039 |
+    | .002  |   .02     |     .2     |     2      |  .079 |
+    | .003  |   .03     |     .3     |     3      |  .118 |
+    | .004  |   .04     |     .4     |     4      |  .157 |
+    | .005  |   .05     |     .5     |     5      |  .197 |
+    | .006  |   .06     |     .6     |     6      |  .236 |
+    | .007  |   .07     |     .7     |     7      |  .276 |
+    | .008  |   .08     |     .8     |     8      |  .315 |
+    | .009  |   .09     |     .9     |     9      |  .354 |
+    | .01   |   .1      |    1       |    10      |  .394 |
+    | .02   |   .2      |    2       |    20      |  .787 |
+    | .03   |   .3      |    3       |    30      | 1.181 |
+    | .04   |   .4      |    4       |    40      | 1.575 |
+    | .05   |   .5      |    5       |    50      | 1.968 |
+    | .06   |   .6      |    6       |    60      | 2.362 |
+    | .07   |   .7      |    7       |    70      | 2.756 |
+    | .08   |   .8      |    8       |    80      | 3.150 |
+    | .09   |   .9      |    9       |    90      | 3.543 |
+    | .1    |  1        |   10       |   100      | 3.94  |
+    | .2    |  2        |   20       |   200      | 7.87  |
+    | .3    |  3        |   30       |   300      |11.81  |
+    | .4    |  4        |   40       |   400      |15.75  |
+    | .5    |  5        |   50       |   500      |19.69  |
+    | .6    |  6        |   60       |   600      |23.62  |
+    | .7    |  7        |   70       |   700      |27.56  |
+    | .8    |  8        |   80       |   800      |31.50  |
+    | .9    |  9        |   90       |   900      |35.43  |
+    | 1     | 10        |  100       |  1000      |39.37  |
+    +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+
+
+  WEIGHT.
+                    1 gramme      = 15.44 grains.
+                   28-1/3 grammes = 1 oz. avoird.
+     1 kilogramme  = 1000 grammes = 2.20 lb. avoird.
+
+  LENGTH.
+
+  1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39.37 inches. Roughly speaking, 1 metre =
+  a yard and a tenth.  1 centimetre = two-fifths of an inch. 1 kilometre =
+  1000 metres = five-eighths of a mile.
+
+  VOLUME.
+
+  1 cubic metre = 1000 litres = 35.32 cubic feet.
+  1 litre = 1000 cubic centimetres = .2202 gall.
+
+  HEAT.
+
+  1 calorie = 3.96 British thermal units.
+
+
+COMPARISON BETWEEN FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE THERMOMETERS.
+
+    +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+    |  C.|   F.| C. |  F. | C. |  F. |  C. |  F. |  C. |  F.|
+    +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+    |-25 |-13  |  5 | 41  | 25 |  77 |  65 | 149 | 105 | 221|
+    |-20 | -4  |  8 | 46.4| 30 |  86 |  70 | 158 | 110 | 230|
+    |-17 |  1.4| 10 | 50  | 35 |  95 |  75 | 167 | 115 | 239|
+    |-15 |  5  | 12 | 53.6| 40 | 104 |  80 | 176 | 120 | 248|
+    |-10 | 14  | 15 | 59  | 45 | 113 |  85 | 185 | 125 | 257|
+    | -5 | 23  | 17 | 62.6| 50 | 122 |  90 | 194 | 130 | 266|
+    |  0 | 32  | 18 | 64.4| 55 | 131 |  95 | 203 | 135 | 275|
+    |  1 | 33.8| 20 | 68  | 60 | 140 | 100 | 212 | 140 | 284|
+    +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+
+To Convert:--
+Degrees C. to Degrees F., multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32.
+Degrees F. to Degrees C., first subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and
+divide by 9.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Nowadays the bookbinder does not bind only those books given to him for
+this purpose as was the case in former years, for present conditions
+necessitate his undertaking many kinds of work which have little or
+nothing to do with the binding of books, particularly such as are
+connected with the making or finishing of printed matter and paper
+goods, or where pasting, gumming, and glueing are required, which, in
+their turn, are connected with paper and cardboard.
+
+On the other hand, some branches of the bookbinder's craft have now
+become quite distinct, and have developed into special industries, and
+have so enlarged and extended that even their particular methods of
+working and technical terms have quite changed. Cardboard goods, leather
+goods, photo albums, maps, and even account-books are treated by
+particular firms as specialities.
+
+As we must now keep within clearly defined limits, we shall treat here
+only the work of bookbinding proper as far as it is concerned with the
+making of the book for publisher, bookseller, and buyer, and also the
+making of account-books, whilst the other work given to the binder,
+commonly called "fancy goods," must be excluded. _Editions de luxe_,
+charters, illuminated addresses, &c., are likewise excluded, as they are
+quite apart from the ordinary work of the bookbinder, belonging solely
+to artistic bookbinding. When any such work is required the intelligent
+worker will not be at a loss; besides, he will derive ample assistance
+from the illustrations for this class of work.
+
+The parts of this little book have been so arranged as to correspond to
+our present-day division of work: preparatory work, forwarding,
+covering, and finishing. In England and France the various processes
+have for a long time been similarly termed, and although in Germany we
+could not follow their lead without any deviation, because our method of
+work and division of labour are so different, yet the basis of this
+arrangement has been used in this book.
+
+Every text-book has some drawback, the greatest of these being that a
+practical demonstration on the subject is more helpful than the most
+detailed written description, and yet even in the latter a text-book is
+limited. For the rest, I have tried to be as brief and clear as ever
+possible and to avoid faults which I have discovered in my former
+writings of a similar kind.
+
+                                               Paul Adam.
+
+_Düsseldorf, Germany, 1898._
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON WORKING METHODS AND MATERIALS.
+
+
+The bookbinder works with quite a large variety of materials which are
+mostly what we might call "half-made," that is to say, such materials as
+have already undergone some hand or machine process in order to make
+them fit for the work of the bookbinder. This is not the place to go
+into details as to the source of all these materials or the manner of
+their production: that may be seen in special treatises.
+
+We separate into various groups the materials we use.
+
+
+A.--MATERIALS FOR SEWING AND PASTING.
+
+The bookbinder himself prepares his paste from wheaten flour and boiling
+water. Put in a shallow vessel, by preference a stone or enamelled metal
+wash-basin, the quantity of flour required for about eight days, pour in
+as much water as will make a mixture by soaking and stirring of the
+consistency of honey. Add to it boiling water, first slowly, then
+quicker, stirring all the time. It does not do to add the water too
+quickly, as that is likely to make the paste knotty or lumpy, because it
+cannot be stirred quickly enough and the gluten develops unequally. If
+added too slowly, the starch is not heated quickly enough and does not
+thicken sufficiently or not quickly enough, and the paste turns out too
+thin.
+
+Good paste, when cold, should not be stiff like pudding, but should be
+easily worked with a brush. In order to prevent a skin forming on the
+top whilst cooling, pour over the paste as much cold water as will cover
+the surface immediately after the mixing with the boiling water; this
+water is afterwards poured off.
+
+In summer when the paste is made, and whilst still hot, add a few drops
+of turpentine and mix well; this preserves the paste and keeps off
+insects. The addition of alum to the paste tends to make it watery,
+besides having no preservative properties.
+
+If required, paste may be thinned by adding a little warm water. Potato
+flour is often used fraudulently for making paste, but this should only
+be taken when it is possible to use it up quickly, and not for books,
+but only for fancy goods, as this flour does not possess great adhesive
+power and is unsuitable for leather.
+
+Glue is made from the well-known cake glue. The best English glue,
+although the dearest, is the cheapest to use. Good glue whilst soaking
+in water should still retain a certain degree of stickiness, must not be
+greasy, and should have no disagreeable smell. Glue if weighed before
+soaking and afterwards dried and again weighed should give no
+perceptible loss in weight. Good glue should not have a disagreeable
+taste, and above all should not betray the presence of salt.
+
+To obtain the proper consistency in glue for bookbinding, a quantity of
+the cakes is taken and sufficient water poured over it to cover well.
+The next day the gelatinous mass is taken out of the water and dissolved
+in the glue-pot by placing the softened glue in a pot standing in an
+outer vessel containing boiling water. Glue should never be boiled nor
+placed directly on the fire, as that causes the loss of the best part of
+its adhesive property.
+
+Glue and paste are generally worked with a brush. For paste a large
+hollow brush is used; this holds a large quantity of paste and covers a
+large surface. For glue a closer brush with a metal fastening is used,
+because here the hairs cannot be secured with pitch owing to the brush
+being constantly exposed to heat. On the paste brush there must be
+neither ring nor anything else of iron, as this used in paste would
+cause rust, and rust would give iron stains to light-coloured leathers.
+For the same reason no enamelled vessel should be used for paste after
+the enamel has once been chipped or worn.
+
+Laying the glue or paste on a material is called glueing or pasting. A
+zinc-plate is the most serviceable pasting-board, as the paste is easily
+washed off. Glue can be scraped or soaked off and used again.
+Pasting-boards of mill-board or paper are hardly to be recommended, as
+their use entails a considerable loss of material.
+
+Of other adhesive substances, dextrine, gum, gelatine, and isinglass are
+used for certain purposes. The two former are always used cold, the two
+latter warm. The former are dissolved in cold water; gelatine and
+isinglass are soaked exactly like glue, the water poured off, and then
+melted in the glue-pot.
+
+Dextrine and gum are used by the bookbinder almost exclusively for
+pasting larger surfaces, and for laying on these substances a broad thin
+brush fastened with a metal strip is used.
+
+Fig. 1.--Glue-pot for heating by petroleum.
+
+To heat the glue and to maintain the heat a glue-heating apparatus is
+used. The upper part always consists of the glue-pot. The better kinds
+are made of copper or brass wrought or moulded in one piece. For the
+sake of convenience a partition is let into this pot so that thick and
+thin glue may be ready for use at the same time. The glue is not heated
+directly over the flame, but by hot water; to do this the glue-pot is
+placed within a larger vessel containing water, the glue-pot at the same
+time closely fitting to the outer rim of the larger vessel. This
+contrivance is placed over a petroleum, gas, or spirit lamp, which gives
+the required heat. In some districts where brown coal is found, it is
+heated on a specially made contrivance with the brown coal waste.
+
+The latest method of heating is by electricity. The apparatus necessary
+for this has been put on the market by the firm W. Leo, Stuttgart.
+
+The majority of bookbinderies, large and small, use a strong linen
+hemp-spun thread for sewing, the strength of which depends upon the
+weight and size of the sheets to be sewn. As it is inconvenient to be
+obliged to be continually beginning a new thread or knotting, most
+bookbinders use a reel of thread. The so-called Marschall thread is the
+best.
+
+The book is held together by cords, for which the so-called sewing cord
+is used. There are now special kinds made for the purposes of the
+bookbinder; these are lightly twisted out of a long fibrous material so
+that afterwards they can be easily undone for the subsequent necessary
+scraping out. Certain kinds of bindings are sewn upon tapes; strong raw
+linen tape of 1-1-1/2 cm. being the material most generally used.
+
+For machine sewing, thread is generally used. Tinned iron wire, ready
+wound on spools, is also used. It is made in various sizes and used
+according to the weight of the sheets.
+
+
+B.--MATERIAL FOR COVERING THE BOOK.
+
+The real protection against outward injury to the book lies in the
+cover, the inside of which consists of boards more or less strong. Of
+the kinds on the market the bookbinder uses grey-board, which is made
+from waste paper and rags. It is grey, very tough, and flexible, but
+dearer than other raw materials.
+
+Straw-boards made from straw and waste paper are cheaper, but less
+flexible, and are easily broken. They take a very high polish under the
+calendering machine and become very hard, and are therefore very
+suitable for some work if flexibility is not essential. They are
+generally used in all cloth binding.
+
+So-called leather-boards are unsuitable, for, in spite of great
+toughness and pliancy, they are certain to cockle and always remain
+spongy. Wooden-boards are unsuitable for bookbinding on account of their
+small resistance, but are indispensable for fancy goods and portfolios,
+as they can be so nicely cut and are less liable to subsequent cockling
+than any other kind.
+
+Besides these, yellow and blue boards are made. These are coloured to
+suit and serve quite special purposes, mostly fancy goods; but they also
+are not used in bookbinding, on account of their high price.
+
+The thinnest boards are known as middles. This is a strong whitish
+material made entirely from waste-paper. It is used for lining backs,
+limp bindings, and in all cases where flexibility, together with
+durability, is required.
+
+In finished work--books, fancy goods, maps--the boards are never left
+exposed to view, but are covered with paper, cloth, or leather. For the
+inner side of the cover of the book white or coloured paper is
+frequently used, note-paper of the smallest size being more rarely used.
+
+All marbled or pressed papers are made in one standard size. Besides the
+end papers for inside of books, a figured paper has of late been made
+known as "litho printed" for fancy goods. This has been put on the
+market in the most varied kinds, and also with cloth-like impressions,
+under the names damask, brocade, and Leipzig end papers. The use of this
+paper has of late been almost discontinued. The dearest are those
+printed with designs in gold.
+
+Cloth is more durable than paper, calico being mostly used. This is made
+in all colours and designs, and was formerly imported from England; but
+to-day German manufacturers produce a really good article. Plain linen
+cloth, black, green, or grey, sail cloth, buckram, mole-skin, and beaver
+are used in the making of account-books.
+
+Silk is used in the bookbindery as end papers in extra work, and also
+for fancy goods and for lining boxes. The lower grades are seldom used,
+the better qualities being mostly taken.
+
+To-day velvet is still used in the bindery, chiefly as a covering for
+portfolios, albums, and addresses, and except for metal clasps remains
+without ornamentation.
+
+The bookbinder's best material, to which is given the choicest, most
+expensive, and most painstaking decoration, is leather in its various
+kinds. Sheep-skin, undyed or split and dyed, serves for school books and
+other cheap work. Goat-skin and morocco are better kinds, the latter
+being preferable both as regards price and quality.
+
+Morocco is made from the skin of the goat. Morocco, Levant morocco, and
+maroquin all denote the same kind. It is a strong, coarse-grained
+leather imported from the Levant, very tough and durable.
+
+Cape morocco, also called _maroquin écrasé_, is similar to this. This
+has a very large, artificially smooth-pressed grain, and hitherto has
+been higher in price than all other leathers.
+
+Calf (matt or polished) is quite smooth and is only used for fine work.
+Cowhide is similar to this, but of coarser texture, and is only used
+for leather goods, portfolios, and albums; for other work in the bindery
+it is not easily enough worked.
+
+Celluloid is one of the latest materials used for covers. There is
+evidently a good opening for this in the wholesale manufacturies,
+stamped goods, and small fancy goods; whilst on the other hand it is of
+little value to the smaller shops, as it requires machinery for gilding.
+
+
+C.--MATERIALS FOR DECORATING AND FINISHING.
+
+For the decoration of our work, either during or after production, there
+will be a large variety of materials used. Colours are used for the
+decoration of the cut edges and the cut heads of books. The smooth,
+uniformly coloured edges are made by a body colour--carmine, scarlet,
+chrome yellow, silk green, indigo blue. All these colours must be very
+finely ground before using; the addition of a little paste or dissolved
+gelatine makes the colour adhere.
+
+For marbling the edges Halfer's marbling colours are now exclusively
+used; these are to be had ready for use.
+
+Amongst the binders' materials gold takes quite an important place.
+Leaf-gold in various colours is supplied either by the gold-beater or
+the wholesale dealer. The colour most used at the present time is orange
+gold, which is about the same in tint as our current gold coinage. Red
+gold is somewhat deeper in tone. Green gold and lemon gold are
+considerably altered by an alloy of silver, and are sold cheaper.
+Besides gold there are still other leaf-metals used, principally
+aluminium as a substitute for silver. The latter is still being used,
+but its unfortunate property of turning black will by-and-by drive it
+from our workshops. Bronze-leaf is also used for very small jobs in
+large quantities--makers' names on hat linings, ties, &c. Like silver,
+it is also liable to rapid oxidization, which takes place with especial
+rapidity upon leather.
+
+Gold leaf is made in various sizes. The larger size, about 85 mm., is
+the best to use, whilst the very small sizes are better suited for some
+work.
+
+As a ground-work for gilt edges, the so-called _poliment_ (Armenian
+bole) is now generally used. This is cleaned bole, made into a paste,
+and applied in a solution not too thin.
+
+To make the gold stick to the surface, glair or white of egg is used in
+all cases. It must be properly diluted according to whether it is to be
+used for gilt edges or hand-tooling.
+
+Finished work, especially smooth surfaces, is improved by the
+application of varnish, and is at the same time rendered damp-proof. The
+so-called bookbinder's or leather varnish is used for leather, cloth, or
+pressed dark papers. Map varnish, also sold as photographer's varnish,
+is suitable for light articles, maps, placards, &c. At present, spirit
+varnish with its quick drying and high surface is almost exclusively
+used for this purpose. Turpentine varnishes are no longer generally used
+in bookbinderies; in colour printing copal and amber varnishes are used.
+
+The ready-made headband is an article specially manufactured for the
+bookbinder. It is fastened on the book in suitable lengths to cover the
+place where the body and back of books join at head and tail. These
+headbands are to be had in the most varied styles, according to price
+and requirement. For ordinary work a cheap cotton is good enough, for
+fine half-calf bindings a silk headband is used if it is not intended to
+weave by hand a headband of silk thread for decoration known as a worked
+headband.
+
+Besides the headband, the book-marker is required, generally a silk
+braid in bright colours.
+
+It is often necessary to fix clasps to heavy books and also to the
+smaller hymn-books and prayer-books. These are made to suit all
+requirements and in various styles by firms making a speciality of this
+work. The stronger the metal used, the better the clasp and the easier
+for the worker to handle, as clasps of poorer quality are sometimes
+spoilt even whilst being fixed to the books.
+
+Imitation metal fastenings are necessary for certain purposes, although
+their use is now considerably limited. These are the stamped metal rims
+and corner pieces, which are indispensable in the manufacture of sample
+cases, &c. The fancy goods with their decorated borders which were so
+popular at one time have disappeared from the trade; on the other hand,
+there has been a demand for fancy coloured cords made by twisting cords
+together.
+
+
+D.--TOOLS.
+
+The bookbinder's workshop of to-day presents quite a different aspect
+from that of our forefathers, even if we go back only 50 years.
+
+The work benches as now found in small leather or jobbing shops stand
+near wide and lofty windows, each bench having a large drawer at each
+worker's place. Underneath, between the legs of the bench, there is a
+board fixed on supports upon which boxes containing colours or any other
+materials in use are placed within easy reach; and so that the board may
+not inconvenience the worker sitting in front of it, a semi-circular
+opening is cut at each worker's place. At each place there is a stool,
+somewhat higher than an ordinary chair, with three legs and a round flat
+seat. The legs are connected by strong bars for the worker to rest his
+feet upon. Shelves for the larger tools are conveniently arranged on the
+walls, so as not to be a hindrance, but still within easy reach. A few
+smaller chests with drawers are required for the storing of smaller
+tools and pieces of metal ornament, &c.
+
+A sufficient number of wooden presses, pressing boards in folio, quarto,
+and octavo, with the screw key, as well as the press jack belonging
+thereto, must be conveniently placed. The screw key is used when
+applying heavy pressure; the press jack serves as a support during
+certain work which necessitates laying the press on the edge of the
+bench. If we add a few larger and smaller cutting boards and a few
+sewing frames, we have completed the list of the large wooden tools.
+
+The bookbinder requires very many small tools, even if we take into
+account only those necessary for ordinary shop-work. Iron rules and
+squares in various sizes, shears, knives, compasses and spring dividers,
+folders, files, pincers and hammers of different sizes, chisels, gouges,
+and punches.
+
+The finisher's tools are: Gold cushion, gold knife, scraper, steel; and
+furthermore, for hand-tooling, letter-box, fillets, rolls, ornaments,
+and letters, all very fine and very dear tools, which must be kept in
+special cupboards and boxes so as to protect from possible injury. The
+higher the class of work done in the shop, the larger must be the stock
+of these tools.
+
+These are the tools for general work and which no shop could be without;
+but what makes our modern workshop so different in character from what
+it was in former times are the many mechanical contrivances without the
+aid of which practical and profitable work is now inconceivable.
+
+The most necessary iron ally of the bookbinder is the cutting machine,
+either with lever or wheel action, the former for light, the latter for
+heavy work. Machine manufacturers vie with one another in their efforts
+to introduce inventions and improvements; but to-day it would seem
+impossible to make a discovery likely to be of any importance.
+
+The second most necessary machine is for cutting boards. Those with a
+wooden pedestal and table are not so much to be recommended as those
+made entirely of iron.
+
+When gilding in large quantities has to be done, a blocking press is
+necessary; lever action is always to be preferred to the balance or
+rotary action, the latter being of advantage for blocking or relief
+work, and also for fancy paper work. Even the best blocking press has
+some drawback; to be of any value, it necessitates quite an arsenal of
+plates and dies for blocking, and also calls for the constant
+replenishing and renewing of the same.
+
+The standing press is used for heavy pressure applied to large batches
+of books. An iron press with two uprights will be found sufficient even
+for heavy use in most bookbinderies.
+
+The rounding machine is now out of use. The binder rounds the back of
+the book with a hammer, and then it is backed in a backing machine,
+which puts the ridges on both sides of the book. The latest machine now
+being used in some of our large binding shops for this purpose is called
+the rounding and backing machine, which completely rounds and backs the
+book.
+
+The rolling machine of to-day is lighter than were the first models of
+this machine; besides, the work is in many cases unnecessary, as modern
+printed books are generally carefully rolled before they leave the
+printer.
+
+The wire-stitching machine came into use in England about 20 years ago,
+but is now abandoned. The wire-stapling machine is used for pamphlets,
+school-books, &c. Eyeleting and round-cornering machines are smaller
+appliances, whilst the backing machine mentioned above is a very useful
+ally. Machines for scraping and paring leather are used least of all, as
+there is little for them to do in a small bookbindery.
+
+The foregoing is not an exhaustive list of our tools and machines, but
+we will bring to a close these introductory remarks on the usual
+appliances, as mention will be made of the others in their proper
+place.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+FORWARDING.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+GENERAL PREPARATORY WORK.
+
+
+Books reach the bookbinder either in the sheets just as they left the
+printing press or folded and stitched. This folding and stitching is, of
+course, part of the binder's work, so we will begin with the sheet as it
+left the press; this sheet must in the first place be folded ready for
+further manipulations.
+
+By folding we mean the arranging of the parts of a sheet in the order of
+succession required for reading. To facilitate this work the printer
+marks not only the page numbers on each sheet but also gives each sheet
+a number, these numbers being known as signatures. Every sheet is
+printed on both sides; the front side is called the first side, the
+other side the perfecting impression. Both sides are marked by a number
+or (more rarely) a letter. This mark stands at the right-hand side at
+foot of first page and is called the first signature; the second
+signature takes the same position on the second side of the sheet, that
+is, on page 3. Take any book haphazard and you will find the true
+signature on the first and the second signature on the perfecting
+impression, always in the same position. In order to show at a glance
+whether the signature is the first or the second, the compositor adds an
+asterisk, thus--
+
+    1       1*     or     A       A*
+
+  first   second        first   second  signature.
+
+We will see later that there is still another reason for the signature
+in the place mentioned.
+
+When the sheets are to be folded, all the sheets of an impression are
+laid one on top of the other and all lying the same way. The modern
+quick-printing presses gather the sheets automatically, so that a sheet
+is rarely laid the wrong way, excepting through want of care in looking
+over them, or in the knocking-up in the printing office a few sheets or
+a whole batch are thrown out of order. According as we are dealing with
+folio, 4to, or 8vo _format_ we must order the gathering of the sheets
+and, of course, the position of the signature. The commonest _format_ is
+8vo, that is to say, the size which gives eight printed leaves (or 16
+pages) to the sheet. At the same time, the method of folding this
+_format_ is the most economical and includes the others as well.
+
+When folding 8vo sheets the pile lies in front of the worker in such a
+way that all the second signatures lie uppermost at the foot of the
+outside right page and all the first signatures at the left on the under
+side of the sheet; or, in other words, all first-side leaves are turned
+face downward and perfecting impressions face upward.
+
+Printed sheets are never folded according to the edges of the paper, but
+always registered by the printed columns or the page numbers. The novice
+finds this by holding the sheet against the light, but the experienced
+worker is able to fold the sheet without so much as lifting it from the
+table.
+
+Figs. 2 and 3--Holding whilst folding.
+
+The manipulations for the folding of an 8vo sheet are as follows: The
+right hand holds the paper-folder and creases down the folds, the left
+gathers the sheets and moves them about aided by the right.
+
+1.--The right hand takes hold of the sheet at the right a little below
+the middle, brings it over to the left, when it is taken by the left
+hand and properly adjusted according to page numbers or corner of
+printed page (Fig. 2).
+
+2.--Crease with folder from bottom to top (the folder is held slanting
+to the crease, but the edge is used).
+
+3.--With the right hand the right and the left hand the left of the
+folded sheet are taken hold of at about the middle of the longer sides,
+nip together, make a short turn so that the left hand brings the sheet
+with its fore-edge to the folder's body, the left hand lets go, takes
+hold of the sheet between both ends at the middle fold, and adjusts
+pages and edge of fold alike (Fig. 3).
+
+4.--The right hand creases from top to bottom.
+
+5.--Left hand turns sheet over to other side, both hands take hold as
+before, nip together last fold, and adjust pages and fold.
+
+6.--Crease from top to bottom, laying aside sheet to left, fold lying to
+right.
+
+The whole process, which demands considerable dexterity, is only to be
+thoroughly learned by example and imitation; but study the
+illustrations, which are correctly drawn from life.
+
+This is the way sheets are folded when they come direct from the press;
+but if they had already been folded in quires, as is usually the case
+with school and hymn books, the sheets would simply be folded in the
+middle for convenience of storage and despatch.
+
+In this case the quires must first be opened, the crease taken out, and
+the sheets laid open. This work is called "breaking the backs." The
+unfolded sheets are folded in exactly the same manner, but before the
+last crease the sheet is turned, creased from bottom to top, and put
+aside in such a way that the sheet is turned over, that is face
+downwards. If this precaution is not observed, the folded sheets would
+afterwards be found in wrong order.
+
+At this point we might remark that the top, both of the book and the
+single page, is called the head, the bottom the tail. These commonly
+used terms will very frequently crop up.
+
+The folding of a 4to sheet is exactly the same, excepting that the last
+fold is omitted; the second signature lies face upwards at top on the
+right, the first signature lies downwards at top left hand.
+
+Folios are made up but rarely nowadays, except in artistic _éditions de
+luxe_, Bibles, and missals; they are simply folded in the middle; the
+signatures appear as in 8vo _format_.
+
+Duodecimo _format_, that is, a sheet printed to make 12 pages on each
+side, is so printed that the third part of the sheet has to be cut off
+with a knife or machine. This work is done in various ways: the sheet
+may be folded without regard to the one-sided elongation; after folding
+the part is cut off with a knife or machine at the proper place and the
+detached portion inserted in the middle of the main section; the small
+section is therefore called "the inset." On the other hand, the inset
+may be cut off before folding and then separately folded and inserted.
+This is the more usual method.
+
+The cutting off of the inset prior to folding can be done in such a way
+with the modern quick-printing presses that the sheets are adjusted and
+cut off in the machine, or they may be folded in sections of six--eight
+sheets and cut open in the fold. For cutting open such sections a very
+sharp knife is required, either the usual bookbinder's knife or, better
+still, a somewhat longer two-edged paper-knife rounded at the end.
+
+Formerly, when printing was not done with such accuracy as now, the
+sheets were folded into sections by means of points. The compositor made
+a point on both sides between main sheet and inset in the furniture
+where the division had to be made; if pins were stuck into the table
+through these points each of the sheets following could be placed on the
+pins.
+
+Thus all sheets are brought to perfect register and may be cut with
+knife and rule or machine exactly through the points. This work is
+called "working to points."
+
+The detached portion appears as a long printed slip upon which are four
+pages or columns side by side. They are folded in a very simple manner.
+
+The page on the right is brought over to lie on the page to the left,
+registered, and creased in the middle, and the double sheet is now
+folded once more in exactly the same way.
+
+Inserting is done as follows: The sheets for insertion are placed to the
+right, the main sheets at the left side of them; the right hand takes a
+sheet to be inserted at about the middle of the fore-edge, the left hand
+at the same time taking a main sheet in such a way that thumb, middle,
+and index finger open the sheet about the middle of the upper fold, and
+raise it so that the right hand can easily slip in the insertion.
+Whilst doing this, the left hand slips to the back, where the forefinger
+manages the adjustment of the sheet inserted. The insertion is nicely
+fitted into the back and must lie close to it. This work is also very
+easy, but it also is much easier to learn it from example and imitation
+than by written instruction.
+
+If the insets were already arranged before folding, that is to say, had
+the sheets been arranged according to page numbers immediately after
+printing as before mentioned, strict attention must be given to see that
+each main sheet has its insertion, otherwise the page sequence would be
+thrown into confusion in binding.
+
+In folding, every fold must be sharply creased down; but a firmness of
+body in the sheets, a smoothness of the single sheet, and a proper
+sharpness in each separate fold can only be obtained by pressing the
+sheets. For this purpose the sheets must first be "knocked up," that is,
+they must first be adjusted at head and back by knocking them together
+on the table. Sheets are never pressed without being counted at the same
+time; this is done both for convenience in pressing and for checking the
+work.
+
+Knocking-up can only be done upon a firm level surface; the beginner had
+better not take too many sheets at one time, say from 20 to 25: these
+are moved to and fro between the palms of the hands so that the back
+fold and upper fold are worked in turn, and at these sides the sheets
+are brought into line.
+
+Knocking-up proceeds quickly if the sheets are handled lightly and
+freely. The single batches thus levelled are brought together and they
+in turn knocked up in the same way. Care must be taken that single
+sheets do not hang back, _i.e._, that all sheets come up to the levelled
+edge.
+
+The knocked-up sheets are counted off--thin paper in hundreds, thick
+paper in fifties. To do this any big lot is taken hold of with the
+right hand--one soon learns to judge the quantity to be taken by the
+fingers--by the fore-edge, giving the hand a turn so as to bring the
+backs uppermost, when the sheets will fan out at the back and thus make
+the counting an easy matter. The left hand counts--pardon, the head
+counts, but the left hand tells off the sheets in such a way that the
+middle and index fingers are alternately inserted in 4, 8, 12, 16, &c.,
+whilst counting 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., and at the same time throwing over the
+sheets held. Every 25th lot of four sheets gives 100, and, of course,
+any other number you please can be counted in the same manner. Each lot
+is once more knocked up, placed in piles crosswise, and afterwards
+pressed.
+
+Fig. 4--Lifting into the Press.
+
+The contrivance for pressing most generally used nowadays is still the
+bookbinder's little wooden hand-press, with wooden, or perhaps iron,
+screws; the former are lighter and handier, the latter heavier but more
+durable and therefore of advantage where heavy pressure is demanded.
+Each lot is placed between pressing-boards; these are about 1-1/2 cm.
+thick and vary in length and width according to the sheets or books to
+be pressed. According to the grain of the wood we speak of long and
+cross boards. On top of the upper and underneath the lower batch we
+place a cross board; it does not matter which way the grain runs in the
+other boards used. This precaution is taken to obviate the probable
+breakage when the cheeks of the press run parallel with the grain of the
+two outer pressing-boards.
+
+The pile of sheets between the pressing-boards is so placed that the
+nuts of the press are at first raised as high as the pile about to be
+pressed requires, then the press is put on the table to the right in
+front of the worker so that the head of one screw at the front touches
+the table edge. The pile is drawn on to the front edge of the table, the
+left hand slips underneath, and the chin presses on top. Whilst raising
+the upper cheek of the press with the right hand, the pile is inserted
+between the opened cheeks, is adjusted, and the press screwed up, first
+by the hand screws and then by the screw key used for this purpose. To
+do this the press with its high cheeks is held firmly between the legs
+and the nuts screwed up with the screw key as tightly as ever possible.
+
+At this stage we might mention a work which is very frequently done in
+the printery, but seldom in the bindery: this is the so-called gathering
+before folding. This work, as we have already mentioned, is done so that
+printed matter for publication can be properly stored or prepared for
+sending away.
+
+Fig. 5--Open sheets laid out for gathering.
+
+The sheets are taken just as they left the press and piled up side by
+side in a row in order of number on a long table, each pile of sheets in
+exactly the same position as the others and just as they would be placed
+for folding; that is to say, for 8vos the first signature at the bottom
+left-hand side underneath, the second signature being at the bottom
+right-hand side on the top.
+
+Generally the work is gathered in batches of 5-6 sheets. The sheets in
+question are then laid out (see Fig. 5).
+
+The worker takes a board the required size, upon which he places the
+sheets when gathered; he begins at No. 1 pile, takes off the top sheet,
+being very careful not to take two, lays it upon the board, and so he
+goes the length of the table, taking the top sheet from each pile. He
+lays the pile of gathered sheets on the end of the table or another
+table standing behind. They are there received by another worker,
+knocked up, and folded in the middle. If only one worker can be spared
+for the job, the gathered sections are placed to one side, but each is
+laid crosswise over the other so that they are easily picked up
+afterwards for knocking up and folding. If the work has more than five
+or six sections, the separately gathered sections must be afterwards
+again gathered in the same manner. Perhaps there may be placed in the
+last section parts of a sheet--the title, addenda, corrigenda,
+frontispiece, diagrams, &c. The treatment of these will be dealt with
+presently (pp. 22-24).
+
+Sheets so gathered must be afterwards opened out for folding in the
+bindery. The section is opened, the crease well pressed out, and the
+whole smoothed down quite flat, care being taken that all sheets lie the
+same way, the opened sections lying side by side according to the
+signatures.
+
+
+Before the folded sheets are arranged or gathered, there is frequently
+still some pasting to be done. The title, for instance, is seldom
+printed with the first sheet, but is usually made up with the preface,
+contents, &c., after printing the last page, often as part of the last
+sheet.
+
+On this account the last sheet must be examined before folding to see
+how it is composed. If it happens that the sheet is to be exactly
+halved, it is best to cut the sheet in the middle and fold each half
+separately. It is even worth while cutting the sheet into quarters if
+the sheets can be pinned on, because it is then possible to fold the cut
+sheets in lots of five or six and to draw out each one singly, as it is
+commonly called "pulling out."
+
+This pulling out is very easy work; each folded batch is separately
+opened in the middle, fanned out with a paper folder so that each sheet
+stands back about 1/2-1 cm. behind the other, and the batch folded
+together again; it would then appear as in Fig. 6.
+
+Fig. 6--Sections fanned out for drawing out.
+
+Take the batch lightly between the finger and the thumb of the left
+hand, and with the right draw off the sheets from the top one by one,
+knock them up, and firmly press down the back fold.
+
+Every part of a sheet which after folding makes less than four pages
+(equal to two leaves) must be pasted on. To do this the parts to be
+pasted are fanned out from the back with the pasting side uppermost,
+that is to say, the sheets are fanned out with the folder in the same
+way as described for "pulling out," until they lie like steps or stairs,
+each sheet displaying an edge of about 3 mm. In this manner all sheets
+so lie upon each other that each is about 3 mm. behind the one under it.
+
+The narrow margin is pasted; to avoid pasting more than the proper
+margin of the top sheet, a piece of waste paper should be laid on top at
+the right distance from the edge. Each leaf has thus a narrow pasted
+edge by which it is secured to the main sheet. So that the pasted edges
+do not stick together whilst each sheet is being fixed in its place,
+which, of course, takes time, the batch is taken between the fingers
+immediately after pasting, and by a few light movements the sheets are
+worked a little further apart.
+
+Fig. 7--Sections fanned out for pasting.
+
+Take the batch at A between the finger and thumb of the right hand, at B
+in the same way with the left; the upper leaves slip gently backwards if
+the right hand bends the batch lightly upwards so that the sheets are
+pushed to B, the left first allows the sheets to slip back and then
+holds them firmly so that the right may repeat this movement several
+times.
+
+The batch is then so placed across the table that it lies to the right
+of the worker with the pasted edge away from him, whilst the pile of
+sheets to which the parts are to be pasted lies to the left, also with
+the back edge away from him. Leaf after leaf is taken up, carefully
+adjusted to back and upper fold, and pasted on to the main section and
+lightly rubbed down to right and left with the finger-tips, putting
+aside to the left each sheet as finished.
+
+Under certain conditions, the pasting on of a so-called correction may
+be a very disagreeable task. If errors have been made in composing or
+printing a page which escaped notice and correction at the proper time,
+a revised page is printed, and this must be inserted by the binder in
+the place of the faulty one. This inserting is done after the folding;
+the faulty leaf is so cut off that a narrow margin is left in the back
+to which the rectified leaf is pasted.
+
+If maps or plans accompany the work these also must be inserted; thin
+sheets need simply be pasted on the back edge like other sheets and
+fixed in their right place; but thick paper is not easily pasted on and,
+besides, would always pull away the next leaf. It is therefore joined to
+a narrow strip of paper about 1 cm. in width and this is pasted and
+fixed in the back. If several plates have to be inserted at the same
+place, or to be fixed at the end of the book, they are joined together
+in sections of suitable thickness. For this, thin paper is hinged in the
+back of the book, that is, the two plates are pasted over each other
+after pasting a narrow margin of about 3 mm. When dry, the double leaf
+so obtained is folded together in the middle of the pasted little guard.
+As this process lessens the leaf which has the back-fold by as much as
+is pasted to the other, the latter is cut down by 3 mm. beforehand.
+
+If there are many such plates to be joined together, they are made up in
+sections of 4 or 6 according to the thickness of the paper, and every 2
+or 3 cut down according to circumstances, and the same number left the
+full size. When all have been properly cut, the edges are fanned out and
+pasted. Then as many as make up a section are taken up and fanned out a
+little further, the pasted edge of No. 1 is laid on 6, 2 on 5, 3 on 4,
+and the batch set aside on the left and the same process gone through
+with the next lot. When dry, the plates thus guarded together are
+creased together at the back.
+
+Plates on thick paper must likewise be mounted on strips of paper. These
+are cut from thin, strong note-paper and are so arranged that their
+thickness in the back is the same as the thickness of the plates. It is
+well to select a paper which when double is as thick as the plates. In
+case the plates are extra thick, the guard is made four-fold. The width
+of the guard must be measured to correspond. If a guard of double
+thickness only is required for filling up, it is cut twice the width of
+the guard and 3 mm. added for pasting on the plate. This gives 2 × 1 cm.
++ 3 mm. = 23 mm. If a guard of four-fold thickness is necessary, the
+result is 4 × 1 cm. + 3 mm. = 43 mm. The plates are fanned out narrowly
+with the back edge uppermost, pasted, and each plate affixed to one of
+the made guards. This work is called "mounting on guards."
+
+When the pasted plates are dry they are folded in the back on the
+following plan according to whether the guard must be two-fold or
+three-fold.
+
+Fig. 8--Suggestions for mounting on guards.
+
+Thus the folded guard completely fills out the space in the back of the
+book. Besides, two, three, or more plates can easily be made into a
+section if the little guards are made up within each other.
+
+Despite this levelling work, the pasted part will still be noticeable;
+the thoroughly dried sections are therefore taken in batches of four or
+five, knocked up at the back edge, and the thick part carefully hammered
+on a stone or iron bed.
+
+Just as paper strips have been used in this work, linen can be used for
+guarding atlases and mounting large maps which are intended for long and
+constant use. To fill out the back, cardboard or thick drawing-paper the
+thickness of the plates (or, if anything, a little less) is used. Of
+this material strips are cut 1 cm. in width and same length as the
+height of the work, cutting a strip for each plate of course. Besides
+these strips, cut some soft white calico into strips 3 cm. in width.
+These are pasted, laid quite straight upon a clean board, two strips of
+paper are placed in the centre side by side on top of the pasted strip,
+and at right and left of each a map is hinged on, the first face
+downwards, the second face upwards. When dry, the section so made is
+creased in the middle, knocked down with the hammer, and pressed for a
+time. By this method two plates are hinged on each guard; by the other
+each plate had its own guard.
+
+Many books are issued with plates larger than the _format_ of the book
+itself; they must be brought to the right size by folding, but in such a
+way that the folded plate is secure from injury during any subsequent
+trimming.
+
+Before making a single fold in the plate, the worker should clearly see
+his way through his scheme for folding, so as to bring the plate to the
+size required with the smallest possible number of creases. Plates which
+are slightly wider and longer than the size of the book are easily made
+to fit if they are folded once or, if necessary, twice across the
+middle, pasting the edge of one fold on a guard and then fixing in its
+place in the book.
+
+Figs. 9-13--Suggestions for folding plates and maps.
+
+If this will not do, the plate must first be folded up from the bottom
+edge far enough to escape damage in trimming, and then the long side
+must be similarly folded. Larger plates must take more folds, always
+working on the principle that the length of the book should first be
+obtained in the best possible way, and afterwards the width is taken as
+the guide in making the folds.
+
+In doing this the plate must be folded now to the front, then to the
+back, so that on drawing it out it opens in a zigzag fashion. For the
+sake of clearness we give illustrations showing the most general methods
+of folding. The part marked A is secured in its place in the book by
+mounting on a paper guard; but one may, by cutting out the map properly,
+leave a small margin which will serve as a guard as shown in Figs. 10,
+12, and 13.
+
+In all cases, however, it is essential that the thickness of the folded
+plates should be equalised by inserting guards in the back of the book.
+
+Formerly, when several plates were inserted one after the other, it was
+customary to place them in such a way that they were trimmed at top and
+bottom alternately; now they are placed so that they are all trimmed at
+the top edge: this is much better, because it keeps the top edge smooth
+and close, thereby keeping out dust and insects. The accompanying
+sketches are based upon this principle.
+
+The so-called two-page illustrations in periodicals must be treated in
+the same way. These are only possible in the middle of a section, where
+they would be caught into the back and injured if the following
+precaution were not observed. Such illustrations are taken out, the back
+edge pasted, and then placed in the back so as to adhere to the
+following sheets, projecting about 1/2 cm.
+
+
+The printed sheets thus treated must now be collected by the same
+process--that is if they have not been gathered in open sheets in the
+printery--into volumes; this work is generally known as gathering after
+folding.
+
+As in gathering open sheets, the piles of folded sheets are placed side
+by side; but as these take up so much less room than the open sheets, in
+most cases the whole work may be laid out at one time.
+
+Clear the longest table procurable, which if not long enough must be
+extended by the addition of small tables, trestles, &c., upon which are
+laid the batches of sheets in fifties, and, beginning with the last
+sheet, work up the row until the title page is reached and the gathering
+ended. Starting from the left, the gathered sheets are placed to the
+right; after the last sheet, _i.e._, the title page, there should be
+sufficient room for placing the gathered sheets and also, if possible,
+for knocking up and collating, that is, checking the sequence of the
+sheets. The gatherer begins with the last sheet on the left, draws the
+top sheet with the right hand on to the left hand held flat to receive
+it, and so goes along the row, drawing from each pile one sheet, which
+drops into its place on top of the preceding one in the left hand. This
+work can be carried on simultaneously by several persons following each
+other, but there must be a sufficient number of persons stationed at the
+end ready to knock up and collate the gathered sheets. In order to
+simplify this work and to enable one to take up the completed gathering
+at the title page, the pile containing the title page sheet is plainly
+marked across the back with a blue or red pencil, so that one sees on
+the back of each single sheet a coloured mark easily seen in the
+gathered and knocked-up sheets.
+
+Fig. 14--Collating.
+
+To collate a book it is taken in both hands. Taking a good hold of it by
+the right hand at the top edge, it is lightly held by the left at the
+bottom towards the back. Now make a turn downwards with the right so
+that the whole pack of sheets springs upwards and spreads out at the
+back like a fan, and the controlling left hand lets them go one at a
+time, whilst checking the sequence of the signatures, that is to say,
+the sheets must be checked to see whether instead of the right
+signatures following in due order there is not a second signature or
+perhaps none at all. In such a case the sheet must be taken out and
+re-folded.
+
+It may be well to refer now to another more detailed branch of this work
+which is necessary for certain purposes. If books which have already
+been used or bound are sent for re-binding it would be very unsafe to
+rely upon the pages being in proper order, especially if they have been
+much torn and have to be mended. Very frequently the leaves of a section
+have been misplaced. In such cases the book is laid flat upon the table,
+the head lying to the top, and, beginning at the title, leaf by leaf is
+lifted with the point of a knife after the way some ignorant persons
+have of using a moistened finger. The knife point is not inserted under
+the leaf lying uppermost but is lightly placed at the top of the leaf
+near the page number and the leaf pushed up from the side so that the
+left index finger takes it as it separates from the succeeding leaf
+whilst the eye scans the page numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. Also with other
+things that do not admit of any other method of collating, _e.g._,
+ledgers, documents, &c., this is the only possible way of doing it.
+
+Nowadays, paper received in the printery has been so well calendered
+beforehand--that is to say, polished between rollers--and after printing
+the sheets are once more so well rolled that the gathered sheets may at
+once be prepared for sewing. Old paper, however, must be beaten or
+rolled to make it firm and solid. The former work will be completely
+forgotten at no very distant date, as the younger generation of masters
+and men show less and less inclination to learn it. For beating, a stone
+about the height of a low table, and a surface about the size of a sheet
+may be used, or a cast-iron plate about 6 cm. in thickness embedded in a
+block of wood the same height as the stone. Upon this firm base--which,
+of course, must stand on the ground floor or in the cellar--the book, or
+section of it if too thick, is beaten with a short-handled iron hammer,
+the face of which measures about 100 sq. cm. All corners and edges are
+well rounded off, and the face is slightly convex. The handle must be
+short, not above 12 cm. long, cut oval, and just thick enough to be well
+grasped. The hole in the hammer is made so that the handle drops a
+little at the (outer) end.
+
+In beating, the sections should be held by the left hand after being
+knocked up. In order to prevent injury to the paper, the sections are
+placed between pieces of waste paper of same size, also a mill-board or
+piece of waste paper to size is laid upon the beating stone. The right
+hand wields the hammer, which must strike the sections (or book) fairly
+and squarely with the full face. The beating is begun at the edge, and
+blow after blow is given in gradually lessening circles until the centre
+is reached, the left hand, of course, keeping up the necessary motion of
+the sections. It requires considerable practice to do this without
+shifting the sections, but if this happens they must again be knocked
+up.
+
+The experienced workman knows by the touch where the book has been
+beaten much or little and works accordingly. The main thing in this, as
+in all other work, is that the book should be again pressed for some
+time--for a night at the least. The beaten volumes are divided into
+several lots or sections about a finger thick, and pressing-boards
+placed between them. If any sections show folds or creases even after
+pressing, they must be once more beaten and pressed.
+
+Fig. 15--Rolling machine.
+
+The work of beating, as already said, has been almost entirely
+superseded by the rolling machine. In treatises by theorists, one finds
+over and over again that books are not so well bound nowadays owing to
+the "practice of hand-beating being discontinued." This opinion is
+absurd, and arises from a very superficial technical knowledge and
+wholly imperfect acquaintance with the requirements of our craft. A
+machine-rolled or unbeaten book is always much better than one
+imperfectly beaten, for here nothing is demanded but sheer force, and
+that is always exercised with better results by a machine. As already
+pointed out, our modern printed books do not require any such work;
+besides, the so-called surface papers and printed illustrations prohibit
+both beating and rolling, as such work would destroy the high surface of
+the paper. Old books, on the contrary, where the paper is unsized,
+spongy, and swollen, require some such work, as pressing alone, even for
+days, has not the required effect.
+
+In beating, the work should be divided into sections or lots of 15 to 20
+sheets; they need not be counted, they are measured by the eye. For
+rolling, however, the sheets must be counted off exactly, from 8 to 12;
+they are knocked up and placed between zinc plates of same size and
+passed through the rollers obliquely, the upper back corner being first
+inserted. It is well to introduce the second lot before the first has
+quite passed through the rollers; this not only saves the rollers but
+avoids the extra pressure on the lower corner when a section leaves the
+rollers. For this reason it is advisable to insert the lots right and
+left alternately. The first lot rolled should be examined to test the
+amount of pressure, and at first a lighter pressure should be applied to
+avoid risk of injury.
+
+
+We have now come to the end of the processes through which a book has to
+pass before it is actually made up into book form. Before we take up
+this work there is incidental work to be mentioned which comes before
+the work of binding proper. This is the stitching and treatment of
+stitched or bound books for binding and the necessary repairs thereto.
+
+The stitched or brochured book is no true book form; it is nothing more
+than the gathered sheets of a work in a temporary form, handier and more
+convenient, and therefore more saleable.
+
+To prevent leaves from falling out in the event of their being cut open,
+they are lightly stitched together--_holländert_.
+
+How did the name originate? It is difficult to say. Perhaps books
+stitched in this manner were first brought out in Holland.
+
+With this method of sewing, the sheet only gets one short thread in the
+middle; but as the sewing of each sheet separately would entail a
+considerable loss of time, that old contrivance of the bookbinder for
+most kinds of sewing work, the sewing frame, is here made use of. A base
+or bed has on each front corner a perpendicular screw, upon which is
+placed a movable cross-bar with a slit. This bar is regulated by two
+screws; lay cords are fastened to hooks which are slipped through the
+slits, the other ends being knotted to metal keys fixed under the base.
+A narrow movable bar, bevelled to the front of the bed, holds these keys
+when the lay cords are tightened.
+
+Fig. 16--Sewing frame.
+
+There are no lay cords on the sewing frame for the work of Holländering
+as in other kinds of sewing, but two strips of zinc plate about 1 to
+1-1/2 cm. in width are fastened so that at the top they are attached to
+the hooks and at the bottom are held with a pin. The lot to be sewn is
+placed rather slant-wise on the bed of the frame to the left, the back
+turned outwards, the head to the sewer, all sheets, therefore, facing
+away from the worker.
+
+Fig. 17--Arrangement on the sewing frame.
+
+The left hand takes the upper sheet with thumb and middle finger, so
+that the forefinger at once falls in the middle of the sheet, turning
+the sheet so that the head _A_ lies to the left and face upwards as
+shown in the illustration; zinc strips are stretched at the points _x_.
+The left hand is introduced into the opened sheets from behind to take
+the needle when pushed in and then to draw it out again; the right hand
+inserts the needle from outside, and also draws out the needle inserted
+from inside by the left hand.
+
+All kinds of sewing on the sewing frame are divided between both hands
+in the same way.
+
+The threaded needle is now introduced into the sheets to the right of
+the right strip at the back fold and again brought out to the right of
+the left strip, the sheets being meanwhile held open by the left hand.
+The thread is drawn out, except for a short end, the second sheet taken
+and laid open, and the needle is now introduced to the left of the left
+strip and brought out to the left of the right strip; and so on, each
+time introducing the needle from the right side to the right of the
+strip and from the left side to the left of the strip, drawing out
+accordingly. The thread is only to be seen on the outside of the strips.
+
+The so-called English darning-needle--a long needle with a long eye--is
+used by the bookbinder. A special thread is made on purpose, the highest
+number being used for holländering.
+
+When the sewing frame is packed so full that the sheets can no longer be
+kept properly squared, a sharp knife is taken and the threads cut off
+along the metal strips, and the sheets are then removed from the sewing
+frame. Every sheet is now independent of the other, and has a thread in
+the middle, of which a little may be seen at each needle-hole. These
+ends are afterwards pasted up in the work to follow. It is clear from
+this method of sewing that it is not necessary to tie a second thread on
+to the first when finished, but simply to begin with a new thread,
+letting the ends always project a little.
+
+This method is the more recent and practical. It admits of one kind of
+sheet being sewn immediately after folding: nay, more: whilst one folder
+is still busy folding, another may begin to holländer. It is not till
+afterwards that the sheets are gathered. Gathered sheets are sewn in the
+same way, and are more easily knocked up than when sewn on cords and the
+threads left uncut after the old style instead of on metal bands. In
+holländert sheets the threads lie as shown in Fig. 18.
+
+Fig. 18--Arrangement of threads in holländering.
+
+Fig. 19--Small stapling machine for single sheets.
+
+Lately, in brochuring, the sheets are not holländert, but sewn with wire
+on the machine. This is a very good method when the finest possible
+staple closing from the outside is used. For this work a small machine
+is used, similar to those used for wiring documents, copy-books, and
+single sheets, which have an automatic wire-drawing action.
+
+The batch of sheets is here arranged face upwards to the right of the
+worker. The right hand takes the sheet by the head, opening it at the
+same time with the forefinger, and inserts it in the groove of the
+machine, which is at the same moment set in motion. With each different
+sheet the position of the staple must be changed so that all do not
+stand the same height, as it would cause the paper to be cut through in
+pressing.
+
+The accompanying sketch shows the arrangement of the collected
+brochures.
+
+Fig. 20--Arrangement of staples in brochures.
+
+It is barbarous to sew more tightly with wire, for in the necessary
+pulling to pieces to bring them to their former state for binding they
+are sure to be more or less damaged. Sewing with a large machine using
+strips of gauze cannot be recommended.
+
+The further treatment of holländert or wire-sewn sheets is dealt with
+towards the end of the chapter.
+
+
+Most of the books given to the small binder do not come to him fresh
+from the printer, but sewn, used or unused, cut open, or as published.
+The sheets for binding must, as far as possible, be restored to the
+condition they were in before they were sewn. It is absolutely necessary
+that they should be made into loose single sheets. This work is called
+"pulling to pieces." The outer cover is torn off, the thread or wire
+inside the sheet removed, and the sheets very carefully separated one by
+one. When they are all pulled to pieces they are pushed open a little at
+the back, first to one side, then to the other, and scraped with a knife
+from top to bottom so as to remove all dirt, glue, &c., adhering.
+
+Where the sheets had been cut open and the inner leaves worked out of
+place, they must be well pushed into the back again. The sheet is
+lightly held half-open in the left hand, and the leaves are knocked into
+the back with a long folder or knife.
+
+If sheets are found badly folded they must now be properly re-folded.
+Any torn places must be repaired. A special chapter ought really to be
+devoted to this, for repairing and restoring is an art in itself. Here,
+only the most necessary work can be mentioned.
+
+There are three different kinds of tears: tears in the print, in the
+margin, and in the back. The first may be torn with slanting edges; in
+such a case, both edges must be carefully pasted, fitted to each other,
+a piece of paper laid over and under, and then well rubbed down. If the
+tear has not slanting edges, but is clean cut, it is always best to
+paste the edges likewise and to join the pieces by overlapping very
+slightly. It always looks better than the patching with strips of
+paper--a method adopted even by good workmen. The pasting on of pieces
+of tissue paper is to be condemned.
+
+In cases of repairs like the foregoing, a piece of unpasted tissue paper
+may be laid on the repaired place and rubbed down, so that any paste
+exuding cannot do harm, and besides, it will serve to strengthen a weak
+place. It may be used, however, only on condition that the tint is
+exactly the same as that of the other paper.
+
+Tears at the margin are repaired by pasting on strips of the same paper
+or of a kind as near as possible in texture and tint. To make the mend
+less noticeable, the paper should be torn beforehand, that is to say, by
+tearing one side of the paper the edge is less sharply defined and
+appears more like part of the sheet and is hardly perceptible.
+
+Tears in the back (if outside) leaves are mended by pasting them down on
+to the following inner leaf; afterwards the glue makes this place still
+stronger. If the middle leaf is likewise torn, a narrow strip is pasted
+into the back. This may be cut true by the straight-edge if a very
+narrow strip suffices, but if the tear is here also sideways a piece of
+torn paper must be pasted on. If there are backs, torn off corners, or
+the like to be put in, a suitable paper is selected, a piece a little
+larger than the missing piece cut off the edge of the damaged leaf
+neatly pasted, the patch laid on slightly overlapping, and well rubbed
+down under a piece of waste paper. When thoroughly dry, the loose edges
+of the patch should be carefully torn off so as to slope and taper off
+nicely.
+
+When all parts are repaired and the sheets again in proper order, the
+book is pressed for a while between boards.
+
+It is thus that good books are treated, and although it would be better
+to return books of no special value as not worth the labour, still it
+does happen that cheap books--mostly school books and periodicals--have
+to be repaired. A quick way of getting through such work is as
+follows:--
+
+A larger piece of similar paper is well pasted and laid upon a clean
+cutting-board, and from this piece strips of the required width are cut,
+laid down in their place, and cut to length with the shears, and well
+rubbed down under waste paper. If the pasted piece becomes dry before it
+is used it must be coated again.
+
+All repaired sheets must be laid between mill-boards to dry.
+
+Worn and damaged periodicals are repaired in the same way. Generally the
+numbers are curled towards the fore-edge. Before commencing to pull to
+pieces they should be rolled towards the back, especially close to the
+back, to straighten them. The leaves must all be well pushed into the
+back, turned down corners (so-called dogs' ears) must be turned up, and
+two-page illustrations must be pasted away from the back. There are
+generally single or double leaves at the end of each copy or
+sheet--these must be pasted on. This work is not done singly, but the
+whole volume is at once laid open from back to front for pasting. All
+parts of the sheets to be pasted are placed at the front edge of the
+table, the edges fanned out, the other sheets wherein they are to be
+placed being meanwhile pushed further back so that they are not touched
+during pasting. The fanned-out sheets are pasted and each is rubbed down
+on to the sheet following.
+
+It has already been said that in pulling to pieces the wire or thread
+sewing must be removed; this is not always easy. To begin with, the
+wires must be first bent upwards; if they are firmly glued to the
+outside of the back, the latter has first to be softened by smearing it
+very thickly with paste, and after leaving it some little time the glue
+may be scraped off and the wires loosened. Not until then can the wires
+inside the sheets be removed and the sheets separated. The backs of
+books that have been bound are softened in the same way.
+
+Even to-day--Heaven help us!--well-got-up books, even illustrated works,
+are sewn through sideways with coarse wire staples. Great care must be
+used in removing these and in separating the sheets, so that the
+bookbinder may at least try to undo the harm caused by barbarous methods
+practised either in thoughtlessness or ignorance.
+
+It sometimes happens that the back of a book is so bad that it is
+necessary to cut it clean off. The leaves are then made up into sections
+of 6 to 8, levelled at the back, and overcast with a fine needle and
+fine thread. This work can be done quicker with an ordinary
+sewing-machine, adjusting it for the longest stitch.
+
+New works consisting of thin single sheets are done in the same way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SEWING.
+
+
+Modern books are fastened together by sewing; as a rule thread is used,
+and always in sewing good books. Thread sewing is very much better than
+wire stitching. In the first place, thread has not the disadvantage of
+rusting, to which wire is always subject; secondly, thread does not
+break the paper in the back, as so frequently happens when cheap paper
+containing much wood fibre is wire-stitched. The greatest advantage of
+thread sewing over wire lies in the flexibility of the spun thread; with
+sharp pressure it lies flat in the sheet, whilst wire does not give at
+all. Besides, it is flexible the whole length, and this adds greatly to
+the life of the book.
+
+All thread sewing is now done by machinery and is really satisfactory.
+Only the very smallest job shops sew their books by hand.
+
+The principle of sewing is to fasten each sheet to several cords or
+bands by means of a long thread running right along the inside of the
+sheet. These cords give the book its hold to the cover; therefore the
+more cords used, the more firmly is the book secured to its cover. There
+are now two methods of fastening the sheets on the cords; first, there
+is the older method of passing the thread along and out of the sheet,
+around the cord, and again into the sheet, and repeating the same
+movement at the next band.
+
+Fig. 21--Arrangement of threads in old style of sewing.
+
+Nowadays, this method is almost entirely discarded. When for special
+reasons, or on account of its greater strength, it is desired to imitate
+the old method, the sewing is done on double cords; that is to say, for
+every cord two cords are stretched alongside each other and regarded as
+one. This sewing is more tedious, as the thread must take up each cord
+as shown in Fig. 22.
+
+Fig. 22--Arrangement of threads with double cords.
+
+These somewhat elaborate modes of sewing have been simplified in recent
+years by making saw-cuts in the back, in which the cords are laid. By
+this means the sewing thread never actually passes out of the sheet, but
+is drawn behind the cord lying in the saw-cut and thus holds it.
+
+That is why we "saw-in" our books. The sawing-in is done with a broad
+saw; the so-called "tenon saw" being the one most generally used. The
+saw-cut must correspond exactly to the thickness of the cord to be used,
+should be less deep than wide, and should not take up too much glue when
+glueing up, as this might easily turn brittle. By inclining the saw to
+right and left alternately during sawing, the resulting cut will be
+something like this ¯¯¯¯¯/__\¯¯¯¯¯; this is the best and most usual
+form. The common practice of widening the cut by means of a coarse file
+gives a triangular cut like this ¯¯¯¯¯\/¯¯¯¯¯ which is objectionable, as
+the groove gets filled with glue, thus rendering the thread liable to
+break. As many cuts must be made in the book as there are cords to be
+used, besides the so-called kettle stitch at head and tail by which the
+thread is passed from one sheet to the other. Dividing the back for
+sawing-in is done by marking off 1 cm. from the head and twice as much
+from the tail and dividing the rest into equal portions with the
+dividers. An octavo should never be sewn on less than four cords, and a
+folio on six. If obliged to use less through low prices, then three must
+be taken as the minimum number, and that only in exceptional cases. If
+the books are very small--as, for instance, prayer-books and hymn-books
+less than 7 cm. in height--it may then be permissible to sew on two
+cords. The division for the different sizes for sawing-in is made as
+shown in Fig. 23.
+
+Fig. 23--Divisions for sawing-in.
+
+The saw-cuts at the kettle stitch are less deep and quite narrow; they
+only mark the place where the thread is to pass in and out.
+
+It may be wondered why the distances between the cords, when using four
+or six, are unequal; the reason for this will be explained when we come
+to the sewing of such sizes.
+
+In sawing-in, the batch to be sawn is knocked up head and back and put
+between two boards--if the volumes are thin, several may be laid
+together--so that the back projects about 1/2 cm. beyond the edges of
+the boards. The first and last sheet of each volume have previously been
+laid aside, as these, with one exception, are not sawn-in.
+
+Books and boards are now clamped in a small hand-press, which is screwed
+up by hand only. For convenience of working, the press with the screws
+is laid flat upon the table, so that the nuts are against the table
+edge. The press is propped up at the back by the press-jack. The
+divisions for the cords are marked on the back with a lead pencil after
+measuring with the dividers, and the cuts made according to the
+markings. If several volumes of the same size are to be sawn-in, the top
+sheet of the first batch sawn is used as a guide for marking the others,
+thus saving the work of measuring each one with the dividers. Where much
+sawing-in is done, a sawing-in machine is employed. The sheets are
+placed, backs downwards, in a moveable box, which is led over
+a system of circular saws.
+
+Fig. 24--Machine for sawing-in.
+
+After the work of sawing-in, the first and last sheets are replaced, the
+volumes again collated, and the end papers put in place; the sheets are
+now ready for sewing.
+
+End papers are the blank leaves which the binder places at the beginning
+and end of a book. They vary according to the style of the book. Every
+end paper consists of a "fly leaf" (this lies over the title page in the
+book), the "paste-down," and in most cases of a "tear-off." For the
+stronger end papers and in half-leather bindings a cloth joint is used.
+Whilst dealing with these end papers, we must not forget the narrow
+guard; it is worked on the prepared end paper (as will be shown later)
+by folding over, and serves to enclose the title or end page with which
+it is sewn. The words joint, guard, and swell may here be more clearly
+explained, as they are used very frequently in the bindery. In the first
+place, we call the part where back and cover are joined by a sort of
+hinge "the joint," also strips of leather, cloth, &c., used for making
+this part are called "joints"; secondly, the slightly raised part of the
+back, caused by pressing or sewing, is shortly called "the swell"; and
+any strips of linen or paper fastened into the back of the book for
+hingeing maps, plates, &c., are called "guards."
+
+For use as end papers, a paper must be selected which suits in quality
+and tone the printed paper. Nothing shows lack of taste more than the
+use of a blue end paper with a paper of yellow tone. For both back and
+front a double sheet is necessary and is cut the required size. A paper
+guard, about the width of three fingers, is made from a piece of stout
+waste paper and pasted on a narrow margin at the back of the double
+leaf, in order to protect it in the joint and also for fastening on the
+cover. If there are single leaves to be used up, two of these might be
+pasted to each other narrowly on the back and upon this the guard; this
+is the so-called double end paper.
+
+If instead of these only a single leaf is taken, then we have a single
+end paper; this is used for cheap school books and generally at the back
+only.
+
+The accompanying sketch shows both these end papers with the small guard
+already folded. This folding of the guard is not very easy for the
+beginner. The leaf is placed face upwards, square in front of the
+worker, and a very narrow margin at the back edge bent upwards about 3
+mm. in width, the forefinger and thumb of both hands shaping and bending
+the guard, working from the centre to the ends.
+
+Fig. 25--Suggestions for single and double end papers.
+
+Should the sheet from which the end papers are made be a little wider
+than required for the end papers, the tear-off may be folded at the same
+time; with double end papers, the leaf which is to be pasted down later
+is inserted between fly leaf and tear-off, and therefore is called
+"insertion."
+
+Fig. 26--Suggestion for double end paper with tear-off.
+
+If the end papers are to have a cloth joint it must be placed within the
+two leaves or, better, pasted in face inwards. Double cloth joints are
+no longer used in printed books, as they make the end papers too thick,
+and in the subsequent rounding the first sheet is apt to break. The
+joint is here also folded on as before.
+
+Formerly, when linen joints were used, the end paper was simply made by
+inserting the strip of cloth and hingeing on the outside leaf about 1
+cm. from the fold. This, however, has many disadvantages, therefore the
+end papers are made as explained, then carefully tearing off the outside
+leaf in the back in pasting down and cutting it as required it is pasted
+on to the board, as will be more fully explained under "pasting down."
+
+The French paste a double leaf before the first and last sheets after
+having pasted a covering leaf around these.
+
+For extra work, the following style of end paper is the best; it is used
+in England for all high-class work, and in Germany also it has been
+adopted by all the first-class firms.
+
+The end papers consist merely of single leaves the size of the sheet.
+These are fanned out at the back to make a small margin and pasted. The
+first leaf is then pasted down on the end-paper sheet so as to leave a
+margin of about 2 mm.; the second leaf is pasted level with the back.
+All end papers are proceeded with in the same way.
+
+If these are to have a cloth joint it must be pasted on the outside also
+only 2 mm. wide. When the end papers are dry, they must be stitched down
+along the back, 2 mm. from the edge, with the sewing-machine adjusted to
+its longest stitch. It is unnecessary to knot the ends of the
+thread--they are cut clean off. When there is no sewing-machine, the
+volumes must be overcast by hand. This overcasting is done by inserting
+a fine needle near the back of the knocked-up sheets from above and
+drawing the thread almost quite through, the second and following
+stitches all being made from above. The thread would then appear as in
+Fig. 27.
+
+Fig. 27--Overcast end paper.
+
+These end papers are made up before sawing-in and sawn in with the book,
+and when it is not possible to stitch them with the machine they must be
+sawn in before overcasting, or the sawing would cut the threads.
+
+Now for the sewing. We stretch the requisite number of cords, which are
+secured to the hooks at the top by a simple loop which is easily undone
+as soon as it is taken off the hook. At the bottom a double loop is
+made, through which a key is passed so as to hold the stretched cord
+underneath the moveable board.
+
+Fig. 28--Loops for attaching to frame hooks.
+
+Fig. 29--Loops for taking frame keys.
+
+The length of the cords is regulated by the thickness of each book, and
+as it is possible to sew a number of books at the same time when they
+are all sewn the same way, the length of the cords is regulated
+accordingly; it also depends upon the kind of books to be sewn. Cheap
+books get 3 cm. for every cord on each side more than the thickness of
+the book, that is 6 cm. plus the thickness of the book. School books get
+still shorter cords. For extra work, where the ends of the cords are
+laced through the boards, one should allow double. It is easy to
+calculate the length required for a single volume, but rather difficult
+for a batch of books varying in thickness; it is then better to measure.
+For example, suppose we have to sew a batch of six books, all differing
+in thickness but measuring in all 25 cm. high; we would allow for cheap
+work: 6 vols., each taking 6 cm. extra lengths = 36 cm. + total height,
+25 cm., making 61 cm.; for extra work: 6 vols., each taking 12 cm. extra
+lengths = 72 cm. + 25 total height = 97 cm. length of cord.
+
+The collated batch of books is laid on the bed of the sewing frame as in
+holländering (Fig. 17), the sheets taken hold of in the same way, and
+laid open for sewing. Of course the cords are adjusted to the saw-cuts,
+and it is better to push them more to the right than to the left, so as
+to give the left arm full play. Here also, as in holländering, the left
+hand does the work behind the cords inside the sheet, whilst the right
+inserts the needle from the front and again brings it out.
+
+Fig. 30--Suggestion for sewing on four cords.
+
+Fig. 31--Suggestion for sewing on six cords.
+
+The first and last sheets--called end sheets--are sewn a little
+differently from the others, as the needle is here not inserted and
+drawn out exactly at the cord but at a little distance from it so as to
+allow them to be adjusted afterwards. Sewing[1] with us is invariably
+begun with the last sheet at the right, working on to the left, and
+reversing the process with the following sheet, and so to the end, so
+that the thread one way passes from and the other to the worker. With
+all other sheets, excepting the end sections, the thread is inserted at
+the kettle stitch and brought out at the next cord, round the cord, and
+inserted at the same hole, to be brought out again at the next cord, and
+so on till the thread comes out at the other kettle stitch and is
+inserted in the next sheet to go through the same process. With books
+sewn on four cords, it is allowable to skip one of the two middle cords
+alternately, so that each time the thread passes on to the right the
+right middle cord is skipped, and the left is skipped when the thread
+passes in the opposite direction. This facilitates and shortens the work
+without taking away from durability or quality. Books on 6 cords may be
+treated in the same way; the right and left of each pair of cords may
+be skipped alternately. It was for this reason that we paid attention to
+the distribution of the cords on the back when sawing-in (see Fig. 23).
+
+Footnote 1: In England, France, and part of Holland, sewing is begun
+with the title page.
+
+This method of sewing is known as "end to end," in contradistinction to
+"two sheets on." The former is the better method and is essential for
+valuable books, unless the sections are exceptionally thin. The latter
+is "good enough" (_i.e._, not worth much) for the trade and cheap work.
+As far as strength is concerned it would do, but a book sewn in this way
+does not swell sufficiently in the back to make a proper backing groove.
+
+It is an old rule in bookbinding that each sheet after it has been sewn
+should be pressed down with the needle so that the backs of the sheets
+lie close and firm together; this is called "pressing down." Should
+this, however, not be sufficient, the back must be knocked firm from
+time to time with the dividers or a rule.
+
+The first and last sheets must be fastened to the one following and
+preceding respectively; but in the course of the sewing this enchaining
+to the preceding sheets--the so-called kettle stitch--is only necessary
+in the case of very thick sections. It is done by passing the needle
+through and bringing it out between the two preceding sheets at each end
+and thus chaining on the then top sheet to the one lying underneath.
+
+The two-sheets-on sewing is done by laying open the second sheet on top
+of the first after making the first stitch in the first sheet and then
+passing the needle through the second sheet, then the third stitch is
+made in the first sheet and the fourth in the second sheet. One length
+of thread is used for the two sheets. Where the sheets have not been cut
+open, the left hand lightly takes the sheets in turn where they have
+been cut, a folder is placed in the middle and is shifted from one to
+the other as required. The process is the same whether there are only
+three cords or even six.
+
+Fig. 32--Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on.
+
+It has already been said that several volumes of the same kind can be
+sewn on top of each other on the sewing frame; in this case the volumes
+must be separated from each other after the sewing is completed.
+
+The free ends of the cords are untwisted so that they may be scraped
+open more easily afterwards, and then one volume after another is drawn
+along the cords to the ends until they are twice the length of the free
+cords away from each other, which, of course, will vary according to the
+subsequent style of binding.
+
+So then we allow 6 and 12 cm. according to circumstances; but this
+length is curtailed to 3 cm. in the cheap school books, because the
+shorter the cords the quicker they are scraped open. Every cord is cut
+in the middle between the books with the shears, thus separating each
+volume from the other. The strands of the loose ends of the cords are
+now completely untwisted by inserting the cord in the groove of the
+scraper and repeatedly rubbing it up or down with the back of a knife.
+
+After scraping the cords, the end-paper guards are always pasted down;
+the book is laid with the back to the front edge of the table, the first
+sheet with the end paper is turned downwards, the end-paper guard is
+bent up a little so that it stands away from the sheet, paste it neatly
+and carefully, close the section and adjust it so that the sheet in the
+end paper is level with the others, but not the end paper itself--this
+must project a little at the back. When only one finger is required for
+pasting it must be the middle finger, so that the forefinger is free
+from paste and ready to take hold of anything.
+
+If stitched end papers are used for extra work, a sheet of paper is laid
+on the second sheet so as to leave 3 mm. free, paste this strip and
+bring down upon it the once-more closed first sheet, taking care to
+square it at the outside with the body of the book.
+
+The folder should be brought down firmly over the outer sheets after
+pasting down so as to ensure the paste sticking.
+
+If the pasting-on of the joints is not properly carried out, the result
+will be that in most cases the book opens badly when finished.
+
+In half-cloth or other simple bindings, the scraped cords may be pasted
+on at once. Bring a little paste (about the size of a pea) upon the
+point of a folder under the slightly raised cord, pasting the latter
+evenly and neatly upon the paste-down of the end paper so that the
+pasted-down strands of the cord lie like a feather. To prevent the
+pasted cords sticking to each other, the books are piled up back and
+front until dry. In extra work, the cords--which are also longer--must
+by no means be pasted on; a piece of waste paper or a cover the size of
+the sheet is pasted outside the sections under the cords, level with the
+backs. This serves partly as a protection for the end papers and partly
+to make a good joint when covering.
+
+The volumes so prepared are now glued up. They must be knocked up at
+head and back; they are then placed with the backs outwards on a board
+specially kept for this work--the glueing board--with the fore-edge of
+which they must be exactly level. On top must be placed a smaller board
+or a heavy piece of iron, likewise level with the book. The book backs
+are thus held firmly between the glueing boards, the left hand holding
+them firmly by pressing on the top, the right hand glueing the backs
+with very hot but not thick glue; rub this well in with the point of a
+hammer, and after having firmly squeezed the glue out of the brush, use
+it for taking off the surplus glue from the backs. An old trick of the
+bookbinder is to heat the hammer for this work. It is a bad plan to give
+the back a thick coating of glue and then allow it to dry, because it at
+once becomes brittle. Some experienced workers place the books between
+the glueing boards so as to leave about 1 cm. projecting, as it is
+thought that the glue thereby gets better between the sheets; but this
+method is out of date and is of no special value. It is, however, of
+great importance that the glued book should be laid so that it is truly
+square at the head as well as the back, for if this is neglected no
+amount of trouble will save the book from being cut out of shape.
+
+Before passing on to the next chapter we have still to mention the
+mechanical contrivances for sewing. For small as well as large
+binderies, machines have been invented both for wire stitching and
+thread sewing; the former are more generally used, the latter not being
+sufficiently perfect in construction to meet all demands for speed and
+accuracy. Then also the method of fastening the book in the cover
+differs so much from the traditional method that we must still hope for
+improvement. When this comes to pass, this machine will then supersede
+the wire-stitching machine, with all its unavoidable disadvantages. The
+working of the machines is so simple that they are attended to almost
+entirely by girls. We refrain from giving descriptions of mechanical
+appliances within the limits of a short treatise, as any day may bring
+forth new inventions which are certain to effect great changes in this
+department. Besides these costly appliances there are also simpler
+sewing-machines for small shops, by which books are sewn in very simple
+fashion over steel needles, by means of which the cords may afterwards
+be drawn along.
+
+Fig. 33--Thread-sewing machine.
+
+Fig. 34--Wire-sewing machine.
+
+As these machines demand very large saw-cuts, they can only be used for
+trade work and any cheap lines. We only mention them to draw attention
+to their existence. Unprinted paper and music are sewn on tapes as well
+as cords. This method of sewing is described in Chapter IX.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+CUTTING, ROUNDING, BACKING.
+
+Fig. 35--Rotary guillotine.
+
+
+In nearly all cases the book is trimmed after glueing, and it is best to
+do this before the glue is quite set. Even in extra work books are
+nowadays trimmed on three sides, that is, before the book is rounded
+each side is cut one after the other. This method has the advantage that
+it is quicker, that the top and bottom corners of the round fore-edge
+cannot break, and that it is easy to treat every side during the process
+of marbling.
+
+Of course, in the best work the book is first cut at the front, rounded,
+pressed, and then cut top and bottom.
+
+Under present conditions we might completely abandon the old method of
+trimming with the plough, for, although this is a most valuable tool, it
+would not pay to use it now, and the shops where it is still in use are
+few and far between; besides, our German machines now do the work so
+thoroughly and accurately that we are able to execute the highest class
+of work by their aid.
+
+Fig. 36--Lever guillotine.
+
+The machines worked by a lever are very suitable for small shops and
+small books. Rotary action is for heavier work and is more suitable
+where both heavy and light work have to be done.
+
+The fore-edge is generally trimmed first; the back of the book is
+carefully adjusted to the "back gauge," the back gauge is so adjusted by
+moving backwards and forwards that the knife comes exactly upon the
+point marked beforehand. The first principle to be observed in trimming
+is that as little as ever possible should be taken off the book.
+Measuring and marking for trimming are done with the dividers; the
+latter is called "marking for cutting." When the back gauge has been
+adjusted so that the points lie directly under the knife, the clamp
+which holds the book in position is screwed down and the machine set in
+motion. The book must be cut smooth and quite free from any jaggedness,
+and if this has not been accomplished the knife must be ground or, at
+least, well sharpened.
+
+Something must be done in trimming top and bottom to prevent the groove
+at the back from receiving too much pressure. The simplest means is to
+glue a thick board on the under side of the clamp. If a piece of stout
+cloth has been pasted to this board, it will afterwards be easily
+removed from the clamp if it is lightly glued on at two places only. If
+cloth is not used, pieces of the board will adhere to the clamp and
+cause no little inconvenience.
+
+Instead of this, there are metal plates sold which are fastened to the
+clamp in a simple way, either by screws or springs, and they are just as
+simply removed.
+
+The bottom edge has to be cut first, as one is thus able to adjust the
+head--which, of course, must be rectangular--against the back gauge and
+then to make the bottom edge parallel. After cutting this edge, the book
+is turned round and the bottom edge adjusted on the back gauge so as to
+get the top edge ready for cutting. Whilst doing this, care must always
+be taken that the book is placed under the clamp so that the arrangement
+made for saving the groove from pressure is effective.
+
+Fig. 37--Top edge arranged for trimming when trimming three edges.
+
+As our machines are made to cut from left to right, the book back must
+be on the left.
+
+Very often a book contains so many folded plates that it is considerably
+thinner in some places than at others. These thin places must be
+properly packed with paper or strips of board, otherwise the knife is
+sure to tear or jag, no matter how sharp it may be. This packing may be
+left in the book until the book is quite finished and then taken out.
+
+If any fibrous matter has stuck to the bottom sheets through cutting on
+a much-used bed, it must be removed with a very sharp knife.
+
+The trimmed volumes are "rounded," _i.e._, they are rounded and the
+groove made at the back to which the boards have to be fitted. For this
+reason the grooves must be made to suit the thickness of the boards to
+be used.
+
+Fig. 38--Rounding the book.
+
+To round a book, slightly damp its glued back, place it on a firm stone
+or metal bed, and knock it round with a hammer. Properly speaking the
+process is as follows: The left hand takes hold of the back of the book
+lying flat before the worker and works it into a round form, the right
+hand helping all the time by beating it along the back from one end to
+the other.
+
+In this way each side is treated alternately until the back is evenly
+rounded. The rounding of the fore-edge should be equal to one-third of a
+circle.
+
+Books that have been hammered so much that they fall straight from the
+centre towards both sides are called "over rounded"; if, on the
+contrary, the book is round at the sides and almost straight in the
+middle the book is called "flat rounded." The latter occurs when the
+thread used in sewing has been too thin or held down too much (see page
+37). Great care must be taken to avoid what is called springing a
+section--this is generally caused by a break in the glued back; but it
+is almost impossible to round a book perfectly if the sections are very
+thick or if it contains many pasted-in plates.
+
+There are now very useful machines for rounding books, also hand
+machines. The work connected with these consists simply in turning the
+book a few times, pushing the back up to the rollers each time.
+
+Fig. 39--Rounding machine.
+
+When the book is properly rounded, it is "backed," that is, it is so
+placed between backing boards that they are away from the back just as
+much as is required for the groove, the width of the latter depending
+upon the thickness of the boards; a small thin volume gets thin boards
+and therefore a small groove; a thicker volume requires thick boards,
+and, of course, a deeper groove. The made groove should be a little
+deeper than the board set in it. The book and backing boards are placed
+in a wooden press, screwing up by hand and once more carefully
+adjusting. To do this, the press is first placed lengthwise on the table
+so that one end projects a little over the front edge of the table; the
+evenness of the rounding is then perfected--one hand at the back and the
+other at the front edge pushing and adjusting. The better and truer the
+book has been rounded before laying in the boards the less there will be
+to do when placed in the press. If the rounding is correct, the head and
+tail must be examined to see that they are exactly rectangular, for the
+book may have been knocked untrue, and the evenness of the
+grooves--which are easily disturbed--is also examined.
+
+Backing and rounding is the most important work as far as regards the
+appearance of the book when finished; it must be done with the greatest
+exactitude and requires much practice. Although it is hardly
+perceptible, yet the great difficulty lies in the book itself being so
+very easily shifted.
+
+When the book is placed in the press without a fault it is screwed up as
+tightly as possible with the screw key, and through this the grooves
+already project over the edges of the backing boards; but a sharp groove
+can only be obtained by the help of the hammer.
+
+The hammer, however, must not be used blindly on the back, but by
+lightly knocking, blow by blow, the first and last 4-6 sheets must be
+brought over the edges of the boards. This done, the whole of the back
+is well pasted, and after remaining thus a short time it is then rubbed
+with the point of the hammer along the sheets until all superfluous glue
+is soaked and scraped off. With a handful of paper cuttings the back is
+rubbed smooth and clean. The use of a toothed _cachir_ iron is strictly
+forbidden, but the round side of this tool may be used instead of the
+hammer.
+
+Fig. 40--Backing machine for small shops.
+
+For backing, we have also a useful machine--the backing machine. For
+small shops it is made for clamping only, and the making of the groove
+is done with the ordinary hammer. For large shops this machine has a
+roller going right across the back which forms the groove down each
+side.
+
+Fig. 41--Backing machine for large shops.
+
+Valuable books are either trimmed at the front and at once backed or
+they may be backed before trimming. This is generally done with bulky
+books, as they are liable to throw out a section, and this danger is
+lessened by backing first. The work of backing remains the same. If the
+fore-edge has already been trimmed, care must be taken that the grooves
+do not suffer during trimming after backing. One way of effecting this
+is to lay the book on a special cutting board with the edge up to the
+groove, or by making use of the arrangement on the clamp already
+described, and adjusting the groove of the book to the blocks fixed on
+the clamp.
+
+Should the fore-edge not have been cut, the book must again be knocked
+straight after backing; to do this a strong cord is tied round the book
+about 1-1/2 cm. from the back, the book is then laid upon a firm bed,
+and the back again knocked straight; this work is called "tying up."
+
+Fig. 42--Backed book arranged for trimming.
+
+It facilitates the work if the book is taken up and lightly held in the
+left hand whilst the right holds the hammer and knocks the round inwards
+until the book is once more square.
+
+The squared book is now trimmed, and it is not until the trimming is
+finished that the cord is loosened.
+
+In pressing, several volumes of the same size can be done in the hand
+press at one and the same time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MARBLING, GILDING, &C., THE EDGES AND HEADBANDING.
+
+
+The edges of a book are nearly always finished off in some way or
+another, as the plain white edges would quickly become soiled. As a
+matter of fact, the binder always uses a covering of gold or colour for
+this purpose, and care should be taken that this way of treating the
+edges is decorative and not the reverse.
+
+In small binderies the edge is most usually sprinkled. A small brush
+with a handle (such as is used for blacking shoes) is dipped into a very
+thin coloured liquid and rubbed over a fine sieve which is fixed in a
+frame. The sieve is kept at sufficient distance from the edges of the
+book to allow the little drops of colour to fall like a fine rain. For
+this work the book is screwed up in the press (which is laid flat) by
+means of the press-jack. As a sprinkling colour, nut-wood stain thinned
+with water is used, or indigo, carmine, Prussian blue, mahogany brown,
+green cinnabar, all well diluted with water, with the addition of a
+little paste and borax or a few drops of dilute carbolic to prevent the
+paste turning sour; aniline dyes have a common appearance. The sprinkle
+must fall very finely upon the edges, therefore the first large drops
+should be taken out of the brush by giving it a few preliminary rubs
+over the sieve.
+
+A few variations are made in sprinkled edges by scattering damp sawdust,
+sand, or bran on the edges before sprinkling, thus producing a coarser
+kind of sprinkling. Similarly rice, barley, even starch or drops of wax
+are used. All these edges are out of date and in really good workshops
+are every day falling more and more into disuse, preference being given
+to marbling upon a sized ground.
+
+For the production of even marbling an edge-marbling roller has recently
+been brought out.
+
+Rubber rollers--one or two--together with the automatic colouring
+rollers bearing aniline dyes mixed with glycerine, are made up into a
+handy contrivance by means of which smooth coloured edges can be rolled
+over. These edges are passable only when carefully and skilfully
+executed; as a rule they look coarse and common and are taken up only by
+badly equipped shops. Marbling rollers can be used for comb marbling as
+well as for small veined marbling.
+
+We may say that the coloured edge is the oldest style.
+
+Earth colours which cover well--cinnabar[2] (red or green), carmine,
+chrome yellow, graphite, bismuth, and also other colours that cover
+well, indigo, carmine, and Prussian blue--are ground to a fine powder
+and thoroughly mixed with water and a little paste or gelatine so that
+the edges may be evenly covered.
+
+Footnote 2: Cinnabar if not _red_ must be a preparation with other
+colour.--_Trans._
+
+Only printed books are put in the press, and in this case they must
+first be rubbed down with alum water. After about five minutes the
+colour may be laid on. Hog's-hair brushes are used for this. Recently,
+eosin has been used to colour red and picric acid for yellow, both well
+diluted with water.
+
+The paste edge is a variety of the coloured edge; it is produced by
+loading paste with a very strong colour so that it covers well when laid
+on. With the blunt point of a stick, a bluntly pointed cork, or even the
+finger-tip, figures may be traced in the colour when laid on, and then
+the figures may be brought out better by going over the lines with a
+pointed stick. The work demands a skilled draughtsman if a good effect
+or something more than the very simplest design is desired.
+
+The book must be pressed for pasting the edges, and the paste colour
+must not be laid on too thickly or it will spring off when dry.
+
+Coloured as well as paste edges will take gold tooling and afford
+considerable scope to the skilful and thoughtful workman.
+
+The finest way of finishing edges and the one allowing greatest variety
+of treatment is known as marbling; this is a special process.
+
+Formerly regarded as a secret art, it is now an easily acquired branch
+of our work, thanks to the careful experiments and excellent
+demonstrations of the master bookbinder, Herr Joseph Halfer, of Buda
+Pesth.
+
+The whole process of marbling depends upon the peculiarity possessed by
+colours of floating upon a sized surface when they are mixed with
+oxgall, and a colour containing more gall forcing off the one first
+applied. Besides, the colours may be drawn about with a pencil or stick
+without their mixing. If the smooth edges of a book are brought into
+contact with such a floating surface-colour they will take up the
+colours completely.
+
+Ground and colour must each have certain fixed degrees of consistency,
+and the atmosphere both in and out of doors has also a great influence
+upon the work.
+
+The prepared body, shortly known as "the body," is at present always
+composed of boiled Carrageen moss. To every litre[3] of water exactly 12
+g. are added and the liquid is put in a saucepan, which is never used
+for any other purpose, and placed on the fire, great care being taken to
+catch it just at boiling point or it will all boil over. At the right
+moment take the saucepan from the fire and strain the contents through a
+hair sieve, what remains being thrown away as useless. The body may be
+used the next day, but for figured edges it is better after having been
+kept three days, and for veined marbling five days. The vessel
+containing the body must be kept covered so as to exclude all dust.
+
+Footnote 3: Not quite a quart.
+
+Gum tragacanth (known as "gum dragon") can also be used as a body, but
+Halfer's colours are not intended to be used with this.
+
+A marbling trough to contain the body is used whilst working; it is made
+of zinc plate, is about 15 cm. in width, 50 cm. in length, and 3 cm. in
+depth, and has a sloping partition soldered near one end, and the colour
+not taken up is drawn into the division thus made.
+
+Illustration: Marbling Trough
+
+A bowl, about 6 cm. across the top, is kept for each colour, and also a
+hog's-hair brush and a birch-twig brush.
+
+A small bundle of birch twigs is tied round with thread, leaving about 4
+cm. of the twigs free, the thickness of the lowest part tied not
+exceeding 1 cm. The bristles of the brush are tied back so as to form
+loops and held awhile in boiling water so that they retain their shape
+after drying and untying. With a brush made up in this way, drops may be
+laid on anywhere.
+
+For all drawn-out edges only bristle brushes are used, whilst for all
+other edges a brush is used only for laying on the first colour. For
+some edges a wide brush is used, so that the whole trough can be filled
+at one blow; a carpet brush with a short handle is most convenient to
+use.
+
+A little stick for tracing the colours is also necessary--a butcher's
+skewer is as good as anything. Besides this, the colours are drawn by
+combs of various widths; these are easily made by glueing pins with
+their heads at fixed distances between two strips of mill-board: the
+result is a tool resembling a comb. All requisites can be conveniently
+kept in a little wooden box together with the colours. Nowadays only
+Halfer's ready-made colours are used.
+
+Fig. 43--Marbling outfit.
+
+Any one wishing to learn the process of marbling edges would be wise not
+to attempt all the styles at once, but should be content to learn one
+before proceeding to another. We will commence with "comb" marbling,
+also known as "feather" marbling.
+
+When marbling is to be done, the colours must always be tested first. A
+little colour is shaken into each bowl and its brush placed with it, and
+one or two drops of prepared oxgall added to each colour so as to make
+the colour float on the surface.
+
+One prepares one's own oxgall. An ox gall in the gallbladder is procured
+from a butcher, a glass funnel is placed in a bottle which has been
+weighed beforehand, and the bottom of the gall bladder is pierced so
+that the bladder empties its contents into the bottle. After finding the
+weight of the gall, add to the weight of the gall alone one-sixth and
+pour into it spirit of wine until the weight is equalized; shake
+thoroughly and strain the mixture, which will now be quite clear and
+ready for use.
+
+The colours, with their brushes, are placed in the order in which they
+are to be used, beginning with the darkest and finishing with the
+lightest.
+
+A drop of colour is let fall from the black brush upon the body, the
+surface of which had previously been drawn off with a strip of paper;
+the surface of this drop must be about the size of a crown piece. If
+part of the colour sinks to the bottom, the body is too thin or the
+colour too thick, or the drop was too large and could not spread quickly
+enough; in the latter case the surplus colour will be seen lying at the
+bottom and will have no connection whatever with the colour on the
+surface; but if a cloudy connection can be traced from the surface to
+the bottom then the body has already become sour and in most cases unfit
+for use. If the colour does not retain its smooth outlines and becomes
+jagged, it also shows that the body is too old. If, however, the drop
+extends as desired and shows none of the faults above mentioned, a drop
+of blue colour is let fall in the centre of the first, which drives out
+the first drop in the form of a ring; when it has not this effect, but
+strongly contracts again, a drop of gall must be added, the colours
+wiped off to the sloping partition, and the whole process repeated. If
+the action of the colour was too strong, a little undiluted colour must
+be added. If the result is satisfactory, a drop of red is added to the
+blue. The colour scheme is seen in the accompanying drawing. Lastly,
+yellow is dropped into red, and black is thereby reduced to a very thin
+ring.
+
+Illustration: s--black; b--blue; r--red; yellow in centre.
+
+Before each new sprinkling, the old layer of colour must be wiped off.
+To do this, cut strips of stout waste paper about two fingers in width
+and a little longer than the trough is wide. The edge of the strip is
+placed slantingly at the end of the tank in the surface of the body and
+the surface colour drawn off, at the same time lightly pressing the ends
+of the strip against the sides of the trough.
+
+When the colours are satisfactory, the little stick is traced in and out
+amongst them. If too much colour follows the stick, the body is too
+thick; only a narrow line of colour must follow the stick.
+
+If the colours are thus correctly prepared, the whole trough is
+sprinkled in the following manner: Along the middle of the trough the
+darkest colour is sprinkled in what we might call links, that is, each
+drop is linked to the one preceding.
+
+Fig. 44--Suggestion for sprinkling colour.
+
+The second colour is sprinkled on in the same way; one circle, however,
+is on the right and the other on the left of the centre colour. Into
+each drop of the second colour let a drop of the third and then of the
+fourth colour fall.
+
+Illustration: Colour trace form.
+
+The colours must then be traced crosswise with the stick in this form
+and then likewise with the comb. Neither stick nor comb should be dipped
+more than about 2 mm. below the surface, otherwise the body is set in
+motion and the colours disarranged.
+
+The combs should not be made too fine, 30 to 35 teeth for every 10 cm.
+is the best width and sufficient for most cases. If the comb is drawn
+back again from the other end it produces drawn-back marbling; this is
+rarely applied.
+
+The finished comb marbling can be still further varied if figures are
+traced in it with the stick as shown in Fig. 46.
+
+Fig. 45--Comb marbling.
+
+Fig. 46--Suggestion for curl marbling.
+
+Illustration: Double comb colour form.
+
+If a double comb is made--one that allows two combs to pass each other,
+their teeth being 2 cm. apart--bouquet or peacock and eye marbling can
+be produced. The double comb is drawn over the length of the trough, at
+the same time moving the two combs up and down evenly. This motion
+causes the colours to assume the form shown in the accompanying
+illustration.
+
+Bouquet or peacock marbling is produced by drawing the double comb
+through the finished comb marble design, and if the double comb is used
+immediately after the cross tracing with the stick, eye marbling is the
+result.
+
+With a little thought it would be easy to invent other fancy designs,
+but these are better applied to paper, as trimmed edges are more
+beautiful and effective when the marbling is of simpler design.
+
+Fig. 47--Bouquet or peacock marbling.
+
+Fig. 48--Eye marbling.
+
+Large marble, called also Turkish marble, is produced as follows, using
+the same arrangement of colours. Only the first colour is laid on
+ringwise; all other colours are scattered in smaller drops from brushes.
+A darker colour is chosen for the last--brown, blue, olive, grey--to
+which is added a few more drops of gall and as much spirit of soap
+(_spiritus saponatus_), as sold by the druggists. This last colour is
+prepared in a larger and shallow basin. The largest brush is taken with
+the hand and dipped, shaken out a little, and then lightly knocked on
+the left hand so as to sprinkle the colour. The drops will fall in a
+dense shower, and, owing to their extra impetus, will drive together the
+preceding ones, and yet they will form the principal colour in the
+design. If it is desired to have veins of white in the design, a few
+drops of gall should be added to a little water in a bowl and used as
+any other colour; the same applies when using white in comb marbling. In
+a similar manner the so-called Kremser style of marbling is produced,
+but fewer colours are then used, generally only black and red, red and
+blue, brown and blue, green and red, at the end sprinkling a little of
+the strong principal colour to which, besides the spirit of soap, a drop
+of pure stone oil--not petroleum--from the chemist has been added. As
+last colour, blue grey (black with a little blue), brown, or grey is
+used.
+
+Recently, a sort of paper termed Trichinal marble has been very
+prominent on the market. Black and light brown or red and light brown or
+black, red, and light brown, or white, are all sprinkled on with a
+brush, length (not cross) wise drawn through, and then grey with a few
+drops of turpentine (but very driving) is sprinkled on with a small
+brush. The single drops have ragged edges and produce a peculiar effect.
+
+Thin-veined or French marbling is done upon the same ground, though it
+can also be done on a somewhat thinner body. The colours, however, are
+diluted by 50% water, and, consequently, more gall is added. As a rule,
+only two colours are used; blue, red; brown, blue; brown, green; black,
+red; black, blue. The first colour is laid on in rings with a brush and
+must be strong enough to spread over two-thirds the width of the trough;
+the second colour is sprinkled over with a little birch broom in drops
+that spread out to the size of a half-crown. Lastly, the so-called
+sprinkling-water is sprinkled over with one dash from the large brush as
+already explained. Sprinkling-water consists of two parts water and one
+part spirit of soap. The small veins must be driven quite close together
+and the eyes made by the sprinkling-water must not be larger than a
+small pea.
+
+It should be observed that for this kind of marbling only the darker
+shade of red is to be taken, as the light carmine lake colour sinks and
+does not give a fine effect. India red is best of all.
+
+
+The sprinkled colours are first tested with strips of paper; cuttings of
+clean note-paper are saved for this purpose. The edges of a book can be
+marbled only when the book is level or straight, therefore they must be
+marbled either before rounding or the book already rounded must be
+levelled by knocking it on a stone or metal slab. In all cases the
+marbling is done--both with papers and books--by dipping from one corner
+to the other diagonally opposite, but never deeper than just sufficient
+to take off the layer of colour. To prevent the colour from getting
+between the leaves, the edges are held between zinc plates, which must
+be dried each time after using. To make the paper or edges take the
+colours more readily and to prevent any subsequent running off, the
+edges are lightly washed down with alum water. This wash is made by
+boiling 100 g. of alum in 1/2 litre of water and using it solely for
+this work.
+
+The alum solution is laid on with a sponge, with which the edges are
+washed over. The moisture must have thoroughly soaked in, therefore it
+is necessary to do it 10 minutes before marbling.
+
+If, however, the edges have become thoroughly dry they will take the
+colours badly. This occurs in from 20 to 30 minutes, according to the
+temperature. Marbling can only be done in a warm room where the
+temperature is equable and where there is no dust.
+
+The marbling bath must be of the same temperature as the room. The body
+must be skimmed each time before sprinkling the colours, but the colours
+must be sprinkled on immediately afterwards.
+
+An excellent treatise on the work of marbling edges has appeared under
+the title: [4]_Fortschritte der Marmorirkunst. Von Joseph Halfer.
+William Leo, Stuttgart._
+
+Footnote 4: The Development of the Art of Marbling.
+
+
+Illustration: Pressing Board Profile
+
+Gilding edges takes up most time when only occasional books are to be
+done. The fore-edge can be treated either flat or round. In every case
+the book must be placed in the press within boards. These boards are
+narrow strips, about 1/2 cm. thick and up to 5 cm. in width; they must
+be of equal thickness and bevelled only on long side, the edge itself
+must be rounded.
+
+Many makers send out boards bevelled right from one side to the other.
+This kind is very unsuitable and has many disadvantages. The boards must
+not be made from wood of very open grain, and firs and oaks must not be
+used. The boards are to be somewhat longer than the edge about to be
+treated, so that the edge may be as firm and tight as possible and at
+the same time easy to work upon; two outer boards are added to those
+regularly used, as shown in Figs. 49 and 50.
+
+The inner boards are quite flush with the book: the latter must on no
+account stand back. The outer boards are about 3 mm. behind the others;
+the book is so placed in the press, and here again the book and boards
+must be exactly level with the press cheeks. The press is then screwed
+up as tight as possible. If the inner boards have not perfectly straight
+edges they must be planed down.
+
+Figs. 49 and 50--Arrangement of flat and rounded edges.
+
+The edges are to be scraped down quite smooth with a scraper or, if
+necessary, with a knife; the scraper must not be sharpened for this
+purpose as the carpenter sharpens his tools, that is, not to a cutting
+edge but as though it were for carving, until a bevel (or turned edge)
+of about 3 mm. has been ground. The edge thus gets a turned edge, with
+which the book is scraped. If it should cease to "take," the old edge is
+rubbed down with a steel and a new one made by a few firm strong
+rubbings. The edge should be wetted a little to prevent its heating.
+Flat edges are scraped with a flat scraper, rounded edges with one
+suitably rounded. In this case the round of the blade must be more
+decided than that of the edges, as it would otherwise be impossible to
+get into all parts of the edges. Scraping with pieces of glass is an
+antiquated, clumsy method.
+
+When scraping, the press should lie flat on the table edge, the other
+end being supported by the press-jack. In scraping, the blade is held in
+both hands, scraping away from the worker, the scraper sloping forwards.
+The press must be made immovable. Scraping is continued until all places
+have been gone over and the whole is perfectly smooth and even. When
+this is accomplished, the edges are thinly coated with paste, which is
+well rubbed in along the sheets with a bundle of waste paper until the
+edges look as if burnished. It is advisable to damp the edges before
+scraping, as the blade then takes hold more uniformly.
+
+Then bolus is mixed with glair as a body colour, laid on sparingly, very
+evenly, and free from streakiness, using a thick hair brush for the
+purpose. Bolus is sold to the trade ready prepared under the name
+"Poliment." Some time before using, it should be scraped into a suitable
+vessel and mixed with glair. The latter is prepared by adding the white
+of an egg to 1/4 litre of water and beating to a froth. It is then
+strained through a piece of linen or, better, through a filtering paper.
+
+After the bolus ground has dried (which takes a few minutes) the gold is
+laid on. There are various methods of doing this. The surest and
+quickest way is to lay it on with the gilder's tip.
+
+A row of long badger hairs is glued between two pieces of cardboard;
+this is drawn a few times over the hair of the head, which makes it take
+the gold easily. Gilders' tips are to be had at any colour dealer's.
+Gold is taken from the gold book, laid upon the gold cushion, and cut
+into suitable strips with the gold knife. The gold cushion consists of a
+piece of calf stretched raw side out on a board. Between the leather and
+the board there is placed a pad of cotton wool, and over the wool a pad
+of blotting-paper. The gold knife is a thin, pliant, two-edged knife
+without a sharp edge, in fact it is better to blunt the fore-edge from
+time to time by rubbing it on a polished steel. If the knife is too
+sharp it will cut the leather cushion. Taking the gold from the book
+will not be found a very easy task. The top leaf covering the gold is
+turned back, the book with the uncovered leaf of gold laid on the
+cushion, and the book slowly lifted up. The gold-leaf remains flat upon
+the cushion and may be cut with the knife as required. If a draught has
+turned the gold-leaf over or made it lie unevenly, it may be righted by
+lightly tapping with the knife on the cushion near the gold; careful
+breathing on the centre of the leaf will help in more awkward cases--the
+rest must be learned by practice. Never attempt to take hold of
+gold-leaf with the fingers; only the experienced workman knows how to
+carry gold-leaf with a finger.
+
+For gilding the edges the deep red gold is always used, or else the
+so-called orange gold, which is somewhat lighter in tone, but never the
+lemon or green gold.
+
+For flat gilt edges the gold is cut about 3 mm. wider than the book and
+into as many strips as would make up the length of the edge if joined
+together.
+
+Before laying on the gold, the bolused edge is brushed down with a hard
+clothes-brush to remove all hair, dust, &c. Glair is now liberally
+applied with a thick hair brush, laying it on separately for each strip.
+The gold is now lifted from the cushion with the gilder's tip so that it
+very slightly projects over the end of the brush and is transferred to
+the wet edges. The tip is brought to within 1 cm. of the surface of the
+edges and with a quick motion the whole surface of the gold is at once
+brought into contact with the glaired edges, which will instantly take
+it up quite greedily. The gold slightly overlaps on to the inner boards.
+In this one continues, preparing the edge for each fresh strip and
+laying on each strip so that it slightly overlaps the other until the
+whole length is covered with gold. If the gold should be injured in any
+way, the press must be tilted so as to allow a little glair to run under
+the gold to the spot and then a larger piece is laid over the faulty
+place. When it is seen that all parts are completely covered, the
+press-jack is put aside, the press is taken by the screws between the
+beams and raised high overhead so that the gilded part is turned
+downwards. One end is carefully lowered until the glair has run to one
+side and dripped off. As soon as the greater part of the moisture has
+been removed, the press is either placed upright with the edge to the
+wall and head downwards or it is laid across the table where it will not
+be disturbed, with the head of one screw on the table edge. In this way
+the moisture runs off quicker, as the whole length of the edge drains
+together. When dry, the edges are burnished, and it is in seizing the
+right moment to do this that the clever finisher shows his skill. The
+first test is made on the boards. If the gold comes off on scratching
+the portion on the inner board with the finger-nail, the edge is still
+too damp; if the scratching makes it shine, it will be all right. The
+experienced worker can trace the progress of drying with more certainty
+by breathing on the edges; the slowness or rapidity with which the
+breath disappears points to the dry or moist state of the edges.
+
+When it is believed that the proper degree of dryness has been obtained,
+the edge is polished with a burnisher. A piece of tracing paper which
+has been waxed on the upper side--that is, the side next the
+burnisher--is laid on the fresh edge to protect it from injury. The
+burnisher is then worked crosswise, stroke by stroke, over the paper
+(through which the edge can be observed) the length of the edge; if it
+is noticed that gold and moisture adhere to the paper near to the
+boards, the work must be laid aside to wait a little longer. If,
+however, the whole process has gone on satisfactorily, the edge is gone
+over with a linen rag and a little beeswax. It is not at all better to
+use a silk rag instead of linen, for it happens too easily that tiny
+threads stick to the gold unnoticed and are afterwards rubbed into the
+edge. After going over the edge with the waxed rag, the bare edges may
+take a greater pressure in burnishing, and if no flaws are now
+perceptible there need be no hesitation in burnishing with very strong
+pressure. The burnisher must be held quite level, the long handle fixed
+against the shoulder and the lower end firmly gripped with both hands
+just above the metal fastening. The fore-edge of the burnisher is not to
+be held parallel to the sheets, but must be at a slight angle; it thus
+slips better over the paper and there is less danger of making rills and
+furrows, and the polish is obtained more rapidly. Flat edges are always
+burnished crosswise, but at the end a broad burnisher may be used for
+going over the edges lengthwise with a few slow, firm strokes, so as to
+ensure a very level surface.
+
+Quick burnishing must always be avoided; it heats the gold, which rubs
+off under the burnisher, and causes holes which can never be remedied.
+
+As soon as one length has been burnished, the waxed cloth must be
+applied before proceeding further.
+
+Slight flaws in the gold itself, or due to bubbles in the glair, may be
+put right by touching the faulty places with a small brush dipped in
+rectified spirit and immediately laying on a piece of gold; if the edges
+had not yet been gone over with the waxed rag, it would be sufficient to
+breathe on the place, lay on the gold, and burnish under paper. This
+need only stand a few minutes, as it quickly evaporates, and may then be
+burnished again at once, first with, then without, the tracing paper. It
+must be observed that such faulty places must be burnished in the
+direction of the sheets, never crosswise.
+
+Rounded edges are more difficult to work; the scraping alone being more
+troublesome. Each piece of gold is halved, laying on each time a little
+beyond the deepest part of the round. The press is so lowered as to give
+a decided slope to the half of the edge to be operated upon. The gold is
+cut to a little more than half width, and only the under side to a
+little beyond the middle is glaired, which in this case must be done
+very freely. The strips of gold-leaf are laid on as before. When one
+side has been covered with gold, the press is turned and the other half
+of the round similarly treated. Care must be taken that there is always
+a liberal supply of glair in the depth of the round. To drain off the
+superfluous glair the press is placed so that the glair runs off on the
+long side; the gold is in consequence better taken up in the round.
+
+Burnishing is here also done under a piece of paper, and it is better to
+work crosswise, first one half to the centre of the round and then the
+other. Only thin books are burnished along the edges with a round
+burnisher. After the round edges have been burnished crosswise they are
+burnished with the round burnisher.
+
+Burnishers are made of agate or of bloodstone; the latter is said to
+produce a higher polish, but this may be due to our being more
+accustomed to its use. In selecting burnishers the flat ones should not
+be too wide and the strongest of the curved ones should be taken.
+
+Top and bottom edges undergo the same treatment in gilding as the flat
+fore-edge, except for a few slight necessary differences in the method
+of fixing the book. In the first instance, long boards are used instead
+of the outer boards--these protect the book from injury. The boards (the
+short sides of cross-boards are often used instead) are laid exactly in
+the groove at the back, but the outer boards are set back so that they
+are exactly in a line with the depth of the round edge. If this
+precaution is neglected, the chances are that little ridges will appear
+in the fore-edge where pressure has been applied. Fig. 51 shows the
+arrangement in the press.
+
+Scraping is done from the back to the fore-edge. As the back is not
+pressed so solid as the rest of the edge, it frequently happens that it
+does not get scraped so smooth. In this case recourse may be had to a
+fine file and fine sand-paper. The rest undergoes the familiar process.
+Take care that no glair runs on to the fore-edge when applying it or
+when draining it off. It is convenient to place the press crosswise on
+the table so that the fore-edge stands at its lower side; the glair then
+drains off the whole length of the edge more evenly and drains more
+towards the fore-edge. Many finishers elevate the press, letting it
+drain towards the fore-edge; there is no danger to the latter if the
+press is tipped forward from the top. On no account must the glair be
+allowed to drain towards the back, as this part is very open and all the
+moisture would gather there.
+
+Fig. 51--Top edge arranged for gilding.
+
+Besides the method of laying on the gold-leaf with the gilder's tip
+there is another which is specially used in gilding hymn-books; a piece
+of gauze is stretched across a frame, passed over the hair, and then the
+gold for the entire length of the edge is at once picked up and laid on.
+Round edges may be similarly covered by means of a couple of threads or
+horse-hairs stretched on a frame. The threads can be shifted to the
+short sides of the frame; they are adjusted to the width of the edge,
+allowing for the rounding, and are slightly greased by passing over the
+hair, and thus pick up the strip of gold at the edges. Just before
+laying on the gold, the threads are adjusted so that the gold fits the
+shape of the edge. Then plenty of glair is applied and the gold quickly
+and truly laid on.
+
+This method is not exactly difficult, but it is not quite so safe as
+laying on with a gilder's tip, especially for very large edges.
+
+The simplest way of laying on for flat edges is by means of strips of
+paper. This has the advantage of allowing a larger number of gold strips
+being made ready for laying on at one time. Select a piece of stiff and
+not too thin paper, cut into strips about the width of the strips of the
+gold-leaf, draw one side of the paper across the hair, and then take up
+the leaf so as to allow it to project a little over the edge of the
+paper strip. After glairing, strip by strip is laid on.
+
+For very cheap work it is often necessary to gild edges with alloyed
+gold. Such edges are not so carefully and thoroughly prepared; in
+particular, they are not scraped, but rubbed down with sand-paper. Blood
+serum is used instead of white of egg; this is prepared by allowing
+ox-blood to stand a few days and then filtering off the clear liquid.
+
+Aluminium is laid on a gelatine solution: one tablet of gelatine to
+1/4 litre of water.
+
+Gilt edges are also frequently tooled or scraped and painted. This work
+comes within the sphere of the art binder and cannot be dealt with in
+this book.
+
+All other coloured and marbled edges can be burnished in the same way as
+gilt edges. In good work this must always be done.
+
+
+In small shops headbands are made to this day of striped calico, which
+is cut into strips of 2 cm. wide right across the pattern, and one edge
+is pasted round a thin cord. After drying, pieces the exact size of the
+back of the book are cut off. The back of the book at the head is glued
+with a not too thin glue and the headband glued on so that the pad made
+by the cord lies on top of the edges and thus covers the place where
+book and cover join.
+
+Fig. 52--Headband shears.
+
+Woven headbands are now to be had so cheap that it is no longer
+necessary for the binder to make his own. The cheaper kinds are woven
+of cotton, and of these there are bands made which have two pads, each
+edge having a different colour. This band is cut along the middle for
+use; for the rest, it is cut into pieces according to the width of the
+book and then glued on to the back. Better kinds in silk are only woven
+on one side, therefore the cutting asunder is not necessary. For work in
+quantities, the headbands are cut the size of the back with the
+adjustable headband shears.
+
+For extra work the headband is hand-worked in silk. This work can only
+be learned by practice, although its execution is not difficult; such
+books are only headbanded after boarding.
+
+To make the filling for the headband, cut into strips pieces of vellum
+which have been pasted together, between which a piece of tough, thin
+pasteboard may be pasted to further strengthen. These strips are cut a
+little less than the height of the squares and a little longer than the
+width of the back. So as to facilitate the work, the strip is at once
+curved to the rounding of the back.
+
+Take two silk threads of the kind sold as "Cordonnet" silk, each thread
+of a different colour. Both threads are threaded in a sewing needle, the
+threads taken double, the ends of both double threads knotted together.
+The book is clamped in the ends of a press and stands slanting a little
+outwards. The needle is inserted in the back groove of the first sheet
+at the left hand underneath the kettle stitch and the thread drawn out
+to the knots. Thus one thread is always above and another below. The
+strip of vellum is now placed upright on the outside edge of the head,
+the thread is brought over from below, and is stitched from above to
+below close to the head, with the hanging needle through the first
+sheet under the kettle stitch outwards. Bring the same thread once more
+up over the strip, let the needle hang in the hollow of the fore-edge,
+taking in its stead the other thread which takes up the first, bringing
+it out underneath the vellum strip. By this, the first thread is firmly
+drawn as a chain stitch into the headband now beginning. The second
+thread is now brought upwards but need not again be taken through the
+sheet; it is taken back under the vellum strip once, and at the second
+time the needles are changed in the hollow as the first thread one more
+takes up the second thread and draws it into a chain. Thus the work goes
+on; after several journeys the thread is once again drawn out through a
+sheet until both threads are brought out at the other end of the back
+and pasted down. The first knots must also be undone and the ends pasted
+so that they do not show on the back. It is essential that the vellum
+strips should be always firmly and evenly sewn upon the edge, and also
+that every winding of the thread and the chain lies quite regular.
+
+Fig. 53--Headband working.
+
+It is possible to make a variation by making a few stitches with a third
+thread of another colour in the centre of the headband. Any vellum
+projecting at the ends must be cut off flush with the book.
+
+
+Some books are given a marker; this is made of silk ribbon or of a
+cheaper kind specially woven for the purpose. It is cut long enough to
+allow of its projecting a little at the head and pasted there, and at
+the same time comfortably held by the finger at the corner diagonally
+opposite. The marker is glued on before headbanding.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+BOARDING.
+
+
+The boards may be fastened to the covers in various ways, apart from
+casing, _i.e._, fixing books in publishers' ready-made cases.
+
+     1. Fastening upon bands (ordinary fastening).
+
+     2. Fastening below bands (fastening on a deep groove).
+
+     3. Drawing the bands through the boards (fastening with laced
+     bands).
+
+The boards for the books are nowadays manufactured from pulp, excepting
+in a few districts in Pomerania and East Prussia where wood boards are
+still occasionally made. Of these pulp boards the better kinds are
+called mill-boards; the cheaper are called straw-boards. Leather boards
+are not suitable for books as they invariably wrinkle or cockle. The
+boards may be cut to size before fastening on, or this may be done even
+after the fastening on has been completed. The former is generally
+practised where there is a board-cutting machine, but even then further
+attention is usually given to the shaping of the boards in the case of
+"extra" work.
+
+The board-cutting machine is a very useful ally, for by the aid of
+quickly adjusted rectangles and parallels a board may be cut perfectly
+true.
+
+The boards are selected according to the size and thickness of the book,
+marked out, and cut perfectly rectangular. The boards must slightly
+project at top and bottom as well as fore-edge so as to afford
+sufficient protection to the book. The margins so projecting are called
+the squares. Small books are allowed a small square, as a matter of
+course, and large books a square correspondingly larger.
+
+Fig. 54--Board-cutting machine.
+
+Where there is no board-cutting machine, the boards must be cut to size
+with the knife upon a cutting-board, using a straight edge for the line.
+
+The knife used is the well-known bookbinder's knife--Henckel Bros.'
+Solingen make is the best. These knives--both in fixed and removable
+wooden handles--are made of "glass hard" steel. If the point is worn
+away, a piece about 1/2 cm. long is knocked off with a hammer on an iron
+edge, thus making a fresh edge. The cutting-boards must be of maple,
+beech, or pear tree.
+
+If it is intended to shape the edges of the board on the book, it must
+be cut about 1 cm. larger each way so as to allow for further trimming.
+
+Fastening the boards to the book is called "boarding." This can
+generally be done as well with paste as with glue; the former is
+preferable but necessitates longer pressing and drying. Glueing is
+quicker, but the bands cannot then be pressed so evenly into the boards.
+
+For ordinary fixing on the bands, the insides of the boards are pasted
+to about 3 cm. in width, the bands also pasted, and the board laid on,
+bringing it well up to the groove. If it is intended to glue up, the
+bands are also glued, provided they have not already been glued on--a
+method preferred by many experienced hands. The bands must be pasted so
+that they radiate from the back without any tangle; a morsel of paste
+the size of a pea is laid on the band from underneath with the folder or
+point of a knife, the band smoothed down, and the thing is done. After
+glueing-up, the book is pressed between boards. If zinc plates are
+placed under the boards whilst pressing, the pasted parts will be
+pressed quite smooth and shiny.
+
+Fig. 55--Spring back.
+
+For cloth or half-cloth binding a hollow back is frequently glued on. To
+make the covering material of the back more lasting, a back is made up
+of strong wrappers or some other tough material, which extends over the
+back underneath the cover. This backing material must be cut 4 to 5 cm.
+wider than the width of the back and about 1 cm. longer each way than
+the book. This strip is pared very narrowly along both sides with a
+sharp knife on the so-called paring stone. A second strip--the
+backing--of the same material is cut the same length but exactly the
+width of the back of the book and is glued on to the middle of the wider
+strip. The overlapping parts at the sides are broken in towards the
+middle, close by the inner packing, and the crease well pressed down
+with the folder. These overlapping edges are then turned back again and
+a rule is laid on the packing parallel with the edge but drawn back to
+the middle about 2 to 3 mm. according to the thickness of the cover. If
+the moveable flaps are now again laid over towards the centre and
+narrowly creased near the first fold over the rule, a second parallel
+fold is obtained which allows the book to open much better. The back in
+section appears as illustrated in Fig. 55 after the middle part of the
+packing has undergone the necessary rounding.
+
+Fig. 56--Boarded book.
+
+Rounding can be done either by rubbing the middle part round with a
+proper wooden tool in a rounding board having several hollows of various
+degrees of convexity, or by drawing the back with a rocking motion under
+a broad folder. Such a made-up back must fit perfectly true to the
+groove and on the back. This is the hollow back. Before fastening it to
+the book, the latter must have a piece of stout paper pasted over the
+back; good packing-paper is the best. Newspapers and loose
+advertisements out of magazines are not at all satisfactory and must not
+be used. The book is glued and the paper laid on and glued. In doing a
+large batch the books may be pasted in the press and the paper pasted
+on.
+
+Many experts glue the hollow backs on and use paste for the board. Very
+frequently the glue comes through and spoils the end papers. It is
+better to raise the flaps of the back, paste the tear off of the end
+paper, paste the bands on to it, and the loose flaps as well, and then
+paste this on the outside and set the board on it. The latter must be
+set back a little further in this case so that the book moves freely in
+the joint. The back, therefore, is a hollow arch stretching over the
+book from groove to groove, the loose flaps of the packing adhering
+between book and board. The book is pressed until thoroughly dry--best
+between zinc plates.
+
+Fig. 57--Section of edge rule.
+
+For shaping boarded books an edge rule is used. This is a thin iron rule
+not much longer than the width of the book. On the long edge an iron pin
+about the width of the edge is soldered. This tool is inserted between
+book and board so that the iron pin lies close to the edge of the book;
+if the board is trimmed along this it will leave the board exactly as
+much larger than the book as is the width of the rule.
+
+Knives or points must be well grasped in cutting boards. The edge must
+be clean and square.
+
+If the boarded book has a hollow back, first one end is shaped and the
+projecting back is neatly cut clean and straight to the other board with
+the shears, and then the other end is shaped.
+
+Boards are fixed on a deep groove by pasting them on the outside to a
+width of about 3 cm., placing them direct on the book, backing them
+firmly into the groove, and then pasting the bands very smoothly upon
+the boards. A folded piece of waste paper is placed on the pasted part,
+a piece of zinc plate over it, and the book then pressed. The double
+leaf is used to prevent any sticking to the zinc plate, which bands are
+particularly liable to do if the plates had not been properly cleaned
+after previous use.
+
+Boards to be fastened into a deep groove must be lined with waste paper;
+this is done with paste. When packing, a narrow strip of paper must be
+brought over the inner edge of the board in the groove to the outside,
+so that the cut edge of the board is covered and does not strain or
+swell.
+
+This is also done when boarding, as follows:--
+
+At the present time, all good half or whole leather bindings have the
+boards laced through in good shops. At the outset the bands must be left
+with longer ends for this--5 cm. at least on each side. A parallel line
+is marked on the board along the back about 6 to 8 mm. from the groove.
+The board is fitted on the book just as was done when fixing in the
+groove, and exactly opposite each band a point is made on the marked
+lines. The board is then removed and at the points marked is pierced
+slanting inwards--about half right angle--with a pointed awl. The board
+is turned, and sideways, near every first hole, a second hole is made
+which likewise takes a slanting direction to the board. The bands are
+drawn through these holes, and to be able to do this the bands must be
+well pasted and twisted to a point; cutting off the extreme ends of the
+bands will facilitate the drawing through. To draw the bands quite firm
+and tight the boards are stood upright in the groove, the bands drawn
+through as tight as possible, and in this position--that is, with the
+boards half open--they are knocked down with a hammer upon a firm bed.
+The principal thing to be observed is that the bands are pasted fast in
+the holes, but where they are seen they are knocked down quite flat. The
+boards are now slowly closed, the ends of the bands projecting at the
+outside are cut off short, and the book pressed, using zinc plates
+inside and out.
+
+Fig. 58--English style of lacing boards.
+
+The French method of lacing is not much practised in other countries; it
+is somewhat more roundabout, and is done before cutting--immediately
+after glueing up. The boards are each shifted to right or left for
+cutting and cut together. By so doing, the edges always correspond
+exactly to the back groove.
+
+Illustration: Pressing Board Profile.
+
+For every band there are three holes bored forming a triangle. The awl
+holes are directed towards the middle of this triangle. The band must
+describe this course. The end is pushed under the piece of the band seen
+on the inside of the board, the bands drawn tight, with board standing
+upright as before described, also well knocked down in the same way, and
+the end cut off just beyond the piece under which it is drawn. The book
+is then pressed between zinc plates.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+THE COVER.
+
+
+Formerly only one way of making the cover was known, and that was the
+gradual making of it on the book itself. This has been considerably
+changed of late owing to the production of immense quantities for
+publishers' requirements. Book and cover are now in many cases made
+separately, the former being afterwards glued into its cover or "cased."
+
+The publisher's case is nowadays a necessary evil, without which we
+cannot get along and which we have got to take into account. In spite of
+it, bindings are still being produced in the old approved way,
+particularly in small establishments and in high-class shops. Before we
+proceed with the preparation of the cover after the trimming, we must
+know how it is intended to treat the book. In the preceding chapter we
+have learned the methods of boarding, and this now leads to the methods
+of covering. Previous to that, however, we would like to give a plan
+showing the various ways of treating the volumes under consideration,
+and then the chapter on the covers may be given (see plan on page 94).
+
+
+VIEW OF THE MOST GENERAL STYLES OF BINDING, SHOWING THE DIVISIONS OF THE
+WORK.
+
+Table of Headings:
+
+Col. A: Folding. Pulling to pieces.
+Col. B: Sewing.
+Col. C: Holländering.
+Col. D: Gluing. Pasting.
+Col. E: Pressing. Cutting.
+Col. F: Marbling and gilding edges.
+Col. G: Rounding. Backing.
+Col. H: Boarding.
+
+  -------------------||------------------------|
+                     ||    WORK ON THE BOOK.   |
+                     ||------------------------|
+                     ||                        |
+                     ||       Forwarding.      |
+                     ||                  Second|
+                     ||First stage.      stage.|
+                     ||--|--|--|--|--|--||--|--|
+  Style of Binding.  || A| B| C| D| E| F|| G|H |
+  -------------------||--|--|--|--|--|--||--|--|
+  Brochure           ||--|  |--|  |  |  ||  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+    "   Paper boards ||--|--|  |--|--|  ||  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  School books       ||--|--|  |--|--|  ||  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Half cloth (bound) ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+    "        (cased) ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Whole cloth (bound)||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+    "         (cased)||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Half leather       ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Half calf, extra   ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Whole leather      ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Publishers' cases  ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+
+
+  Table of Headings:
+
+  Col. I: Making the case.
+  Col. J: Covering.
+  Col. K: Pressing.
+  Col. L: Preparing the leather.
+  Col. M: Covering.
+  Col. N: Fastening the book in the cover.
+  Col. O: Pasting down.
+  Col. P: Jointing.
+  Col. Q: Pasting down end papers.
+  Col. R: Hand tooling and decorating.
+
+
+  -------------------||-------------------------------|
+                     ||        WORK ON THE COVER.     |
+                     ||-------------------------------|
+                     ||                               |
+                     ||Casing.  Covering.  Finishing. |
+                     ||                               |
+                     ||--|--|--||--|--||--|--|--|--|--|
+  Style of Binding.  || I| J| K|| L| M|| N| O| P| Q| R|
+  -------------------||--|--|--||--|--||--|--|--|--|--|
+  Brochure           ||  |  |  ||  |  ||--|  |  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+    "   Paper boards ||  |--|  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  School books       ||--|--|  ||  |  ||  |--|  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Half cloth (bound) ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |--|  |  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+    "        (cased) ||--|  |--||  |  ||--|--|  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Whole cloth (bound)||  |  |  ||  |--||  |--|  |  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+    "         (cased)||--|--|--||  |  ||--|--|  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Half leather       ||  |  |  ||--|--||  |--|  |  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Half calf, extra   ||  |  |  ||--|--||  |  |--|--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Whole leather      ||  |  |  ||--|  ||  |  |--|--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Publishers' cases  ||--|--|--||  |  ||--|  |--|--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+MAKING THE COVER.
+
+
+The boards for making the covers are cut the required size exactly as
+when cutting for glueing; a packing of thin cardboard or thin wrappers
+is cut for the back. The width of the back from first to last sheet is
+carefully measured by laying across it a strip of paper, the dividers
+are adjusted to the measure, and this is transferred to the wrapping
+paper. The packing is cut to suit the boards in height. When cloth only
+is used for the cover, the cloth is cut 2 to 2-1/2 cm. longer and about
+4 cm. wider than the packing. The width of the back depends upon the
+question of cost or other consideration. In whole-cloth bindings the
+cloth is, of course, cut in one piece and 1 to 1-1/2 cm. larger all
+round than the boards and back taken together. Glue is always used for
+cloth. As piles of pieces of cloth shift about in glueing, a touch of
+glue is given to two corners of the pile and left to dry a little. These
+corners hold the pieces of cloth in position whilst being glued and
+prevent the edges from being smeared. In glueing cloth it must be seen
+that the glue is well rubbed into the grain or artificial indentations.
+
+For covers which have only the back made, the packing is laid upon the
+middle of the glued cloth and the boards hinged on right and left at
+side of it, leaving, however, as much space between as is required by
+the joint and the thickness of the boards. As a rule, the space required
+will be as much as the thickness of the board. In making leather backs
+one allows a little more.
+
+The cloth back is at once turned in at head and tail after the boards
+have been laid on, and the cover rubbed down in the groove with the
+folder.
+
+Turning-in is done by pushing the side to be operated on a little over
+the edge of the table, and with the thumbs the cover is pressed over the
+edges of the boards with a sliding motion, whilst the forefingers hold
+the cover underneath.
+
+Whole-cloth bindings are turned in in the same way, but in this case the
+corners must be first cut off obliquely as shown in the illustration.
+
+Fig. 60--Corners cut for turning in.
+
+The cloth is cut off at the corners so close that only as much as the
+thickness of the board remains. Thick boards have therefore more cloth
+left at the corners than thin ones.
+
+Fig. 61--Corners: Right and wrong.
+
+The top and bottom edges must be turned in before the fore-edge. At the
+corners, the cloth is nipped a little with the folder, without, however,
+making an oblique fold; there should rather be a hollow round turn-over
+remaining which is only drawn on with the fore-edge, then from the
+corner slanting to the board.
+
+The edges must always be turned in quite sharp; there must never be a
+hollow place on the edge of the board. On the other hand, it looks bad
+if the edges have been much rubbed down with the folder, at least with
+cloth; it is different with leather.
+
+The turned-in cover is turned and the front side well rubbed down under
+paper with the folder. When cloth has once been glued it must not be
+allowed to lie long as it rolls up and sticks together, which renders it
+practically unworkable.
+
+The finished covers are laid between pasteboards to dry; only when the
+drying has to be done in a hurry may they be hung on stretched cords.
+The latest in this work is a case machine which turns out 550 cases per
+hour.
+
+When leather is used, it must first be pared, that is to say, the parts
+to be turned in where it is too thick in the joint must be gradually
+thinned.
+
+Fig. 62--Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife.
+
+The paring knife, of which there are various kinds, is used for this
+work. The best known and the most generally used are the Offenbach and
+the Berlin, both very much alike except for a slight difference in the
+edge. The quickest paring knife is made after the French pattern.
+
+This knife is called a "thrusting" knife because of the manner of using
+it, in contradistinction to those generally used with a cutting motion;
+but even these a skilful worker will be able to use with a thrusting
+motion. The under side of the paring knife is covered with leather.
+
+A lithographic stone or piece of marble will serve as a bed upon which
+to pare the leather. The stone is set in a frame under which there is a
+bar to hold it against the edge of the table so that it does not work
+backwards whilst in use. All edges are rounded off and the surface is
+ground and polished.
+
+Ability in paring does not entirely depend upon the skilful use of the
+knife but also upon the way the left hand manipulates the leather and
+upon a thorough knowledge of the nature of the leather. It should not be
+forgotten that the latter has a grain, though very few bookbinders pay
+any heed to this. With many leathers it is a very difficult matter to
+pare against the grain, especially pig-skin and cow-hide. One may
+generally take it that a leather pares best in the direction in which it
+stretches least. The grain runs from the back to the sides. The
+Offenbach knife is narrower and ground more to a square point than the
+Berlin knife, the edge of which forms a sort of half right-angle to the
+blade. See manner of holding the knife in Fig. 62.
+
+Quick working is an advantage of the Offenbach knife, which is due to
+the fact that less attention need be given to holding the leather on the
+stone, and paring proceeds from left to right, the left hand at the same
+time helping to push the knife. The Berlin make pares from right to
+left; here the blade is held almost parallel to the edge of the leather,
+the point of the knife inclining to the leather; with the other the edge
+is cut over slantingly with the point outwards.
+
+To use the French knife requires more practice; the cutting edge is
+almost at right angles to the knife, and, besides, the method of holding
+it is somewhat unusual. For paring all thick leathers or large surfaces
+it surpasses all other makes in execution. To make the leather more
+workable for paring it is previously manipulated, that is to say, it is
+turned flesh side outwards and rolled to and fro, whilst firm pressure
+is applied with the second and third fingers of the right hand, thus
+making it pliable.
+
+Fig. 63--Paring with French knife.
+
+In an ordinary bindery thin or split leathers are mostly used; these do
+not require very much paring, which is only necessary for pig-skin and
+the finest moroccos. The latter leather is narrowly pared about 2 to 3
+mm. wide along the edge for half as well as for whole bindings. Only the
+back is pared the whole width, therefore 1 to 1-1/2 cm. has to be nicely
+gradated. Broken places, inequalities of the edge, or even holes to be
+filled in, greatly add to the difficulty of the work.
+
+In the thicker skins also--thick places often occur in the otherwise
+thin skins--the joint must be thinned down. The packing is laid upon the
+wrong side of the leather and its position marked out with the folder.
+The leather is pared about 1 cm. in width along this line, that is to
+say, it is pared so that 1/2 cm. right and left along the mark the
+thickness of the leather is reduced.
+
+As a rule, first-class books are not provided with a cover made in
+advance, and even those described by publishers as "super extra" do not
+rise above morocco goat.
+
+We have to do with the following leathers which are mostly used for the
+publishers' bindings: Goat-skin (of oriental hybrid sheep), morocco
+goat, sheep-skin (unsplit sheep-skin), and split sheep-skin [or
+so-called skivers]. There is another goat-skin, not Levanted, sold and
+used under the name "bastard" leather. "Levanting" means to imitate by
+pressing the grain natural to the skins from the Levant. Most kinds of
+our leather receive their grain by such process.
+
+For whole-leather bindings a narrow margin is pared down all round the
+edges, the turn-in at the back is pared just as much as is necessary,
+and also at the corners. The leather corners are cut slant-wise at the
+outset, and the paring is done so that the thinning begins exactly at
+the edge of the board.
+
+In leather bindings the board, as well as the back packing, is glued on,
+rubbed down, and the edges then pasted and turned in, the leather is
+rubbed down sharply in the joint, the back, and on the edges; but a
+folder must never be used on the leather covering the board itself.
+
+It frequently happens that the board is finished off with round corners;
+in this case, the method of turning in cloth as well as leather is
+slightly different. The two neighbouring edges are turned in. The
+leather or other material is cut off not quite so close as for square
+corners, and the material is drawn very smoothly and neatly over the
+edges in little folds, using a pointed folder for the work.
+
+Illustration: Cover corner shapes, 1
+
+Illustration: Cover corner shapes, 2
+
+Books not wholly covered with cloth or leather get corners of the same
+material as is used for the back. Cloth corners are not cut singly, but
+a strip of material long enough for the required number of corners is
+glued and then cut with the shears into pieces of this shape or, better,
+placing them on the boards in such a way that the material projects a
+little over the corner of the board. First of all, the lappets of the
+top and bottom edges are turned in, the corners nipped in the manner
+shown, and then the lappets of the fore-edge are also turned in. Leather
+corners are treated in the same way, but these are cut from waste pieces
+according to the zinc stencil plate kept for the purpose, and then pared
+down.
+
+Illustration: Cover corner shapes, 3
+
+Glue is used for fixing on cloth corners, but strong paste is always
+used for leather. All edges and corners are well rubbed down with the
+folder and left smooth and sharp, but, on the other hand, the grain on
+the board side must be left uninjured. Insufficient paring of the
+corners or using only the fingers for turning-in causes very thick
+edges; such work is out of date and would not be done by any thoughtful
+workman.
+
+Illustration: Half cloth or half leather corner.
+
+Books bound in half-cloth or half-leather have the sides covered with
+paper; the latter often with cloth. When cloth sides are used, the
+material must always harmonize with the back both in regard to colour
+and texture. On each side to be turned in the paper is cut 1 to 1-1/2
+cm. larger than the surface of the board to be covered. The paper is cut
+along the back with the knife and rule. The corners are turned down in
+half right-angles according to the size of the cloth or leather corners
+and somewhat smaller than these, and cut off with the shears as shown in
+the illustration, using the fold as a guide.
+
+Illustration: Small corner diagram
+
+In ordinary work with very small corners, especially in large
+quantities, the corners may simply be cut off diagonally, and if there
+are many covers they are knocked up and the cutting is done with knife
+and rule or with the machine.
+
+As a trade article for the publishers, the finished cover is lined with
+paper on the inside, both for the sake of improved appearance and to
+prevent the drawing outwards. For every board a sheet of paper is cut
+about 1/2 cm. smaller than the board and pasted on. The covers are
+placed between boards to dry.
+
+Covers are generally decorated in some way; as a rule by means of the
+blocking press. Where they get any hand tooling, it is always done on
+the book when bound, for which no case is made in advance. Simple gold
+lines along the back and corners of the cover are excepted; such work is
+known as "filleting."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WORK WITH THE BLOCKING PRESS.
+
+
+We make a distinction between gold tooling and blind tooling. The latter
+is simply an impression on the leather or other material without the use
+of gold, whilst the other is an impression upon a specially prepared
+leather or other surface, using gold leaf.
+
+Skill in blocking depends first of all upon a tasteful and suitable
+selection and arrangement of the engraved blocks and letters necessary
+for the decoration and inscription.
+
+The blocks, &c., are to be had ready made from the engravers in properly
+arranged sets; but still it is essential that the finisher should
+possess certain artistic taste and feeling, especially in making up the
+lettering. It must be borne in mind that in an inscription or title the
+principal part (word or line) must be distinguished by larger or heavier
+type; furthermore, two lines of equal length must never appear in an
+inscription. Short words (the, and, for, &c.) worked into an inscription
+as separate lines add considerably to its appearance. See pp. 148 to 153
+for what is said on the arrangement of the title in hand lettering. The
+same applies to the arrangement of all lettering.
+
+The blocks and letters are always fixed to the upper part of the
+press--the platen.
+
+To enable alterations to be made quickly or to secure pieces which may
+have slipped, there is a draw-out plate made in all modern blocking
+presses. The engraved blocks are not affixed to this plate with glue but
+with cobblers' wax. The following is a practical way of managing the
+ornamental blocks: On a thin but very strong board about the size of the
+article to be blocked, the blocks are arranged with the backs uppermost,
+the engraved face being next to the board. This board is fixed with wax
+exactly in the centre of the lower part of the press--the table. By
+"exactly in the centre" it is to be understood that the centre of the
+various blocks brought together lies on or near the centre of the
+draw-out plate. If there are more and heavier blocks fixed to the upper
+than to the lower side of the plate, the latter must be lowered a
+little--in a word, the plate must be so adjusted that all parts receive
+equal pressure. It is only by making a few trials that one can learn
+exactly what is right.
+
+The press should be warmed by this time, and it is well to slide in the
+table with the blocks adjusted upon it, and to let it remain under light
+pressure until plate and table are warmed throughout and no trace of
+moisture may be seen on either. Now put a little wax on each block, lay
+over them a piece of stout wrapping paper, cardboard, or similar stuff,
+push in and press gently; the wrapper also may be waxed. After about
+five minutes, open the press to see whether all parts have stuck. Until
+this takes place the press must remain closed. If, however, all pieces
+are sticking fast, draw out the table and examine the imprint of each
+particular part to see whether the pressure is equal; if this is not so,
+it remains to be seen whether such inequality is due to a faulty fixing
+of the plate and, if necessary, to rectify it; otherwise, pieces of
+paper must be made up into a suitable packing and laid upon the back of
+the blocks until all inequalities are removed and an even impression is
+obtained.
+
+This done, the back of the set-up blocks, or the wrappers affixed
+thereto, is waxed at as many places as required, or rather as far as
+the set-up blocks extend, the plate pushed in, and the press closed
+until the set-up blocks adhere to the upper plate. The lighter this
+first impression is made, the easier it will be to detect any inequality
+on the table (or matrix) and to set it right by backing up with paper.
+
+Fig. 64--Blocking press.
+
+Before proceeding further, a few words must be said about the
+construction of our modern blocking presses. For modern blocking we use
+knee-lever presses, whilst balances are now no longer used.
+
+On the upper part there is a sliding plate--the so-called platen--which
+draws out on prismatic rails.
+
+A second plate works on hinges at the side of the sliding (or draw-out)
+plate and can be pulled out to the left. This plate is used principally
+for colour blocking--the other plate for gold.
+
+Blocking can be done in gold and colour immediately after each other,
+and if the plate is in duplicate, four impressions can be made in
+succession without having to take off and change the plate.
+
+In the upper plate there are round borings for the gas burners or hot
+irons used for heating the press; the latter are out of date and do not
+produce a steady temperature.
+
+It now remains to insert the article to be blocked in the press so that
+it will be blocked exactly on the spot required.
+
+There are several ways of attaining this object, which are adopted
+according to the kind of work in hand. The surest way is to mark the
+place by pins.
+
+Two large drawing pins are pasted upon pieces of cardboard, a second
+piece of board is placed over each one so that the head is embedded
+between the two pieces but leaving the points free. The gauges thus made
+are fixed with wax at convenient places, best on the middle line above
+and below the table but in such a way that they themselves are not
+touched by the plate. To prevent their falling off, a larger piece of
+cloth is pasted over them, always leaving the points visible. The surest
+preventive against falling off is to have screw-on gauges. A strip of
+metal having a slit in the middle can be screwed tightly to the table by
+means of a screw passed through the slit. At the end a steel point about
+1/2 cm. long is riveted on. With this gauge the points can be adjusted
+to any position on the table as required.
+
+All work not turned-in which requires repeat blocking, and all such as
+requires blocking in more than one colour, is "pinned on." On the other
+hand, covers which are finished after being once blocked on back or side
+which require no second impression may be adjusted with the angle gauge
+or blocks. Many make use of both at the same time. Such covers then have
+been turned in all round when being worked, whilst "pinning on" requires
+that the covers should not have been turned in.
+
+The practical bookbinder who has to deal with turned-in covers
+frequently gets over the difficulty by making two incisions about 2 cm.
+apart with the knife upon the turned-in edge at the place where it
+should be pinned on, and opening out the material at the incisions, thus
+making a loose margin for pinning on.
+
+For pinning on covers as well as backs, a template is cut from wrappers
+or thin board, which is adjusted on the cover and the register holes
+made with an awl. When pinning-on has to be done for blocking which has
+to be repeated very many times, the register points are strengthened
+behind with stiff paper to prevent them from breaking or tearing away
+and thus becoming inaccurate.
+
+Fig. 65--Appliances used in blocking backs.
+
+To enable the most various widths of backs to be quickly inserted and to
+supply a substitute for the thick layers of cardboard packing which make
+a fine impression impossible, a special contrivance with metal pads has
+been made. This is shown in the sketch herewith.
+
+Mention has already been made of the table (or matrix). This is a bed of
+stout boards which is intended to serve the double purpose of saving the
+blocks when blocking thin articles (backs of covers, &c.) and also for
+strengthening and equalising the resistance from below when working on
+heavier articles. Faults arising during working, such as insufficient
+adhesion of the gold (and an increased pressure) may be set right by
+pasting on pieces of paper to the matrix or table.
+
+The matrices consist of strong but thin material; the best is wrappers
+or the thinnest board. After use they are kept for subsequent
+repetitions of the same or for other work.
+
+The lettering must always be set up fresh for each job, whilst the
+ornamental pieces may be arranged on the tables or matrices at hand
+after the existing original impression.
+
+Setting the type is a special art and calls for considerable taste and
+skill; the letters very easily slip out of the type-holder, especially
+where very small type is used, unless special precautions are taken to
+prevent this. Here we will pass over the most important point in the
+arrangement of the types and refer to the paragraph dealing with
+"Lettering" under "Hand-tooling"; what holds good there always holds
+good here.
+
+Lettering is always set upon special pieces of board and afterwards
+encased in a type-holder, as it demands much more attention and
+subsequent correction. These boards should likewise be wrappers of the
+same thickness as those used at the same time for the ornaments. For
+fixing, cobblers' wax is likewise used. The favourite method frequently
+adopted of using glue coated with paste is not to be recommended,
+because the letters do not admit of proper setting upon this gelatinous
+mass. Not only do the lines of letters require to be kept right by means
+of a strip of metal or metal line, they must be carefully adjusted after
+taking a light impression, especially when using a very small type. The
+first pull must be under so light a pressure that on a soft paper
+everything is distinctly visible. The lines are arranged from this
+proof, whilst each single letter is carefully checked. Where letters do
+not show up properly they must be backed up with paper of suitable
+thickness on the board until all unevenness disappears. The lighter the
+pressure applied the easier it will be to make corrections. Letters
+heavily pressed at the outset can seldom be properly rectified
+afterwards.
+
+In large editions it does happen, in spite of all precautions, that
+single letters work loose and fall out; this may damage parts of the
+plate as well as valuable covers, and one therefore tries to guard
+against it. Some take narrow strips of cloth and paste one round each
+line of type, others pour liquid glue between the lines which, when
+thoroughly dry and hard, is a very sure means of preventing the falling
+out of any piece of type.
+
+When everything is in order, the type is likewise inserted; various
+parts of the back of the board are well waxed and the table is then
+pushed in and the press closed tight. It remains closed until all parts
+are thoroughly dry, for it is only then that we may feel assured that no
+parts can fall out. The drying may be hastened by opening the press
+about a quarter of an hour later and drawing out the plate, likewise the
+table, and now allowing plate and table to dry by exposure. If any parts
+of the plate should lift, wax must again be applied and once more
+pressed.
+
+When the plates and press are got into working order, and the backs or
+covers have received their register marks by means of the template, the
+blocking may be commenced. The table is drawn out, a piece of work
+pushed in to the register, and the press closed. It is necessary that
+the press should have been previously regulated to the thickness of the
+article being blocked, and to begin with a light pressure at first, as
+heavier pressure can be applied afterwards if required. Cloth requires
+sharper pressure than leather. Large heavy covers are always blocked
+with the press quite closed, whilst small things like single titles, hat
+linings, ties, &c., are finished with only a short pull of the lever.
+The correct regulation of the pressure rests with the worker.
+
+We distinguish between blocking in blind, gold, colour, and relief.
+Blocking in blind, both on leather and cloth, should not be attempted
+upon articles which have become very dry. A good plan is to store them
+in a cellar the night before and to bring out only as many as can be
+finished in the next half-hour's work. Blocking in blind can only be
+done on matt or grained material, as its effect is nil upon a smooth
+polished surface.
+
+The finish can be considerably heightened in special cases by going over
+the impression with a brush and white of egg after the first blocking
+and then again pressing under less heat. Calf leather, and undressed
+calf in particular, receives its splendid brown colour by being
+previously damped with boiled or distilled water to which a little
+spirit has been added. The impression on a damped ground is first made
+somewhat warmer and afterwards repeated when the press has cooled a
+little, occasionally wiping the blocks with a waxed cloth. The
+impression must in all cases be even in colour and have a high finish;
+if this is not so, the lighter places must be once more damped with a
+small brush and again impressed.
+
+Articles to be blocked in gold must be prepared with some substance to
+which the gold will adhere. The finisher uses a fluid or dry adhesive
+according to the material he is working upon. Of liquid sizes, diluted
+white of egg or, in some cases, dissolved gelatine or blood serum is
+used almost exclusively. These liquids, which are applied with a sponge
+or, for fine work, with a brush, are called the "ground" or "sizing." Of
+dry adhesives, we know only the gilding powder, which consists of resin
+with now and then an addition of dried white of egg. The other powders
+used by the finisher are rice flour or potato flour; these are not used
+as adhesives but to prevent the gold sticking at places where it is not
+wanted.
+
+Leather and cloth are sized with white of egg; silk and other woven
+materials are finished without special sizing, and also surfaced papers
+and cardboard goods, as they are treated with finishers' powder, a wet
+preparation being unsuitable.
+
+Size for blocking is thinner than for hand finishing, and when it has to
+be washed over the whole of a cloth cover it is still further diluted.
+Glair for brushing over an impression consists of one part white of egg
+and one part vinegar; to every 1/2 litre 1 g. of powdered borax is
+added, the whole beaten to a froth and filtered. For coating-over, take
+one part white of egg, two parts water, and to every 1/2 litre add 10
+drops of glycerine and 1 g. borax. If a larger quantity of glair is
+required for coating over, it may be thinned with water or vinegar; but
+size made with vinegar must not be applied to fancy coloured cloths.
+
+Gilding powder may be yellow or white, the latter kind is rougher and is
+suitable for silk stuffs and also where blocking has to be done over
+colour on cloth. Yellow powder is softer and is apt to clog the finer
+cut tools; it is more suitable for the preparation of paper _de luxe_,
+for blocking surface and chromo papers, and for photo cases.
+
+Gilding powder is sprinkled by means of a box which has a double layer
+of fine gauze instead of a bottom. By tapping upon the box a fine shower
+of powder is dusted on to the surface to be gilded.
+
+Glair is made in the workshop; the powder is bought ready prepared--to
+make it would take too much time.
+
+For blocking in alloyed metals, gelatine size is used, as it is a
+powerful adhesive. A tablet of gelatine is soaked in 1/4 litre of water
+overnight and next morning is dissolved in the bath. Gelatine is used to
+cover the whole surfaces and is laid on when lukewarm. Blood serum
+serves the same purpose. Ox blood is allowed to coagulate, and the
+hardened mass thus produced is placed over a cloth strainer, or hair
+sieve, and the liquid albumen allowed to drain from it; the process is
+hastened by cutting the caked blood into small pieces. Only the clear
+liquid which is strained off is to be used--a pinch of borax will make
+it keep longer.
+
+For finishing bindings, real gold-leaf--orange tint--is used almost
+exclusively, the cheaper green gold being used only for sample cases and
+school books. Alloyed metal and aluminium (this is now commonly used
+instead of the quickly oxydizing silver) are used almost solely in the
+manufacture of papers _de luxe_ and for placards.
+
+Pure gold-leaf is always laid on the sized cover after the surface to be
+blocked has been lightly gone over with a ball of oiled cotton wool, or
+a slightly greased rag. This must never be done to such a degree as to
+cause grease spots. Calf must not be thus treated with grease, but if
+the gold is not likely to stick at certain places, the first impression
+may be picked out with a brush slightly oiled so as to make the leaf
+adhere. Dark polished calf will, however, stand a little oil.
+
+Fine leathers are first stamped and the impression is gone over with a
+brush, then the gold is laid on and again impressed. The gold is lifted
+from the cushion with a gilder's tip or a pad of cotton wool and
+transferred to the cover. The gilder's tips consist of square pieces of
+cardboard a little smaller than the piece of gold to be used, to the
+under side of which is pasted a piece of cloth. A handle of cardboard or
+a button is pasted on top for convenience of holding.
+
+Draw this tip lightly over the hair, press it on the gold, which will
+lightly adhere to it, and then transfer the gold to the surface to be
+stamped, where it is pressed down with cotton wool, which should be
+surgical wool, as that kind is free from knots. Many prefer a tuft of
+cotton wool rolled into a handy size, this is likewise drawn over the
+hair, and the rest done as before.
+
+When gilding powder is used, the gold must not be laid on with the pad.
+The gold must be placed on the powder by hand only, a task calling for
+considerable adroitness. The gold is taken up with the gold-knife, aided
+by a moistened finger-tip taking a corner, passed over the surface with
+the knife, brought to the required position with the hanging corner, and
+now the knife is taken away flat sideways. The gold must lie quite even
+on the powdered surface. Any subsequent shifting of the gold is entirely
+out of the question, because the layer of powder would be disturbed and
+might not hold in places.
+
+To know exactly what degree of heat should be applied requires special
+study, and the pity is that fixed rules cannot be given--one day a black
+morocco goat-skin may stand a great heat, whilst on another day the same
+heat applied to similar stuff might burn it up. Cloth is always the
+same, calf leather papers, skytogen, &c., are much more difficult. On
+the whole, the following rules may be observed:--
+
+  Cloth             white of egg (or glair)     medium heat
+  Sheep-skin                  "                 slight heat
+  Goat-skin                   "                 medium heat
+  Morocco                     "                 medium heat
+  Silk              white gilding powder        short hot pressure
+  Surface
+    papers and
+    cardboards      yellow   "      "           short medium pressure
+  Calf              glair                       hot (light leathers
+                                                  somewhat less heat)
+  Varnished paper                               little heat
+
+The latter contains sufficient adhesive matter in the colour without
+using any other size, even for alloyed gold, but the covers must,
+however, be slightly moist. For this purpose they are left overnight in
+a damp cellar or placed between slightly damped boards.
+
+We have already spoken of the matrix. Where silk or other thin woven
+materials are to be blocked, a firm hard board must be laid on the table
+and frequently changed, otherwise the impression will be defective. For
+ribbons for wreaths, &c., a suitable piece of paper which had been
+damped some time before should be laid underneath.
+
+Although relief blocking upon bindings seems to be out of favour, there
+are numerous styles of imitation relief practised nowadays, especially
+in imitation of cut leather or wrought metal. This work necessitates the
+matrix or table being prepared with great care, as it must be the
+counterpart of the plate. For this purpose an impression is first made
+upon a stout cardboard, which is fixed firmly enough on the bed to
+prevent its shifting, the block being affixed to the platen. Upon this
+first cardboard are laid the raised parts according to the height
+required, likewise cut out of stout cardboard, continuing to place a
+layer upon the other until a true negative of the block is obtained.
+Small and slightly raised ornamentation is not specially underlaid,
+using instead a piece of stout board well smeared with cobblers' wax,
+which, after standing awhile under the plate in the closed press, will
+make a very exact and firm base. Matrices made up of several layers of
+cardboard pasted on top of each other are also, when finished, covered
+with a piece of pasted packing paper and then pressed. This leaf
+prevents single pieces from working loose and sticking to the block.
+
+For relief stamping, leather or cloth is stretched upon thin wrappers.
+The guide points must be made a little further apart on account of the
+material shrinking slightly under relief stamping.
+
+Colour blocking, which has gained such unexpected popularity, gives the
+finisher no little trouble. As blind blocking is done by the press, so
+also may colour blocking be done if the blocks are coloured with the
+brilliant colours specially prepared for printing. A colour roller, made
+by moulding English roller composition on a wooden pin, is used for
+colouring the blocks. The worker himself may cast these rollers in a
+well-greased mould. The roller composition is dissolved in water, and
+after being poured into the mould is allowed to stand a few hours to
+cool. The colour blocker keeps about three rollers ready, of which one
+is used for light colours, another for middle tones, and the third
+solely for black. The rollers are either fixed in a fork with two
+handles or an axle goes through the wooden pin which is bound in leather
+at each end wherein the axle revolves in the hollow of the hand.
+
+Fig. 66--Colour roller.
+
+The rollers spread the colour upon a stone of suitable size. The colour
+should be laid on the rollers--not on the stone--not too thickly, and
+then evenly distributed on the stone by bringing the roller over it
+backwards and forwards. Both stone and roller must always be cleaned
+after use; perfect cleanliness must be carefully observed throughout.
+The stone is cleaned with petroleum, the remaining colour is removed
+from the roller by passing it several times over a sheet of glass,
+rubbing it down with petroleum before again using it so as to remove any
+particle of dust adhering.
+
+In order that the colours may appear as bright as possible, a little
+varnish is added to them, which in every case must be of a kind to suit
+the particular colour. Dammar varnish is suitable for light colours, and
+for darker colours amber varnish. Where great brilliancy is required,
+Venetian turpentine is added; but this lengthens the time required for
+drying if a little too much is added.
+
+In every case, however, a little siccative must be added to every
+colour; a few drops materially quicken the drying.
+
+Colour blocking can only be done when the blocks have been secured to
+the plate, as this must be opened each time it is coloured.
+
+The simplest colour-printing is where one colour appears between the
+impression in gold, and in this case it is generally done by first
+making the impression in gold and then in colour.
+
+In more complex work several colours are to be used; at the present time
+the work is frequently produced requiring colours side by side and
+superimposed, together with gold, bronze, and aluminium.
+
+The process is in each case as follows: From the block supplied by the
+engraver an impression is made which forms a matrix. It is best to
+select a piece of board exactly the size of the covers to be printed and
+at the two places to be taken by the guide points pieces of vellum are
+firmly pasted, being already pierced for the guide points, these vellum
+additions being further secured by pasting over them a strip of paper or
+cloth. For every block to be used a similar board with its vellum
+additions is prepared. Upon the ground of this first matrix the other
+auxiliary matrices are likewise first impressed with the block--all of
+them black, of course, so that it would be possible at any time to fit
+in the blocks.
+
+Every new block for colour printing is pressed into the ground of the
+auxiliary matrix belonging to it; also for the so-called
+first-impression block.
+
+It must be understood that colour printing can be done well only upon a
+perfectly even and smooth surface, therefore it is wise with
+first-impression blocks, as well as larger colour plates, to repeat the
+impression, only slightly warm after having given a very hot impression
+the first time.
+
+Surface papers are an exception as they generally stand very little
+heat.
+
+It helps here either to let the newly made covers get half dry or,
+better, to let them lie longer in a damp room.
+
+When different colours are to be superimposed, the order in which they
+are printed is a matter of some importance. As a rule, the so-called
+warm tones (yellow, brown, red, or colours containing much of these) are
+printed first; the cold tones (blue or others containing much blue)
+being afterwards laid on. White is also classed as a cold tone, but for
+technical reasons it must nearly always be printed first. If these rules
+are observed, serious mistakes will seldom be made.
+
+Moreover, proof impressions of the different colours must be taken upon
+white cardboard, which should be marked for reference, in the same way
+noting the proportion of the colours used in mixed colours. If the
+outline block is to be printed in colour, it comes last; gold stamping
+being done first.
+
+The process of printing in bronze is similar to colour printing, as the
+bronze is dusted over a preliminary impression in colour (gold upon red
+or yellow ochre, aluminium upon white, coloured bronze upon a suitable
+similar colour). Bronze is not printed upon colour, because the bronze
+sticks too easily to such surfaces in places where it is not wanted; it
+is then much better to use gold-leaf.
+
+Should it be necessary on the score of economy to make a double working
+in bronze, the cover must be previously washed with glair.
+
+Leaf metals, pure or alloyed, are printed upon colours after they have
+been slightly dusted with gilding powder, and with moderate heat. The
+colours, however, must previously be allowed to dry thoroughly. Larger
+surfaces are wholly prepared with glair to prevent the gold from
+adhering where not required.
+
+Most of the colours must cover well where it is not intended that they
+should have a translucent effect. A good covering is not secured by
+laying the colour on thickly but by properly mixing the colours, and
+often also by giving a second coat after the first surface has dried.
+Above all, one must avoid too thick and greasy colours. Black must
+always be printed with a strong good covering colour, as must also the
+outline block.
+
+For colour printing, the press must be of the same temperature as the
+room. In winter it is slightly warmed an hour before use, and when
+necessary this must be repeated later.
+
+There are quite a number of little dodges not easily communicated but
+which are quickly picked up in practice.
+
+Fig. 67--Stuck-on gauges.
+
+Simple work is not adjusted by pins, but is pushed up to three guides;
+moreover, the gauge of the press is not generally used, but three little
+pieces of board are firmly glued to the table instead. The illustration
+(Fig. 67) will clearly show the arrangement. At the letters A the pieces
+of board are glued, to which the cover to be blocked is pushed up.
+
+To prevent these gauges from being pushed off, or to facilitate refixing
+in the event of their becoming loose, the gauge generally supplied with
+the press is brought close up behind them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+TREATMENT OF SEWN BOOKS: FASTENING IN COVERS AND FINISHING OFF.
+
+
+For better-class bindings and where hand tooling is to be done the
+covers are not made in advance as the books are formed and then case and
+covering made on the book itself. This results in a better appearance
+and a stronger connection between the book and its cover.
+
+It has already been explained (Chap. V., pp. 87-88) how the so-called
+hollow back is made in boarding.
+
+This kind of back, however, is only used in ordinary binding in half or
+whole cloth. For leather or half-leather bindings a strip of wrapping
+paper or thin cardboard is cut. The exact size is taken with a piece of
+paper across the back from the first to the last section. This strip
+must be exactly the same length as the cut boards to be used. The
+strips--afterwards representing raised bands--are laid upon this
+packing; these strips are best cut from waste pieces of cow-hide, but if
+this is not to hand, paste pieces of waste goat-skin three ply thick,
+press lightly, and, when dry, cut out of this material strips not
+exceeding 2 mm. in width. The position of the bands is carefully
+measured with the dividers and marked with pencil and straight-edge and
+the strips are then glued on in their places. The bands are left
+projecting over the edge until quite dry and at 3 mm. from the edge, and
+are then pared down to it.
+
+Illustration: Headband.
+
+For extra half-leather work the backs are previously glued round on the
+book itself. A strong--not too thick--packing paper is selected, the
+back is thinly coated with rather thick glue, and the paper, a little
+wider than four times the width of the back, is so laid on the back as
+to leave, say, the first two sheets free. As far as it sticks, the paper
+is rubbed down, then folded back to the other joint exactly at the last
+section, brought back tight over the back, and now firmly rubbed down on
+the strip left free at the first sheet. Exactly at the first sheet the
+paper is again folded over and pasted over the back, afterwards
+repeating the preceding glueing process. In this way the paper is folded
+from the joint and glued three times. The overlapping parts are cut off.
+The back now consists of four layers, the first of which is glued on to
+the book, the other three, of course, forming an arch over it, although
+they themselves are glued together. What is overlapping at top and
+bottom is cut off with the shears close by the headband, care being
+taken that the back is truly squared. The headband should be nearly but
+not quite as high as the squares. By so doing, the back will be 1/2 mm.
+shorter at each end after cutting than the boards. For this work the
+book is placed in the press so that the back stands out free.
+
+Bands that are to be fixed on are likewise placed in position and are
+then glued on with a round.
+
+The backs are covered with cloth or leather. The former is cut the
+required size, that is, allowing 2 to 3 cm. in width to overlap at each
+side, glued, the rounded backing strip laid exactly in the middle, and
+then placed in the hollow of the left hand. The right hand takes the
+book and both are brought together so that the backing fits exactly in
+each joint but corresponding to the height of the boards. When this
+adjustment has been obtained, the parts overlapping on the boards are
+pressed down for a time, and after again seeing that the position is
+right, they are drawn over firmly. It is best to stand the volume on its
+fore-edge and, using the palms of both hands together, rub the covering
+material firmly down on the boards. When the back is properly drawn on,
+the head and tail are turned in. With hollow backs the joints must be
+well rubbed down. It is necessary to cut off a small piece of the corner
+of the board at the joints at top and bottom; this may be done either
+with a sharp knife or shears, and, of course, before the book is
+covered.
+
+To make the turn-in (on the book), the book is placed with its back on
+the table, letting both boards fall back so that they lie open on the
+table. Take hold of the book at the edge between index and middle finger
+of the left hand and lift it out of the boards at the head; the right
+hand, with the help of the folder, turns the pasted lap inwards and rubs
+it well down without creases or wrinkles. After both pieces have been
+thus turned in, the back is further worked at the head to give it a good
+shape.
+
+Fig. 68--Turning in the head.
+
+The same process is gone through with books bound in whole cloth or half
+leather. In the latter case the leather must, of course, be pared down,
+as also in half calf or whole leather, the work with these being
+somewhat more elaborate.
+
+It is here of the utmost importance that the greatest attention should
+be given to careful paring of the leather, especially seeing that the
+leather is not too thick in the joint; if so, it must be reduced to the
+required thickness. It must be pared at the head so that the turn-over
+does not appear any thicker than the rest of the back. Leather used for
+covering books must be worked with paste, and paste only.
+
+Figs. 69 and 70--The head: good and bad.
+
+It must be drawn tight over the bands, and these should be well rubbed
+down with the folder. The turning-in is done in the same way, but the
+overlap--as far as the actual width of the book is concerned--is again
+drawn out so that it projects about 2 mm. over the headband.
+
+This projecting leather is pressed quite flat--not slant-wise--over the
+headband, so that seen from above it almost covers the latter.
+
+All half and full leather bound books have the corners of the boards
+next to the head pared down. This is done before covering--it not only
+makes the turning-in easier but the book has a better appearance and
+opens better.
+
+When the turning-in is finished, the book is opened wide and the boards
+adjusted so that both turnings-in are uniform and sharp and also that it
+has already, to a certain extent, a deep groove, and then closed. If no
+layer of waste paper has previously been sewn in, it may now be placed
+in the joint, so that after drying the boards may open quite freely and
+nicely.
+
+The closed book is now "tied up," that is to say, a cord is looped and
+tied right round the back at the joint. The turn-in is thus drawn in at
+the pared-down parts. Behind the cord the head and tail are pressed down
+with the folder to right and left, slightly outwards; whatever may have
+been drawn in by the cord is put right on the inside edge and the edges
+are rubbed sharp and square with the folder. The book is lying
+throughout on the paring stone, not upon the press-board.
+
+The foregoing applies to made cases as well as to those backs which are
+pasted on the books. With the former it is necessary to round the backs.
+This is done by drawing the back underneath a folder with a wave-like
+motion. It can easily be done after being once seen. To give the back a
+good hold on the book from the very outset, the inserted part is pasted
+narrowly at the joint before being laid on the pasted leather so that at
+this place it firmly adheres to the back.
+
+Backs that are stuck to the book itself are cut open about 2 cm. long at
+the joints with a small knife in order to take the "turn-in"; for the
+rest the work is the same.
+
+Corner making and covering are here exactly the same as already
+explained for the ready-made cover.
+
+Books bound in half or full cloth with hollow backs are treated in the
+following way: The glued cloth is laid flat upon the table, the back of
+the book placed in the centre of it, the book lifted up, lightly
+pressing the cloth to the back with the flat hand only, and then sharply
+rubbing down the overlapping sides at the joint with the point of the
+folder, rubbing the sides as well. For this, lay the book on the edge of
+the table so that the back stands clear. If the sides were brought over
+the boards at once, neither a sharp groove could be obtained nor would
+it be possible to draw over the cloth without creases.
+
+We now come to the finishing of the books, but we must first deal with
+the fastening of the book into the cover. By covers is understood either
+a cover made to fit a book to hand or a cover to which a book is to be
+made to fit. The latter is the more difficult.
+
+The book, when pulled to pieces, without end papers and sewing, should
+be about one-sixth thinner than with the paddings of the cover, thin
+books, of course, a little more. Thickness of thread and compressing or
+allowing to swell in sewing should equalize what difference there may
+be.
+
+If the book is ready trimmed, edges finished, pressed--it should always
+be cloth jointed--it is cased in. A packing is pasted on the back, that
+is to say, similar to glueing the back, the back is pasted on to the
+book itself, a strip of paper the proper width is laid on so that the
+two first sheets remain free, rubbed down, folded back from the other
+joint, pasted on the free margin, and the surplus cut off.
+
+In this way, not only is the back pasted over but it gets another
+covering of paper. The padding of the cover is now rounded, either by
+drawing it under the folder in the way mentioned or by drawing it to and
+fro over a chock fixed in the press. The book must suit the cover so
+that it fits tight into the joints. The padding of the back is glued,
+the book laid in, the boards at both sides well drawn over, a covering
+of paper laid over the back, and then well rubbed down with the flat
+folder. The pressing that finds so much favour is altogether
+superfluous, as it takes absolutely no effect upon the glued back. It is
+only when the covers are somewhat too narrow that the joints are
+improved by pressing. After the glue has set a little, the end papers
+are pasted on, _i.e._, they are pasted over and lie open until
+thoroughly dry. It is done as follows:--
+
+Insert a piece of waste paper under the cloth joint, the joint itself
+getting a thin coat of rather weak glue. The bands, which must remain
+free although cut off to leave only 2 cm. in length, are laid over the
+joint and likewise glued. Now lay the book square before you, the open
+board next the table edge, and with the point of a knife first lift the
+bands from the cloth joint, lay them taut over the smooth board and
+smooth them down with the knife so that everything lies smooth and even,
+taking special care that the bands are not noticeable in the joint
+through any evenness. The cloth joint is now drawn over and well rubbed
+down on the board, the latter being at the same time well pressed on the
+joint so that it has quite a straight sharp edge.
+
+The book lies open in this way to dry, but it may be turned, placed on a
+board, pushed up to the joint, and the other side similarly pasted on.
+
+Fig. 71--The pasted-down book.
+
+Plainer bindings, especially school books and publishers' cheap cases,
+are often pasted down with only the outer leaf or white end paper and
+without a cloth joint, whilst here the coloured end paper has still to
+be pasted down; in the former case proceed as follows:--
+
+The back--without packing--is simply glued over, the packing rounded.
+The book is properly placed in the cover, and the outside fly
+leaf--afterwards an end paper--and bands are pasted, the latter at the
+same time being smoothed out with a knife or folder; the boards are then
+closed, pressing them over very sharply. The book is turned and the
+other side done in the same way, and at once pressed.
+
+Where a cloth joint has to be pasted on, a paste-down must be pasted on
+to the board.
+
+The practice of doing the coloured end papers at the same time as the
+book is not so good as subsequent pasting down, as they are then less
+likely to be injured during trimming and colouring the edges, &c.
+
+The paste-down is first cut to size a little less than the book itself
+and fastened in with thin glue so that the paper is close to the joint
+but not so close as to cause it to swell. The counterpart of the fly
+leaf is pasted on to it, both leaves are cut with a knife close along
+the joint, for back and front, about 1/2 cm. wide, are pushed up, thinly
+pasted, and pasted into the book up to the pressed joint. The leaves so
+hinged in are now raised, the under leaf thinly coated with thin glue,
+the leaf closed and rubbed down under paper with a folder. Immediate
+pressing is to be avoided, as the thin glue is very easily squeezed out.
+After a while the pressing is done, of course, when zinc plates--if
+necessary, polished boards--should be inserted between the end papers,
+and not too great pressure applied.
+
+If the boards have been fastened on with paste and without a back, zinc
+plates are also used, but between the first and last sheets of the book,
+so as to press these very smooth and to prevent the plates from sticking
+to the damp end papers.
+
+Half or whole cloth, half leather, or, generally speaking, all bindings
+which are not pasted down open, are laid upon a board, pasting thinly
+with thin paste first one side, then turning the book and pasting the
+other, and then pressing. In doing quantities, ten may be done before
+pressing.
+
+Cheap work is often pressed by laying the volumes crosswise upon each
+other and pressing in batches between boards. Books with a deep joint
+where the bands are either laid on the board or laced in are always
+pasted down open. Where cloth or leather jointed, this is done in a
+similar way to boarding in covers, except that the bands need not be
+considered here, as they have already been seen to. Working the leather
+well in the joint and firmly pressing back the board after turning in
+the head lighten this work and improve the appearance of the joint.
+Leather joints are always pasted down open with paste, but must, of
+course, be left lying longer.
+
+The so-called double end papers, that is, without cloth or leather
+joint, are very effective. Only the best and strongest paper can be used
+for these. The double sheet, folded in the middle, is narrowly pasted at
+the back and fixed in the joint of the book--not in the fold of the
+joint but in the joint made by pressing. This prevents the bend coming
+on the place where the paper has already become weakened by sharp
+creasing, but near it. The half for the fly leaf is at once pasted down;
+that to be pasted on the board must first be cut to size. The end paper
+is cut off at head and tail of the book, the book opened, the end paper
+laid over the board, and with the dividers is marked out on the
+paste-down parallel with the edges, somewhat less than the book. At the
+fold marked by the edge of the board at the joint, nick in with the
+scissors up to the mark made, slip under this a zinc plate, and on this
+cut the end paper by the mark up to the nicks. It is understood that the
+end papers should not be cut off right round the book, otherwise they
+would become too scant at the fore-edge.
+
+A piece of waste paper is now laid under the paste down, thinly coated
+with glue, the leaf drawn tightly over the board and rubbed down; at the
+same time a piece of paper is laid over the joint as above. When pasting
+in the cover, the book is placed square and the joint strongly and
+briskly rubbed down with finger and thumb of both hands.
+
+Fig. 72--Treatment of tear-off.
+
+A paper having a design must, of course, be laid in the same direction
+as the book. Where paste-down and fly leaf are to be pasted on
+separately, it must be so arranged that, after the pasting, one leaf
+forms the counterpart of the other, that is to say, the design must run
+through and be broken only by the joint. To effect this it is necessary
+that the paste-down should be first pasted on; when pasting on the fly
+leaf the work can be made right.
+
+Silk paste-down and fly leaves are frequently used for extra work, the
+silk here being stretched over a piece of stout paper and pasted
+narrowly at the edges.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HAND FINISHING.
+
+
+When the books have been bound they are generally ornamented in gold or
+in some other way. Although the more elaborate finishing in gold is not
+done in the ordinary bindery, but is confined to the art binderies,
+sufficient instruction will be given here for the simpler finishing on
+back and side.
+
+Gold finishing is only learned at the cost of much patience and long,
+painstaking practice. Although the technical schools teach finishing in
+a comparatively short time--usually in a few months--only the
+ground-work can thus be acquired, for it takes years of practice to
+teach all the technicalities and to make an expert finisher, equal to
+any calls made upon him.
+
+It may also be mentioned here that in most technical schools the work is
+executed with the very best and most suitable tools and, furthermore,
+the whole interior arrangement of the workshop is as favourable to the
+work as can be conceived, and thus all conditions for good work prevail.
+When young workers come from such an institution to work under strange
+conditions, where they have to struggle along with unfamiliar and
+perhaps unsuitable and antiquated tools, bad light, and other drawbacks,
+it is not to be wondered at if they--at the outset, at least--do not
+answer all expectations. Similar inconveniences have less effect upon
+old and experienced workers, as they have the steadiness and assurance
+which come to them as the result of long years of work, and they,
+therefore, never become nervous and fidgety. A cool head and a steady
+hand are the first essentials in a finisher, and after these the feeling
+for neatness and exactness.
+
+Gold tooling has evolved from the blind tooling of the 15th century,
+which up to that time had been the only method of decoration for the
+exterior of books, excepting where gold or jewels were used. The first
+application of this method was in drawn lines made by running the heated
+fillet alongside the rule, and even to-day the fillet, although improved
+in make, still retains its place as a suitable tool for the decoration
+of leather backs and sides. Speaking generally, blind tooling is not
+sufficiently appreciated by finishers, especially in shops doing much
+hand tooling; to many it is almost unknown, and they would be at a loss
+if there were any demand for it, and yet it is eminently suitable for
+simple finishing with slender resources, to obtain a result at once
+chaste and striking without excessive ornament, and this without a
+costly assortment of tools and other special appliances.
+
+Before proceeding to the details in the work of finishing, a few
+preliminary observations may be made.
+
+Blind tooling is the ornamenting of leather with tools without the
+application of gold. It might also be correctly described as matt
+tooling. Its peculiarity and beauty consist in its rendering the tooling
+on the leather in a darker tone. Blind tooling may be executed upon
+leathers of any colour, but its full decorative effect is seen only upon
+light colours, especially upon undyed calf and pig-skin and also upon
+coloured unpolished calf.
+
+To produce the deepest and most uniform tone it is necessary to damp the
+leather previous to tooling. As it is well that the whole surface to be
+tooled should retain some moisture it is advisable to damp it evenly
+with a sponge on beginning the work.
+
+The simplest tools are, as already mentioned, the fillets, which may be
+single, double, or triple, with lines of equal or different thickness.
+
+The design is carefully traced with dividers, folder, and rule, and the
+heated tools run along the rule. Before applying the tool, which should
+be only moderately heated, the line previously marked out should be
+damped with a suitable brush. The instant the moisture has been absorbed
+by the leather, the tool should be applied. There should be no hissing,
+as the tool should be only lukewarm for the first application. The roll
+must touch the leather at the beginning without any uncertainty and the
+line made at once and without stopping, as otherwise a darker shade
+would appear in places.
+
+Figs. 73 and 74--Simple line designs.
+
+Each time before using the roll it is passed over a well-greased piece
+of leather.
+
+The impression should appear uniformly brown; if it is lighter at any
+part, it has not been sufficiently damped; if darker at another place
+from the beginning, then that part was too damp. Success depends before
+everything else upon uniform damping of the leather and correct heating
+of the tool.
+
+With ordinary cleanliness and care, complete success is assured in this
+method of finishing.
+
+After the surface of the leather has again become dry in all places, the
+whole design is again gone over, but this time with the roll a little
+hotter, at the same time rubbing the roll well with the greased cloth.
+If there had been unevenness in the depth of colour before, it will
+hardly be possible to remedy it now, for the light places remain so and
+the dark ones become even darker.
+
+Where blind filleting is done it is usual to do die tooling at the same
+time. It is advisable--especially for novices--to apply the die without
+heat to the damp leather, then to damp specially and apply the die
+lukewarm as in filleting. Tooling with dies is essentially different
+from filleting in the method of execution. The fillet polishes whilst
+running on, the die remains on the one place, and yet every part must
+receive an equally good impression. In order to secure a good impression
+from a die it is necessary to apply it promptly, and press without
+hesitating as to where to begin. To ensure all parts of the tool being
+well impressed, its surface is slightly curved lengthwise, and according
+to this curve the die must be rocked to and fro whilst impressing. If
+too much time is wasted before the die is applied the impression will
+turn out lighter. By allowing the heated die to remain long on the
+surface of the leather, the latter loses its moisture at that place and
+the die could not produce any further deepening of the colour. Such
+places must be again damped and tooled until a uniform tone is attained.
+Care must be taken that this repetition does not produce "doubling,"
+that is, a blurred appearance of the design, and also that it does not
+lead to indistinctness of outline.
+
+Blind tooling upon light leathers is to-day called upon to satisfy the
+needs of the less wealthy just as it was 300 years ago, for in such a
+style of decoration the utmost durability and moderate cost are
+combined, and its very simplicity enhances its beauty.
+
+Fig. 75--Half-calf extra tooled in blind.
+
+Fig. 76--Leather binding with simple design in blind.
+
+Now for the hand finishing. It is first of all necessary that we should
+be able to letter straight, at first upon a board. For the tooling of
+long straight lines, dotted lines, or other style of lines upon the
+sides, rolls are required, upon the circumference of which the design is
+engraved, whilst for tooling upon the back the so-called fillets are
+generally used, which likewise are used only for lines or patterns.
+Besides, certain kinds of ornaments are here printed with dies--the rows
+of letters with the type-holder in which these are set. All these tools
+are heated over a flame--best over gas--to the temperature suited to the
+material operated upon. To make the gold adhere, the material to be
+tooled is sized or "glaired" with one part vinegar to three parts white
+of egg well whisked or beaten and filtered, as is done in blocking.
+Other materials for sizing will be dealt with later.
+
+Fig. 77--Simple gold tooling on sides.
+
+Lines are made along the sides and at corners of the boards, especially
+on paper-covered boards; this is called "running a line up" or
+"filleting."
+
+The line to be gilded is clearly marked with a sharp folder, picked out
+with glair, and the gold, which is taken up on the roll, is printed in.
+
+Fig. 78--Tooled cover.
+
+The gold leaf is cut on the cushion into narrow strips about 1 cm. wide,
+and the warm (each time wiped clean) and slightly greased roll is
+lightly passed over it so that the strip of gold adheres to the
+circumference of the roll, and then rolled off with a firm and even
+pressure on to the place intended.
+
+This is now gone over with a wool rag (or gold rag), and only the
+printed line is left; the surplus gold remains in the rag.
+
+Fig. 79--Specimen of tooling done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
+
+Near the finishing stove should stand--as also for blind tooling--a
+shallow saucer containing water and also a common brush similar to those
+sold with bottles of gum. A drop of water is thrown from this brush on
+to the hot tool in order to test its heat. Cloth is printed with fairly
+hot tools; they should hiss a little when tested. Goat-skin requires a
+heat almost sufficient to produce hissing, whilst hissing would
+indicate too hot a tool for use on morocco, and all sheep-skins will
+bear only moderate heat. If the roll was too hot, the gold would have no
+brilliance, and if too cold, would appear broken. Calf requires the same
+heat as cloth, but quick working, especially on first applying the tool.
+The roll has a long handle which rests against the shoulder whilst held
+in the right hand. When getting into position for an impression the
+thumb-nail of the left hand is used as a guide and support.
+
+Fig. 80--Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.
+
+A line around a cover is marked out correctly with dividers and folder,
+picked out with size, and printed in gold in the same way. The rolls
+have a notch, which is for starting and ending at the corners; these
+must always be joined exactly. Rolls for two or more lines must print
+the corners perfectly diagonal, and for this purpose such rolls are cut
+so as to print a true diagonal corner; one corner being made for the
+beginning and the other for the end. Of course it is impossible to print
+long lines with only one revolution of the roll. The roll is run along
+the line from starting point until near the end, lifted off, and again
+placed on the spot just quitted, a little behind the starting point of
+the roll, so that this part does not show. This is repeated as often as
+the length of the line necessitates. In order to secure good corners,
+the roll is lifted just before reaching the corner and a corner tool is
+used for the corner itself. At no point should one be able to see where
+the roll was set on or taken off, and the result should be a straight,
+even line, showing no trace of inequality.
+
+Fig. 81--Cover with laurel motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical
+School.
+
+For single lines, the gold is generally taken up on the previously
+heated roll; but in using wider rolls it is better to lay the gold on
+with the tip and press it well down with surgical cotton wool.
+
+Places where the gold did not stick or which look gritty must be sized
+afresh and once more tooled. The beginner generally finds that the gold
+does not stick at the point where he begins, a sure sign that he
+hesitated too long on commencing.
+
+It has already been said that white of egg is used for making the gold
+adhere, and there are, indeed, very few materials requiring any other
+treatment, yet we know of a number of cases where white of egg alone is
+insufficient to fulfil this purpose--not, indeed, because it is
+unsuitable, but because the quality of the leather is such that the
+white of egg would be absorbed too quickly (calf, tanned sheep) or that
+it would take badly and unequally.
+
+Just as certain kinds of leather are difficult to treat, so also are
+old, long-stocked skins. If the finisher knows that such a piece of
+leather lies before him, he ought to rub it down on the raw side with
+best olive oil; it will thus receive a substitute for the lost natural
+fatty matter and become more supple. This oiling, of course, is only
+practicable with dark leathers, as light leathers nearly always become
+darker. A skin so treated should be rolled up and laid aside for a few
+days.
+
+At any rate, such a defective leather is improved by a previous washing
+with size, no matter whether it be made from vellum, gelatine, or glue.
+It must not, however, be made from the commonest kinds of glue, as these
+make the leather dull.
+
+Vellum cuttings, or gelatine, are soaked overnight in water sufficient
+to cover, and next day dissolved in a sort of glue-pot. This sizing must
+be used very thin and should not be quite cold. In using ordinary glue,
+two drops of medium strength to about three table-spoonfuls of warm
+water will suffice.
+
+Many finishers prefer thin paste water as a size, with which they coat
+the whole surface; personally, however, I would only recommend it for
+unpolished calf--but here there is a real necessity for it. In this case
+it is liberally laid on in large sweeps with a sponge--not new, and free
+from grit--and then well rubbed into the pores of the leather with the
+ball of the hand. The surplus is quickly washed off with clean water.
+
+Large surfaces left plain are also washed with gum tragacanth, because
+this sizing leaves no lines behind. About 10 grammes of tragacanth to
+1/4 litre water are soaked in a vessel, and after swelling it is well
+stirred. This solution is also laid on with a sponge, but is not rubbed
+in, neither is it subsequently washed off.
+
+These two methods of sizing will be found sufficient to meet all cases.
+
+There are certain materials that do not allow the use of a liquid
+sizing, particularly silk and velvet. The latter is no longer finished
+by hand, and even blocking velvet is now considered bad style.
+
+For gold tooling on such materials gilding powder is used; it is to be
+had either white or yellow, but for hand tooling the white only is
+required.
+
+Although no exact rules can be given for determining the temperature of
+the tools used upon the various materials, yet we must try to give a
+general rule for each kind.
+
+We will use the following terms to distinguish the different degrees of
+heat: Lukewarm, _i.e._, not the slightest hissing when tested; medium,
+_i.e._, just on the border of hissing; hot, slightly hissing. In the
+following group the method of sizing is repeated, and a scheme for the
+approximately exact temperature of the tools is given.
+
+Cloth, goat-skin, and marbled leather (without previous sizing, white of
+egg): medium heat.
+
+Sheep-skin and lamb-skin (glue size, white of egg): medium heat. Calf
+(white of egg): hot.
+
+Morocco goat (without sizing, white of egg): medium heat.
+
+Morocco, Levant morocco, crushed morocco (glue size--painted in, white
+of egg): lukewarm.
+
+Pig-skin, Russia, seal (without sizing, white of egg): lukewarm.
+
+Mention has already been made of a wash of paste water for matt calf. As
+a rule, the whole surface is washed with this preparation, as it is
+thereby rendered less liable to finger marks. In the very best shops
+there is still another method. The leather is washed down with
+tragacanth and the previously impressed design picked out with white of
+egg and quickly tooled with tools medium to hot.
+
+Vellum requires a special treatment. On the day before it is to be
+finished in gold it is washed with alum solution and, for gold tooling,
+sized with undiluted white of egg and tooled lukewarm.
+
+When tooling is done with powder it is dusted on by means of a
+powder-box, over which is stretched some thin material, and tooled
+lukewarm.
+
+The great convenience in the use of powder induces many binders to adopt
+it for leather and cloth also. This practice is objectionable, and the
+conscientious finisher will always avoid it. It may be excused when a
+name has to be printed on a Prayer-book or similar article in a hurry,
+or when an article is already varnished, as powder in such a case is
+very convenient and satisfactory, but under any other conditions it is a
+sign of incompetence.
+
+Tooling upon powder on leather looks very gritty and unsightly after
+having undergone many changes of temperature, as the latter greatly
+affects this material. Its brightness vanishes entirely--a thing that
+never happens when white of egg has been used.
+
+It must still be observed that tooling with lukewarm tools must be done
+slowly, and with hot tools quickly. Nearly all inexperienced finishers
+use too hot tools.
+
+
+Fig. 82--Leather binding with fern motive done in the Düsseldorf
+Technical School.
+
+So far, we have dealt with the preparation for finishing and tooling
+with a roll. Besides this tool there are fillets, gouges, and dies, all
+nearly the same, being dies, and only differing in shape. Nearly all
+beginners are unreasonably afraid to use the gouge. Any one able to use
+the roll properly will have little difficulty with the gouges. A genuine
+technical difficulty does arise when only a small portion of a curve may
+be worked (which frequently happens) on account of its having to be
+joined to another. Moreover, the joining of one curve to another must
+not be seen.
+
+Every single gouge of the complete set (it should contain at least 20
+pieces) forms the quarter of a circle. The gouges are chosen according
+to the design, so that the tools placed thereon cover the outlined
+design exactly, and the tool numbers are noted on the designs so that
+they may be quickly and surely picked up when required for use.
+
+The tyro is apt to select sizes too large and to print the curve sloping
+instead of perpendicular; this must be guarded against.
+
+Double gouges are not easily used in the same way, as the joinings
+cannot be concealed; they may be used for making first outlines, which
+must be finished with single curves.
+
+Fig. 83--Simple gold tooling on squares.
+
+Faulty places must be done over and over again until the whole is
+perfect and brilliant and all the gold adhering.
+
+Fillets are nothing more than long narrow dies of either simple or
+ornamental lines. It is the practice of the old school to widen the
+impression of narrow fillets by continuous rocking of the hand to right
+and left, as they are fond of doing when lettering with a type-holder.
+This practice is fundamentally wrong. Work finished in this way will
+never show the quiet and uniform brilliance in the gold to be seen in
+work where the movement was only in the direction of the dies and
+fillets.
+
+Besides tooling the front sides, the inside edges or squares are
+generally ornamented in extra work. A simple but very effective
+decoration for the edge consists of a line close to the edge of the
+board and also one close to the end paper and a connecting line at the
+corner; such an edge is previously polished with a burnisher. To do this
+the leather is slightly damped, the tool moderately heated--not
+hissing--and then polished with long even strokes.
+
+Fig. 84--Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement, Leipzig.
+
+Figs. 85 and 86--Two designs in gold for squares.
+
+With the help of rolls and dies, even richer decoration may be produced,
+and really artistic ornament designed and executed on the inside as well
+as on the outside cover. Such work, however, does not come within the
+limits of this treatise. We must be satisfied with giving a few
+illustrations of the less elaborate designs. Rolls are very often used
+in finishing the edges, so as to fill up at once the whole width of the
+space, and about this we must say a few words. Rolls with a pattern
+have, as is known, no notch, and therefore may be used for a run on of
+any length without a break. For smaller margins and cheap work the rolls
+are frequently run over each other. This saves time but it does not
+produce a nice effect, as the design is blurred at the point of
+crossing. It is better to lay the gold leaf on one side and to remove it
+exactly at the corner and then tool; the side next to it is now treated
+in exactly the same way, giving special attention to the removal of the
+leaf at the corner. The design is thus made to join together at the
+corners without crossing, because the roll will only leave its
+impression as far as the gold goes. For extra work, however, a die
+suiting the roll in width and design should be chosen, and leaving as
+much of the corners as the die will cover free from gold, the remainder
+of the surface is covered with the leaf and tooled. With a little skill,
+the roll can be taken up exactly where the gold leaf ceases. The edge is
+then cleaned with the gold rag and fresh gold laid on for the corner
+die and then tooled. By this method the design at the corner is
+correctly finished.
+
+
+Figs. 87, 88, and 89--Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T = Sub
+Title.
+
+Gold tooling on the back is more difficult on account of its convexity.
+For this work the volume is placed in a little wooden press which finds
+a place upon the bench, or in a special contrivance which can be screwed
+to the bench.
+
+Fig. 90--Type-holder with centre position.
+
+To ensure good results in tooling the back, it is necessary that the
+work to be done should be accurately marked out beforehand. The bands
+are measured out by means of the dividers if they do not already show as
+raised bands. With a pointed folder draw this traced design accurately
+upon a strip of cardboard. Blind lines are made upon cloth before the
+latter has become quite dry; in other cases tool the first impression
+hot and vigorously, pick out the impression with white of egg, and then
+tool with lukewarm fillets. In making lines, the fillets may be drawn to
+and fro, whereby a great brilliancy will be produced. Gold lines or
+ornamental fillets are picked out with white of egg and then tooled in
+gold. For simple lines the gold is taken up from the cushion; for
+ornamental fillets the gold is carried to the back.
+
+Lettering the back is an art in itself as regards the arrangement of the
+lines, but besides this it requires considerable practical experience.
+The letters are composed and screwed up in the type-holder for printing.
+The type-holder, with the letters, must never be placed over the heating
+stove, for in Germany letters made of lead are still most generally
+used, and these would melt very quickly if placed over the stove.
+Moreover, the letters should be screwed up just tight enough to prevent
+their falling out. The heat expands them and they are then locked quite
+firmly enough in the type-holder.
+
+In arranging the letters the following general rules should be
+observed:--
+
+  1.--Always use types from the same fount in a title.
+
+  2.--For books printed in Gothic (black letter) type use Gothic letters;
+  for books printed in Latin types use the same for lettering.
+
+  3.--All lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or in
+  caps. only.
+
+  4.--Gothic and Latin in a title are inconceivable.
+
+  5.--Except for abbreviations, points are no longer used in the titles of
+  books, not even at the end; neither is a comma placed after the author's
+  name.
+
+  6.--Nowadays, a short line is always made under the author's name.
+
+Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94--Four backs tooled in the Düsseldorf Technical
+School.
+
+As regards the length of line and choice of types, the following should
+be observed:
+
+  1.--The most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent by
+  larger type or spacing.
+
+Fig. 95--Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical School.
+
+Figs. 96 and 97--Two richly decorated insides done in the Düsseldorf
+Technical School.
+
+  2.--The oftener a short conjunction or article (for, the, and, or, &c.)
+  is placed between the lines, the more effective will the title be; such
+  words must be set in smaller type.
+
+  3.--Two lines of equal length should not come together; long and short
+  alternating as much as possible.
+
+  4.--The author's name is set in type a little smaller than the principal
+  catch-word.
+
+Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101--Four richly tooled backs.
+
+  5.--The lettering is most effective when the type is selected and
+  arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then
+  decreases.
+
+  6.--Unnecessary length tends to indistinctness; the best title tells
+  what the book is in very few words, and should be easily read at a
+  little distance.
+
+Fig. 102--Rich half-calf extra binding.
+
+It is impossible to mark out the whole of the title with the dividers
+unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the spaces can be measured.
+The best guide is the eye. The distance between the lines should be
+equal; a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed
+at half the distance between the lines.
+
+If a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile,
+latter, &c.) follows one without long downstrokes (never, miner, memoir,
+&c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long
+downstrokes (poppy, Ganges, &c.) comes over one having long upstrokes.
+In this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the
+printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his title never
+being so cramped into little space.
+
+The effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by
+evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher. Such a
+back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine
+double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head
+is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. It is
+essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed,
+especially the title.
+
+Tooling a square is frequently done. The beginner should always use the
+roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. It
+is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces,
+which require skill to use. Special attention should be given to
+joinings at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen.
+
+For the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs (pp.
+149, 150, 151) as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and
+also two specimens of highly ornamented insides (p. 150).
+
+
+Figs. 103 and 104--Tooling on heads.
+
+The head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work. Of
+course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the
+smallness of the surface. Fillets and rolls are generally used for this
+work, being worked on the cap as seen in the illustrations, and always
+directed towards a central point. The gold for the head and tail and
+edges is cut to size on the cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the
+gold taken up by the book itself.
+
+The accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of
+edges.
+
+Figs. 105, 106, and 107--Tooling on the edges of the boards.
+
+Fig. 108--Motive executed in the Düsseldorf Technical School.
+
+Lining is done on almost all books. For this the "jigger" is used. It is
+heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement
+is drawn along the straight edge. The line is drawn away from the
+worker, that is, contrary to the way one would draw a line with a lead
+pencil. Lines are drawn along paper, past back and corners, often also
+right round the edge, over leather or cloth and cover; the closer to the
+edge the more effective the line.
+
+Many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury.
+For trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains
+uncovered.
+
+Fig. 109--Case to protect book.
+
+Fig. 110--Cut-out case.
+
+The parts _A_ overlap and are either pasted together or wired with the
+machine.
+
+Fig. 111--Book cover.
+
+Fig. 112--Cover in case form.
+
+Similar cases of thinner boards--but covered--are made for hymn and
+prayer books. They are always pasted, covered with a dark pressed paper;
+and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining
+illustration (Fig. 110).
+
+Hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover; this would be cut from
+stout paper, generally calf-leather paper, the colour of the case
+covering (See Fig. 111).
+
+Covers made in case form entail more work (Fig. 112). The centre piece
+has a joint at each side; this part is, therefore, covered with cloth,
+which extends over the parts _B_ and _C_, all the rest being covered
+with dark pressed paper.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ACCOUNT BOOKS.
+
+
+Account books are nowadays almost always made by wholesale firms, but
+there are still, now and then, considerable orders given to medium and
+small firms for special work; yet it is just in these small shops that
+antiquated methods of work are still followed to a certain extent, to
+deal fully with which would require a volume in itself.
+
+To-day, the methods generally followed are based upon the principle that
+the spring back, reaching a finger's width over the side, must work
+strongest on the book itself, and that such a one opens best. Upon this
+principle is based the untanned leather spring back, which, being a
+patent, has become a somewhat expensive style.
+
+It is cheaper to make up the backs with wrappers, for which machines are
+also to be had; but, nevertheless, the principle is the same, and both
+answer the same purpose, although the former is lighter and more
+durable; it cannot be denied, however, that after long use the cover
+works loose.
+
+For account books, only the best and strongest paper--ruled or
+printed--is used, always according to sample. Of course, the work of
+ruling can hardly be considered as coming within the scope of this book.
+
+The paper is folded together in sections of three to five sheets,
+according to the thickness and quality of the paper. For heavy books a
+strip of jaconet is folded in the middle of the inner sheet of each
+section before sewing, and, in any case, this should be done with every
+first and last three sheets. The end paper makes a section in itself,
+which, like all others, is taken up in the sewing--it has previously
+been attached to the third section by means of strips of jaconet. In the
+end paper a coloured fly leaf and linen joint are pasted.
+
+Figs. 113 and 114--End papers for account books.
+
+The following is a practical way of making the end paper:--
+
+     1.--Take a strip of linen (not cloth) three fingers wide, and glue
+     on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour,
+     and fold in the middle.
+
+     2.--One sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin
+     glue, and the hinged leaf No. 1 is pasted to it.
+
+     3.--The end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the
+     first section, the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of
+     the ruled paper; around the whole section a strip of jaconet is
+     sewn, or
+
+     3a.--A piece of jaconet 1 cm. wide is so hinged to the white double
+     sheet of this section that half of it remains free; in this fold
+     the second section is sewn.
+
+Better-class work intended to serve for years of office use is again
+being sewn with thread on tapes; the cheaper work is machine
+wire-stitched.
+
+In hand sewing, double bands--a wide, strong linen tape--are used, end
+to end, of course, and with strong thread.
+
+The bands are also stretched upon the sewing frame; for folio, at least
+six are used, and for quarto not less than four.
+
+It has already been said that the sections are sewn throughout, and,
+further, that the end section is likewise similarly sewn with them
+through the linen joint--in high class work with coloured cordonnet
+silk. All sheets, without exception, are kettle-stitched at the end.
+Large books are not usually glued up the whole of the back, but only at
+head and tail, with perhaps a little in the middle; they are only
+completely glued up after having been rounded in the press, as this
+makes them retain their shape longer.
+
+If it is decided to do any marbling, the fore-edge is marbled
+immediately after trimming it. Rounding is more pronounced in this than
+in ordinary work, otherwise the spring back would have no effect with
+such bulk, and the book would easily go out of shape.
+
+The account book is also pressed, but not in the same way as printed
+books, as the former has its groove pressed quite out. After careful
+adjustment between boards, they are squared to the edge of the first and
+last sheet, the whole lifted into the press, and the back glued with
+very hot glue. The bands are generally left outside the boards, as they
+would leave marks too pronounced on the book if pressed inside. After
+the book has thoroughly dried in the press, it is cut at top and bottom,
+marbled, or some other suitable treatment given to the edges, and then
+pasted up. The "clothing up" of the account book is done either with
+soft leather and paste or with mole-skin specially prepared for the
+purpose; in the former case the bands are omitted, that is, only the
+parts between the bands are pasted. In pasting up with mole-skin, only
+the back may be glued--never the covering material. The covering
+material has a loose overlap of 4 cm. at each side.
+
+Account books take a stronger headband than other books; it must reach
+on to the board, which it binds to the book. For this purpose the board
+must first have been affixed.
+
+In the first place, a thin but very strong board is laid--about 1-1/2
+mm. from the joint--upon the first sheet, which has been completely
+coated with glue; the bands are pasted out upon this board, as also are
+the leather or beaver clothing overlaps.
+
+It is obvious that this thin board is not stout enough for this heavy
+book, therefore a second heavier board--or, if necessary, even a
+third--is pasted to it; but as the back now goes over on to the board,
+the heavier board must be set back sufficiently to prevent it from
+pushing into the back when opening the book.
+
+As the pasting together of these boards makes them very thick, and such
+thick boards not being easily cut, they are generally cut the required
+size beforehand. Before pasting the thicker board upon the first board,
+the back is prepared.
+
+Fig. 115--Boards cut out at head.
+
+First of all, the headband. It is carried on to each board 3 cm. deep,
+and the boards must therefore be cut out the same distance up to the
+edge; at _A_ the board is bevelled off on the inside. Now cut a piece of
+coloured chamois leather--dark red or green--5 cm. wide and as long as
+the distance from one notch across the back to the other. The back at
+_B_ is now glued, the strip of leather laid on so that it projects
+1-1/2 cm. beyond the edge, and the ends at each side brought equally to
+the bevelled part _A_. At both sides these are pushed in under the thin
+board and well pasted down, whilst the piece projecting over the edge is
+glued and turned backwards; but in order to strengthen the piece on the
+back of the book, a piece of card as long as the width of the back is
+laid in.
+
+The back is selected either from ready-made undressed leather backs of
+suitable length and width, or is made on the machine. The practice of
+pasting the backs at the edges only does not seem satisfactory, because
+on the one hand it does not give sufficient spring, and on the other the
+single sections easily work loose. For pasted backs, stout wrappers are
+taken, and the strips are cut so that each one slightly overlaps in
+width the one preceding. The glued and fitted strips are either pressed
+hot in the rounding press or put through a rolling machine built for the
+same purpose. The finished backs should be allowed to dry for a short
+time. Where there is no machine suitable for this work, the backs must
+be pasted into each other, beginning at the outside, and well rubbed
+down upon a board made with grooves of various dimensions. The older
+method of pasting the backing upon the book itself is still followed,
+although it does not produce the firm arch nor give such a good shape as
+the former method. When it must be done, the following is the way to
+proceed: The size is taken by laying a piece of paper across the back
+(taking in 1/2 cm. of the board on each side), and with the dividers
+this measure is marked out on a strip of wrapping paper, which must be
+the exact length of the board, but wide enough to project about a hand's
+width over each board. So that this should not have an unsightly
+appearance in the book, it is bevelled along each side.
+
+Fig. 116--Suggestion for account book back. _K_--Pared edge; _T_--Part
+to be pasted.
+
+According to the measurement marked by the dividers at top and bottom,
+a rule is laid from _a_ to _a_, and along this a sharp line is drawn
+with the folder, and the lappets projecting underneath the rule are bent
+upwards. At this line thus marked, the wrapper is folded over and
+creased with the folder. A second parallel line is made in the same way,
+about 6 to 7 mm. farther out, from _b_ to _b_. The back thus prepared is
+rounded in the middle part; a strip the size _a_ to _a_ might still be
+pasted in the centre. To fasten this to the book, both strips are glued
+with strong glue from _b_ to the edge, the back brought into position,
+glued, and pressed down. From this it will be seen that the back
+stretched across the book is not glued on from _a_ to _b_. A few more
+pieces of wrapping paper are still glued on to this first back to
+increase the strength of the arch; each one is measured separately after
+the one preceding it has been glued into its place, always measuring
+from _a_ to _a_.
+
+Fig. 117--Suggestion for account book back.
+
+Such backs do not adhere quite firmly, and it is advisable to insert
+another narrower glued strip, opening the book in the middle, of course,
+to do this. After inserting the back, the book is closed, and the back
+will now lie close and tight to the book. It is trimmed at top and
+bottom with a sharp knife and finished off with a rasp if necessary.
+
+The heavy boards are hinged on to this back. They are cut to fit, and,
+beginning at the fold _b_, are placed so that the edge of the board
+stands a little away from the joint.
+
+Fig. 118--Boarded account book.
+
+Where it is possible to glue up hot, the back should be made in advance.
+It is, however, essential that the spring back should be slightly
+over-rounded, that is to say, that its ends should first be pressed out
+so that they can be pushed on to the back; only thus can it be really
+effective, and must, moreover, be shaped to three-quarters of a circle.
+
+An apparatus recently put on the market for glueing without heat, solely
+by wrapping up in drilling, is little better than a toy, which saves
+neither time nor material. The inventor can hardly be in the
+trade--certainly not a practical worker.
+
+The prepared backs are fastened to the books as follows: Cut a strip of
+stout linen so that it projects a little at each end and 3 to 4 cm. at
+each side; glue the inside of the rounded back evenly, and then fasten
+in the linen strip so that it projects equally at ends and sides. At
+head and tail the ends are brought over on the outside, and the back
+thus made is forced on the book. Before doing so, a line should be drawn
+on the thin boards about 1-1/2 to 2 cm. from the joint, glue up to this
+line; the strip with the back would be drawn up at both sides and then
+pressed down. To make these backs lie closer, a strip of packing may
+similarly be inserted.
+
+So then the same work is done here with the glued-up backs as in the old
+style with the packed spring backs; here the back is just hinged on
+cloth, there it is made from a piece of wrapper. The thick board is set
+on in the same way as in the other style of work, set off from the glued
+back about 1 to 1-1/2 cm. To fill up this space, lay in each groove a
+piece of cord of suitable thickness which has been well pasted, rubbing
+in the paste quite smooth, and, after drying, paste over with stout
+paper.
+
+Very thick books have a rather clumsy appearance with their many
+superimposed boards; this is improved by bevelling on all four sides the
+upper thick board.
+
+To protect the book, leather bands are pasted on the back, also
+something to add strength is generally put on at head and tail, which is
+then covered with specially strong leather. For covering, linen,
+mole-skin; for heavy and extra work, pig-skin and cow-hide are used.
+Leather is, of course, always pared down, thoroughly coated with paste,
+well stretched over, and well rubbed down in all hollows at the joints,
+bands, &c.--side panels are also let in--and turned in. Where the back
+disappears under the thick board, the turn-in is cut in almost up to the
+edge at _b_ with sharp scissors; if it were cut right to the edge it
+would be visible, which must be avoided. For turning-in at the head, it
+is obvious that the book must lie open as in the illustration.
+
+Fig. 119--To show where turn-in is to be cut.
+
+The corners of account books must always be rounded. Metal corners on
+account books are clumsy, damage the writing desks and other books
+coming into contact with them, and even when using the best mill-boards
+it is impossible to fix them so firmly that they will not work loose in
+the course of time. In their stead, leather corners and guards may be
+fixed, which are frequently tastefully finished in blind or gold.
+
+
+Fig. 120--Hand numbering machine.
+
+All books for office use are either folioed or paged, _i.e._, either
+each page or each sheet gets a consecutive number in order to facilitate
+reference from the index. This may be done either by the hand numbering
+machine or by the larger machine worked with a treadle. In both cases
+the figures succeed each other automatically whilst printing.
+
+It is always advisable to do this work before binding, as it is then
+easier and, besides, there is less chance of the fresh ink smudging when
+each single sheet of the sections is pushed up.
+
+The manipulation of this apparatus is so simple that further explanation
+seems superfluous.
+
+Where bound books have to be paged, small pieces of blotting-paper must
+be laid between the sheets to prevent smudging.
+
+
+The manufacture of guard books for bills, letters, &c., comes into the
+same department as the making of account books. Guards are cut 4 cm.
+wide and folded in sixes along the middle, and sewn with strong thread,
+end to end, upon a strip of linen stretched upon a piece of wrapper to
+which bands have been pasted to further strengthen. The sections are
+sewn together at intervals of about 2 cm., so as to allow room for the
+papers that are to be pasted in.
+
+The stiff back with the sewn-on guards is now pasted into a cover, which
+is made with a back measurement as seen in the illustration. An
+insertion for the back is not cut for this purpose, but the two boards
+are hinged together with a strip of stiff paper somewhat wider than the
+back. The book is then provided with a linen or mole-skin back and
+corners, covered with paper, and, after the guarded back has been pasted
+in, is lined with paper. If it is intended to gum the guards, the
+gumming should be attended to before the sewing. The guards are fanned
+up slightly and brushed with gum-dextrine, to which a little sugar and a
+few drops of glycerine have been added, so that when dry the gum should
+not be too brittle.
+
+Fig. 121--Suggestion for back of guard book.
+
+For all such work a thumb index is generally required; each page takes
+one or more letters, or a specification is given, according to which the
+binder counts off the number of pages required for each letter--X and Y
+being here excluded. Nowadays, the indices are cut with index shears,
+which not only regulates the depth of the index but also avoids the
+acute angles which are so easily torn in.
+
+Commence cutting from the back, that is, with the Z; this, being the
+last letter, is not cut out. Then count off W, cut with the shears, and
+cut off what remains below to the bottom edge with a sharp knife, to do
+which a narrow thin board is slipped underneath. The further you proceed
+towards A, the longer is the strip which has to be cut out with the
+knife.
+
+When the excisions for the whole alphabet have been made, the letters
+are pasted on. These are sold ready printed, and nowadays are almost
+always in one piece for back and front.
+
+The printed sheet with the alphabet is glued or gummed on the back, and,
+after drying, the alphabet is creased lengthwise and either cut so or
+punched out with a suitable tool. The single letters are damped and
+stuck in position.
+
+One might also insert a strip of zinc after the cutting in of the
+letters and cut the length at once.
+
+Cheaper kinds of account books for temporary use are often made with
+fixed backs; the packing is simply omitted, but the head and tail are
+pasted a little to make the turn-over hold better. No matter whether the
+cover be of leather or cloth, paste must be used, as this ensures the
+back adhering strongly to the book. Such a method of binding can be
+recommended for music.
+
+
+Portfolios for drawings, &c., are often required; the boards are hinged
+together with paper as previously described for guard books, the inside
+of the back lined with cloth, and the outside covered with leather or
+cloth. The turn-in is pasted over the lined back.
+
+Fig. 122--Pattern for dust flaps. (Leinwand = Linen hinge.)
+
+If books are to be made so that they can be fastened, slits must either
+be made with a chisel, through which the tape ends are drawn from the
+outside to the inside and there pasted down, or else small round eyelet
+holes are made, and then proceed as before.
+
+Dust-proof flaps are hinged on to three sides of a thin board with
+strips of linen in the following style, and lined and covered
+separately. The body itself is likewise made of thin board. (See Fig.
+122.)
+
+The whole arrangement is pasted on to the back board of the portfolio.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+SCHOOL BOOKS AND MOUNTING.
+
+
+The school book, perhaps the most despised branch of work in the
+bindery, has unjustly come to be treated as a sort of step-child by
+bookbinder and bookseller. Although everything has been cut down as
+finely as possible as regards paper and printing, yet the cost of
+binding must also be cut down, and a profit on the whole is still looked
+for. Thus it is that school books can only be produced by machinery.
+Folding, sewing, board cutting, trimming, and lettering are all done
+exclusively by machinery. All finishing work, pressing, headbanding,
+decorating the paper covers, have fallen off. The cover is always made
+in advance and the book fixed into it. A good goat-skin is seldom used
+for the back, almost always split sheep-skin, thereby also saving
+paring, or the so-called split horse-hide. These latter are put on the
+market in various colours and grains and are well suited for the work. A
+third-rate marbled paper is used for covering, as prices are not given
+for better kinds. A stout smooth paper is strongly recommended for end
+papers.
+
+Frequently, in the smaller towns, there are still produced Bible
+histories, catechisms, and the like in half-leather bindings, tanned
+sheep-skin, the sale of which is likely to be large and assured for many
+years. The whole skin must be damped and well stretched previous to
+cutting out, in order that it may be cut into backs to the best
+advantage.
+
+The backs are laid on top of each other and pressed out in the wooden
+press between two old boards to remove all superfluous moisture. The
+edges are then pared with a sharp knife, the backs pasted, laying every
+two with pasted sides together to prevent their drying, and the books
+fixed in the leather backs. For this purpose the books are set in boards
+previously cut to size. In this case the books take tight backs; the
+joints are well rubbed down with the folder.
+
+Thinner volumes in cloth have likewise tight backs. The cloth for the
+backs is cut into strips of handy length as wide as the length of the
+backs must be, is glued and cut a suitable width with a knife upon the
+cutting board, measuring with the eye. Recently, the so-called "taking
+off," as practised in fancy goods work, has been adopted for the sake of
+its cleaner and neater results in pasting and glueing covers. A large
+zinc plate is coated with glue, neither too thick nor too thin, the
+cover is laid face downwards and taken up, so that it is evenly coated
+all over with the glue or paste. The work requires some practice, but it
+is very quick and, above all, is neat and clean. The boards are laid
+upon these strips by a worker (allowing for the thickness of the back),
+turned in at top and bottom by a second worker, and the books at once
+fixed in. The backs, still damp, fit very well to the books, the joints
+are well rubbed in; covering and pasting on are done afterwards.
+
+Where hand sewing must be done, the end papers should be first attached
+to each first and last section, double in front, single at the end.
+Sewing should never be upon two bands only but on three at least, better
+upon four, so that the two middle ones can be changed each time. In
+order to expedite the scraping of the bands, the threads are untwisted
+before pulling out from each other, the loose end need not exceed 1-1/2
+cm., as a long band holds no better than a short one, care being taken
+that it is always firmly pasted down. The drawn-out volumes are placed
+in batches on top of each other, all bands lying outwards. The
+projecting ends are well brushed with a hard brush, which renders them
+easy to scrape down. If it is intended to paste down the bands, the
+whole of the ends might now be pasted, the books lifted off one by one,
+and the bands pasted over on to the end paper. It is better to leave the
+ends free and to paste down when glueing up. They then become more
+thoroughly saturated with the paste and are pressed at once, and thus
+join the boards so much better.
+
+It may be mentioned that school books with tight backs are more lasting
+than with hollow backs, no matter whether leather or cloth be used.
+
+
+Mounted articles, _i.e._, placards, maps, drawings, &c., to be mounted
+on boards or linen, are frequently sent to the ordinary bindery. Things
+to be mounted on boards must be mounted whole, those that are to be
+rolled up or folded are mounted on linen. Placards are generally printed
+on very stout paper, and these should be well damped upon the back with
+sponge and water before pasting, and only when the paper is perfectly
+limp and stretched should the pasting be done, otherwise creases are
+sure to be caused by the stretching of the paper after mounting. A piece
+of packing paper the size of the placard to be mounted must also be
+pasted upon the back of the mounting board to prevent the board from
+"drawing." Only when the mounting is completed may the mount be cut to
+size and, if necessary, bound.
+
+Illustration: Binding corner.
+
+This binding is done by marking with the dividers a border about 1-1/2
+cm. wide along the trimmed edge and laying a pasted strip of coloured
+paper and, turning it over, drawing it on to the back with a piece of
+clean waste paper, and well rubbing down. At the corners the strip is
+cut obliquely, as in the case of a book, nipped, and turned in. This is
+done at the first two sides lying opposite to each other. At the other
+side the strip is laid not quite up to the ends and cut with the shears
+slightly obliquely, so that the finished corner appears as in the
+accompanying illustration. Of course, when such work is done in large
+quantities, another method is followed. For this the board would be cut
+to size, back and front--1 cm. narrower and shorter--likewise, and the
+boards bound beforehand. The strips are not turned in at the corners of
+the first two sides, but the whole side is rubbed down and the ends cut
+flush. The strips for the other two sides are cut to size, at the same
+time cutting off the corners obliquely at both sides, then pasted and
+drawn over the edges. When mounting on large surfaces, one person alone
+is not able to do the work--there must be some one to render assistance.
+
+Such large pieces are always rubbed down under a piece of stout paper.
+As the hand cannot pass over the whole surface evenly and easily, a
+large piece of waste paper rolled into a ball and held firmly in the
+hand is used for rubbing down.
+
+Fig. 123--Eyeleting machine.
+
+The finished placard is placed between boards to dry. For hanging them,
+either eyelets with rings as sold are used or two holes, about 5 cm.
+apart, are punched with the eyelet pliers in the middle of the top edge
+and eyelets clamped in with the punch pliers. For doing large quantities
+it is advisable to procure a machine, the small Eyeleting machine,
+which pierces and clamps the eyelet at the same time.
+
+Mounting plates, plans, drawings, or maps on cloth is done in the
+following way: Paper can only be properly mounted upon a very tightly
+stretched linen or cotton material; linen being generally used in
+England. Where such work is frequently to be done, so-called drawing
+boards ought to be at hand. These are wooden boards, best when made to
+fit into each other so that they can be enlarged to suit the work in
+hand.
+
+Figs. 124 to 127--Showing stages of pinning down for stretching.
+
+The board must, of course, be perfectly clean on the stretching side,
+otherwise the back of the mounted article would be soiled. If necessary,
+the surface may be covered with waste paper before stretching. The
+material should be left about 5 cm. larger all round for convenience of
+stretching and working. The stretching is best done with drawing pins,
+which may be used again and again for the same work. The method of
+stretching is as follows: Woven fabrics stretch less in direction of the
+warp than the woof, therefore stretching is begun in the former
+direction. The material is fixed with pins at two corners of one side,
+stretching it firmly at the same time. The material will be drawn
+outwards a little on the stretched side (Fig. 124). To counteract this,
+a pin is fixed in the middle of the opposite side, after having pulled
+the material over so that the side _A_ forms a straight line. The whole
+side _A_ is then pinned down, the pins not being more than 5 cm. apart
+(Fig. 125).
+
+Now draw out the pin on the _B_ side and pin down the whole side, firmly
+stretching the material all the while, beginning at the middle and
+working towards the sides (Fig. 126).
+
+The third side is pinned down by first fixing a pin in the centre, then
+in the centre of the halves to right and left, then proceeding with the
+smaller divisions in the same fashion. The material is pulled far enough
+to form a straight line (Fig. 127). The last side is well stretched and
+pinned down as just described. In this way a surface not only entirely
+free from wrinkles and creases is produced, but the texture of the
+material will run straight.
+
+In mounting upon cloth, special care must be taken that the paper is
+perfectly limp and flexible; but this must not be due to its having been
+too thickly coated with paste.
+
+Large wall maps made up of many pieces must be very carefully damped and
+must be allowed to lie damp a long time. Attention must be given to the
+colours, which are apt to run, and also to the proper fitting of the
+various pieces, as these have often been stretched in various ways in
+the lithographic press, or through irregular drying have taken unequal
+sizes. Damping and pasting must be repeated to help to remedy this until
+the whole fits together perfectly.
+
+Maps to be folded must be cut into sections of suitable size. In order
+that they may fold together well, the various pieces are set slightly
+apart, the horizontal lines slightly less (1-1/2 mm.), the longitudinal
+somewhat more, where there are many parts up to 3 mm.
+
+Perfect fitting is here essential, and to insure this it is advisable to
+mark out the divisions with the folder and rule. This is not necessary
+for small maps, the eye will then be sufficient guide. Thorough rubbing
+down is absolutely necessary to make every part adhere.
+
+When perfectly dry, the material is taken from the stretcher, the edges
+accurately trimmed, and the map folded upon the cross lines into one
+long strip, and then this strip is folded over in zigzag fashion to the
+given size.
+
+The appearance of such a map is greatly improved by sharply pressing
+awhile, for which a zinc plate should be inserted between each fold.
+
+Such maps are often placed in a small light case of cardboard covered
+with cloth, or a light cover is made, into which the map is so pasted at
+the back board that it lies ready for use when opened.
+
+Paintings, drawings in colour, or wash drawings cause exceptional
+difficulties, as the moisture of the pasting medium tends to dissolve or
+make the colours run. In such cases smaller sheets are placed between
+sheets of damp blotting paper, and it is stuck upon the pasted
+underside. When the object permits it, it is glued on without previous
+damping. Large tracings present the greatest difficulties as the paper
+stretches very much and, on account of its delicacy, is not easily
+manipulated and is liable to crease. Such work requires several hands.
+It is necessary to have clear paste, quite free from knots, which has
+been thinned to the consistency of thick pea-soup. When at all
+practicable, the tracing itself is pasted twice, the first pasting will
+make the paper stretch and the second ensures a proper coating of paste.
+Two persons lift the tracing and turn it over (for very large pieces
+four persons are required); the sheet is laid down at one corner, the
+other three being held up, and the whole gently lowered little by
+little. One person rubs it down slowly, proceeding from the first corner
+and carefully avoiding creases and bubbles.
+
+With such big jobs it is often impossible to avoid tears near where it
+is held by the fingers of the workers unless timely precautions against
+this are taken. The simplest way is to paste strips of paper and to
+stick these on the four corners of the pasted side of the tracing and to
+take hold of these. These strips are removed as the rubbing down
+progresses, making sure, however, that there is still enough paste left
+on these places.
+
+Tracings are always mounted upon white paper, even though it has
+afterwards to be cut or mounted on cloth.
+
+Maps that have to be prepared for hanging on walls are always provided
+with a roller at top and bottom; these may be stained and varnished or
+covered with coloured paper. The mounted maps are glued and tacked to
+the half-round rollers. Where all round rollers are used they should be
+ordered in halves. The edges of the map are glued between and the two
+halves then nailed together. Rings are screwed into the top roller for
+hanging, and also a few tapes to tie up the rolled map if required.
+
+Plates and maps, as also placards, are also varnished. Varnishing is
+nowadays always done with spirit varnish, which is convenient for
+working. All papers cannot be simply varnished and done with--the nature
+of the paper must be taken into consideration. All sized and chromo
+papers may be varnished without preparation. Many note-papers,
+especially unsized and copperplate papers, must first be sized, which
+prevents the resinous parts from penetrating and thus avoids grease
+spots.
+
+The best of all means is glue or gelatine; the former turns the paper
+somewhat yellow. A thin solution is made, which is laid on warm with a
+large sponge in long quick strokes. Where colour or ink is to be dealt
+with, no parts should be touched twice or the colours will be effaced. A
+second coating, however, may be given after the first has dried. The
+spirit varnish to be used--called map or photo varnish--is still too
+thick as sold. It is thinned with 90% spirit of wine to the required
+consistency until it runs easily from the brush.
+
+Wide varnish brushes with lead fastenings are used. Two coats of thin
+varnish are better than one coat of thick.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+Our work is now finished. The author has endeavoured to deal only with
+what comes within the sphere of practical bookbinding.
+
+At the present time there is a sharp dividing line drawn between what we
+may call the practical and artistic bookbinding. To whatever height of
+perfection the latter may still reach, it only begins where the
+practical bookbinder has completed his work faultless in every detail. A
+bad binding does not become a work of art when it has had its exterior
+artistically decorated, it rather calls forth condemnation on its bad
+forwarding and wasted skill in finishing.
+
+Yet in spite of the separation of the practical from the artistic in
+binding, it could hardly be possible--where the two are so closely
+connected--that the latter should not now and then be touched upon.
+Should the intention of issuing a book on artistic binding in form
+similar to this be carried out, it would also be necessary to refer
+occasionally to the practical side of binding.
+
+To-day we look in vain in the ordinary bindery for the many little extra
+jobs which, formerly, were the largest portion of the work in artistic
+binding. All the little jewel cases, card cases, cigar cases, &c., which
+made the winter months of the binder--as late as the sixties and
+seventies--the busiest and most profitable months of the year, have
+vanished from our workshops, as also have the mounting, &c., of
+embroideries and women's work. As a result, the number of those able to
+execute these minor works of the art binder has grown smaller. This
+branch of work, which at one time seemed inseparable from our trade, has
+partly become a separate industry in itself and has partly been drawn
+into other special trades where the work can be done better and cheaper
+by other means.
+
+Therefore the lettering of portable articles--spectacle cases, cigar
+cases, purses, pocket-books--is no longer done; such things--where they
+are not made to stock--are made by the leather worker, this also having
+passed away from the binder. This continual loss of work originally
+ours--not marked by decades now but by still shorter intervals--should
+make all bookbinders reflect. The question no longer is "How to prevent
+it?" but the more far-reaching one: "How to face the fact?" The only
+possible way is for every master bookbinder--having regard to prevailing
+conditions--to immediately put all his skill and energy into some
+special branch of the trade. With this good counsel we would like to
+send forth this little book.
+
+At the present time there are few small towns indeed where one day 50
+cloth cases have to be turned out, to-morrow half a dozen books to be
+bound in half-calf extra, next day 50 fancy boxes, and then, perhaps, a
+few fine velvet-covered cases.
+
+Should there really be found such conditions still existing, no workman
+would be found--owing to our modern system of training--able and willing
+to work under such conditions.
+
+Those possessing the essentials in an art craftsman--infinite pains,
+neatness and exactness--are sure to make rapid progress. What is still
+required--an eye for colour and good taste--are easily acquired, for
+much of the bookbinder's work is based on experience and example.
+
+He who sees much, especially new things, will soon be able to reproduce
+the things seen, and will, moreover, soon learn to distinguish between
+good and bad. About taste, so-called, it is not worth while arguing, as
+taste is mostly dictated by fashion and is often fashionable folly. The
+thoughtful craftsman, however, should be quite clear as to the
+principles determining what is to be permitted and what rejected in his
+own work; for the rest he may follow the lead of fashion--he must, in
+fact, if his work lies much in that way.
+
+Our conclusion may, therefore, be summed up in these words:--
+
+Let the most painstaking neatness and thoroughness be the masters of
+each one.
+
+No man can do everything; he who can do something well, does most.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE.
+
+  Account books,                                        157
+
+  Alum wash for marbling,                                72
+
+  Aluminium,                                              7
+
+  Armenian bole,                                      8, 75
+
+
+  Back, tooling on,                                     147
+
+  Backs, lining up,                                     120
+
+  Backs for account books,                              162
+
+  Backing,                                               58
+
+  Backing machine,                                   11, 59
+
+  Bands, treatment of,                               87, 90
+
+  Beating,                                               30
+
+  Bindery, arrangement of,                                9
+
+  Blind tooling,                                        130
+
+  Blocking,                                             103
+
+  Blocking press,                                   11, 105
+
+  Blood serum, preparation of,                           81
+
+  Blood serum for blocking,                             112
+
+  Boards,                                                 5
+
+  Boards for account books,                             160
+
+  Board cutting,                                         86
+
+  Board-cutting machine,                                 10
+
+  Boarding,                                              87
+
+  Boarding account books,                               163
+
+  Bole,                                                   8
+
+  Bole for edges,                                        75
+
+  Book-mark,                                              8
+
+  Bouquet marbling,                                      69
+
+  Bronze,                                                 7
+
+  Bronze, blocking in,                                  117
+
+  Brushes for glue, paste, &c.,                           3
+
+  Burnishing gilt edges,                                 77
+
+
+  Calf,                                                   6
+    " preparation for blocking,                         110
+    " treatment in finishing,                           142
+
+  Carrageen moss for marbling,                           64
+
+  Case to protect book,                                 155
+
+  Case work,                                         93, 95
+
+  Celluloid,                                              7
+
+  Clasps,                                                 8
+
+  Cloth joints,                                          45
+
+  Cloth, treatment in finishing,                        142
+
+  Clothing-up account books,                            159
+
+  Collating,                                             28
+
+  Colour blocking,                                      115
+
+  Coloured edges,                                        63
+
+  Comb marbling,                                         68
+
+  Cord for sewing,                                        4
+
+  Cords, distribution of,                                42
+
+  Corner punching machine,                               11
+
+  Corners,                                          96, 100
+
+  Counting off,                                          18
+
+  Covering,                                             119
+
+  Cowhide,                                                6
+
+  Crushed morocco,                                        6
+
+
+  Dextrine,                                               3
+
+  Doublure,                                             153
+
+  Drawings, mounting,                                   171
+
+  Dust-proof flaps,                                     168
+
+
+  Edges, colouring,                                       7
+    " finishing,                                         62
+    " marbling,                                           7
+
+  Edges of boards, tooling,                             153
+
+  End papers,                                    5, 43, 127
+    " for account books,                                158
+    " pasting down,                                     124
+
+  End-to-end sewing,                                     49
+
+  Eyeleting,                                            172
+
+  Eyeleting machine,                                     11
+
+  Eye marbling,                                          69
+
+
+  Fillet, use of,                                       144
+
+  Finishing,                                            129
+
+  Finisher's tools,                                      10
+
+  Folding,                                               13
+
+  Forwarding,                                            13
+
+  French marbling,                                       71
+
+
+  Gathering,                                         20, 28
+
+  Gelatine,                                               3
+
+  Gelatine size for blocking,                           111
+
+  Gilder's tip,                                          75
+
+  Gilding edges,                                         73
+    " powder,                                           142
+    " powder for blocking,                              111
+
+  Glair,                                                  8
+
+  Glair for blocking,                                   111
+    " finishing,                                        135
+    " gilt edges,                                        76
+
+  Glue,                                                   2
+
+  Glue-brush,                                             3
+
+  Glue-pot,                                               3
+
+  Glueing-up,                                            51
+
+  Glueing-up account books,                             163
+
+  Gold,                                                   7
+    " cushion,                                           75
+    " knife,                                             75
+    " leaf, laying on,                               75, 80
+    " substitute for,                                    81
+
+  Gouge, use of,                                        143
+
+  Grey boards,                                            5
+
+  Guards,                                                44
+
+  Guards for plates and maps,                            24
+
+  Guard-books,                                          165
+
+  Guillotine,                                            10
+
+  Gum,                                                    3
+
+  Gum tragacanth,                                       141
+    " for marbling,                                      65
+
+
+  Head and tail,                                         16
+    " tooling,                                          153
+    " turning in,                                       121
+
+  Headband,                                           8, 81
+
+  Headbands for account books,                          160
+
+  Heat applied in blocking,                             113
+    " of tools in finishing,                       137, 141
+
+  Holländering,                                          32
+
+  Hollow backs,                                          87
+
+
+  Imitation raised bands,                               119
+
+  Index cutting, &c.,                                   166
+
+  Inset,                                                 17
+
+  Insides, tooling,                                     153
+
+  Isinglass,                                              3
+
+
+  Jigger, use of,                                       154
+
+  Joint,                                                 44
+
+
+  Kettle stitch,                                         49
+
+  Knocking-up,                                           18
+
+  Kremser marbling,                                      71
+
+
+  Laying on gold leaf,                                  112
+
+  Leather used in binding,                           6, 100
+    " paring,                                            97
+    " preparation for finishing,                        140
+    " boards,                                         5, 85
+
+  Lettering,                                            148
+    " in blocking,                                      108
+
+  Levant morocco,                                         6
+
+  Linen joints,                                          45
+
+  Lining for case work,                                 102
+
+
+  Machine sewing,                                         4
+
+  Maps, mounting,                                       171
+    " pasting in,                                        23
+    " rollers for,                                      176
+
+  Marble papers,                                          5
+
+  Marbled edges,                                      7, 63
+
+  Metal corners,                                        164
+    " fastenings,                                         9
+
+  Metric system,                                         vi.
+
+  Middles,                                                5
+
+  Millboards,                                            85
+
+  Morocco,                                                6
+    " treatment for finishing,                          142
+
+  Mounting,                                             171
+
+
+  Numbering machine,                                    165
+
+
+  Overcasting,                                           39
+
+  Overcast end papers,                                   46
+
+  Oxgall for marbling,                                   66
+
+
+  Paring leather,                                        97
+
+  Paste,                                                  1
+
+  Paste-edge,                                            63
+
+  Pasting,                                               22
+    " boards,                                             3
+    " down,                                             124
+
+  Peacock marbling,                                      69
+
+  Pig-skin, treatment for finishing,                    142
+
+  Plates, folding,                                       26
+    " pasting in,                                        23
+
+  Plough,                                                55
+
+  Portfolios,                                           167
+
+  Presses,                                               10
+
+  Pressing,                                              19
+
+  Pulling to pieces,                                     36
+
+
+  Quires, books in,                                      16
+
+
+  Re-binding,                                            36
+
+  Register in folding,                                   14
+
+  Relief blocking,                                      114
+
+  Repairing,                                             36
+
+  Roll, use of,                                    136, 145
+
+  Rolling,                                               29
+    " machine,                                       11, 31
+
+  Rounding,                                              57
+    " machine,                                       11, 58
+
+  Russia leather, treatment for finishing,              142
+
+
+  Sawing-in,                                             41
+    " machine,                                           43
+
+  School books,                                         169
+
+  Scraping edges for gilding,                        74, 79
+
+  Seal skin, treatment for finishing,                   142
+
+  Sewing,                                            40, 46
+    " for account books,                                159
+    " cord,                                               4
+    " frame,                                             33
+    " machine,                                           52
+    " tapes,                                              4
+    " thread,                                            34
+
+  Sheep skin, treatment for finishing,                  142
+
+  Sides,                                                101
+
+  Signatures,                                            13
+
+  Silk end papers,                                        6
+
+  Size for
+    " blocking,                                         110
+    " old leather,                                      140
+    " for various materials,                            142
+
+  Spring back,                                           88
+
+  Sprinkled edges,                                       62
+
+  Squares,                                               86
+    " tooling,                                          153
+
+  Straw-boards,                                       5, 85
+
+
+  Tape, sewing,                                           4
+
+  Thread, sewing,                                         4
+
+  Tools,                                                  9
+
+  Tracings, mounting,                                   175
+
+  Trichinal marbling,                                    71
+
+  Trimming,                                              54
+
+  Turkish marbling,                                      70
+
+  Turning-in,                                       96, 121
+    " on account books,                                 164
+
+  Two-sheets-on sewing,                                  49
+
+  Tying up,                                             123
+
+
+  Varnish,                                                8
+
+  Varnishing maps, &c.,                                 176
+
+  Vellum, treatment for finishing,                      142
+
+  Velvet,                                                 6
+
+
+  White of egg,                                _see_ Glair.
+
+  Wire sewing and stapling,                           4, 35
+
+  Wire sewing and stapling machines,             11, 35, 52
+
+  Wooden boards,                                          5
+
+
+
+
+  ENGRAVING FOR ILLUSTRATION. HISTORICAL AND PRACTICAL NOTES.
+
+  By JOSEPH KIRKBRIDE.
+
+  Crown 8vo. 72 pp. 2 Plates. 6 Illustrations. 1903.
+
+  Price 2s.6d.; Abroad 3s. Strictly Net.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  GLUE AND GLUE-TESTING. By SAMUEL RIDEAL, D.Sc. Lond.
+
+  14 Illustrations. 144 Pages. Demy 8vo. 1900.
+
+
+  Price 10s.6d.; India and British Colonies, 11s.;
+  Other Countries, 12s. Strictly Net.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  SEALING-WAXES, WAFERS, AND OTHER ADHESIVES
+
+  For the Household, Office, Workshop, and Factory.
+
+  By   H. C. STANDAGE.
+
+  Crown 8vo.       96 Pages.         1902.
+
+
+  Price 5s.; India and British Colonies, 5s.6d.;
+  Other Countries, 6s. Strictly Net.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS, OR POST FREE OF
+
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO., 19 Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Bookbinding, by Paul Adam
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING ***
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Bookbinding, by Paul Adam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Practical Bookbinding
+
+Author: Paul Adam
+
+Translator: Thos. E. Maw
+
+Release Date: March 31, 2012 [EBook #39318]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Hazel Batey and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_cover.jpg" width="300" height="450" alt="Cover" title="">
+</div>
+
+<h1>PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING.</h1>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="200" height="255" alt="Logo" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p class='padtop larger center'> PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING</p><br>
+<p class='smaller center'> BY</p><br>
+<p class='larger center'>PAUL ADAM,</p>
+<p class='smaller center'> <i>Director of the Düsseldorf Technical School of Artistic and Practical Bookbinding.</i></p><hr style="width: 25%;">
+<p class='padtop smaller center'> TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY</p>
+<p class='larger center'> THOS. E. MAW,</p>
+<p class='smaller center'> LIBRARIAN KING'S LYNN PUBLIC LIBRARY.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+<p class='larger center'> WITH 127 ILLUSTRATIONS.</p><hr style="width: 25%;">
+<p class='padtop larger center'> LONDON</p>
+<p class='larger center'>SCOTT, GREENWOOD &amp; CO. </p>
+<p class='larger center'>19 LUDGATE HILL, E.C.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;"><p class='larger center'> NEW YORK</p>
+<p class='larger center'> D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. </p>
+<p class='larger center'>23 MURRAY STREET</p>
+<p class='larger center'>1903</p>
+
+<p class='smaller center'> (<i>The sole right of translation into English rests with Scott, Greenwood &amp; Co.</i>)</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg iv]</span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2>Contents.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">Page.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_METRIC_AND_BRITISH_SYSTEMS">Metric and British Systems Compared</a></span></td><td align="right">vi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></span></td><td align="right">vii.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTORY_REMARKS_ON_WORKING_METHODS_AND_MATERIALS">Introductory Remarks on Working Methods and Materials</a></span></td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#Materials_for_Sewing">A</a>.&mdash;Materials for Sewing and Pasting</td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#Material_for_Covering_the_Book">B</a>.&mdash;Materials for Covering the Book</td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#Materials_for_Decorating_and_Finishing">C</a>.&mdash;Materials for Decorating and Finishing</td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#Tools">D</a>.&mdash;Tools</td><td align="right">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class='larger'><a href="#PART_I">PART I.</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class='larger'>Forwarding.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#PART_I">I</a>.&mdash;General Preparatory Work</td><td align="right">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a>.&mdash;Sewing</td><td align="right">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter <a href="#CHAPTER_III">III</a>.&mdash;Forwarding: Cutting, Rounding, and Backing</td><td align="right">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV</a>.&mdash;Forwarding: Decoration, of Edges and Headbanding</td><td align="right">62</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_V">V</a>.&mdash;Boarding</td><td align="right">85</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class='larger'><a href="#PART_II">PART II.</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class='larger'>Finishing.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">The Book Cover</td><td align="right">93</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI</a>.&mdash;Making the Cover</td><td align="right">95</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII</a>.&mdash;Work with the Blocking Press</td><td align="right">103</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII</a>.&mdash;Treatment of Sewn Books, Fastening in Covers, and Finishing Off</td><td align="right">119</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX</a>.&mdash;Hand Finishing</td><td align="right">129</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_X">X</a>.&mdash;Account Books</td><td align="right">157</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI</a>.&mdash;School Books, Mounting Maps, Drawings, &amp;c.</td><td align="right">169</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#CONCLUSION">Conclusion</a></td><td align="right">177</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td><td align="right">180</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="right">Page.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a></td><td align="left">Glue-pot for heating by petroleum.</td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Figs_2_and_3">Figs. 2 &amp; 3</a></td><td align="left">Holding whilst folding.</td><td align="right">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a></td><td align="left">Lifting into the Press.</td><td align="right">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a></td><td align="left">Open sheets laid out for gathering.</td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a></td><td align="left">Sections fanned out for drawing out.</td><td align="right">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a></td><td align="left">Sections fanned out for pasting.</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a></td><td align="left">Suggestions for mounting on guards.</td><td align="right">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_9">Figs. 9-13</a></td><td align="left">Suggestions for folding plates and maps.</td><td align="right">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a></td><td align="left">Collating.</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a></td><td align="left">Rolling machine.</td><td align="right">31</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a></td><td align="left">Sewing frame.</td><td align="right">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a></td><td align="left">Arrangement on the sewing frame.</td><td align="right">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a></td><td align="left">Arrangement of threads in holländering.</td><td align="right">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a></td><td align="left">Small stapling machine for single sheets.</td><td align="right">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a></td><td align="left">Arrangement of staples in brochures.</td><td align="right">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a></td><td align="left">Arrangement of threads in old style of sewing.</td><td align="right">41</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a></td><td align="left">Arrangement of threads with double cords.</td><td align="right">41</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a></td><td align="left">Divisions for sawing-in.</td><td align="right">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a></td><td align="left">Machine for sawing-in.</td><td align="right">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a></td><td align="left">Suggestions for single and double end papers.</td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for double end paper with tear-off.</td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a></td><td align="left">Overcast end paper.</td><td align="right">46</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_2829">Fig. 28</a></td><td align="left">Loops for attaching to frame hooks.</td><td align="right">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_2829">Fig. 29</a></td><td align="left">Loops for taking frame keys.</td><td align="right">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_3031">Fig. 30</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for sewing on four cords.</td><td align="right">48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_3031">Fig. 31</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for sewing on six cords.</td><td align="right">48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on.</td><td align="right">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_3334">Fig. 33</a></td><td align="left">Thread-sewing machine.</td><td align="right">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_3334">Fig. 34</a></td><td align="left">Wire-sewing machine.</td><td align="right">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a></td><td align="left">Rotary guillotine.</td><td align="right">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a></td><td align="left">Lever guillotine.</td><td align="right">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37</a></td><td align="left">Top edge arranged for when trimming three edges.</td><td align="right">56</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a></td><td align="left">Rounding the book.</td><td align="right">57</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a></td><td align="left">Rounding machine.</td><td align="right">58</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a></td><td align="left">Backing machine for small shops.</td><td align="right">59</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a></td><td align="left">Backing machine for large shops.</td><td align="right">59</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a></td><td align="left">Backed book arranged for trimming.</td><td align="right">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a></td><td align="left">Marbling outfit.</td><td align="right">66</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for sprinkling colour.</td><td align="right">68</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_4546">Fig. 45</a></td><td align="left">Comb marbling.</td><td align="right">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_4546">Fig. 46</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for curl marbling.</td><td align="right">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_4748">Fig. 47</a></td><td align="left">Bouquet or peacock marbling.</td><td align="right">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_4748">Fig. 48</a></td><td align="left">Eye marbling.</td><td align="right">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_4950">Figs. 49 &amp; 50</a></td><td align="left">Arrangement of flat and rounded edges.</td><td align="right">74</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a></td><td align="left">Top edge arranged for gilding.</td><td align="right">80</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a></td><td align="left">Headband shears.</td><td align="right">82</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a></td><td align="left">Headband working.</td><td align="right">83</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a></td><td align="left">Board-cutting machine.</td><td align="right">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a></td><td align="left">Spring back.</td><td align="right">87</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a></td><td align="left">Boarded book.</td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a></td><td align="left">Section of edge rule.</td><td align="right">89</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a></td><td align="left">English style of lacing boards.</td><td align="right">90</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a></td><td align="left">View of the most general styles of binding, showing the divisions of the work. (Table)</td><td align="right">94</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a></td><td align="left">Corners cut for turning in.</td><td align="right">96</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_61">Fig. 61</a></td><td align="left">Corners: Right and wrong.</td><td align="right">96</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62</a></td><td align="left">Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife.</td><td align="right">97</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a></td><td align="left">Paring with French knife.</td><td align="right">99</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64</a></td><td align="left">Blocking press.</td><td align="right">105</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_65">Fig. 65</a></td><td align="left">Appliances used in blocking backs.</td><td align="right">107</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_66">Fig. 66</a></td><td align="left">Colour roller.</td><td align="right">115</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_67">Fig. 67</a></td><td align="left">Stuck-on gauges.</td><td align="right">118</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a></td><td align="left">Turning in the head.</td><td align="right">121</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_6970">Figs. 69 &amp; 70</a></td><td align="left">The head: good and bad.</td><td align="right">122</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a></td><td align="left">The pasted-down book.</td><td align="right">125</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a></td><td align="left">Treatment of tear-off.</td><td align="right">128</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_7374">Figs. 73 &amp; 74</a></td><td align="left">Simple line designs.</td><td align="right">131</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a></td><td align="left">Half-calf extra tooled in blind.</td><td align="right">133</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_76">Fig. 76</a></td><td align="left">Leather binding with simple design in blind.</td><td align="right">134</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a></td><td align="left">Simple gold tooling on sides.</td><td align="right">135</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_78">Fig. 78</a></td><td align="left">Tooled cover.</td><td align="right">136</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a></td><td align="left">Specimen of tooling done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.</td><td align="right">137</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a></td><td align="left">Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.</td><td align="right">138</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a></td><td align="left">Cover with laurel motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.</td><td align="right">139</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a></td><td align="left">Leather binding with fern motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.</td><td align="right">143</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a></td><td align="left">Simple gold tooling on squares.</td><td align="right">144</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84</a></td><td align="left">Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement, Leipzig.</td><td align="right">145</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_8586">Figs. 85 &amp; 86</a></td><td align="left">Two designs in gold for squares.</td><td align="right">145</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_8789">Figs. 87, 88, &amp; 89</a></td><td align="left">Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T = Sub Title.</td><td align="right">147</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a></td><td align="left">Type-holder with centre position.</td><td align="right">148</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_9194">Figs. 91, 92, 93, &amp; 94</a></td><td align="left">Four backs tooled in the Düsseldorf Technical School.</td><td align="right">149</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a></td><td align="left">Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical school.</td><td align="right">150</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_9697">Figs. 96 &amp; 97</a></td><td align="left">Two richly decorated insides done in the Düsseldorf Technical School.</td><td align="right">150</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_99101">Figs. 98, 99, 100 &amp; 101</a></td><td align="left">Four richly tooled backs</td><td align="right">151</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_102">Fig. 102</a></td><td align="left">Rich half-calf extra binding.</td><td align="right">152</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_103104">Figs. 103 &amp; 104</a></td><td align="left">Tooling on heads.</td><td align="right">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_105107108">Figs. 105, 106, &amp; 107</a></td><td align="left">Tooling on the edges of the boards.</td><td align="right">154</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_105107108">Fig. 108</a></td><td align="left">Motive executed in the Düsseldorf TechnicalSchool.</td><td align="right">154</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_109110">Fig. 109</a></td><td align="left">Case to protect book.</td><td align="right">155</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_109110">Fig. 110</a></td><td align="left">Cut-out case.</td><td align="right">155</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_111112">Fig. 111</a></td><td align="left">Book cover.</td><td align="right">155</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_111112">Fig. 112</a></td><td align="left">Cover in case form.</td><td align="right">155</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_113114">Figs. 113 &amp; 114</a></td><td align="left">End papers for account books.</td><td align="right">158</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_115">Fig. 115</a></td><td align="left">Boards cut out at head.</td><td align="right">160</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for account book back. _K_Pared edge; _T_Part to be pasted.</td><td align="right">161</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for account book back.</td><td align="right">162</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_118">Fig. 118</a></td><td align="left">Boarded account book.</td><td align="right">163</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a></td><td align="left">To show where turn-in is to be cut.</td><td align="right">164</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a></td><td align="left">Hand numbering machine.</td><td align="right">165</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a></td><td align="left">Suggestion for back of guard book.</td><td align="right">166</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_122">Fig. 122</a></td><td align="left">Pattern for dust flaps. (Leinwand = Linen hinge.)</td><td align="right">167</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a></td><td align="left">Eyeleting machine.</td><td align="right">172</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_124127">Figs. 124 to 127</a></td><td align="left">Showing stages of pinning down for stretching.</td><td align="right">173</td></tr>
+</table></div><br><br>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg v]</span>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="THE_METRIC_AND_BRITISH_SYSTEMS" id="THE_METRIC_AND_BRITISH_SYSTEMS"></a>THE METRIC AND BRITISH SYSTEMS.</h2>
+
+<h2>TABLE OF COMPARISON.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="TABLE OF COMPARISON.">
+<tr><td align="right">Metres.</td><td align="right">Decimetres.</td><td align="right">Centimetres</td><td align="right">Millimeters.</td><td align="right">Inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·001</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·01</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·1</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">·039</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·002</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·02</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·2</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">·079</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·003</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·03</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·3</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">·118</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·004</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·04</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·4</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">·157</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·005</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·05</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·5</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">·197</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·006</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·06</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·6</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">·236</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·007</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·07</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·7</td><td align="right"> 7</td><td align="right">·276</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·008</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·08</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·8</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right"> ·315</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·009</td><td align="right">&nbsp;·09</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;·9</td><td align="right"> 9</td><td align="right">·354</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·01&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">·394</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·02&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right"> ·787</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·03&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 30</td><td align="right"> 1·181</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·04&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 40</td><td align="right"> 1·575</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·05&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">50</td><td align="right">1·968</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·06&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 60</td><td align="right"> 2·362</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·07&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 70</td><td align="right"> 2·756</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·08&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">80</td><td align="right"> 3·150</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·09&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">·9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 90</td><td align="right"> 3·543</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">10&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">100</td><td align="right"> 3·94&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">20&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">200</td><td align="right"> 7·87&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">30&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 300</td><td align="left">11·81&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">40&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">400</td><td align="right">15·75&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">50&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 500</td><td align="right">19·69&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">60&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 600</td><td align="right">23·62&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">70&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 700</td><td align="right">27·56&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">80&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 800</td><td align="right">31·50&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">·9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">90&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 900</td><td align="right">35·43&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"> 100&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1000</td><td align="right">39·37&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h3>WEIGHT.</h3>
+<p class="center">1 gramme&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; = 15·44 grains.</p>
+<p class="center">28-1/3 grammes = 1 oz. avoird.</p>
+<p class="center">1 kilogramme&nbsp; = 1000 grammes = 2·20 lb. avoird.</p><br>
+<br>
+<h3>LENGTH.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39·37 inches. Roughly speaking, 1 metre =
+a yard and a tenth.&nbsp; 1 centimetre = two-fifths of an inch. 1 kilometre =
+1000 metres = five-eighths of a mile.</p>
+<br>
+<h3>VOLUME.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">1 cubic metre = 1000 litres = 35·32 cubic feet.</p>
+<p class="center">1 litre = 1000 cubic centimetres = ·2202 gall.</p>
+<br>
+<h3>HEAT.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">1 calorie = 3·96 British thermal units.</p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+
+<h2>COMPARISON BETWEEN FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE THERMOMETERS.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1" summary="COMPARISON BETWEEN FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE THERMOMETERS.">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;C.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;F.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;C.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;F.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;C.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;F.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;C.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;F.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;C.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;F.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">-25</td><td align="right">-13&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 5</td><td align="right"> 41&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 25</td><td align="right"> 77</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 65</td><td align="right">149</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">105</td><td align="right">221</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">-20</td><td align="right">-4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 8</td><td align="right"> 46·4</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 30</td><td align="right"> 86</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 70</td><td align="right">158</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">110</td><td align="right">230</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">-17</td><td align="right"> 1·4</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 10</td><td align="right"> 50&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 35</td><td align="right"> 95</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 75</td><td align="right">167</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">115</td><td align="right">239</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">-15</td><td align="right"> 5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 12</td><td align="right"> 53·6</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 40</td><td align="right">104</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 80</td><td align="right">176</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">120</td><td align="right">248</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">-10</td><td align="right"> 14&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 15</td><td align="right"> 59&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 45</td><td align="right">113</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 85</td><td align="right">185</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">125</td><td align="right">257</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">-5</td><td align="right"> 23&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 17</td><td align="right"> 62·6</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 50</td><td align="right">122</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 90</td><td align="right">194</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">130</td><td align="right">266</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> 0</td><td align="right"> 32&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 18</td><td align="right"> 64·4</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 55</td><td align="right">131</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 95</td><td align="right">203</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">135</td><td align="right">275</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"> 1</td><td align="right"> 33·8</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 20</td><td align="right"> 68&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right"> 60</td><td align="right">140</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">100</td><td align="right">212</td><td align="right"></td><td align="right">140</td><td align="right">284</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+To Convert:&mdash;</p>
+<blockquote>Degrees C. to Degrees F., multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32.<br>
+Degrees F. to Degrees C., first subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9.</blockquote>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg vii]</span>
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>Nowadays the bookbinder does not bind only those books given to him for
+this purpose as was the case in former years, for present conditions
+necessitate his undertaking many kinds of work which have little or
+nothing to do with the binding of books, particularly such as are
+connected with the making or finishing of printed matter and paper
+goods, or where pasting, gumming, and glueing are required, which, in
+their turn, are connected with paper and cardboard.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, some branches of the bookbinder's craft have now
+become quite distinct, and have developed into special industries, and
+have so enlarged and extended that even their particular methods of
+working and technical terms have quite changed. Cardboard goods, leather
+goods, photo albums, maps, and even account-books are treated by
+particular firms as specialities.</p>
+
+<p>As we must now keep within clearly defined limits, we shall treat here
+only the work of bookbinding proper as far as it is concerned with the
+making of the book for publisher, bookseller, and buyer, and also the
+making of account-books, whilst the other work given to the binder,
+commonly called "fancy goods," must be excluded. <i>Editions de luxe</i>,<span class="pagenum">[Pg viii]</span>
+charters, illuminated addresses, &amp;c., are likewise excluded, as they are
+quite apart from the ordinary work of the bookbinder, belonging solely
+to artistic bookbinding. When any such work is required the intelligent
+worker will not be at a loss; besides, he will derive ample assistance
+from the illustrations for this class of work.</p>
+
+<p>The parts of this little book have been so arranged as to correspond to
+our present-day division of work: preparatory work, forwarding,
+covering, and finishing. In England and France the various processes
+have for a long time been similarly termed, and although in Germany we
+could not follow their lead without any deviation, because our method of
+work and division of labour are so different, yet the basis of this
+arrangement has been used in this book.</p>
+
+<p>Every text-book has some drawback, the greatest of these being that a
+practical demonstration on the subject is more helpful than the most
+detailed written description, and yet even in the latter a text-book is
+limited. For the rest, I have tried to be as brief and clear as ever
+possible and to avoid faults which I have discovered in my former
+writings of a similar kind.</p>
+
+<p class="noteright">
+Paul Adam.</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Düsseldorf, Germany, 1898.</i></span><br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY_REMARKS_ON_WORKING_METHODS_AND_MATERIALS" id="INTRODUCTORY_REMARKS_ON_WORKING_METHODS_AND_MATERIALS"></a>INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON WORKING METHODS AND MATERIALS.</h2>
+
+<p>The bookbinder works with quite a large variety of materials which are
+mostly what we might call "half-made," that is to say, such materials as
+have already undergone some hand or machine process in order to make
+them fit for the work of the bookbinder. This is not the place to go
+into details as to the source of all these materials or the manner of
+their production: that may be seen in special treatises.</p>
+
+<p>We separate into various groups the materials we use.</p>
+
+<h3>A.&mdash;<span class="smcap"><a name="Materials_for_Sewing" id="Materials_for_Sewing"></a>Materials for Sewing and Pasting.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The bookbinder himself prepares his paste from wheaten flour and boiling
+water. Put in a shallow vessel, by preference a stone or enamelled metal
+wash-basin, the quantity of flour required for about eight days, pour in
+as much water as will make a mixture by soaking and stirring of the
+consistency of honey. Add to it boiling water, first slowly, then
+quicker, stirring all the time. It does not do to add the water too
+quickly, as that is likely to make the paste knotty or lumpy, because it
+cannot be stirred quickly enough and the gluten develops unequally. If
+added too slowly, the starch is not heated quickly enough and does not
+thicken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a> </span> sufficiently or not quickly enough, and the paste turns out too
+thin.</p>
+
+<p>Good paste, when cold, should not be stiff like pudding, but should be
+easily worked with a brush. In order to prevent a skin forming on the
+top whilst cooling, pour over the paste as much cold water as will cover
+the surface immediately after the mixing with the boiling water; this
+water is afterwards poured off.</p>
+
+<p>In summer when the paste is made, and whilst still hot, add a few drops
+of turpentine and mix well; this preserves the paste and keeps off
+insects. The addition of alum to the paste tends to make it watery,
+besides having no preservative properties.</p>
+
+<p>If required, paste may be thinned by adding a little warm water. Potato
+flour is often used fraudulently for making paste, but this should only
+be taken when it is possible to use it up quickly, and not for books,
+but only for fancy goods, as this flour does not possess great adhesive
+power and is unsuitable for leather.</p>
+
+<p>Glue is made from the well-known cake glue. The best English glue,
+although the dearest, is the cheapest to use. Good glue whilst soaking
+in water should still retain a certain degree of stickiness, must not be
+greasy, and should have no disagreeable smell. Glue if weighed before
+soaking and afterwards dried and again weighed should give no
+perceptible loss in weight. Good glue should not have a disagreeable
+taste, and above all should not betray the presence of salt.</p>
+
+<p>To obtain the proper consistency in glue for bookbinding, a quantity of
+the cakes is taken and sufficient water poured over it to cover well.
+The next day the gelatinous mass is taken out of the water and dissolved
+in the glue-pot by placing the softened glue in a pot standing in an
+outer vessel containing boiling water. Glue should never be boiled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a> </span> nor
+placed directly on the fire, as that causes the loss of the best part of
+its adhesive property.</p>
+
+<p>Glue and paste are generally worked with a brush. For paste a large
+hollow brush is used; this holds a large quantity of paste and covers a
+large surface. For glue a closer brush with a metal fastening is used,
+because here the hairs cannot be secured with pitch owing to the brush
+being constantly exposed to heat. On the paste brush there must be
+neither ring nor anything else of iron, as this used in paste would
+cause rust, and rust would give iron stains to light-coloured leathers.
+For the same reason no enamelled vessel should be used for paste after
+the enamel has once been chipped or worn.</p>
+
+<p>Laying the glue or paste on a material is called glueing or pasting. A
+zinc-plate is the most serviceable pasting-board, as the paste is easily
+washed off. Glue can be scraped or soaked off and used again.
+Pasting-boards of mill-board or paper are hardly to be recommended, as
+their use entails a considerable loss of material.</p>
+
+<p>Of other adhesive substances, dextrine, gum, gelatine, and isinglass are
+used for certain purposes. The two former are always used cold, the two
+latter warm. The former are dissolved in cold water; gelatine and
+isinglass are soaked exactly like glue, the water poured off, and then
+melted in the glue-pot.</p>
+
+<p>Dextrine and gum are used by the bookbinder almost exclusively for
+pasting larger surfaces, and for laying on these substances a broad thin
+brush fastened with a metal strip is used.<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+   <a href="images/i_013l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="101" height="113"
+      alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Glue-pot for heating by petroleum.">
+   </a>
+   <span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Glue-pot for heating by petroleum.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To heat the glue and to maintain the heat a glue-heating apparatus is
+used. The upper part always consists of the glue-pot. The better kinds
+are made of copper or brass wrought or moulded in one piece. For the
+sake of convenience a partition is let into this pot so that thick and
+thin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a> </span> glue may be ready for use at the same time. The glue is not heated
+directly over the flame, but by hot water; to do this the glue-pot is
+placed within a larger vessel containing water, the glue-pot at the same
+time closely fitting to the outer rim of the larger vessel. This
+contrivance is placed over a petroleum, gas, or spirit lamp, which gives
+the required heat. In some districts where brown coal is found, it is
+heated on a specially made contrivance with the brown coal waste.</p>
+
+<p>The latest method of heating is by electricity. The apparatus necessary
+for this has been put on the market by the firm W. Leo, Stuttgart.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of bookbinderies, large and small, use a strong linen
+hemp-spun thread for sewing, the strength of which depends upon the
+weight and size of the sheets to be sewn. As it is inconvenient to be
+obliged to be continually beginning a new thread or knotting, most
+bookbinders use a reel of thread. The so-called Marschall thread is the
+best.</p>
+
+<p>The book is held together by cords, for which the so-called sewing cord
+is used. There are now special kinds made for the purposes of the
+bookbinder; these are lightly twisted out of a long fibrous material so
+that afterwards they can be easily undone for the subsequent necessary
+scraping out. Certain kinds of bindings are sewn upon tapes; strong raw
+linen tape of 1-1-1/2 cm. being the material most generally used.</p>
+
+<p>For machine sewing, thread is generally used. Tinned iron wire, ready
+wound on spools, is also used. It is made in various sizes and used
+according to the weight of the sheets.</p>
+
+<h3>B.&mdash;<span class="smcap"><a name="Material_for_Covering_the_Book" id="Material_for_Covering_the_Book"></a>Material for Covering the Book.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The real protection against outward injury to the book lies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a> </span> in the
+cover, the inside of which consists of boards more or less strong. Of
+the kinds on the market the bookbinder uses grey-board, which is made
+from waste paper and rags. It is grey, very tough, and flexible, but
+dearer than other raw materials.</p>
+
+<p>Straw-boards made from straw and waste paper are cheaper, but less
+flexible, and are easily broken. They take a very high polish under the
+calendering machine and become very hard, and are therefore very
+suitable for some work if flexibility is not essential. They are
+generally used in all cloth binding.</p>
+
+<p>So-called leather-boards are unsuitable, for, in spite of great
+toughness and pliancy, they are certain to cockle and always remain
+spongy. Wooden-boards are unsuitable for bookbinding on account of their
+small resistance, but are indispensable for fancy goods and portfolios,
+as they can be so nicely cut and are less liable to subsequent cockling
+than any other kind.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these, yellow and blue boards are made. These are coloured to
+suit and serve quite special purposes, mostly fancy goods; but they also
+are not used in bookbinding, on account of their high price.</p>
+
+<p>The thinnest boards are known as middles. This is a strong whitish
+material made entirely from waste-paper. It is used for lining backs,
+limp bindings, and in all cases where flexibility, together with
+durability, is required.</p>
+
+<p>In finished work&mdash;books, fancy goods, maps&mdash;the boards are never left
+exposed to view, but are covered with paper, cloth, or leather. For the
+inner side of the cover of the book white or coloured paper is
+frequently used, note-paper of the smallest size being more rarely used.</p>
+
+<p>All marbled or pressed papers are made in one standard size. Besides the
+end papers for inside of books, a figured paper has of late been made
+known as "litho printed" for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a> </span> fancy goods. This has been put on the
+market in the most varied kinds, and also with cloth-like impressions,
+under the names damask, brocade, and Leipzig end papers. The use of this
+paper has of late been almost discontinued. The dearest are those
+printed with designs in gold.</p>
+
+<p>Cloth is more durable than paper, calico being mostly used. This is made
+in all colours and designs, and was formerly imported from England; but
+to-day German manufacturers produce a really good article. Plain linen
+cloth, black, green, or grey, sail cloth, buckram, mole-skin, and beaver
+are used in the making of account-books.</p>
+
+<p>Silk is used in the bookbindery as end papers in extra work, and also
+for fancy goods and for lining boxes. The lower grades are seldom used,
+the better qualities being mostly taken.</p>
+
+<p>To-day velvet is still used in the bindery, chiefly as a covering for
+portfolios, albums, and addresses, and except for metal clasps remains
+without ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>The bookbinder's best material, to which is given the choicest, most
+expensive, and most painstaking decoration, is leather in its various
+kinds. Sheep-skin, undyed or split and dyed, serves for school books and
+other cheap work. Goat-skin and morocco are better kinds, the latter
+being preferable both as regards price and quality.</p>
+
+<p>Morocco is made from the skin of the goat. Morocco, Levant morocco, and
+maroquin all denote the same kind. It is a strong, coarse-grained
+leather imported from the Levant, very tough and durable.</p>
+
+<p>Cape morocco, also called <i>maroquin écrasé</i>, is similar to this. This
+has a very large, artificially smooth-pressed grain, and hitherto has
+been higher in price than all other leathers.</p>
+
+<p>Calf (matt or polished) is quite smooth and is only used for fine work.
+Cowhide is similar to this, but of coarser<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a> </span> texture, and is only used
+for leather goods, portfolios, and albums; for other work in the bindery
+it is not easily enough worked.</p>
+
+<p>Celluloid is one of the latest materials used for covers. There is
+evidently a good opening for this in the wholesale manufacturies,
+stamped goods, and small fancy goods; whilst on the other hand it is of
+little value to the smaller shops, as it requires machinery for gilding.</p>
+
+<h3>C.&mdash;<span class="smcap"><a name="Materials_for_Decorating_and_Finishing" id="Materials_for_Decorating_and_Finishing"></a>Materials for Decorating and Finishing.</span></h3>
+
+<p>For the decoration of our work, either during or after production, there
+will be a large variety of materials used. Colours are used for the
+decoration of the cut edges and the cut heads of books. The smooth,
+uniformly coloured edges are made by a body colour&mdash;carmine, scarlet,
+chrome yellow, silk green, indigo blue. All these colours must be very
+finely ground before using; the addition of a little paste or dissolved
+gelatine makes the colour adhere.</p>
+
+<p>For marbling the edges Halfer's marbling colours are now exclusively
+used; these are to be had ready for use.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the binders' materials gold takes quite an important place.
+Leaf-gold in various colours is supplied either by the gold-beater or
+the wholesale dealer. The colour most used at the present time is orange
+gold, which is about the same in tint as our current gold coinage. Red
+gold is somewhat deeper in tone. Green gold and lemon gold are
+considerably altered by an alloy of silver, and are sold cheaper.
+Besides gold there are still other leaf-metals used, principally
+aluminium as a substitute for silver. The latter is still being used,
+but its unfortunate property of turning black will by-and-by drive it
+from our workshops. Bronze-leaf is also used for very small jobs in
+large quantities&mdash;makers' names on hat linings, ties, &amp;c. Like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a> </span> silver,
+it is also liable to rapid oxidization, which takes place with especial
+rapidity upon leather.</p>
+
+<p>Gold leaf is made in various sizes. The larger size, about 85 mm., is
+the best to use, whilst the very small sizes are better suited for some
+work.</p>
+
+<p>As a ground-work for gilt edges, the so-called <i>poliment</i> (Armenian
+bole) is now generally used. This is cleaned bole, made into a paste,
+and applied in a solution not too thin.</p>
+
+<p>To make the gold stick to the surface, glair or white of egg is used in
+all cases. It must be properly diluted according to whether it is to be
+used for gilt edges or hand-tooling.</p>
+
+<p>Finished work, especially smooth surfaces, is improved by the
+application of varnish, and is at the same time rendered damp-proof. The
+so-called bookbinder's or leather varnish is used for leather, cloth, or
+pressed dark papers. Map varnish, also sold as photographer's varnish,
+is suitable for light articles, maps, placards, &amp;c. At present, spirit
+varnish with its quick drying and high surface is almost exclusively
+used for this purpose. Turpentine varnishes are no longer generally used
+in bookbinderies; in colour printing copal and amber varnishes are used.</p>
+
+<p>The ready-made headband is an article specially manufactured for the
+bookbinder. It is fastened on the book in suitable lengths to cover the
+place where the body and back of books join at head and tail. These
+headbands are to be had in the most varied styles, according to price
+and requirement. For ordinary work a cheap cotton is good enough, for
+fine half-calf bindings a silk headband is used if it is not intended to
+weave by hand a headband of silk thread for decoration known as a worked
+headband.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the headband, the book-marker is required, generally a silk
+braid in bright colours.</p>
+
+<p>It is often necessary to fix clasps to heavy books and also to the
+smaller hymn-books and prayer-books. These are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a> </span> made to suit all
+requirements and in various styles by firms making a speciality of this
+work. The stronger the metal used, the better the clasp and the easier
+for the worker to handle, as clasps of poorer quality are sometimes
+spoilt even whilst being fixed to the books.</p>
+
+<p>Imitation metal fastenings are necessary for certain purposes, although
+their use is now considerably limited. These are the stamped metal rims
+and corner pieces, which are indispensable in the manufacture of sample
+cases, &amp;c. The fancy goods with their decorated borders which were so
+popular at one time have disappeared from the trade; on the other hand,
+there has been a demand for fancy coloured cords made by twisting cords
+together.</p>
+
+<h3>D.&mdash;<span class="smcap"><a name="Tools" id="Tools"></a>Tools.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The bookbinder's workshop of to-day presents quite a different aspect
+from that of our forefathers, even if we go back only 50 years.</p>
+
+<p>The work benches as now found in small leather or jobbing shops stand
+near wide and lofty windows, each bench having a large drawer at each
+worker's place. Underneath, between the legs of the bench, there is a
+board fixed on supports upon which boxes containing colours or any other
+materials in use are placed within easy reach; and so that the board may
+not inconvenience the worker sitting in front of it, a semi-circular
+opening is cut at each worker's place. At each place there is a stool,
+somewhat higher than an ordinary chair, with three legs and a round flat
+seat. The legs are connected by strong bars for the worker to rest his
+feet upon. Shelves for the larger tools are conveniently arranged on the
+walls, so as not to be a hindrance, but still within easy reach. A few
+smaller chests with drawers are required for the storing of smaller
+tools and pieces of metal ornament, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a> </span>&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>A sufficient number of wooden presses, pressing boards in folio, quarto,
+and octavo, with the screw key, as well as the press jack belonging
+thereto, must be conveniently placed. The screw key is used when
+applying heavy pressure; the press jack serves as a support during
+certain work which necessitates laying the press on the edge of the
+bench. If we add a few larger and smaller cutting boards and a few
+sewing frames, we have completed the list of the large wooden tools.</p>
+
+<p>The bookbinder requires very many small tools, even if we take into
+account only those necessary for ordinary shop-work. Iron rules and
+squares in various sizes, shears, knives, compasses and spring dividers,
+folders, files, pincers and hammers of different sizes, chisels, gouges,
+and punches.</p>
+
+<p>The finisher's tools are: Gold cushion, gold knife, scraper, steel; and
+furthermore, for hand-tooling, letter-box, fillets, rolls, ornaments,
+and letters, all very fine and very dear tools, which must be kept in
+special cupboards and boxes so as to protect from possible injury. The
+higher the class of work done in the shop, the larger must be the stock
+of these tools.</p>
+
+<p>These are the tools for general work and which no shop could be without;
+but what makes our modern workshop so different in character from what
+it was in former times are the many mechanical contrivances without the
+aid of which practical and profitable work is now inconceivable.</p>
+
+<p>The most necessary iron ally of the bookbinder is the cutting machine,
+either with lever or wheel action, the former for light, the latter for
+heavy work. Machine manufacturers vie with one another in their efforts
+to introduce inventions and improvements; but to-day it would seem
+impossible to make a discovery likely to be of any importance.</p>
+
+<p>The second most necessary machine is for cutting boards. Those with a
+wooden pedestal and table are not so much to be recommended as those
+made entirely of iron.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>When gilding in large quantities has to be done, a blocking press is
+necessary; lever action is always to be preferred to the balance or
+rotary action, the latter being of advantage for blocking or relief
+work, and also for fancy paper work. Even the best blocking press has
+some drawback; to be of any value, it necessitates quite an arsenal of
+plates and dies for blocking, and also calls for the constant
+replenishing and renewing of the same.</p>
+
+<p>The standing press is used for heavy pressure applied to large batches
+of books. An iron press with two uprights will be found sufficient even
+for heavy use in most bookbinderies.</p>
+
+<p>The rounding machine is now out of use. The binder rounds the back of
+the book with a hammer, and then it is backed in a backing machine,
+which puts the ridges on both sides of the book. The latest machine now
+being used in some of our large binding shops for this purpose is called
+the rounding and backing machine, which completely rounds and backs the
+book.</p>
+
+<p>The rolling machine of to-day is lighter than were the first models of
+this machine; besides, the work is in many cases unnecessary, as modern
+printed books are generally carefully rolled before they leave the
+printer.</p>
+
+<p>The wire-stitching machine came into use in England about 20 years ago,
+but is now abandoned. The wire-stapling machine is used for pamphlets,
+school-books, &amp;c. Eyeleting and round-cornering machines are smaller
+appliances, whilst the backing machine mentioned above is a very useful
+ally. Machines for scraping and paring leather are used least of all, as
+there is little for them to do in a small bookbindery.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing is not an exhaustive list of our tools and machines, but
+we will bring to a close these introductory remarks on the usual
+appliances, as mention will be made of the others in their proper
+place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I.</h2>
+
+<h3>FORWARDING.</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">General Preparatory Work.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Books reach the bookbinder either in the sheets just as they left the
+printing press or folded and stitched. This folding and stitching is, of
+course, part of the binder's work, so we will begin with the sheet as it
+left the press; this sheet must in the first place be folded ready for
+further manipulations.</p>
+
+<p>By folding we mean the arranging of the parts of a sheet in the order of
+succession required for reading. To facilitate this work the printer
+marks not only the page numbers on each sheet but also gives each sheet
+a number, these numbers being known as signatures. Every sheet is
+printed on both sides; the front side is called the first side, the
+other side the perfecting impression. Both sides are marked by a number
+or (more rarely) a letter. This mark stands at the right-hand side at
+foot of first page and is called the first signature; the second
+signature takes the same position on the second side of the sheet, that
+is, on page 3. Take any book haphazard and you will find the true
+signature on the first and the second<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a> </span> signature on the perfecting
+impression, always in the same position. In order to show at a glance
+whether the signature is the first or the second, the compositor adds an
+asterisk, thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1" summary="Printers Folding marks">
+<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1*</td><td align="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;or&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">A</td><td align="center">A*</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">first</td><td align="center">second</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">first</td><td align="center">second</td><td align="center">signature.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>We will see later that there is still another reason for the signature
+in the place mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>When the sheets are to be folded, all the sheets of an impression are
+laid one on top of the other and all lying the same way. The modern
+quick-printing presses gather the sheets automatically, so that a sheet
+is rarely laid the wrong way, excepting through want of care in looking
+over them, or in the knocking-up in the printing office a few sheets or
+a whole batch are thrown out of order. According as we are dealing with
+folio, 4to, or 8vo <i>format</i> we must order the gathering of the sheets
+and, of course, the position of the signature. The commonest <i>format</i> is
+8vo, that is to say, the size which gives eight printed leaves (or 16
+pages) to the sheet. At the same time, the method of folding this
+<i>format</i> is the most economical and includes the others as well.</p>
+
+<p>When folding 8vo sheets the pile lies in front of the worker in such a
+way that all the second signatures lie uppermost at the foot of the
+outside right page and all the first signatures at the left on the under
+side of the sheet; or, in other words, all first-side leaves are turned
+face downward and perfecting impressions face upward.</p>
+
+<p>Printed sheets are never folded according to the edges of the paper, but
+always registered by the printed columns or the page numbers. The novice
+finds this by holding the sheet against the light, but the experienced
+worker is able to fold the sheet without so much as lifting it from the
+table.<span class="pagenum">[Pg 15]</span><a name="Figs_2_and_3" id="Figs_2_and_3"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_024.png" width="400" height="187" alt="Figs. 2 and 3&mdash;Holding whilst folding." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 2 and 3&mdash;Holding whilst folding.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The manipulations for the folding of an 8vo sheet are as follows: The
+right hand holds the paper-folder and creases down the folds, the left
+gathers the sheets and moves them about aided by the right.</p>
+
+<p>1.&mdash;The right hand takes hold of the sheet at the right a little below
+the middle, brings it over to the left, when it is taken by the left
+hand and properly adjusted according to page numbers or corner of
+printed page (<a href="#Figs_2_and_3">Fig. 2</a>).</p>
+
+<p>2.&mdash;Crease with folder from bottom to top (the folder is held slanting
+to the crease, but the edge is used).</p>
+
+<p>3.&mdash;With the right hand the right and the left hand the left of the
+folded sheet are taken hold of at about the middle of the longer sides,
+nip together, make a short turn so that the left hand brings the sheet
+with its fore-edge to the folder's body, the left hand lets go, takes
+hold of the sheet between both ends at the middle fold, and adjusts
+pages and edge of fold alike (<a href="#Figs_2_and_3">Fig. 3</a>).</p>
+
+<p>4.&mdash;The right hand creases from top to bottom.</p>
+
+<p>5.&mdash;Left hand turns sheet over to other side, both hands take hold as
+before, nip together last fold, and adjust pages and fold.</p>
+
+<p>6.&mdash;Crease from top to bottom, laying aside sheet to left, fold lying to
+right.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>The whole process, which demands considerable dexterity, is only to be
+thoroughly learned by example and imitation; but study the
+illustrations, which are correctly drawn from life.</p>
+
+<p>This is the way sheets are folded when they come direct from the press;
+but if they had already been folded in quires, as is usually the case
+with school and hymn books, the sheets would simply be folded in the
+middle for convenience of storage and despatch.</p>
+
+<p>In this case the quires must first be opened, the crease taken out, and
+the sheets laid open. This work is called "breaking the backs." The
+unfolded sheets are folded in exactly the same manner, but before the
+last crease the sheet is turned, creased from bottom to top, and put
+aside in such a way that the sheet is turned over, that is face
+downwards. If this precaution is not observed, the folded sheets would
+afterwards be found in wrong order.</p>
+
+<p>At this point we might remark that the top, both of the book and the
+single page, is called the head, the bottom the tail. These commonly
+used terms will very frequently crop up.</p>
+
+<p>The folding of a 4to sheet is exactly the same, excepting that the last
+fold is omitted; the second signature lies face upwards at top on the
+right, the first signature lies downwards at top left hand.</p>
+
+<p>Folios are made up but rarely nowadays, except in artistic <i>éditions de
+luxe</i>, Bibles, and missals; they are simply folded in the middle; the
+signatures appear as in 8vo <i>format</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Duodecimo <i>format</i>, that is, a sheet printed to make 12 pages on each
+side, is so printed that the third part of the sheet has to be cut off
+with a knife or machine. This work is done in various ways: the sheet
+may be folded without regard to the one-sided elongation; after folding
+the part is cut off with a knife or machine at the proper place and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a> </span>
+detached portion inserted in the middle of the main section; the small
+section is therefore called "the inset." On the other hand, the inset
+may be cut off before folding and then separately folded and inserted.
+This is the more usual method.</p>
+
+<p>The cutting off of the inset prior to folding can be done in such a way
+with the modern quick-printing presses that the sheets are adjusted and
+cut off in the machine, or they may be folded in sections of six&mdash;eight
+sheets and cut open in the fold. For cutting open such sections a very
+sharp knife is required, either the usual bookbinder's knife or, better
+still, a somewhat longer two-edged paper-knife rounded at the end.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly, when printing was not done with such accuracy as now, the
+sheets were folded into sections by means of points. The compositor made
+a point on both sides between main sheet and inset in the furniture
+where the division had to be made; if pins were stuck into the table
+through these points each of the sheets following could be placed on the
+pins.</p>
+
+<p>Thus all sheets are brought to perfect register and may be cut with
+knife and rule or machine exactly through the points. This work is
+called "working to points."</p>
+
+<p>The detached portion appears as a long printed slip upon which are four
+pages or columns side by side. They are folded in a very simple manner.</p>
+
+<p>The page on the right is brought over to lie on the page to the left,
+registered, and creased in the middle, and the double sheet is now
+folded once more in exactly the same way.</p>
+
+<p>Inserting is done as follows: The sheets for insertion are placed to the
+right, the main sheets at the left side of them; the right hand takes a
+sheet to be inserted at about the middle of the fore-edge, the left hand
+at the same time taking a main sheet in such a way that thumb, middle,
+and index finger open the sheet about the middle of the upper fold, and
+raise it so that the right hand can easily slip in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a> </span> insertion.
+Whilst doing this, the left hand slips to the back, where the forefinger
+manages the adjustment of the sheet inserted. The insertion is nicely
+fitted into the back and must lie close to it. This work is also very
+easy, but it also is much easier to learn it from example and imitation
+than by written instruction.</p>
+
+<p>If the insets were already arranged before folding, that is to say, had
+the sheets been arranged according to page numbers immediately after
+printing as before mentioned, strict attention must be given to see that
+each main sheet has its insertion, otherwise the page sequence would be
+thrown into confusion in binding.</p>
+
+<p>In folding, every fold must be sharply creased down; but a firmness of
+body in the sheets, a smoothness of the single sheet, and a proper
+sharpness in each separate fold can only be obtained by pressing the
+sheets. For this purpose the sheets must first be "knocked up," that is,
+they must first be adjusted at head and back by knocking them together
+on the table. Sheets are never pressed without being counted at the same
+time; this is done both for convenience in pressing and for checking the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Knocking-up can only be done upon a firm level surface; the beginner had
+better not take too many sheets at one time, say from 20 to 25: these
+are moved to and fro between the palms of the hands so that the back
+fold and upper fold are worked in turn, and at these sides the sheets
+are brought into line.</p>
+
+<p>Knocking-up proceeds quickly if the sheets are handled lightly and
+freely. The single batches thus levelled are brought together and they
+in turn knocked up in the same way. Care must be taken that single
+sheets do not hang back, <i>i.e.</i>, that all sheets come up to the levelled
+edge.</p>
+
+<p>The knocked-up sheets are counted off&mdash;thin paper in hundreds, thick
+paper in fifties. To do this any big lot is taken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a> </span> hold of with the
+right hand&mdash;one soon learns to judge the quantity to be taken by the
+fingers&mdash;by the fore-edge, giving the hand a turn so as to bring the
+backs uppermost, when the sheets will fan out at the back and thus make
+the counting an easy matter. The left hand counts&mdash;pardon, the head
+counts, but the left hand tells off the sheets in such a way that the
+middle and index fingers are alternately inserted in 4, 8, 12, 16, &amp;c.,
+whilst counting 1, 2, 3, 4, &amp;c., and at the same time throwing over the
+sheets held. Every 25th lot of four sheets gives 100, and, of course,
+any other number you please can be counted in the same manner. Each lot
+is once more knocked up, placed in piles crosswise, and afterwards
+pressed.<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_028.png" width="200" height="174" alt="Fig. 4&mdash;Lifting into the Press." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4&mdash;Lifting into the Press.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The contrivance for pressing most generally used nowadays is still the
+bookbinder's little wooden hand-press, with wooden, or perhaps iron,
+screws; the former are lighter and handier, the latter heavier but more
+durable and therefore of advantage where heavy pressure is demanded.
+Each lot is placed between pressing-boards; these are about 1-1/2 cm.
+thick and vary in length and width according to the sheets or books to
+be pressed. According to the grain of the wood we speak of long and
+cross boards. On top of the upper and underneath the lower batch we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a> </span>
+place a cross board; it does not matter which way the grain runs in the
+other boards used. This precaution is taken to obviate the probable
+breakage when the cheeks of the press run parallel with the grain of the
+two outer pressing-boards.</p>
+
+<p>The pile of sheets between the pressing-boards is so placed that the
+nuts of the press are at first raised as high as the pile about to be
+pressed requires, then the press is put on the table to the right in
+front of the worker so that the head of one screw at the front touches
+the table edge. The pile is drawn on to the front edge of the table, the
+left hand slips underneath, and the chin presses on top. Whilst raising
+the upper cheek of the press with the right hand, the pile is inserted
+between the opened cheeks, is adjusted, and the press screwed up, first
+by the hand screws and then by the screw key used for this purpose. To
+do this the press with its high cheeks is held firmly between the legs
+and the nuts screwed up with the screw key as tightly as ever possible.</p>
+
+<p>At this stage we might mention a work which is very frequently done in
+the printery, but seldom in the bindery: this is the so-called gathering
+before folding. This work, as we have already mentioned, is done so that
+printed matter for publication can be properly stored or prepared for
+sending away.<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<img src="images/i_029.jpg" width="370" height="75" alt="Fig. 5&mdash;Open sheets laid out for gathering." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5&mdash;Open sheets laid out for gathering.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sheets are taken just as they left the press and piled up side by
+side in a row in order of number on a long table, each pile of sheets in
+exactly the same position as the others and just as they would be placed
+for folding; that is to say, for 8vos the first signature at the bottom
+left-hand side underneath, the second signature being at the bottom
+right-hand side on the top.<span class="pagenum">[Pg 21]</span></p>
+
+<p>Generally the work is gathered in batches of 5-6 sheets. The sheets in
+question are then laid out (see <a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The worker takes a board the required size, upon which he places the
+sheets when gathered; he begins at No. 1 pile, takes off the top sheet,
+being very careful not to take two, lays it upon the board, and so he
+goes the length of the table, taking the top sheet from each pile. He
+lays the pile of gathered sheets on the end of the table or another
+table standing behind. They are there received by another worker,
+knocked up, and folded in the middle. If only one worker can be spared
+for the job, the gathered sections are placed to one side, but each is
+laid crosswise over the other so that they are easily picked up
+afterwards for knocking up and folding. If the work has more than five
+or six sections, the separately gathered sections must be afterwards
+again gathered in the same manner. Perhaps there may be placed in the
+last section parts of a sheet&mdash;the title, addenda, corrigenda,
+frontispiece, diagrams, &amp;c. The treatment of these will be dealt with
+presently (pp. 22-24).</p>
+
+<p>Sheets so gathered must be afterwards opened out for folding in the
+bindery. The section is opened, the crease well pressed out, and the
+whole smoothed down quite flat, care being taken that all sheets lie the
+same way, the opened sections lying side by side according to the
+signatures.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>Before the folded sheets are arranged or gathered, there is frequently
+still some pasting to be done. The title, for instance, is seldom
+printed with the first sheet, but is usually made up with the preface,
+contents, &amp;c., after printing the last page, often as part of the last
+sheet.</p>
+
+<p>On this account the last sheet must be examined before folding to see
+how it is composed. If it happens that the sheet is to be exactly
+halved, it is best to cut the sheet in the middle and fold each half
+separately. It is even worth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a> </span> while cutting the sheet into quarters if
+the sheets can be pinned on, because it is then possible to fold the cut
+sheets in lots of five or six and to draw out each one singly, as it is
+commonly called "pulling out."</p>
+
+<p>This pulling out is very easy work; each folded batch is separately
+opened in the middle, fanned out with a paper folder so that each sheet
+stands back about 1/2-1 cm. behind the other, and the batch folded
+together again; it would then appear as in <a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a>Fig. 6.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="101" height="65" alt="Fig. 6&mdash;Sections fanned out for drawing out." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 6&mdash;Sections fanned out for drawing out.</p>
+
+<p>Take the batch lightly between the finger and the thumb of the left
+hand, and with the right draw off the sheets from the top one by one,
+knock them up, and firmly press down the back fold.</p>
+
+<p>Every part of a sheet which after folding makes less than four pages
+(equal to two leaves) must be pasted on. To do this the parts to be
+pasted are fanned out from the back with the pasting side uppermost,
+that is to say, the sheets are fanned out with the folder in the same
+way as described for "pulling out," until they lie like steps or stairs,
+each sheet displaying an edge of about 3 mm. In this manner all sheets
+so lie upon each other that each is about 3 mm. behind the one under it.</p>
+
+<p>The narrow margin is pasted; to avoid pasting more than the proper
+margin of the top sheet, a piece of waste paper should be laid on top at
+the right distance from the edge. Each leaf has thus a narrow pasted
+edge by which it is secured to the main sheet. So that the pasted edges
+do not stick together whilst each sheet is being fixed in its place,
+which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a> </span> of course, takes time, the batch is taken between the fingers
+immediately after pasting, and by a few light movements the sheets are
+worked a little further apart.<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="101" height="82" alt="Fig. 7&mdash;Sections fanned out for pasting." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 7&mdash;Sections fanned out for pasting.</p>
+
+<p>Take the batch at A between the finger and thumb of the right hand, at B
+in the same way with the left; the upper leaves slip gently backwards if
+the right hand bends the batch lightly upwards so that the sheets are
+pushed to B, the left first allows the sheets to slip back and then
+holds them firmly so that the right may repeat this movement several
+times.</p>
+
+<p>The batch is then so placed across the table that it lies to the right
+of the worker with the pasted edge away from him, whilst the pile of
+sheets to which the parts are to be pasted lies to the left, also with
+the back edge away from him. Leaf after leaf is taken up, carefully
+adjusted to back and upper fold, and pasted on to the main section and
+lightly rubbed down to right and left with the finger-tips, putting
+aside to the left each sheet as finished.</p>
+
+<p>Under certain conditions, the pasting on of a so-called correction may
+be a very disagreeable task. If errors have been made in composing or
+printing a page which escaped notice and correction at the proper time,
+a revised page is printed, and this must be inserted by the binder in
+the place of the faulty one. This inserting is done after the folding;
+the faulty leaf is so cut off that a narrow margin is left in the back
+to which the rectified leaf is pasted.</p>
+
+<p>If maps or plans accompany the work these also must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a> </span> inserted; thin
+sheets need simply be pasted on the back edge like other sheets and
+fixed in their right place; but thick paper is not easily pasted on and,
+besides, would always pull away the next leaf. It is therefore joined to
+a narrow strip of paper about 1 cm. in width and this is pasted and
+fixed in the back. If several plates have to be inserted at the same
+place, or to be fixed at the end of the book, they are joined together
+in sections of suitable thickness. For this, thin paper is hinged in the
+back of the book, that is, the two plates are pasted over each other
+after pasting a narrow margin of about 3 mm. When dry, the double leaf
+so obtained is folded together in the middle of the pasted little guard.
+As this process lessens the leaf which has the back-fold by as much as
+is pasted to the other, the latter is cut down by 3 mm. beforehand.</p>
+
+<p>If there are many such plates to be joined together, they are made up in
+sections of 4 or 6 according to the thickness of the paper, and every 2
+or 3 cut down according to circumstances, and the same number left the
+full size. When all have been properly cut, the edges are fanned out and
+pasted. Then as many as make up a section are taken up and fanned out a
+little further, the pasted edge of No. 1 is laid on 6, 2 on 5, 3 on 4,
+and the batch set aside on the left and the same process gone through
+with the next lot. When dry, the plates thus guarded together are
+creased together at the back.</p>
+
+<p>Plates on thick paper must likewise be mounted on strips of paper. These
+are cut from thin, strong note-paper and are so arranged that their
+thickness in the back is the same as the thickness of the plates. It is
+well to select a paper which when double is as thick as the plates. In
+case the plates are extra thick, the guard is made four-fold. The width
+of the guard must be measured to correspond. If a guard of double
+thickness only is required for filling up, it is cut twice<span class="pagenum">[Pg 25]</span> the width of
+the guard and 3 mm. added for pasting on the plate. This gives 2 × 1 cm.
++ 3 mm. = 23 mm. If a guard of four-fold thickness is necessary, the
+result is 4 × 1 cm. + 3 mm. = 43 mm. The plates are fanned out narrowly
+with the back edge uppermost, pasted, and each plate affixed to one of
+the made guards. This work is called "mounting on guards."</p>
+
+<p>When the pasted plates are dry they are folded in the back on the
+following plan according to whether the guard must be two-fold or
+three-fold.<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="450" height="22" alt="Fig. 8&mdash;Suggestions for mounting on guards." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8&mdash;Suggestions for mounting on guards.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus the folded guard completely fills out the space in the back of the
+book. Besides, two, three, or more plates can easily be made into a
+section if the little guards are made up within each other.</p>
+
+<p>Despite this levelling work, the pasted part will still be noticeable;
+the thoroughly dried sections are therefore taken in batches of four or
+five, knocked up at the back edge, and the thick part carefully hammered
+on a stone or iron bed.</p>
+
+<p>Just as paper strips have been used in this work, linen can be used for
+guarding atlases and mounting large maps which are intended for long and
+constant use. To fill out the back, cardboard or thick drawing-paper the
+thickness of the plates (or, if anything, a little less) is used. Of
+this material strips are cut 1 cm. in width and same length as the
+height of the work, cutting a strip for each plate of course. Besides
+these strips, cut some soft white calico into strips 3 cm. in width.
+These are pasted, laid quite straight upon a clean board, two strips of
+paper are placed in the centre side by side on top of the pasted strip,
+and at right and left of each a map is hinged on, the first face
+downwards, the second face upwards. When dry, the section so made is
+creased in the middle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a> </span> knocked down with the hammer, and pressed for a
+time. By this method two plates are hinged on each guard; by the other
+each plate had its own guard.</p>
+
+<p>Many books are issued with plates larger than the <i>format</i> of the book
+itself; they must be brought to the right size by folding, but in such a
+way that the folded plate is secure from injury during any subsequent
+trimming.</p>
+
+<p>Before making a single fold in the plate, the worker should clearly see
+his way through his scheme for folding, so as to bring the plate to the
+size required with the smallest possible number of creases. Plates which
+are slightly wider and longer than the size of the book are easily made
+to fit if they are folded once or, if necessary, twice across the
+middle, pasting the edge of one fold on a guard and then fixing in its
+place in the book.<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="450" height="383" alt="Figs. 9-13&mdash;Suggestions for folding plates and maps." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 9-13&mdash;Suggestions for folding plates and maps.</span>
+</div>
+<p>If this will not do, the plate must first be folded up from the bottom
+edge far enough to escape damage in trimming, and then the long side
+must be similarly folded. Larger plates must take more folds, always
+working on the principle that the length of the book should first be
+obtained in the best possible way, and afterwards the width is taken as
+the guide in making the folds.</p>
+
+<p>In doing this the plate must be folded now to the front, then to the
+back, so that on drawing it out it opens in a zigzag fashion. For the
+sake of clearness we give illustrations showing the most general methods
+of folding. The part marked A is secured in its place in the book by
+mounting on a paper guard; but one may, by cutting out the map properly,
+leave a small margin which will serve as a guard as shown in Figs. 10,
+12, and 13.</p>
+
+<p>In all cases, however, it is essential that the thickness of the folded
+plates should be equalised by inserting guards in the back of the book.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly, when several plates were inserted one after the other, it was
+customary to place them in such a way that they were trimmed at top and
+bottom alternately; now they are placed so that they are all trimmed at
+the top edge: this is much better, because it keeps the top edge smooth
+and close, thereby keeping out dust and insects. The accompanying
+sketches are based upon this principle.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called two-page illustrations in periodicals must be treated in
+the same way. These are only possible in the middle of a section, where
+they would be caught into the back and injured if the following
+precaution were not observed. Such illustrations are taken out, the back
+edge pasted, and then placed in the back so as to adhere to the
+following sheets, projecting about 1/2 cm.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>The printed sheets thus treated must now be collected by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a> </span> the same
+process&mdash;that is if they have not been gathered in open sheets in the
+printery&mdash;into volumes; this work is generally known as gathering after
+folding.</p>
+
+<p>As in gathering open sheets, the piles of folded sheets are placed side
+by side; but as these take up so much less room than the open sheets, in
+most cases the whole work may be laid out at one time.</p>
+
+<p>Clear the longest table procurable, which if not long enough must be
+extended by the addition of small tables, trestles, &amp;c., upon which are
+laid the batches of sheets in fifties, and, beginning with the last
+sheet, work up the row until the title page is reached and the gathering
+ended. Starting from the left, the gathered sheets are placed to the
+right; after the last sheet, <i>i.e.</i>, the title page, there should be
+sufficient room for placing the gathered sheets and also, if possible,
+for knocking up and collating, that is, checking the sequence of the
+sheets. The gatherer begins with the last sheet on the left, draws the
+top sheet with the right hand on to the left hand held flat to receive
+it, and so goes along the row, drawing from each pile one sheet, which
+drops into its place on top of the preceding one in the left hand. This
+work can be carried on simultaneously by several persons following each
+other, but there must be a sufficient number of persons stationed at the
+end ready to knock up and collate the gathered sheets. In order to
+simplify this work and to enable one to take up the completed gathering
+at the title page, the pile containing the title page sheet is plainly
+marked across the back with a blue or red pencil, so that one sees on
+the back of each single sheet a coloured mark easily seen in the
+gathered and knocked-up sheets.<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_038.png" width="200" height="161" alt="Fig. 14&mdash;Collating." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14&mdash;Collating.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To collate a book it is taken in both hands. Taking a good hold of it by
+the right hand at the top edge, it is lightly held by the left at the
+bottom towards the back. Now make a turn downwards with the right so
+that the whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a> </span> pack of sheets springs upwards and spreads out at the
+back like a fan, and the controlling left hand lets them go one at a
+time, whilst checking the sequence of the signatures, that is to say,
+the sheets must be checked to see whether instead of the right
+signatures following in due order there is not a second signature or
+perhaps none at all. In such a case the sheet must be taken out and
+re-folded.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to refer now to another more detailed branch of this work
+which is necessary for certain purposes. If books which have already
+been used or bound are sent for re-binding it would be very unsafe to
+rely upon the pages being in proper order, especially if they have been
+much torn and have to be mended. Very frequently the leaves of a section
+have been misplaced. In such cases the book is laid flat upon the table,
+the head lying to the top, and, beginning at the title, leaf by leaf is
+lifted with the point of a knife after the way some ignorant persons
+have of using a moistened finger. The knife point is not inserted under
+the leaf lying uppermost but is lightly placed at the top of the leaf
+near the page number and the leaf pushed up from the side so that the
+left index finger takes it as it separates from the succeeding leaf
+whilst the eye scans the page numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &amp;c. Also with other
+things that do not admit of any other method of collating, <i>e.g.</i>,
+ledgers, documents, &amp;c., this is the only possible way of doing it.</p>
+
+<p>Nowadays, paper received in the printery has been so well calendered
+beforehand&mdash;that is to say, polished between rollers&mdash;and after printing
+the sheets are once more so well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a> </span> rolled that the gathered sheets may at
+once be prepared for sewing. Old paper, however, must be beaten or
+rolled to make it firm and solid. The former work will be completely
+forgotten at no very distant date, as the younger generation of masters
+and men show less and less inclination to learn it. For beating, a stone
+about the height of a low table, and a surface about the size of a sheet
+may be used, or a cast-iron plate about 6 cm. in thickness embedded in a
+block of wood the same height as the stone. Upon this firm base&mdash;which,
+of course, must stand on the ground floor or in the cellar&mdash;the book, or
+section of it if too thick, is beaten with a short-handled iron hammer,
+the face of which measures about 100 sq. cm. All corners and edges are
+well rounded off, and the face is slightly convex. The handle must be
+short, not above 12 cm. long, cut oval, and just thick enough to be well
+grasped. The hole in the hammer is made so that the handle drops a
+little at the (outer) end.</p>
+
+<p>In beating, the sections should be held by the left hand after being
+knocked up. In order to prevent injury to the paper, the sections are
+placed between pieces of waste paper of same size, also a mill-board or
+piece of waste paper to size is laid upon the beating stone. The right
+hand wields the hammer, which must strike the sections (or book) fairly
+and squarely with the full face. The beating is begun at the edge, and
+blow after blow is given in gradually lessening circles until the centre
+is reached, the left hand, of course, keeping up the necessary motion of
+the sections. It requires considerable practice to do this without
+shifting the sections, but if this happens they must again be knocked
+up.</p>
+
+<p>The experienced workman knows by the touch where the book has been
+beaten much or little and works accordingly. The main thing in this, as
+in all other work, is that the book should be again pressed for some
+time&mdash;for a night at the least. The beaten volumes are divided into
+several lots or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a> </span> sections about a finger thick, and pressing-boards
+placed between them. If any sections show folds or creases even after
+pressing, they must be once more beaten and pressed.<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+   <a href="images/i_040l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_040.jpg" width="200" height="169"
+      alt="Fig. 15&mdash;Rolling machine.">
+   </a>
+    <span class="caption">Fig. 15&mdash;Rolling machine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The work of beating, as already said, has been almost entirely
+superseded by the rolling machine. In treatises by theorists, one finds
+over and over again that books are not so well bound nowadays owing to
+the "practice of hand-beating being discontinued." This opinion is
+absurd, and arises from a very superficial technical knowledge and
+wholly imperfect acquaintance with the requirements of our craft. A
+machine-rolled or unbeaten book is always much better than one
+imperfectly beaten, for here nothing is demanded but sheer force, and
+that is always exercised with better results by a machine. As already
+pointed out, our modern printed books do not require any such work;
+besides, the so-called surface papers and printed illustrations prohibit
+both beating and rolling, as such work would destroy the high surface of
+the paper. Old books, on the contrary, where the paper is unsized,
+spongy, and swollen, require some such work, as pressing alone, even for
+days, has not the required effect.</p>
+
+<p>In beating, the work should be divided into sections or lots of 15 to 20
+sheets; they need not be counted, they are measured by the eye. For
+rolling, however, the sheets must be counted off exactly, from 8 to 12;
+they are knocked up and placed between zinc plates of same size and
+passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a> </span> through the rollers obliquely, the upper back corner being first
+inserted. It is well to introduce the second lot before the first has
+quite passed through the rollers; this not only saves the rollers but
+avoids the extra pressure on the lower corner when a section leaves the
+rollers. For this reason it is advisable to insert the lots right and
+left alternately. The first lot rolled should be examined to test the
+amount of pressure, and at first a lighter pressure should be applied to
+avoid risk of injury.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>We have now come to the end of the processes through which a book has to
+pass before it is actually made up into book form. Before we take up
+this work there is incidental work to be mentioned which comes before
+the work of binding proper. This is the stitching and treatment of
+stitched or bound books for binding and the necessary repairs thereto.</p>
+
+<p>The stitched or brochured book is no true book form; it is nothing more
+than the gathered sheets of a work in a temporary form, handier and more
+convenient, and therefore more saleable.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent leaves from falling out in the event of their being cut open,
+they are lightly stitched together&mdash;<i>holländert</i>.</p>
+
+<p>How did the name originate? It is difficult to say. Perhaps books
+stitched in this manner were first brought out in Holland.</p>
+
+<p>With this method of sewing, the sheet only gets one short thread in the
+middle; but as the sewing of each sheet separately would entail a
+considerable loss of time, that old contrivance of the bookbinder for
+most kinds of sewing work, the sewing frame, is here made use of. A base
+or bed has on each front corner a perpendicular screw, upon which is
+placed a movable cross-bar with a slit. This bar is regulated by two
+screws; lay cords are fastened to hooks which are slipped through the
+slits, the other ends being knotted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a> </span> metal keys fixed under the base.
+A narrow movable bar, bevelled to the front of the bed, holds these keys
+when the lay cords are tightened.<a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+   <a href="images/i_042al.png">
+     <img src="images/i_042a.jpg" width="200" height="156"
+      alt="Fig. 16&mdash;Sewing frame.">
+   </a>
+    <span class="caption">Fig. 16&mdash;Sewing frame.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are no lay cords on the sewing frame for the work of Holländering
+as in other kinds of sewing, but two strips of zinc plate about 1 to
+1-1/2 cm. in width are fastened so that at the top they are attached to
+the hooks and at the bottom are held with a pin. The lot to be sewn is
+placed rather slant-wise on the bed of the frame to the left, the back
+turned outwards, the head to the sewer, all sheets, therefore, facing
+away from the worker.<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_042b.jpg" width="200" height="88" alt="Fig. 17&mdash;Arrangement on the sewing frame." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 17&mdash;Arrangement on the sewing frame.</p>
+
+<p>The left hand takes the upper sheet with thumb and middle finger, so
+that the forefinger at once falls in the middle of the sheet, turning
+the sheet so that the head <i>A</i> lies to the left and face upwards as
+shown in the illustration; zinc strips are stretched at the points <i>x</i>.
+The left hand is introduced into the opened sheets from behind to take
+the needle when pushed in and then to draw it out again; the right hand
+inserts the needle from outside, and also draws out the needle inserted
+from inside by the left hand.</p>
+
+<p>All kinds of sewing on the sewing frame are divided between both hands
+in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>The threaded needle is now introduced into the sheets to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a> </span> the right of
+the right strip at the back fold and again brought out to the right of
+the left strip, the sheets being meanwhile held open by the left hand.
+The thread is drawn out, except for a short end, the second sheet taken
+and laid open, and the needle is now introduced to the left of the left
+strip and brought out to the left of the right strip; and so on, each
+time introducing the needle from the right side to the right of the
+strip and from the left side to the left of the strip, drawing out
+accordingly. The thread is only to be seen on the outside of the strips.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called English darning-needle&mdash;a long needle with a long eye&mdash;is
+used by the bookbinder. A special thread is made on purpose, the highest
+number being used for holländering.</p>
+
+<p>When the sewing frame is packed so full that the sheets can no longer be
+kept properly squared, a sharp knife is taken and the threads cut off
+along the metal strips, and the sheets are then removed from the sewing
+frame. Every sheet is now independent of the other, and has a thread in
+the middle, of which a little may be seen at each needle-hole. These
+ends are afterwards pasted up in the work to follow. It is clear from
+this method of sewing that it is not necessary to tie a second thread on
+to the first when finished, but simply to begin with a new thread,
+letting the ends always project a little.</p>
+
+<p>This method is the more recent and practical. It admits of one kind of
+sheet being sewn immediately after folding: nay, more: whilst one folder
+is still busy folding, another may begin to holländer. It is not till
+afterwards that the sheets are gathered. Gathered sheets are sewn in the
+same way, and are more easily knocked up than when sewn on cords and the
+threads left uncut after the old style instead of on metal bands. In
+holländert sheets the threads lie as shown in Fig. 18.<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a> </span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_044a.jpg" width="200" height="113" alt="Fig. 18&mdash;Arrangement of threads in holländering." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 18&mdash;Arrangement of threads in holländering.</span>
+</div>
+<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+   <a href="images/i_044bl.png">
+     <img src="images/i_044b.jpg" width="150" height="226"
+      alt="Fig. 19&mdash;Small stapling machine for single sheets.">
+   </a>
+    <span class="caption">Fig. 19&mdash;Small stapling machine for single sheets.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lately, in brochuring, the sheets are not holländert, but sewn with wire
+on the machine. This is a very good method when the finest possible
+staple closing from the outside is used. For this work a small machine
+is used, similar to those used for wiring documents, copy-books, and
+single sheets, which have an automatic wire-drawing action.</p>
+
+<p>The batch of sheets is here arranged face upwards to the right of the
+worker. The right hand takes the sheet by the head, opening it at the
+same time with the forefinger, and inserts it in the groove of the
+machine, which is at the same moment set in motion. With each different
+sheet the position of the staple must be changed so that all do not
+stand the same height, as it would cause the paper to be cut through in
+pressing.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying sketch shows the arrangement of the collected
+brochures.<a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_044c.jpg" width="251" height="62" alt="Fig. 20&mdash;Arrangement of staples in brochures." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 20&mdash;Arrangement of staples in brochures.</p>
+
+<p>It is barbarous to sew more tightly with wire, for in the necessary
+pulling to pieces to bring them to their former<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a> </span> state for binding they
+are sure to be more or less damaged. Sewing with a large machine using
+strips of gauze cannot be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>The further treatment of holländert or wire-sewn sheets is dealt with
+towards the end of the chapter.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>Most of the books given to the small binder do not come to him fresh
+from the printer, but sewn, used or unused, cut open, or as published.
+The sheets for binding must, as far as possible, be restored to the
+condition they were in before they were sewn. It is absolutely necessary
+that they should be made into loose single sheets. This work is called
+"pulling to pieces." The outer cover is torn off, the thread or wire
+inside the sheet removed, and the sheets very carefully separated one by
+one. When they are all pulled to pieces they are pushed open a little at
+the back, first to one side, then to the other, and scraped with a knife
+from top to bottom so as to remove all dirt, glue, &amp;c., adhering.</p>
+
+<p>Where the sheets had been cut open and the inner leaves worked out of
+place, they must be well pushed into the back again. The sheet is
+lightly held half-open in the left hand, and the leaves are knocked into
+the back with a long folder or knife.</p>
+
+<p>If sheets are found badly folded they must now be properly re-folded.
+Any torn places must be repaired. A special chapter ought really to be
+devoted to this, for repairing and restoring is an art in itself. Here,
+only the most necessary work can be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>There are three different kinds of tears: tears in the print, in the
+margin, and in the back. The first may be torn with slanting edges; in
+such a case, both edges must be carefully pasted, fitted to each other,
+a piece of paper laid over and under, and then well rubbed down. If the
+tear has not slanting edges, but is clean cut, it is always best to
+paste the<span class="pagenum">[Pg 37]</span> edges likewise and to join the pieces by overlapping very
+slightly. It always looks better than the patching with strips of
+paper&mdash;a method adopted even by good workmen. The pasting on of pieces
+of tissue paper is to be condemned.</p>
+
+<p>In cases of repairs like the foregoing, a piece of unpasted tissue paper
+may be laid on the repaired place and rubbed down, so that any paste
+exuding cannot do harm, and besides, it will serve to strengthen a weak
+place. It may be used, however, only on condition that the tint is
+exactly the same as that of the other paper.</p>
+
+<p>Tears at the margin are repaired by pasting on strips of the same paper
+or of a kind as near as possible in texture and tint. To make the mend
+less noticeable, the paper should be torn beforehand, that is to say, by
+tearing one side of the paper the edge is less sharply defined and
+appears more like part of the sheet and is hardly perceptible.</p>
+
+<p>Tears in the back (if outside) leaves are mended by pasting them down on
+to the following inner leaf; afterwards the glue makes this place still
+stronger. If the middle leaf is likewise torn, a narrow strip is pasted
+into the back. This may be cut true by the straight-edge if a very
+narrow strip suffices, but if the tear is here also sideways a piece of
+torn paper must be pasted on. If there are backs, torn off corners, or
+the like to be put in, a suitable paper is selected, a piece a little
+larger than the missing piece cut off the edge of the damaged leaf
+neatly pasted, the patch laid on slightly overlapping, and well rubbed
+down under a piece of waste paper. When thoroughly dry, the loose edges
+of the patch should be carefully torn off so as to slope and taper off
+nicely.</p>
+
+<p>When all parts are repaired and the sheets again in proper order, the
+book is pressed for a while between boards.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus that good books are treated, and although it would be better
+to return books of no special value as not<span class="pagenum">[Pg 38]</span> worth the labour, still it
+does happen that cheap books&mdash;mostly school books and periodicals&mdash;have
+to be repaired. A quick way of getting through such work is as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A larger piece of similar paper is well pasted and laid upon a clean
+cutting-board, and from this piece strips of the required width are cut,
+laid down in their place, and cut to length with the shears, and well
+rubbed down under waste paper. If the pasted piece becomes dry before it
+is used it must be coated again.</p>
+
+<p>All repaired sheets must be laid between mill-boards to dry.</p>
+
+<p>Worn and damaged periodicals are repaired in the same way. Generally the
+numbers are curled towards the fore-edge. Before commencing to pull to
+pieces they should be rolled towards the back, especially close to the
+back, to straighten them. The leaves must all be well pushed into the
+back, turned down corners (so-called dogs' ears) must be turned up, and
+two-page illustrations must be pasted away from the back. There are
+generally single or double leaves at the end of each copy or
+sheet&mdash;these must be pasted on. This work is not done singly, but the
+whole volume is at once laid open from back to front for pasting. All
+parts of the sheets to be pasted are placed at the front edge of the
+table, the edges fanned out, the other sheets wherein they are to be
+placed being meanwhile pushed further back so that they are not touched
+during pasting. The fanned-out sheets are pasted and each is rubbed down
+on to the sheet following.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been said that in pulling to pieces the wire or thread
+sewing must be removed; this is not always easy. To begin with, the
+wires must be first bent upwards; if they are firmly glued to the
+outside of the back, the latter has first to be softened by smearing it
+very thickly with paste, and after leaving it some little time the glue
+may be scraped off and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a> </span> the wires loosened. Not until then can the wires
+inside the sheets be removed and the sheets separated. The backs of
+books that have been bound are softened in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>Even to-day&mdash;Heaven help us!&mdash;well-got-up books, even illustrated works,
+are sewn through sideways with coarse wire staples. Great care must be
+used in removing these and in separating the sheets, so that the
+bookbinder may at least try to undo the harm caused by barbarous methods
+practised either in thoughtlessness or ignorance.</p>
+
+<p>It sometimes happens that the back of a book is so bad that it is
+necessary to cut it clean off. The leaves are then made up into sections
+of 6 to 8, levelled at the back, and overcast with a fine needle and
+fine thread. This work can be done quicker with an ordinary
+sewing-machine, adjusting it for the longest stitch.</p>
+
+<p>New works consisting of thin single sheets are done in the same way.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Sewing.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Modern books are fastened together by sewing; as a rule thread is used,
+and always in sewing good books. Thread sewing is very much better than
+wire stitching. In the first place, thread has not the disadvantage of
+rusting, to which wire is always subject; secondly, thread does not
+break the paper in the back, as so frequently happens when cheap paper
+containing much wood fibre is wire-stitched. The greatest advantage of
+thread sewing over wire lies in the flexibility of the spun thread; with
+sharp pressure it lies flat in the sheet, whilst wire does not give at
+all. Besides, it is flexible the whole length, and this adds greatly to
+the life of the book.</p>
+
+<p>All thread sewing is now done by machinery and is really satisfactory.
+Only the very smallest job shops sew their books by hand.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of sewing is to fasten each sheet to several cords or
+bands by means of a long thread running right along the inside of the
+sheet. These cords give the book its hold to the cover; therefore the
+more cords used, the more firmly is the book secured to its cover. There
+are now two methods of fastening the sheets on the cords; first, there
+is the older method of passing the thread along and out of the sheet,
+around the cord, and again into the sheet, and repeating the same
+movement at the next band.<a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a> </span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_050a.jpg" width="251" height="21" alt="Fig. 21&mdash;Arrangement of threads in old style of sewing." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 21&mdash;Arrangement of threads in old style of sewing.</p>
+
+<p>Nowadays, this method is almost entirely discarded. When for special
+reasons, or on account of its greater strength, it is desired to imitate
+the old method, the sewing is done on double cords; that is to say, for
+every cord two cords are stretched alongside each other and regarded as
+one. This sewing is more tedious, as the thread must take up each cord
+as shown in Fig. 22.<a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_050b.jpg" width="150" height="35" alt="Fig. 22&mdash;Arrangement of threads with double cords." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 22&mdash;Arrangement of threads with double cords.</p>
+
+<p>These somewhat elaborate modes of sewing have been simplified in recent
+years by making saw-cuts in the back, in which the cords are laid. By
+this means the sewing thread never actually passes out of the sheet, but
+is drawn behind the cord lying in the saw-cut and thus holds it.</p>
+
+<p>That is why we "saw-in" our books. The sawing-in is done with a broad
+saw; the so-called "tenon saw" being the one most generally used. The
+saw-cut must correspond exactly to the thickness of the cord to be used,
+should be less deep than wide, and should not take up too much glue when
+glueing up, as this might easily turn brittle. By inclining the saw to
+right and left alternately during sawing, the resulting cut will be
+something like this ¯¯¯¯¯/__\¯¯¯¯¯; this is the best and most usual
+form. The common practice of widening the cut by means of a coarse file
+gives a triangular cut like this ¯¯¯¯¯\/¯¯¯¯¯ which is objectionable, as
+the groove gets filled with glue, thus rendering the thread liable to
+break. As many cuts must be made in the book as there are cords to be
+used, besides the so-called kettle stitch at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a> </span> head and tail by which the
+thread is passed from one sheet to the other. Dividing the back for
+sawing-in is done by marking off 1 cm. from the head and twice as much
+from the tail and dividing the rest into equal portions with the
+dividers. An octavo should never be sewn on less than four cords, and a
+folio on six. If obliged to use less through low prices, then three must
+be taken as the minimum number, and that only in exceptional cases. If
+the books are very small&mdash;as, for instance, prayer-books and hymn-books
+less than 7 cm. in height&mdash;it may then be permissible to sew on two
+cords. The division for the different sizes for sawing-in is made as
+shown in Fig. 23.<a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Divisions for sawing-in.">
+<tr><td align="left">6 cords = 9 divisions.</td><td align="left">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_051a.jpg" width="251" height="29" alt="Fig. 23&mdash;Divisions for sawing-in." title="">
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4 cords = 7 divisions.</td><td align="left">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_051b.jpg" width="251" height="30" alt="Fig. 23&mdash;Divisions for sawing-in." title="">
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">3 cords = 6 divisions.</td><td align="left">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_051c.jpg" width="251" height="33" alt="" title="">
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2 cords = 5 divisions.</td><td align="left">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_051d.jpg" width="251" height="29" alt="" title="">
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 23&mdash;Divisions for sawing-in.</p>
+
+<p>The saw-cuts at the kettle stitch are less deep and quite narrow; they
+only mark the place where the thread is to pass in and out.</p>
+
+<p>It may be wondered why the distances between the cords, when using four
+or six, are unequal; the reason for this will be explained when we come
+to the sewing of such sizes.</p>
+
+<p>In sawing-in, the batch to be sawn is knocked up head and back and put
+between two boards&mdash;if the volumes are thin, several may be laid
+together&mdash;so that the back projects about 1/2 cm. beyond the edges of
+the boards. The first and last sheet of each volume have previously been
+laid aside, as these, with one exception, are not sawn-in.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Books and boards are now clamped in a small hand-press, which is screwed
+up by hand only. For convenience of working, the press with the screws
+is laid flat upon the table, so that the nuts are against the table
+edge. The press is propped up at the back by the press-jack. The
+divisions for the cords are marked on the back with a lead pencil after
+measuring with the dividers, and the cuts made according to the
+markings. If several volumes of the same size are to be sawn-in, the top
+sheet of the first batch sawn is used as a guide for marking the others,
+thus saving the work of measuring each one with the dividers. Where much
+sawing-in is done, a sawing-in machine is employed. The sheets are
+placed, backs downwards, in a moveable box, which is led over
+a system of circular saws.<a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 401px;">
+   <a href="images/i_052l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="401" height="347"
+      alt="Fig. 24&mdash;Machine for sawing-in.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24&mdash;Machine for sawing-in.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the work of sawing-in, the first and last sheets are replaced, the
+volumes again collated, and the end papers put in place; the sheets are
+now ready for sewing.</p>
+
+<p>End papers are the blank leaves which the binder places at the beginning
+and end of a book. They vary according to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a> </span> the style of the book. Every
+end paper consists of a "fly leaf" (this lies over the title page in the
+book), the "paste-down," and in most cases of a "tear-off." For the
+stronger end papers and in half-leather bindings a cloth joint is used.
+Whilst dealing with these end papers, we must not forget the narrow
+guard; it is worked on the prepared end paper (as will be shown later)
+by folding over, and serves to enclose the title or end page with which
+it is sewn. The words joint, guard, and swell may here be more clearly
+explained, as they are used very frequently in the bindery. In the first
+place, we call the part where back and cover are joined by a sort of
+hinge "the joint," also strips of leather, cloth, &amp;c., used for making
+this part are called "joints"; secondly, the slightly raised part of the
+back, caused by pressing or sewing, is shortly called "the swell"; and
+any strips of linen or paper fastened into the back of the book for
+hingeing maps, plates, &amp;c., are called "guards."</p>
+
+<p>For use as end papers, a paper must be selected which suits in quality
+and tone the printed paper. Nothing shows lack of taste more than the
+use of a blue end paper with a paper of yellow tone. For both back and
+front a double sheet is necessary and is cut the required size. A paper
+guard, about the width of three fingers, is made from a piece of stout
+waste paper and pasted on a narrow margin at the back of the double
+leaf, in order to protect it in the joint and also for fastening on the
+cover. If there are single leaves to be used up, two of these might be
+pasted to each other narrowly on the back and upon this the guard; this
+is the so-called double end paper.</p>
+
+<p>If instead of these only a single leaf is taken, then we have a single
+end paper; this is used for cheap school books and generally at the back
+only.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying sketch shows both these end papers with the small guard
+already folded. This folding of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a> </span> guard is not very easy for the
+beginner. The leaf is placed face upwards, square in front of the
+worker, and a very narrow margin at the back edge bent upwards about 3
+mm. in width, the forefinger and thumb of both hands shaping and bending
+the guard, working from the centre to the ends.<a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_052hb.jpg" width="251" height="39" alt="Fig. 25&mdash;Suggestions for single and double end papers." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 25&mdash;Suggestions for single and double end papers.</p>
+
+<p>Should the sheet from which the end papers are made be a little wider
+than required for the end papers, the tear-off may be folded at the same
+time; with double end papers, the leaf which is to be pasted down later
+is inserted between fly leaf and tear-off, and therefore is called
+"insertion."<a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_034b.jpg" width="150" height="41" alt="Fig. 26&mdash;Suggestion for double end paper with tear-off." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 26&mdash;Suggestion for double end paper with tear-off.</p>
+
+<p>If the end papers are to have a cloth joint it must be placed within the
+two leaves or, better, pasted in face inwards. Double cloth joints are
+no longer used in printed books, as they make the end papers too thick,
+and in the subsequent rounding the first sheet is apt to break. The
+joint is here also folded on as before.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly, when linen joints were used, the end paper was simply made by
+inserting the strip of cloth and hingeing on the outside leaf about 1
+cm. from the fold. This, however, has many disadvantages, therefore the
+end papers are made as explained, then carefully tearing off the outside
+leaf in the back in pasting down and cutting it as required it is pasted
+on to the board, as will be more fully explained under "pasting down."</p>
+
+<p>The French paste a double leaf before the first and last sheets after
+having pasted a covering leaf around these.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>For extra work, the following style of end paper is the best; it is used
+in England for all high-class work, and in Germany also it has been
+adopted by all the first-class firms.</p>
+
+<p>The end papers consist merely of single leaves the size of the sheet.
+These are fanned out at the back to make a small margin and pasted. The
+first leaf is then pasted down on the end-paper sheet so as to leave a
+margin of about 2 mm.; the second leaf is pasted level with the back.
+All end papers are proceeded with in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>If these are to have a cloth joint it must be pasted on the outside also
+only 2 mm. wide. When the end papers are dry, they must be stitched down
+along the back, 2 mm. from the edge, with the sewing-machine adjusted to
+its longest stitch. It is unnecessary to knot the ends of the
+thread&mdash;they are cut clean off. When there is no sewing-machine, the
+volumes must be overcast by hand. This overcasting is done by inserting
+a fine needle near the back of the knocked-up sheets from above and
+drawing the thread almost quite through, the second and following
+stitches all being made from above. The thread would then appear as in
+Fig. 27.<a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="251" height="53" alt="Fig. 27&mdash;Overcast end paper." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 27&mdash;Overcast end paper.</p>
+
+<p>These end papers are made up before sawing-in and sawn in with the book,
+and when it is not possible to stitch them with the machine they must be
+sawn in before overcasting, or the sawing would cut the threads.</p>
+
+<p>Now for the sewing. We stretch the requisite number of cords, which are
+secured to the hooks at the top by a simple loop which is easily undone
+as soon as it is taken off the hook. At the bottom a double loop is
+made, through which a key is passed so as to hold the stretched cord
+underneath the moveable board.<a name="Fig_2829" id="Fig_2829"></a><span class="pagenum">[Pg 47]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt="Fig. 28 and 29&mdash;Loops for attaching to frame hooks. and keys" title="">
+</div>
+
+<div class="caption center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Loops for attaching to frame hooks.">
+<tr><td align="center">Fig. 28&mdash;Loops for attaching to frame hooks.</td><td align="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Fig. 29&mdash;Loops for taking frame keys.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The length of the cords is regulated by the thickness of each book, and
+as it is possible to sew a number of books at the same time when they
+are all sewn the same way, the length of the cords is regulated
+accordingly; it also depends upon the kind of books to be sewn. Cheap
+books get 3 cm. for every cord on each side more than the thickness of
+the book, that is 6 cm. plus the thickness of the book. School books get
+still shorter cords. For extra work, where the ends of the cords are
+laced through the boards, one should allow double. It is easy to
+calculate the length required for a single volume, but rather difficult
+for a batch of books varying in thickness; it is then better to measure.
+For example, suppose we have to sew a batch of six books, all differing
+in thickness but measuring in all 25 cm. high; we would allow for cheap
+work: 6 vols., each taking 6 cm. extra lengths = 36 cm. + total height,
+25 cm., making 61 cm.; for extra work: 6 vols., each taking 12 cm. extra
+lengths = 72 cm. + 25 total height = 97 cm. length of cord.</p>
+
+<p>The collated batch of books is laid on the bed of the sewing frame as in
+holländering (<a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>), the sheets taken hold of in the same way, and
+laid open for sewing. Of course the cords are adjusted to the saw-cuts,
+and it is better to push them more to the right than to the left, so as
+to give the left arm full play. Here also, as in holländering, the left
+hand does the work behind the cords inside the sheet, whilst the right
+inserts the needle from the front and again brings it out.<a name="Fig_3031" id="Fig_3031"></a><span class="pagenum">[Pg 48]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_057a.jpg" width="251" height="59" alt="Fig. 30&mdash;Suggestion for sewing on four cords." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 30&mdash;Suggestion for sewing on four cords.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_057b.jpg" width="251" height="59" alt="Fig. 31&mdash;Suggestion for sewing on six cords." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 31&mdash;Suggestion for sewing on six cords.</p>
+
+<p>The first and last sheets&mdash;called end sheets&mdash;are sewn a little
+differently from the others, as the needle is here not inserted and
+drawn out exactly at the cord but at a little distance from it so as to
+allow them to be adjusted afterwards. Sewing<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> with us is invariably
+begun with the last sheet at the right, working on to the left, and
+reversing the process with the following sheet, and so to the end, so
+that the thread one way passes from and the other to the worker. With
+all other sheets, excepting the end sections, the thread is inserted at
+the kettle stitch and brought out at the next cord, round the cord, and
+inserted at the same hole, to be brought out again at the next cord, and
+so on till the thread comes out at the other kettle stitch and is
+inserted in the next sheet to go through the same process. With books
+sewn on four cords, it is allowable to skip one of the two middle cords
+alternately, so that each time the thread passes on to the right the
+right middle cord is skipped, and the left is skipped when the thread
+passes in the opposite direction. This facilitates and shortens the work
+without taking away from durability or quality. Books on 6 cords may be
+treated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a> </span> in the same way; the right and left of each pair of cords may
+be skipped alternately. It was for this reason that we paid attention to
+the distribution of the cords on the back when sawing-in (see <a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In England, France, and part of Holland, sewing is begun
+with the title page.</p></div>
+
+<p>This method of sewing is known as "end to end," in contradistinction to
+"two sheets on." The former is the better method and is essential for
+valuable books, unless the sections are exceptionally thin. The latter
+is "good enough" (<i>i.e.</i>, not worth much) for the trade and cheap work.
+As far as strength is concerned it would do, but a book sewn in this way
+does not swell sufficiently in the back to make a proper backing groove.</p>
+
+<p>It is an old rule in bookbinding that each sheet after it has been sewn
+should be pressed down with the needle so that the backs of the sheets
+lie close and firm together; this is called "pressing down." Should
+this, however, not be sufficient, the back must be knocked firm from
+time to time with the dividers or a rule.</p>
+
+<p>The first and last sheets must be fastened to the one following and
+preceding respectively; but in the course of the sewing this enchaining
+to the preceding sheets&mdash;the so-called kettle stitch&mdash;is only necessary
+in the case of very thick sections. It is done by passing the needle
+through and bringing it out between the two preceding sheets at each end
+and thus chaining on the then top sheet to the one lying underneath.</p>
+
+<p>The two-sheets-on sewing is done by laying open the second sheet on top
+of the first after making the first stitch in the first sheet and then
+passing the needle through the second sheet, then the third stitch is
+made in the first sheet and the fourth in the second sheet. One length
+of thread is used for the two sheets. Where the sheets have not been cut
+open, the left hand lightly takes the sheets in turn where they have
+been cut, a folder is placed in the middle and is<span class="pagenum">[Pg 50]</span> shifted from one to
+the other as required. The process is the same whether there are only
+three cords or even six.<a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="251" height="93" alt="Fig. 32&mdash;Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 32&mdash;Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been said that several volumes of the same kind can be
+sewn on top of each other on the sewing frame; in this case the volumes
+must be separated from each other after the sewing is completed.</p>
+
+<p>The free ends of the cords are untwisted so that they may be scraped
+open more easily afterwards, and then one volume after another is drawn
+along the cords to the ends until they are twice the length of the free
+cords away from each other, which, of course, will vary according to the
+subsequent style of binding.</p>
+
+<p>So then we allow 6 and 12 cm. according to circumstances; but this
+length is curtailed to 3 cm. in the cheap school books, because the
+shorter the cords the quicker they are scraped open. Every cord is cut
+in the middle between the books with the shears, thus separating each
+volume from the other. The strands of the loose ends of the cords are
+now completely untwisted by inserting the cord in the groove of the
+scraper and repeatedly rubbing it up or down with the back of a knife.</p>
+
+<p>After scraping the cords, the end-paper guards are always pasted down;
+the book is laid with the back to the front edge of the table, the first
+sheet with the end paper is turned downwards, the end-paper guard is
+bent up a little so that it stands away from the sheet, paste it neatly
+and carefully, close the section and adjust it so that the sheet in the
+end paper is level with the others, but not the end paper itself&mdash;this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a> </span>
+must project a little at the back. When only one finger is required for
+pasting it must be the middle finger, so that the forefinger is free
+from paste and ready to take hold of anything.</p>
+
+<p>If stitched end papers are used for extra work, a sheet of paper is laid
+on the second sheet so as to leave 3 mm. free, paste this strip and
+bring down upon it the once-more closed first sheet, taking care to
+square it at the outside with the body of the book.</p>
+
+<p>The folder should be brought down firmly over the outer sheets after
+pasting down so as to ensure the paste sticking.</p>
+
+<p>If the pasting-on of the joints is not properly carried out, the result
+will be that in most cases the book opens badly when finished.</p>
+
+<p>In half-cloth or other simple bindings, the scraped cords may be pasted
+on at once. Bring a little paste (about the size of a pea) upon the
+point of a folder under the slightly raised cord, pasting the latter
+evenly and neatly upon the paste-down of the end paper so that the
+pasted-down strands of the cord lie like a feather. To prevent the
+pasted cords sticking to each other, the books are piled up back and
+front until dry. In extra work, the cords&mdash;which are also longer&mdash;must
+by no means be pasted on; a piece of waste paper or a cover the size of
+the sheet is pasted outside the sections under the cords, level with the
+backs. This serves partly as a protection for the end papers and partly
+to make a good joint when covering.</p>
+
+<p>The volumes so prepared are now glued up. They must be knocked up at
+head and back; they are then placed with the backs outwards on a board
+specially kept for this work&mdash;the glueing board&mdash;with the fore-edge of
+which they must be exactly level. On top must be placed a smaller board
+or a heavy piece of iron, likewise level with the book. The book backs
+are thus held firmly between the glueing boards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a> </span> the left hand holding
+them firmly by pressing on the top, the right hand glueing the backs
+with very hot but not thick glue; rub this well in with the point of a
+hammer, and after having firmly squeezed the glue out of the brush, use
+it for taking off the surplus glue from the backs. An old trick of the
+bookbinder is to heat the hammer for this work. It is a bad plan to give
+the back a thick coating of glue and then allow it to dry, because it at
+once becomes brittle. Some experienced workers place the books between
+the glueing boards so as to leave about 1 cm. projecting, as it is
+thought that the glue thereby gets better between the sheets; but this
+method is out of date and is of no special value. It is, however, of
+great importance that the glued book should be laid so that it is truly
+square at the head as well as the back, for if this is neglected no
+amount of trouble will save the book from being cut out of shape.</p>
+
+<p>Before passing on to the next chapter we have still to mention the
+mechanical contrivances for sewing. For small as well as large
+binderies, machines have been invented both for wire stitching and
+thread sewing; the former are more generally used, the latter not being
+sufficiently perfect in construction to meet all demands for speed and
+accuracy. Then also the method of fastening the book in the cover
+differs so much from the traditional method that we must still hope for
+improvement. When this comes to pass, this machine will then supersede
+the wire-stitching machine, with all its unavoidable disadvantages. The
+working of the machines is so simple that they are attended to almost
+entirely by girls. We refrain from giving descriptions of mechanical
+appliances within the limits of a short treatise, as any day may bring
+forth new inventions which are certain to effect great changes in this
+department. Besides these costly appliances there are also simpler
+sewing-machines for small shops, by which books are sewn in very<span class="pagenum">[Pg 53]</span> simple
+fashion over steel needles, by means of which the cords may afterwards
+be drawn along.<a name="Fig_3334" id="Fig_3334"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+   <a href="images/i_062l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_062a.jpg" width="251" height="230"
+      alt="Fig. 33&mdash;Thread-sewing machine.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 33&mdash;Thread-sewing machine.</span>
+</div><br>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+   <a href="images/i_062bl.png">
+     <img src="images/i_062b.jpg" width="251" height="196"
+      alt="Fig. 34&mdash;Wire-sewing machine.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 34&mdash;Wire-sewing machine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As these machines demand very large saw-cuts, they can only be used for
+trade work and any cheap lines. We only mention them to draw attention
+to their existence. Unprinted paper and music are sewn on tapes as well
+as cords. This method of sewing is described in Chapter IX.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cutting, Rounding, Backing.</span><a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a></h3>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+   <a href="images/i_063l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="300" height="335"
+      alt="Fig. 35&mdash;Rotary guillotine.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35&mdash;Rotary guillotine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In nearly all cases the book is trimmed after glueing, and it is best to
+do this before the glue is quite set. Even in extra work books are
+nowadays trimmed on three sides, that is, before the book is rounded
+each side is cut one after the other. This method has the advantage that
+it is quicker, that the top and bottom corners of the round fore-edge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a> </span>
+cannot break, and that it is easy to treat every side during the process
+of marbling.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, in the best work the book is first cut at the front, rounded,
+pressed, and then cut top and bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Under present conditions we might completely abandon the old method of
+trimming with the plough, for, although this is a most valuable tool, it
+would not pay to use it now, and the shops where it is still in use are
+few and far between; besides, our German machines now do the work so
+thoroughly and accurately that we are able to execute the highest class
+of work by their aid.<a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+   <a href="images/i_064l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="200" height="268"
+      alt="Fig. 36&mdash;Lever guillotine.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 36&mdash;Lever guillotine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The machines worked by a lever are very suitable for small shops and
+small books. Rotary action is for heavier work and is more suitable
+where both heavy and light work have to be done.</p>
+
+<p>The fore-edge is generally trimmed first; the back of the book is
+carefully adjusted to the "back gauge," the back gauge is so adjusted by
+moving backwards and forwards that the knife comes exactly upon the
+point marked beforehand. The first principle to be observed in trimming
+is that as little as ever possible should be taken off the book.
+Measuring and marking for trimming are done with the dividers; the
+latter is called "marking for cutting." When the back gauge has been
+adjusted so that the points lie directly under the knife, the clamp
+which holds the book in<span class="pagenum">[Pg 56]</span> position is screwed down and the machine set in
+motion. The book must be cut smooth and quite free from any jaggedness,
+and if this has not been accomplished the knife must be ground or, at
+least, well sharpened.</p>
+
+<p>Something must be done in trimming top and bottom to prevent the groove
+at the back from receiving too much pressure. The simplest means is to
+glue a thick board on the under side of the clamp. If a piece of stout
+cloth has been pasted to this board, it will afterwards be easily
+removed from the clamp if it is lightly glued on at two places only. If
+cloth is not used, pieces of the board will adhere to the clamp and
+cause no little inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of this, there are metal plates sold which are fastened to the
+clamp in a simple way, either by screws or springs, and they are just as
+simply removed.</p>
+
+<p>The bottom edge has to be cut first, as one is thus able to adjust the
+head&mdash;which, of course, must be rectangular&mdash;against the back gauge and
+then to make the bottom edge parallel. After cutting this edge, the book
+is turned round and the bottom edge adjusted on the back gauge so as to
+get the top edge ready for cutting. Whilst doing this, care must always
+be taken that the book is placed under the clamp so that the arrangement
+made for saving the groove from pressure is effective.<a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="251" height="37" alt="Fig. 37&mdash;Top edge arranged for trimming when trimming
+three edges." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 37&mdash;Top edge arranged for trimming when trimming
+three edges.</p>
+
+<p>As our machines are made to cut from left to right, the book back must
+be on the left.</p>
+
+<p>Very often a book contains so many folded plates that it is considerably
+thinner in some places than at others. These thin places must be
+properly packed with paper or strips of board, otherwise the knife is
+sure to tear or jag, no matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a> </span> how sharp it may be. This packing may be
+left in the book until the book is quite finished and then taken out.</p>
+
+<p>If any fibrous matter has stuck to the bottom sheets through cutting on
+a much-used bed, it must be removed with a very sharp knife.</p>
+
+<p>The trimmed volumes are "rounded," <i>i.e.</i>, they are rounded and the
+groove made at the back to which the boards have to be fitted. For this
+reason the grooves must be made to suit the thickness of the boards to
+be used.<a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_066.png" width="250" height="245" alt="Fig. 38&mdash;Rounding the book." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38&mdash;Rounding the book.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To round a book, slightly damp its glued back, place it on a firm stone
+or metal bed, and knock it round with a hammer. Properly speaking the
+process is as follows: The left hand takes hold of the back of the book
+lying flat before the worker and works it into a round form, the right
+hand helping all the time by beating it along the back from one end to
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>In this way each side is treated alternately until the back is evenly
+rounded. The rounding of the fore-edge should be equal to one-third of a
+circle.</p>
+
+<p>Books that have been hammered so much that they fall straight from the
+centre towards both sides are called "over rounded"; if, on the
+contrary, the book is round at the sides and almost straight in the
+middle the book is called "flat rounded." The latter occurs when the
+thread used in sewing has been too thin or held down too much (see page
+37). Great care must be taken to avoid what is called springing a
+section&mdash;this is generally caused by a break in the glued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a> </span> back; but it
+is almost impossible to round a book perfectly if the sections are very
+thick or if it contains many pasted-in plates.</p>
+
+<p>There are now very useful machines for rounding books, also hand
+machines. The work connected with these consists simply in turning the
+book a few times, pushing the back up to the rollers each time.<a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 251px;">
+   <a href="images/i_067l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="251" height="285"
+      alt="Fig. 39&mdash;Rounding machine.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39&mdash;Rounding machine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the book is properly rounded, it is "backed," that is, it is so
+placed between backing boards that they are away from the back just as
+much as is required for the groove, the width of the latter depending
+upon the thickness of the boards; a small thin volume gets thin boards
+and therefore a small groove; a thicker volume requires thick boards,
+and, of course, a deeper groove. The made groove should be a little
+deeper than the board set in it. The book and backing boards are placed
+in a wooden press, screwing up by hand and once more carefully
+adjusting. To do this, the press is first placed lengthwise on the table
+so that one end projects a little over the front edge of the table; the
+evenness of the rounding is then perfected&mdash;one hand at the back and the
+other at the front edge pushing and adjusting. The better and truer the
+book has been rounded before laying in the boards the less there will be
+to do when placed in the press. If the rounding is correct, the head and
+tail must be examined to see that they are exactly rectangular, for the
+book may have been knocked untrue, and the evenness of the
+grooves&mdash;which are easily disturbed&mdash;is also examined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Backing and rounding is the most important work as far as regards the
+appearance of the book when finished; it must be done with the greatest
+exactitude and requires much practice. Although it is hardly
+perceptible, yet the great difficulty lies in the book itself being so
+very easily shifted.</p>
+
+<p>When the book is placed in the press without a fault it is screwed up as
+tightly as possible with the screw key, and through this the grooves
+already project over the edges of the backing boards; but a sharp groove
+can only be obtained by the help of the hammer.</p>
+
+<p>The hammer, however, must not be used blindly on the back, but by
+lightly knocking, blow by blow, the first and last 4-6 sheets must be
+brought over the edges of the boards. This done, the whole of the back
+is well pasted, and after remaining thus a short time it is then rubbed
+with the point of the hammer along the sheets until all superfluous glue
+is soaked and scraped off. With a handful of paper cuttings the back is
+rubbed smooth and clean. The use of a toothed <i>cachir</i> iron is strictly
+forbidden, but the round side of this tool may be used instead of the
+hammer.<a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;">
+   <a href="images/i_068l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="251" height="289"
+      alt="Fig. 40&mdash;Backing machine for small shops.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40&mdash;Backing machine for small shops.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For backing, we have also a useful machine&mdash;the backing machine. For
+small shops it is made for clamping only, and the making of the groove
+is done with the ordinary hammer. For large shops this machine has a
+roller going right across the back which forms the groove down each
+side.<a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 251px;">
+   <a href="images/i_069al.png">
+     <img src="images/i_069a.jpg" width="251" height="350"
+      alt="Fig. 41&mdash;Backing machine for large shops.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41&mdash;Backing machine for large shops.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Valuable books are either trimmed at the front and at once backed or
+they may be backed before trimming. This is generally done with bulky<span class="pagenum">[Pg 60]</span>
+books, as they are liable to throw out a section, and this danger is
+lessened by backing first. The work of backing remains the same. If the
+fore-edge has already been trimmed, care must be taken that the grooves
+do not suffer during trimming after backing. One way of effecting this
+is to lay the book on a special cutting board with the edge up to the
+groove, or by making use of the arrangement on the clamp already
+described, and adjusting the groove of the book to the blocks fixed on
+the clamp.</p>
+
+<p>Should the fore-edge not have been cut, the book must again be knocked
+straight after backing; to do this a strong cord is tied round the book
+about 1-1/2 cm. from the back, the book is then laid upon a firm bed,
+and the back again knocked straight; this work is called "tying up."<a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_069b.jpg" width="251" height="51" alt="Fig. 42&mdash;Backed book arranged for trimming." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 42&mdash;Backed book arranged for trimming.</p>
+
+<p>It facilitates the work if the book is taken up and lightly held in the
+left hand whilst the right holds the hammer and knocks the round inwards
+until the book is once more square.<span class="pagenum">[Pg 61]</span></p>
+
+<p>The squared book is now trimmed, and it is not until the trimming is
+finished that the cord is loosened.</p>
+
+<p>In pressing, several volumes of the same size can be done in the hand
+press at one and the same time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Marbling, Gilding, &amp;c., the Edges and Headbanding.</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The edges of a book are nearly always finished off in some way or
+another, as the plain white edges would quickly become soiled. As a
+matter of fact, the binder always uses a covering of gold or colour for
+this purpose, and care should be taken that this way of treating the
+edges is decorative and not the reverse.</p>
+
+<p>In small binderies the edge is most usually sprinkled. A small brush
+with a handle (such as is used for blacking shoes) is dipped into a very
+thin coloured liquid and rubbed over a fine sieve which is fixed in a
+frame. The sieve is kept at sufficient distance from the edges of the
+book to allow the little drops of colour to fall like a fine rain. For
+this work the book is screwed up in the press (which is laid flat) by
+means of the press-jack. As a sprinkling colour, nut-wood stain thinned
+with water is used, or indigo, carmine, Prussian blue, mahogany brown,
+green cinnabar, all well diluted with water, with the addition of a
+little paste and borax or a few drops of dilute carbolic to prevent the
+paste turning sour; aniline dyes have a common appearance. The sprinkle
+must fall very finely upon the edges, therefore the first large drops
+should be taken out of the brush by giving it a few preliminary rubs
+over the sieve.</p>
+
+<p>A few variations are made in sprinkled edges by scattering damp sawdust,
+sand, or bran on the edges before sprinkling,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a> </span> thus producing a coarser
+kind of sprinkling. Similarly rice, barley, even starch or drops of wax
+are used. All these edges are out of date and in really good workshops
+are every day falling more and more into disuse, preference being given
+to marbling upon a sized ground.</p>
+
+<p>For the production of even marbling an edge-marbling roller has recently
+been brought out.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber rollers&mdash;one or two&mdash;together with the automatic colouring
+rollers bearing aniline dyes mixed with glycerine, are made up into a
+handy contrivance by means of which smooth coloured edges can be rolled
+over. These edges are passable only when carefully and skilfully
+executed; as a rule they look coarse and common and are taken up only by
+badly equipped shops. Marbling rollers can be used for comb marbling as
+well as for small veined marbling.</p>
+
+<p>We may say that the coloured edge is the oldest style.</p>
+
+<p>Earth colours which cover well&mdash;cinnabar<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> (red or green), carmine,
+chrome yellow, graphite, bismuth, and also other colours that cover
+well, indigo, carmine, and Prussian blue&mdash;are ground to a fine powder
+and thoroughly mixed with water and a little paste or gelatine so that
+the edges may be evenly covered.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Cinnabar if not <i>red</i> must be a preparation with other
+colour.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>Only printed books are put in the press, and in this case they must
+first be rubbed down with alum water. After about five minutes the
+colour may be laid on. Hog's-hair brushes are used for this. Recently,
+eosin has been used to colour red and picric acid for yellow, both well
+diluted with water.</p>
+
+<p>The paste edge is a variety of the coloured edge; it is produced by
+loading paste with a very strong colour so that it covers well when laid
+on. With the blunt point of a stick, a bluntly pointed cork, or even the
+finger-tip, figures may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a> </span> traced in the colour when laid on, and then
+the figures may be brought out better by going over the lines with a
+pointed stick. The work demands a skilled draughtsman if a good effect
+or something more than the very simplest design is desired.</p>
+
+<p>The book must be pressed for pasting the edges, and the paste colour
+must not be laid on too thickly or it will spring off when dry.</p>
+
+<p>Coloured as well as paste edges will take gold tooling and afford
+considerable scope to the skilful and thoughtful workman.</p>
+
+<p>The finest way of finishing edges and the one allowing greatest variety
+of treatment is known as marbling; this is a special process.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly regarded as a secret art, it is now an easily acquired branch
+of our work, thanks to the careful experiments and excellent
+demonstrations of the master bookbinder, Herr Joseph Halfer, of Buda
+Pesth.</p>
+
+<p>The whole process of marbling depends upon the peculiarity possessed by
+colours of floating upon a sized surface when they are mixed with
+oxgall, and a colour containing more gall forcing off the one first
+applied. Besides, the colours may be drawn about with a pencil or stick
+without their mixing. If the smooth edges of a book are brought into
+contact with such a floating surface-colour they will take up the
+colours completely.</p>
+
+<p>Ground and colour must each have certain fixed degrees of consistency,
+and the atmosphere both in and out of doors has also a great influence
+upon the work.</p>
+
+<p>The prepared body, shortly known as "the body," is at present always
+composed of boiled Carrageen moss. To every litre<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of water exactly 12
+g. are added and the liquid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a> </span> is put in a saucepan, which is never used
+for any other purpose, and placed on the fire, great care being taken to
+catch it just at boiling point or it will all boil over. At the right
+moment take the saucepan from the fire and strain the contents through a
+hair sieve, what remains being thrown away as useless. The body may be
+used the next day, but for figured edges it is better after having been
+kept three days, and for veined marbling five days. The vessel
+containing the body must be kept covered so as to exclude all dust.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Not quite a quart.</p></div>
+
+<p>Gum tragacanth (known as "gum dragon") can also be used as a body, but
+Halfer's colours are not intended to be used with this.</p>
+
+<p>A marbling trough to contain the body is used whilst working; it is made
+of zinc plate, is about 15 cm. in width, 50 cm. in length, and 3 cm. in
+depth, and has a sloping partition soldered near one end, and the colour
+not taken up is drawn into the division thus made.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_074.jpg" width="251" height="41" alt="Marbling trough diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>A bowl, about 6 cm. across the top, is kept for each colour, and also a
+hog's-hair brush and a birch-twig brush.</p>
+
+<p>A small bundle of birch twigs is tied round with thread, leaving about 4
+cm. of the twigs free, the thickness of the lowest part tied not
+exceeding 1 cm. The bristles of the brush are tied back so as to form
+loops and held awhile in boiling water so that they retain their shape
+after drying and untying. With a brush made up in this way, drops may be
+laid on anywhere.</p>
+
+<p>For all drawn-out edges only bristle brushes are used, whilst for all
+other edges a brush is used only for laying on the first colour. For
+some edges a wide brush is used, so that the whole trough can be filled
+at one blow; a carpet brush with a short handle is most convenient to
+use.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>A little stick for tracing the colours is also necessary&mdash;a butcher's
+skewer is as good as anything. Besides this, the colours are drawn by
+combs of various widths; these are easily made by glueing pins with
+their heads at fixed distances between two strips of mill-board: the
+result is a tool resembling a comb. All requisites can be conveniently
+kept in a little wooden box together with the colours. Nowadays only
+Halfer's ready-made colours are used.<a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+   <a href="images/i_075l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="300" height="165"
+      alt="Fig. 43&mdash;Marbling outfit.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43&mdash;Marbling outfit.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Any one wishing to learn the process of marbling edges would be wise not
+to attempt all the styles at once, but should be content to learn one
+before proceeding to another. We will commence with "comb" marbling,
+also known as "feather" marbling.</p>
+
+<p>When marbling is to be done, the colours must always be tested first. A
+little colour is shaken into each bowl and its brush placed with it, and
+one or two drops of prepared oxgall added to each colour so as to make
+the colour float on the surface.</p>
+
+<p>One prepares one's own oxgall. An ox gall in the gallbladder is procured
+from a butcher, a glass funnel is placed in a bottle which has been
+weighed beforehand, and the bottom of the gall bladder is pierced so
+that the bladder empties its contents into the bottle. After finding the
+weight of the gall, add to the weight of the gall alone one-sixth and
+pour into it spirit of wine until the weight is equalized;<span class="pagenum">[Pg 67]</span> shake
+thoroughly and strain the mixture, which will now be quite clear and
+ready for use.</p>
+
+<p>The colours, with their brushes, are placed in the order in which they
+are to be used, beginning with the darkest and finishing with the
+lightest.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i076.jpg" width="251" height="110" alt="s&mdash;black; b&mdash;blue; r&mdash;red; yellow in centre." title="">
+<span class="caption center">s&mdash;black; b&mdash;blue; r&mdash;red; yellow in centre.</span>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>A drop of colour is let fall from the black brush upon the body, the
+surface of which had previously been drawn off with a strip of paper;
+the surface of this drop must be about the size of a crown piece. If
+part of the colour sinks to the bottom, the body is too thin or the
+colour too thick, or the drop was too large and could not spread quickly
+enough; in the latter case the surplus colour will be seen lying at the
+bottom and will have no connection whatever with the colour on the
+surface; but if a cloudy connection can be traced from the surface to
+the bottom then the body has already become sour and in most cases unfit
+for use. If the colour does not retain its smooth outlines and becomes
+jagged, it also shows that the body is too old. If, however, the drop
+extends as desired and shows none of the faults above mentioned, a drop
+of blue colour is let fall in the centre of the first, which drives out
+the first drop in the form of a ring; when it has not this effect, but
+strongly contracts again, a drop of gall must be added, the colours
+wiped off to the sloping partition, and the whole process repeated. If
+the action of the colour was too strong, a little undiluted colour must
+be added. If the result is satisfactory, a drop of red is added to the
+blue. The colour scheme is seen in the accompanying drawing. Lastly,
+yellow is dropped into red, and black is thereby reduced to a very thin
+ring.</p>
+
+<p>Before each new sprinkling, the old layer of colour must be wiped off.
+To do this, cut strips of stout waste paper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a> </span> about two fingers in width
+and a little longer than the trough is wide. The edge of the strip is
+placed slantingly at the end of the tank in the surface of the body and
+the surface colour drawn off, at the same time lightly pressing the ends
+of the strip against the sides of the trough.</p>
+
+<p>When the colours are satisfactory, the little stick is traced in and out
+amongst them. If too much colour follows the stick, the body is too
+thick; only a narrow line of colour must follow the stick.</p>
+
+<p>If the colours are thus correctly prepared, the whole trough is
+sprinkled in the following manner: Along the middle of the trough the
+darkest colour is sprinkled in what we might call links, that is, each
+drop is linked to the one preceding.<a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_077a.jpg" width="251" height="113" alt="Fig. 44&mdash;Suggestion for sprinkling colour." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 44&mdash;Suggestion for sprinkling colour.</p>
+
+<p>The second colour is sprinkled on in the same way; one circle, however,
+is on the right and the other on the left of the centre colour. Into
+each drop of the second colour let a drop of the third and then of the
+fourth colour fall.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/i_077b.png" width="50" height="27" alt="Coulour tracing diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>The colours must then be traced crosswise with the stick in this form
+and then likewise with the comb. Neither stick nor comb should be dipped
+more than about 2 mm. below the surface, otherwise the body is set in
+motion and the colours disarranged.</p>
+
+<p>The combs should not be made too fine, 30 to 35 teeth for every 10 cm.
+is the best width and sufficient for most cases. If the comb is drawn
+back again from the other end it produces drawn-back marbling; this is
+rarely applied.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>The finished comb marbling can be still further varied if figures are
+traced in it with the stick as shown in Fig. 46.<a name="Fig_4546" id="Fig_4546"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_078a1.png" width="350" height="176" alt="Fig. 45&mdash;Comb marbling." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 45&mdash;Comb marbling.</span>
+</div><br>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_078a2.png" width="200" height="81" alt="Fig. 46&mdash;Suggestion for curl marbling." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 46&mdash;Suggestion for curl marbling.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_078b.png" width="200" height="81" alt="Fig. 46&mdash;Suggestion for curl marbling." title="">
+</div>
+<p>If a double comb is made&mdash;one that allows two combs to pass each other,
+their teeth being 2 cm. apart&mdash;bouquet or peacock and eye marbling can
+be produced. The double comb is drawn over the length of the trough, at
+the same time moving the two combs up and down evenly. This motion
+causes the colours to assume the form shown in the accompanying
+illustration.</p>
+
+<p>Bouquet or peacock marbling is produced by drawing the double comb
+through the finished comb marble design, and if the double comb is used
+immediately after the cross tracing with the stick, eye marbling is the
+result.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>With a little thought it would be easy to invent other fancy designs,
+but these are better applied to paper, as trimmed edges are more
+beautiful and effective when the marbling is of simpler design.<a name="Fig_4748" id="Fig_4748"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_079a.png" width="350" height="174" alt="Fig. 47&mdash;Bouquet or peacock marbling." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47&mdash;Bouquet or peacock marbling.</span>
+</div>
+<br>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_079b.png" width="350" height="180" alt="Fig. 48&mdash;Eye marbling." title="">
+</div><p class="caption center">Fig. 48&mdash;Eye marbling.</p>
+
+<p>Large marble, called also Turkish marble, is produced as follows, using
+the same arrangement of colours. Only the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a> </span> first colour is laid on
+ringwise; all other colours are scattered in smaller drops from brushes.
+A darker colour is chosen for the last&mdash;brown, blue, olive, grey&mdash;to
+which is added a few more drops of gall and as much spirit of soap
+(<i>spiritus saponatus</i>), as sold by the druggists. This last colour is
+prepared in a larger and shallow basin. The largest brush is taken with
+the hand and dipped, shaken out a little, and then lightly knocked on
+the left hand so as to sprinkle the colour. The drops will fall in a
+dense shower, and, owing to their extra impetus, will drive together the
+preceding ones, and yet they will form the principal colour in the
+design. If it is desired to have veins of white in the design, a few
+drops of gall should be added to a little water in a bowl and used as
+any other colour; the same applies when using white in comb marbling. In
+a similar manner the so-called Kremser style of marbling is produced,
+but fewer colours are then used, generally only black and red, red and
+blue, brown and blue, green and red, at the end sprinkling a little of
+the strong principal colour to which, besides the spirit of soap, a drop
+of pure stone oil&mdash;not petroleum&mdash;from the chemist has been added. As
+last colour, blue grey (black with a little blue), brown, or grey is
+used.</p>
+
+<p>Recently, a sort of paper termed Trichinal marble has been very
+prominent on the market. Black and light brown or red and light brown or
+black, red, and light brown, or white, are all sprinkled on with a
+brush, length (not cross) wise drawn through, and then grey with a few
+drops of turpentine (but very driving) is sprinkled on with a small
+brush. The single drops have ragged edges and produce a peculiar effect.</p>
+
+<p>Thin-veined or French marbling is done upon the same ground, though it
+can also be done on a somewhat thinner body. The colours, however, are
+diluted by 50% water, and, consequently, more gall is added. As a rule,
+only two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a> </span> colours are used; blue, red; brown, blue; brown, green; black,
+red; black, blue. The first colour is laid on in rings with a brush and
+must be strong enough to spread over two-thirds the width of the trough;
+the second colour is sprinkled over with a little birch broom in drops
+that spread out to the size of a half-crown. Lastly, the so-called
+sprinkling-water is sprinkled over with one dash from the large brush as
+already explained. Sprinkling-water consists of two parts water and one
+part spirit of soap. The small veins must be driven quite close together
+and the eyes made by the sprinkling-water must not be larger than a
+small pea.</p>
+
+<p>It should be observed that for this kind of marbling only the darker
+shade of red is to be taken, as the light carmine lake colour sinks and
+does not give a fine effect. India red is best of all.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>The sprinkled colours are first tested with strips of paper; cuttings of
+clean note-paper are saved for this purpose. The edges of a book can be
+marbled only when the book is level or straight, therefore they must be
+marbled either before rounding or the book already rounded must be
+levelled by knocking it on a stone or metal slab. In all cases the
+marbling is done&mdash;both with papers and books&mdash;by dipping from one corner
+to the other diagonally opposite, but never deeper than just sufficient
+to take off the layer of colour. To prevent the colour from getting
+between the leaves, the edges are held between zinc plates, which must
+be dried each time after using. To make the paper or edges take the
+colours more readily and to prevent any subsequent running off, the
+edges are lightly washed down with alum water. This wash is made by
+boiling 100 g. of alum in 1/2 litre of water and using it solely for
+this work.</p>
+
+<p>The alum solution is laid on with a sponge, with which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a> </span> edges are
+washed over. The moisture must have thoroughly soaked in, therefore it
+is necessary to do it 10 minutes before marbling.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the edges have become thoroughly dry they will take the
+colours badly. This occurs in from 20 to 30 minutes, according to the
+temperature. Marbling can only be done in a warm room where the
+temperature is equable and where there is no dust.</p>
+
+<p>The marbling bath must be of the same temperature as the room. The body
+must be skimmed each time before sprinkling the colours, but the colours
+must be sprinkled on immediately afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent treatise on the work of marbling edges has appeared under
+the title: <a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a><i>Fortschritte der Marmorirkunst. Von Joseph Halfer.
+William Leo, Stuttgart.</i></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The Development of the Art of Marbling.</p></div>
+
+<br>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="101" height="15" alt="Pressing Board diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Gilding edges takes up most time when only occasional books are to be
+done. The fore-edge can be treated either flat or round. In every case
+the book must be placed in the press within boards. These boards are
+narrow strips, about 1/2 cm. thick and up to 5 cm. in width; they must
+be of equal thickness and bevelled only on long side, the edge itself
+must be rounded.</p>
+
+<p>Many makers send out boards bevelled right from one side to the other.
+This kind is very unsuitable and has many disadvantages. The boards must
+not be made from wood of very open grain, and firs and oaks must not be
+used. The boards are to be somewhat longer than the edge about to be
+treated, so that the edge may be as firm and tight as possible and at
+the same time easy to work upon; two outer boards are added to those
+regularly used, as shown in Figs. 49 and 50.</p>
+
+<p>The inner boards are quite flush with the book: the latter must on no
+account stand back. The outer boards are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a> </span> about 3 mm. behind the others;
+the book is so placed in the press, and here again the book and boards
+must be exactly level with the press cheeks. The press is then screwed
+up as tight as possible. If the inner boards have not perfectly straight
+edges they must be planed down.<a name="Fig_4950" id="Fig_4950"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="350" height="115" alt="Figs. 49 and 50&mdash;Arrangement of flat and rounded edges." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Figs. 49 and 50&mdash;Arrangement of flat and rounded edges.</p>
+
+<p>The edges are to be scraped down quite smooth with a scraper or, if
+necessary, with a knife; the scraper must not be sharpened for this
+purpose as the carpenter sharpens his tools, that is, not to a cutting
+edge but as though it were for carving, until a bevel (or turned edge)
+of about 3 mm. has been ground. The edge thus gets a turned edge, with
+which the book is scraped. If it should cease to "take," the old edge is
+rubbed down with a steel and a new one made by a few firm strong
+rubbings. The edge should be wetted a little to prevent its heating.
+Flat edges are scraped with a flat scraper, rounded edges with one
+suitably rounded. In this case the round of the blade must be more
+decided than that of the edges, as it would otherwise be impossible to
+get into all parts of the edges. Scraping with pieces of glass is an
+antiquated, clumsy method.</p>
+
+<p>When scraping, the press should lie flat on the table edge, the other
+end being supported by the press-jack. In scraping, the blade is held in
+both hands, scraping away from the worker, the scraper sloping forwards.
+The press must be made immovable. Scraping is continued until all places
+have been gone over and the whole is perfectly smooth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a> </span> and even. When
+this is accomplished, the edges are thinly coated with paste, which is
+well rubbed in along the sheets with a bundle of waste paper until the
+edges look as if burnished. It is advisable to damp the edges before
+scraping, as the blade then takes hold more uniformly.</p>
+
+<p>Then bolus is mixed with glair as a body colour, laid on sparingly, very
+evenly, and free from streakiness, using a thick hair brush for the
+purpose. Bolus is sold to the trade ready prepared under the name
+"Poliment." Some time before using, it should be scraped into a suitable
+vessel and mixed with glair. The latter is prepared by adding the white
+of an egg to 1/4 litre of water and beating to a froth. It is then
+strained through a piece of linen or, better, through a filtering paper.</p>
+
+<p>After the bolus ground has dried (which takes a few minutes) the gold is
+laid on. There are various methods of doing this. The surest and
+quickest way is to lay it on with the gilder's tip.</p>
+
+<p>A row of long badger hairs is glued between two pieces of cardboard;
+this is drawn a few times over the hair of the head, which makes it take
+the gold easily. Gilders' tips are to be had at any colour dealer's.
+Gold is taken from the gold book, laid upon the gold cushion, and cut
+into suitable strips with the gold knife. The gold cushion consists of a
+piece of calf stretched raw side out on a board. Between the leather and
+the board there is placed a pad of cotton wool, and over the wool a pad
+of blotting-paper. The gold knife is a thin, pliant, two-edged knife
+without a sharp edge, in fact it is better to blunt the fore-edge from
+time to time by rubbing it on a polished steel. If the knife is too
+sharp it will cut the leather cushion. Taking the gold from the book
+will not be found a very easy task. The top leaf covering the gold is
+turned back, the book with the uncovered leaf of gold laid on the
+cushion, and the book slowly lifted up. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a> </span> gold-leaf remains flat upon
+the cushion and may be cut with the knife as required. If a draught has
+turned the gold-leaf over or made it lie unevenly, it may be righted by
+lightly tapping with the knife on the cushion near the gold; careful
+breathing on the centre of the leaf will help in more awkward cases&mdash;the
+rest must be learned by practice. Never attempt to take hold of
+gold-leaf with the fingers; only the experienced workman knows how to
+carry gold-leaf with a finger.</p>
+
+<p>For gilding the edges the deep red gold is always used, or else the
+so-called orange gold, which is somewhat lighter in tone, but never the
+lemon or green gold.</p>
+
+<p>For flat gilt edges the gold is cut about 3 mm. wider than the book and
+into as many strips as would make up the length of the edge if joined
+together.</p>
+
+<p>Before laying on the gold, the bolused edge is brushed down with a hard
+clothes-brush to remove all hair, dust, &amp;c. Glair is now liberally
+applied with a thick hair brush, laying it on separately for each strip.
+The gold is now lifted from the cushion with the gilder's tip so that it
+very slightly projects over the end of the brush and is transferred to
+the wet edges. The tip is brought to within 1 cm. of the surface of the
+edges and with a quick motion the whole surface of the gold is at once
+brought into contact with the glaired edges, which will instantly take
+it up quite greedily. The gold slightly overlaps on to the inner boards.
+In this one continues, preparing the edge for each fresh strip and
+laying on each strip so that it slightly overlaps the other until the
+whole length is covered with gold. If the gold should be injured in any
+way, the press must be tilted so as to allow a little glair to run under
+the gold to the spot and then a larger piece is laid over the faulty
+place. When it is seen that all parts are completely covered, the
+press-jack is put aside, the press is taken by the screws between the
+beams and raised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a> </span> high overhead so that the gilded part is turned
+downwards. One end is carefully lowered until the glair has run to one
+side and dripped off. As soon as the greater part of the moisture has
+been removed, the press is either placed upright with the edge to the
+wall and head downwards or it is laid across the table where it will not
+be disturbed, with the head of one screw on the table edge. In this way
+the moisture runs off quicker, as the whole length of the edge drains
+together. When dry, the edges are burnished, and it is in seizing the
+right moment to do this that the clever finisher shows his skill. The
+first test is made on the boards. If the gold comes off on scratching
+the portion on the inner board with the finger-nail, the edge is still
+too damp; if the scratching makes it shine, it will be all right. The
+experienced worker can trace the progress of drying with more certainty
+by breathing on the edges; the slowness or rapidity with which the
+breath disappears points to the dry or moist state of the edges.</p>
+
+<p>When it is believed that the proper degree of dryness has been obtained,
+the edge is polished with a burnisher. A piece of tracing paper which
+has been waxed on the upper side&mdash;that is, the side next the
+burnisher&mdash;is laid on the fresh edge to protect it from injury. The
+burnisher is then worked crosswise, stroke by stroke, over the paper
+(through which the edge can be observed) the length of the edge; if it
+is noticed that gold and moisture adhere to the paper near to the
+boards, the work must be laid aside to wait a little longer. If,
+however, the whole process has gone on satisfactorily, the edge is gone
+over with a linen rag and a little beeswax. It is not at all better to
+use a silk rag instead of linen, for it happens too easily that tiny
+threads stick to the gold unnoticed and are afterwards rubbed into the
+edge. After going over the edge with the waxed rag, the bare edges may
+take a greater pressure in burnishing, and if no flaws are<span class="pagenum">[Pg 78]</span> now
+perceptible there need be no hesitation in burnishing with very strong
+pressure. The burnisher must be held quite level, the long handle fixed
+against the shoulder and the lower end firmly gripped with both hands
+just above the metal fastening. The fore-edge of the burnisher is not to
+be held parallel to the sheets, but must be at a slight angle; it thus
+slips better over the paper and there is less danger of making rills and
+furrows, and the polish is obtained more rapidly. Flat edges are always
+burnished crosswise, but at the end a broad burnisher may be used for
+going over the edges lengthwise with a few slow, firm strokes, so as to
+ensure a very level surface.</p>
+
+<p>Quick burnishing must always be avoided; it heats the gold, which rubs
+off under the burnisher, and causes holes which can never be remedied.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as one length has been burnished, the waxed cloth must be
+applied before proceeding further.</p>
+
+<p>Slight flaws in the gold itself, or due to bubbles in the glair, may be
+put right by touching the faulty places with a small brush dipped in
+rectified spirit and immediately laying on a piece of gold; if the edges
+had not yet been gone over with the waxed rag, it would be sufficient to
+breathe on the place, lay on the gold, and burnish under paper. This
+need only stand a few minutes, as it quickly evaporates, and may then be
+burnished again at once, first with, then without, the tracing paper. It
+must be observed that such faulty places must be burnished in the
+direction of the sheets, never crosswise.</p>
+
+<p>Rounded edges are more difficult to work; the scraping alone being more
+troublesome. Each piece of gold is halved, laying on each time a little
+beyond the deepest part of the round. The press is so lowered as to give
+a decided slope to the half of the edge to be operated upon. The gold is
+cut to a little more than half width, and only the under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a> </span> side to a
+little beyond the middle is glaired, which in this case must be done
+very freely. The strips of gold-leaf are laid on as before. When one
+side has been covered with gold, the press is turned and the other half
+of the round similarly treated. Care must be taken that there is always
+a liberal supply of glair in the depth of the round. To drain off the
+superfluous glair the press is placed so that the glair runs off on the
+long side; the gold is in consequence better taken up in the round.</p>
+
+<p>Burnishing is here also done under a piece of paper, and it is better to
+work crosswise, first one half to the centre of the round and then the
+other. Only thin books are burnished along the edges with a round
+burnisher. After the round edges have been burnished crosswise they are
+burnished with the round burnisher.</p>
+
+<p>Burnishers are made of agate or of bloodstone; the latter is said to
+produce a higher polish, but this may be due to our being more
+accustomed to its use. In selecting burnishers the flat ones should not
+be too wide and the strongest of the curved ones should be taken.</p>
+
+<p>Top and bottom edges undergo the same treatment in gilding as the flat
+fore-edge, except for a few slight necessary differences in the method
+of fixing the book. In the first instance, long boards are used instead
+of the outer boards&mdash;these protect the book from injury. The boards (the
+short sides of cross-boards are often used instead) are laid exactly in
+the groove at the back, but the outer boards are set back so that they
+are exactly in a line with the depth of the round edge. If this
+precaution is neglected, the chances are that little ridges will appear
+in the fore-edge where pressure has been applied. <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a> shows the
+arrangement in the press.</p>
+
+<p>Scraping is done from the back to the fore-edge. As the back is not
+pressed so solid as the rest of the edge, it frequently happens that it
+does not get scraped so smooth. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a> </span> this case recourse may be had to a
+fine file and fine sand-paper. The rest undergoes the familiar process.
+Take care that no glair runs on to the fore-edge when applying it or
+when draining it off. It is convenient to place the press crosswise on
+the table so that the fore-edge stands at its lower side; the glair then
+drains off the whole length of the edge more evenly and drains more
+towards the fore-edge. Many finishers elevate the press, letting it
+drain towards the fore-edge; there is no danger to the latter if the
+press is tipped forward from the top. On no account must the glair be
+allowed to drain towards the back, as this part is very open and all the
+moisture would gather there.<a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="251" height="68" alt="Fig. 51&mdash;Top edge arranged for gilding." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 51&mdash;Top edge arranged for gilding.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the method of laying on the gold-leaf with the gilder's tip
+there is another which is specially used in gilding hymn-books; a piece
+of gauze is stretched across a frame, passed over the hair, and then the
+gold for the entire length of the edge is at once picked up and laid on.
+Round edges may be similarly covered by means of a couple of threads or
+horse-hairs stretched on a frame. The threads can be shifted to the
+short sides of the frame; they are adjusted to the width of the edge,
+allowing for the rounding, and are slightly greased by passing over the
+hair, and thus pick up the strip of gold at the edges. Just before
+laying on the gold, the threads are adjusted so that the gold fits the
+shape of the edge. Then plenty of glair is applied and the gold quickly
+and truly laid on.</p>
+
+<p>This method is not exactly difficult, but it is not quite so safe as
+laying on with a gilder's tip, especially for very large edges.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>The simplest way of laying on for flat edges is by means of strips of
+paper. This has the advantage of allowing a larger number of gold strips
+being made ready for laying on at one time. Select a piece of stiff and
+not too thin paper, cut into strips about the width of the strips of the
+gold-leaf, draw one side of the paper across the hair, and then take up
+the leaf so as to allow it to project a little over the edge of the
+paper strip. After glairing, strip by strip is laid on.</p>
+
+<p>For very cheap work it is often necessary to gild edges with alloyed
+gold. Such edges are not so carefully and thoroughly prepared; in
+particular, they are not scraped, but rubbed down with sand-paper. Blood
+serum is used instead of white of egg; this is prepared by allowing
+ox-blood to stand a few days and then filtering off the clear liquid.</p>
+
+<p>Aluminium is laid on a gelatine solution: one tablet of gelatine to
+1/4 litre of water.</p>
+
+<p>Gilt edges are also frequently tooled or scraped and painted. This work
+comes within the sphere of the art binder and cannot be dealt with in
+this book.</p>
+
+<p>All other coloured and marbled edges can be burnished in the same way as
+gilt edges. In good work this must always be done.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>In small shops headbands are made to this day of striped calico, which
+is cut into strips of 2 cm. wide right across the pattern, and one edge
+is pasted round a thin cord. After drying, pieces the exact size of the
+back of the book are cut off. The back of the book at the head is glued
+with a not too thin glue and the headband glued on so that the pad made
+by the cord lies on top of the edges and thus covers the place where
+book and cover join.<a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+   <a href="images/i_091l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="101" height="113"
+      alt="Fig. 52&mdash;Headband shears.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52&mdash;Headband shears.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Woven headbands are now to be had so cheap that it is no longer
+necessary for the binder to make his own. The<span class="pagenum">[Pg 82]</span> cheaper kinds are woven
+of cotton, and of these there are bands made which have two pads, each
+edge having a different colour. This band is cut along the middle for
+use; for the rest, it is cut into pieces according to the width of the
+book and then glued on to the back. Better kinds in silk are only woven
+on one side, therefore the cutting asunder is not necessary. For work in
+quantities, the headbands are cut the size of the back with the
+adjustable headband shears.</p>
+
+<p>For extra work the headband is hand-worked in silk. This work can only
+be learned by practice, although its execution is not difficult; such
+books are only headbanded after boarding.</p>
+
+<p>To make the filling for the headband, cut into strips pieces of vellum
+which have been pasted together, between which a piece of tough, thin
+pasteboard may be pasted to further strengthen. These strips are cut a
+little less than the height of the squares and a little longer than the
+width of the back. So as to facilitate the work, the strip is at once
+curved to the rounding of the back.</p>
+
+<p>Take two silk threads of the kind sold as "Cordonnet" silk, each thread
+of a different colour. Both threads are threaded in a sewing needle, the
+threads taken double, the ends of both double threads knotted together.
+The book is clamped in the ends of a press and stands slanting a little
+outwards. The needle is inserted in the back groove of the first sheet
+at the left hand underneath the kettle stitch and the thread drawn out
+to the knots. Thus one thread is always above and another below. The
+strip of vellum is now placed upright on the outside edge of the head,
+the thread is brought over from below, and is stitched from above to
+below close to the head, with the hanging needle through the first
+sheet<span class="pagenum">[Pg 83]</span> under the kettle stitch outwards. Bring the same thread once more
+up over the strip, let the needle hang in the hollow of the fore-edge,
+taking in its stead the other thread which takes up the first, bringing
+it out underneath the vellum strip. By this, the first thread is firmly
+drawn as a chain stitch into the headband now beginning. The second
+thread is now brought upwards but need not again be taken through the
+sheet; it is taken back under the vellum strip once, and at the second
+time the needles are changed in the hollow as the first thread one more
+takes up the second thread and draws it into a chain. Thus the work goes
+on; after several journeys the thread is once again drawn out through a
+sheet until both threads are brought out at the other end of the back
+and pasted down. The first knots must also be undone and the ends pasted
+so that they do not show on the back. It is essential that the vellum
+strips should be always firmly and evenly sewn upon the edge, and also
+that every winding of the thread and the chain lies quite regular.<a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_092.png" width="300" height="243" alt="Fig. 53&mdash;Headband working." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 53&mdash;Headband working.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 84]</span>
+
+<p>It is possible to make a variation by making a few stitches with a third
+thread of another colour in the centre of the headband. Any vellum
+projecting at the ends must be cut off flush with the book.</p>
+<br>
+<p>Some books are given a marker; this is made of silk ribbon or of a
+cheaper kind specially woven for the purpose. It is cut long enough to
+allow of its projecting a little at the head and pasted there, and at
+the same time comfortably held by the finger at the corner diagonally
+opposite. The marker is glued on before headbanding.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Boarding</span></h3>
+
+<p>The boards may be fastened to the covers in various ways, apart from
+casing, <i>i.e.</i>, fixing books in publishers' ready-made cases.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1. Fastening upon bands (ordinary fastening).<br>
+2. Fastening below bands (fastening on a deep groove).<br>
+3. Drawing the bands through the boards (fastening with laced
+bands). </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The boards for the books are nowadays manufactured from pulp, excepting
+in a few districts in Pomerania and East Prussia where wood boards are
+still occasionally made. Of these pulp boards the better kinds are
+called mill-boards; the cheaper are called straw-boards. Leather boards
+are not suitable for books as they invariably wrinkle or cockle. The
+boards may be cut to size before fastening on, or this may be done even
+after the fastening on has been completed. The former is generally
+practised where there is a board-cutting machine, but even then further
+attention is usually given to the shaping of the boards in the case of
+"extra" work.</p>
+
+<p>The board-cutting machine is a very useful ally, for by the aid of
+quickly adjusted rectangles and parallels a board may be cut perfectly
+true.</p>
+
+<p>The boards are selected according to the size and thickness of the book,
+marked out, and cut perfectly rectangular. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a> </span> boards must slightly
+project at top and bottom as well as fore-edge so as to afford
+sufficient protection to the book. The margins so projecting are called
+the squares. Small books are allowed a small square, as a matter of
+course, and large books a square correspondingly larger.<a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+   <a href="images/i_095l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="350" height="331"
+      alt="Fig. 54&mdash;Board-cutting machine.">
+   </a>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 54&mdash;Board-cutting machine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Where there is no board-cutting machine, the boards must be cut to size
+with the knife upon a cutting-board, using a straight edge for the line.</p>
+
+<p>The knife used is the well-known bookbinder's knife&mdash;Henckel Bros.'
+Solingen make is the best. These knives&mdash;both in fixed and removable
+wooden handles&mdash;are made of "glass hard" steel. If the point is worn
+away, a piece about 1/2 cm. long is knocked off with a hammer on an iron
+edge, thus making a fresh edge. The cutting-boards must be of maple,
+beech, or pear tree.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>If it is intended to shape the edges of the board on the book, it must
+be cut about 1 cm. larger each way so as to allow for further trimming.</p>
+
+<p>Fastening the boards to the book is called "boarding." This can
+generally be done as well with paste as with glue; the former is
+preferable but necessitates longer pressing and drying. Glueing is
+quicker, but the bands cannot then be pressed so evenly into the boards.</p>
+
+<p>For ordinary fixing on the bands, the insides of the boards are pasted
+to about 3 cm. in width, the bands also pasted, and the board laid on,
+bringing it well up to the groove. If it is intended to glue up, the
+bands are also glued, provided they have not already been glued on&mdash;a
+method preferred by many experienced hands. The bands must be pasted so
+that they radiate from the back without any tangle; a morsel of paste
+the size of a pea is laid on the band from underneath with the folder or
+point of a knife, the band smoothed down, and the thing is done. After
+glueing-up, the book is pressed between boards. If zinc plates are
+placed under the boards whilst pressing, the pasted parts will be
+pressed quite smooth and shiny.<a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_097a.jpg" width="101" height="82" alt="Fig. 55&mdash;Spring back." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55&mdash;Spring back.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For cloth or half-cloth binding a hollow back is frequently glued on. To
+make the covering material of the back more lasting, a back is made up
+of strong wrappers or some other tough material, which extends over the
+back underneath the cover. This backing material must be cut 4 to 5 cm.
+wider than the width of the back and about 1 cm. longer each way than
+the book. This strip is pared very narrowly along both sides with a
+sharp knife on the so-called paring stone. A second strip&mdash;the
+backing&mdash;of the same material is cut the same length but exactly the
+width of the back of the book and is glued on to the middle of the wider
+strip. The overlapping parts at the sides are broken in towards the
+middle, close by the inner packing, and the<span class="pagenum">[Pg 88]</span> crease well pressed down
+with the folder. These overlapping edges are then turned back again and
+a rule is laid on the packing parallel with the edge but drawn back to
+the middle about 2 to 3 mm. according to the thickness of the cover. If
+the moveable flaps are now again laid over towards the centre and
+narrowly creased near the first fold over the rule, a second parallel
+fold is obtained which allows the book to open much better. The back in
+section appears as illustrated in Fig. 55 after the middle part of the
+packing has undergone the necessary rounding.<a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_097b.jpg" width="101" height="41" alt="Fig. 56&mdash;Boarded book." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56&mdash;Boarded book.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rounding can be done either by rubbing the middle part round with a
+proper wooden tool in a rounding board having several hollows of various
+degrees of convexity, or by drawing the back with a rocking motion under
+a broad folder. Such a made-up back must fit perfectly true to the
+groove and on the back. This is the hollow back. Before fastening it to
+the book, the latter must have a piece of stout paper pasted over the
+back; good packing-paper is the best. Newspapers and loose
+advertisements out of magazines are not at all satisfactory and must not
+be used. The book is glued and the paper laid on and glued. In doing a
+large batch the books may be pasted in the press and the paper pasted
+on.</p>
+
+<p>Many experts glue the hollow backs on and use paste for the board. Very
+frequently the glue comes through and spoils the end papers. It is
+better to raise the flaps of the back, paste the tear off of the end
+paper, paste the bands on to it, and the loose flaps as well, and then
+paste this on the outside and set the board on it. The latter must be
+set back a little further in this case so that the book moves freely in
+the joint. The back, therefore, is a hollow arch<span class="pagenum">[Pg 89]</span> stretching over the
+book from groove to groove, the loose flaps of the packing adhering
+between book and board. The book is pressed until thoroughly dry&mdash;best
+between zinc plates.<a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="101" height="21" alt="Fig. 57&mdash;Section of edge rule." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 57&mdash;Section of edge rule.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For shaping boarded books an edge rule is used. This is a thin iron rule
+not much longer than the width of the book. On the long edge an iron pin
+about the width of the edge is soldered. This tool is inserted between
+book and board so that the iron pin lies close to the edge of the book;
+if the board is trimmed along this it will leave the board exactly as
+much larger than the book as is the width of the rule.</p>
+
+<p>Knives or points must be well grasped in cutting boards. The edge must
+be clean and square.</p>
+
+<p>If the boarded book has a hollow back, first one end is shaped and the
+projecting back is neatly cut clean and straight to the other board with
+the shears, and then the other end is shaped.</p>
+
+<p>Boards are fixed on a deep groove by pasting them on the outside to a
+width of about 3 cm., placing them direct on the book, backing them
+firmly into the groove, and then pasting the bands very smoothly upon
+the boards. A folded piece of waste paper is placed on the pasted part,
+a piece of zinc plate over it, and the book then pressed. The double
+leaf is used to prevent any sticking to the zinc plate, which bands are
+particularly liable to do if the plates had not been properly cleaned
+after previous use.</p>
+
+<p>Boards to be fastened into a deep groove must be lined with waste paper;
+this is done with paste. When packing, a narrow strip of paper must be
+brought over the inner edge of the board in the groove to the outside,
+so that the cut edge of the board is covered and does not strain or
+swell.</p>
+
+<p>This is also done when boarding, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>At the present time, all good half or whole leather bindings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a> </span> have the
+boards laced through in good shops. At the outset the bands must be left
+with longer ends for this&mdash;5 cm. at least on each side. A parallel line
+is marked on the board along the back about 6 to 8 mm. from the groove.
+The board is fitted on the book just as was done when fixing in the
+groove, and exactly opposite each band a point is made on the marked
+lines. The board is then removed and at the points marked is pierced
+slanting inwards&mdash;about half right angle&mdash;with a pointed awl. The board
+is turned, and sideways, near every first hole, a second hole is made
+which likewise takes a slanting direction to the board. The bands are
+drawn through these holes, and to be able to do this the bands must be
+well pasted and twisted to a point; cutting off the extreme ends of the
+bands will facilitate the drawing through. To draw the bands quite firm
+and tight the boards are stood upright in the groove, the bands drawn
+through as tight as possible, and in this position&mdash;that is, with the
+boards half open&mdash;they are knocked down with a hammer upon a firm bed.
+The principal thing to be observed is that the bands are pasted fast in
+the holes, but where they are seen they are knocked down quite flat. The
+boards are now slowly closed, the ends of the bands projecting at the
+outside are cut off short, and the book pressed, using zinc plates
+inside and out.<a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_099.png" width="300" height="170" alt="Fig. 58&mdash;English style of lacing boards." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 58&mdash;English style of lacing boards.</p>
+
+<p>The French method of lacing is not much practised in other countries; it
+is somewhat more roundabout, and is done<span class="pagenum">[Pg 91]</span> before cutting&mdash;immediately
+after glueing up. The boards are each shifted to right or left for
+cutting and cut together. By so doing, the edges always correspond
+exactly to the back groove.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 60px;">
+<img src="images/i_100.jpg" width="60" height="71" alt="Band hole diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>For every band there are three holes bored forming a triangle. The awl
+holes are directed towards the middle of this triangle. The band must
+describe this course. The end is pushed under the piece of the band seen
+on the inside of the board, the bands drawn tight, with board standing
+upright as before described, also well knocked down in the same way, and
+the end cut off just beyond the piece under which it is drawn. The book
+is then pressed between zinc plates.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a> </span><span class="pagenum">[Pg 92]</span></p>
+
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE COVER.</h3>
+
+<p>Formerly only one way of making the cover was known, and that was the
+gradual making of it on the book itself. This has been considerably
+changed of late owing to the production of immense quantities for
+publishers' requirements. Book and cover are now in many cases made
+separately, the former being afterwards glued into its cover or "cased."</p>
+
+<p>The publisher's case is nowadays a necessary evil, without which we
+cannot get along and which we have got to take into account. In spite of
+it, bindings are still being produced in the old approved way,
+particularly in small establishments and in high-class shops. Before we
+proceed with the preparation of the cover after the trimming, we must
+know how it is intended to treat the book. In the preceding chapter we
+have learned the methods of boarding, and this now leads to the methods
+of covering. Previous to that, however, we would like to give a plan
+showing the various ways of treating the volumes under consideration,
+and then the chapter on the covers may be given (see plan on page 94).<span class="pagenum">[Pg 94]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a>View of the Most General Styles of Binding, Showing the Divisions of the
+Work.</span></h3>
+
+<blockquote>Table of Headings:<br><br>
+
+Col. A: Folding. Pulling to pieces.<br>
+Col. B: Sewing.<br>
+Col. C: Holländering.<br>
+Col. D: Gluing. Pasting.<br>
+Col. E: Pressing. Cutting.<br>
+Col. F: Marbling and gilding edges.<br>
+Col. G: Rounding. Backing.<br>
+Col. H: Boarding.<br></blockquote>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Work on the book.">
+<tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th></th>
+  <th colspan="9"><span class="smcap">Work on the book.</span></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th></th>
+  <th colspan="6">First stage.</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Second<br>stage.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr><th align="left">Style of Binding.</th><th align="center"></th><th align="center"> A</th><th align="center"> B</th><th align="center"> C</th><th align="center"> D</th><th align="center"> E</th><th align="center"> F</th><th align="center"></th><th align="center"> G</th><th align="center"> H</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brochure</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brochure Paper boards</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">School books</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half cloth (bound)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half cloth (cased)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whole cloth (bound)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whole cloth (cased)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half leather</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half calf, extra</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whole leather</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Publishers' cases</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<blockquote>Table of Headings:<br><br>
+
+Col. I: Making the case.<br>
+Col. J: Covering.<br>
+Col. K: Pressing.<br>
+Col. L: Preparing the leather.<br>
+Col. M: Covering.<br>
+Col. N: Fastening the book in the cover.<br>
+Col. O: Pasting down.<br>
+Col. P: Jointing.<br>
+Col. Q: Pasting down end papers.<br>
+Col. R: Hand tooling and decorating.</blockquote>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Work on the Cover.">
+<tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th></th>
+  <th colspan="12"><span class="smcap">Work on the Cover.</span></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th></th>
+  <th colspan="3">Casing.</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th colspan="2">Covering.</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th colspan="5">Finishing.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr><th align="left">Style of Binding.</th><th align="center"></th><th align="center"> I</th><th align="center"> J</th><th align="center"> K</th><th align="center"></th><th align="center"> L</th><th align="center"> M</th><th align="center">&nbsp;</th><th align="center"> N</th><th align="center"> O</th><th align="center"> P</th><th align="center"> Q</th><th align="center"> R</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brochure</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brochure Paper boards</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">School books</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half cloth (bound)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half cloth (cased)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whole cloth (bound)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whole cloth (cased)</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half leather</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Half calf, extra</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whole leather</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Publishers' cases</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div><br>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 95] </span>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Making the Cover.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The boards for making the covers are cut the required size exactly as
+when cutting for glueing; a packing of thin cardboard or thin wrappers
+is cut for the back. The width of the back from first to last sheet is
+carefully measured by laying across it a strip of paper, the dividers
+are adjusted to the measure, and this is transferred to the wrapping
+paper. The packing is cut to suit the boards in height. When cloth only
+is used for the cover, the cloth is cut 2 to 2-1/2 cm. longer and about
+4 cm. wider than the packing. The width of the back depends upon the
+question of cost or other consideration. In whole-cloth bindings the
+cloth is, of course, cut in one piece and 1 to 1-1/2 cm. larger all
+round than the boards and back taken together. Glue is always used for
+cloth. As piles of pieces of cloth shift about in glueing, a touch of
+glue is given to two corners of the pile and left to dry a little. These
+corners hold the pieces of cloth in position whilst being glued and
+prevent the edges from being smeared. In glueing cloth it must be seen
+that the glue is well rubbed into the grain or artificial indentations.</p>
+
+<p>For covers which have only the back made, the packing is laid upon the
+middle of the glued cloth and the boards hinged on right and left at
+side of it, leaving, however, as much space between as is required by
+the joint and the thickness of the boards. As a rule, the space required
+will be as much as the thickness of the board. In making leather backs
+one allows a little more.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>The cloth back is at once turned in at head and tail after the boards
+have been laid on, and the cover rubbed down in the groove with the
+folder.</p>
+
+<p>Turning-in is done by pushing the side to be operated on a little over
+the edge of the table, and with the thumbs the cover is pressed over the
+edges of the boards with a sliding motion, whilst the forefingers hold
+the cover underneath.</p>
+
+<p>Whole-cloth bindings are turned in in the same way, but in this case the
+corners must be first cut off obliquely as shown in the illustration.<a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_105a.jpg" width="251" height="144" alt="Fig. 60&mdash;Corners cut for turning in." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 60&mdash;Corners cut for turning in.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth is cut off at the corners so close that only as much as the
+thickness of the board remains. Thick boards have therefore more cloth
+left at the corners than thin ones.<a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_105b.jpg" width="251" height="96" alt="Fig. 61&mdash;Corners: Right and wrong." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 61&mdash;Corners: Right and wrong.</p>
+
+<p>The top and bottom edges must be turned in before the fore-edge. At the
+corners, the cloth is nipped a little with the folder, without, however,
+making an oblique fold; there should rather be a hollow round turn-over
+remaining which is only drawn on with the fore-edge, then from the
+corner slanting to the board.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>The edges must always be turned in quite sharp; there must never be a
+hollow place on the edge of the board. On the other hand, it looks bad
+if the edges have been much rubbed down with the folder, at least with
+cloth; it is different with leather.</p>
+
+<p>The turned-in cover is turned and the front side well rubbed down under
+paper with the folder. When cloth has once been glued it must not be
+allowed to lie long as it rolls up and sticks together, which renders it
+practically unworkable.</p>
+
+<p>The finished covers are laid between pasteboards to dry; only when the
+drying has to be done in a hurry may they be hung on stretched cords.
+The latest in this work is a case machine which turns out 550 cases per
+hour.</p>
+
+<p>When leather is used, it must first be pared, that is to say, the parts
+to be turned in where it is too thick in the joint must be gradually
+thinned.<a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_106.png" width="300" height="137" alt="Fig. 62&mdash;Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 62&mdash;Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife.</p>
+
+<p>The paring knife, of which there are various kinds, is used for this
+work. The best known and the most generally used are the Offenbach and
+the Berlin, both very much alike except for a slight difference in the
+edge. The quickest paring knife is made after the French pattern.<span class="pagenum">[Pg 98]</span></p>
+
+<p>This knife is called a "thrusting" knife because of the manner of using
+it, in contradistinction to those generally used with a cutting motion;
+but even these a skilful worker will be able to use with a thrusting
+motion. The under side of the paring knife is covered with leather.</p>
+
+<p>A lithographic stone or piece of marble will serve as a bed upon which
+to pare the leather. The stone is set in a frame under which there is a
+bar to hold it against the edge of the table so that it does not work
+backwards whilst in use. All edges are rounded off and the surface is
+ground and polished.</p>
+
+<p>Ability in paring does not entirely depend upon the skilful use of the
+knife but also upon the way the left hand manipulates the leather and
+upon a thorough knowledge of the nature of the leather. It should not be
+forgotten that the latter has a grain, though very few bookbinders pay
+any heed to this. With many leathers it is a very difficult matter to
+pare against the grain, especially pig-skin and cow-hide. One may
+generally take it that a leather pares best in the direction in which it
+stretches least. The grain runs from the back to the sides. The
+Offenbach knife is narrower and ground more to a square point than the
+Berlin knife, the edge of which forms a sort of half right-angle to the
+blade. See manner of holding the knife in <a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62.</a></p>
+
+<p>Quick working is an advantage of the Offenbach knife, which is due to
+the fact that less attention need be given to holding the leather on the
+stone, and paring proceeds from left to right, the left hand at the same
+time helping to push the knife. The Berlin make pares from right to
+left; here the blade is held almost parallel to the edge of the leather,
+the point of the knife inclining to the leather; with the other the edge
+is cut over slantingly with the point outwards.</p>
+
+<p>To use the French knife requires more practice; the cutting edge is
+almost at right angles to the knife, and, besides, the method of holding
+it is somewhat unusual. For<span class="pagenum">[Pg 99]</span> paring all thick leathers or large surfaces
+it surpasses all other makes in execution. To make the leather more
+workable for paring it is previously manipulated, that is to say, it is
+turned flesh side outwards and rolled to and fro, whilst firm pressure
+is applied with the second and third fingers of the right hand, thus
+making it pliable.<a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_108.png" width="300" height="194" alt="Fig. 63&mdash;Paring with French knife." title="">
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 63&mdash;Paring with French knife.</p>
+
+<p>In an ordinary bindery thin or split leathers are mostly used; these do
+not require very much paring, which is only necessary for pig-skin and
+the finest moroccos. The latter leather is narrowly pared about 2 to 3
+mm. wide along the edge for half as well as for whole bindings. Only the
+back is pared the whole width, therefore 1 to 1-1/2 cm. has to be nicely
+gradated. Broken places, inequalities of the edge, or even holes to be
+filled in, greatly add to the difficulty of the work.</p>
+
+<p>In the thicker skins also&mdash;thick places often occur in the otherwise
+thin skins&mdash;the joint must be thinned down. The packing is laid upon the
+wrong side of the leather and its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a> </span> position marked out with the folder.
+The leather is pared about 1 cm. in width along this line, that is to
+say, it is pared so that 1/2 cm. right and left along the mark the
+thickness of the leather is reduced.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, first-class books are not provided with a cover made in
+advance, and even those described by publishers as "super extra" do not
+rise above morocco goat.</p>
+
+<p>We have to do with the following leathers which are mostly used for the
+publishers' bindings: Goat-skin (of oriental hybrid sheep), morocco
+goat, sheep-skin (unsplit sheep-skin), and split sheep-skin [or
+so-called skivers]. There is another goat-skin, not Levanted, sold and
+used under the name "bastard" leather. "Levanting" means to imitate by
+pressing the grain natural to the skins from the Levant. Most kinds of
+our leather receive their grain by such process.</p>
+
+<p>For whole-leather bindings a narrow margin is pared down all round the
+edges, the turn-in at the back is pared just as much as is necessary,
+and also at the corners. The leather corners are cut slant-wise at the
+outset, and the paring is done so that the thinning begins exactly at
+the edge of the board.</p>
+
+<p>In leather bindings the board, as well as the back packing, is glued on,
+rubbed down, and the edges then pasted and turned in, the leather is
+rubbed down sharply in the joint, the back, and on the edges; but a
+folder must never be used on the leather covering the board itself.</p>
+
+<p>It frequently happens that the board is finished off with round corners;
+in this case, the method of turning in cloth as well as leather is
+slightly different. The two neighbouring edges are turned in. The
+leather or other material is cut off not quite so close as for square
+corners, and the material is drawn very smoothly and neatly over the
+edges in little folds, using a pointed folder for the work.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 213px;">
+<img src="images/i110a.jpg" width="213" height="47" alt="Corner cloth diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Books not wholly covered with cloth or leather get corners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a> </span> of the same
+material as is used for the back. Cloth corners are not cut singly, but
+a strip of material long enough for the required number of corners is
+glued and then cut with the shears into pieces of this shape(a) or, better(b),
+placing them on the boards in such a way that the material projects a
+little over the corner of the board. First of all, the lappets of the
+top and bottom edges are turned in, the corners nipped in the manner
+shown, and then the lappets of the fore-edge are also turned in. Leather
+corners are treated in the same way, but these are cut from waste pieces
+according to the zinc stencil plate kept for the purpose, and then pared
+down.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_110b.jpg" width="101" height="109" alt="Corner cloth diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Glue is used for fixing on cloth corners, but strong paste is always
+used for leather. All edges and corners are well rubbed down with the
+folder and left smooth and sharp, but, on the other hand, the grain on
+the board side must be left uninjured. Insufficient paring of the
+corners or using only the fingers for turning-in causes very thick
+edges; such work is out of date and would not be done by any thoughtful
+workman.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_110c.jpg" width="101" height="119" alt="Corner cloth diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Books bound in half-cloth or half-leather have the sides covered with
+paper; the latter often with cloth. When cloth sides are used, the
+material must always harmonize with the back both in regard to colour
+and texture. On each side to be turned in the paper is cut 1 to 1-1/2
+cm. larger than the surface of the board to be covered. The paper is cut
+along the back with the knife and rule. The corners are turned down in
+half right-angles according to the size of the cloth or leather corners
+and somewhat smaller than these, and cut off with the shears as shown in
+the illustration, using the fold as a guide.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a> </span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_111.jpg" width="101" height="115" alt="Half Cloth half leather corner diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>In ordinary work with very small corners, especially in large
+quantities, the corners may simply be cut off diagonally, and if there
+are many covers they are knocked up and the cutting is done with knife
+and rule or with the machine.</p>
+
+<p>As a trade article for the publishers, the finished cover is lined with
+paper on the inside, both for the sake of improved appearance and to
+prevent the drawing outwards. For every board a sheet of paper is cut
+about 1/2 cm. smaller than the board and pasted on. The covers are
+placed between boards to dry.</p>
+
+<p>Covers are generally decorated in some way; as a rule by means of the
+blocking press. Where they get any hand tooling, it is always done on
+the book when bound, for which no case is made in advance. Simple gold
+lines along the back and corners of the cover are excepted; such work is
+known as "filleting."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Work with the Blocking Press.</span></h3>
+
+<p>We make a distinction between gold tooling and blind tooling. The latter
+is simply an impression on the leather or other material without the use
+of gold, whilst the other is an impression upon a specially prepared
+leather or other surface, using gold leaf.</p>
+
+<p>Skill in blocking depends first of all upon a tasteful and suitable
+selection and arrangement of the engraved blocks and letters necessary
+for the decoration and inscription.</p>
+
+<p>The blocks, &amp;c., are to be had ready made from the engravers in properly
+arranged sets; but still it is essential that the finisher should
+possess certain artistic taste and feeling, especially in making up the
+lettering. It must be borne in mind that in an inscription or title the
+principal part (word or line) must be distinguished by larger or heavier
+type; furthermore, two lines of equal length must never appear in an
+inscription. Short words (the, and, for, &amp;c.) worked into an inscription
+as separate lines add considerably to its appearance. See pp. 148 to 153
+for what is said on the arrangement of the title in hand lettering. The
+same applies to the arrangement of all lettering.</p>
+
+<p>The blocks and letters are always fixed to the upper part of the
+press&mdash;the platen.</p>
+
+<p>To enable alterations to be made quickly or to secure pieces which may
+have slipped, there is a draw-out plate<span class="pagenum">[Pg 104]</span> made in all modern blocking
+presses. The engraved blocks are not affixed to this plate with glue but
+with cobblers' wax. The following is a practical way of managing the
+ornamental blocks: On a thin but very strong board about the size of the
+article to be blocked, the blocks are arranged with the backs uppermost,
+the engraved face being next to the board. This board is fixed with wax
+exactly in the centre of the lower part of the press&mdash;the table. By
+"exactly in the centre" it is to be understood that the centre of the
+various blocks brought together lies on or near the centre of the
+draw-out plate. If there are more and heavier blocks fixed to the upper
+than to the lower side of the plate, the latter must be lowered a
+little&mdash;in a word, the plate must be so adjusted that all parts receive
+equal pressure. It is only by making a few trials that one can learn
+exactly what is right.</p>
+
+<p>The press should be warmed by this time, and it is well to slide in the
+table with the blocks adjusted upon it, and to let it remain under light
+pressure until plate and table are warmed throughout and no trace of
+moisture may be seen on either. Now put a little wax on each block, lay
+over them a piece of stout wrapping paper, cardboard, or similar stuff,
+push in and press gently; the wrapper also may be waxed. After about
+five minutes, open the press to see whether all parts have stuck. Until
+this takes place the press must remain closed. If, however, all pieces
+are sticking fast, draw out the table and examine the imprint of each
+particular part to see whether the pressure is equal; if this is not so,
+it remains to be seen whether such inequality is due to a faulty fixing
+of the plate and, if necessary, to rectify it; otherwise, pieces of
+paper must be made up into a suitable packing and laid upon the back of
+the blocks until all inequalities are removed and an even impression is
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>This done, the back of the set-up blocks, or the wrappers affixed
+thereto, is waxed at as many places as required, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a> </span> rather as far as
+the set-up blocks extend, the plate pushed in, and the press closed
+until the set-up blocks adhere to the upper plate. The lighter this
+first impression is made, the easier it will be to detect any inequality
+on the table (or matrix) and to set it right by backing up with paper.<a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+   <a href="images/i_114l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="200" height="315"
+      alt="Fig. 64&mdash;Blocking press.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64&mdash;Blocking press.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before proceeding further, a few words must be said about the
+construction of our modern blocking presses. For modern blocking we use
+knee-lever presses, whilst balances are now no longer used.</p>
+
+<p>On the upper part there is a sliding plate&mdash;the so-called platen&mdash;which
+draws out on prismatic rails.<span class="pagenum">[Pg 106]</span></p>
+
+<p>A second plate works on hinges at the side of the sliding (or draw-out)
+plate and can be pulled out to the left. This plate is used principally
+for colour blocking&mdash;the other plate for gold.</p>
+
+<p>Blocking can be done in gold and colour immediately after each other,
+and if the plate is in duplicate, four impressions can be made in
+succession without having to take off and change the plate.</p>
+
+<p>In the upper plate there are round borings for the gas burners or hot
+irons used for heating the press; the latter are out of date and do not
+produce a steady temperature.</p>
+
+<p>It now remains to insert the article to be blocked in the press so that
+it will be blocked exactly on the spot required.</p>
+
+<p>There are several ways of attaining this object, which are adopted
+according to the kind of work in hand. The surest way is to mark the
+place by pins.</p>
+
+<p>Two large drawing pins are pasted upon pieces of cardboard, a second
+piece of board is placed over each one so that the head is embedded
+between the two pieces but leaving the points free. The gauges thus made
+are fixed with wax at convenient places, best on the middle line above
+and below the table but in such a way that they themselves are not
+touched by the plate. To prevent their falling off, a larger piece of
+cloth is pasted over them, always leaving the points visible. The surest
+preventive against falling off is to have screw-on gauges. A strip of
+metal having a slit in the middle can be screwed tightly to the table by
+means of a screw passed through the slit. At the end a steel point about
+1/2 cm. long is riveted on. With this gauge the points can be adjusted
+to any position on the table as required.</p>
+
+<p>All work not turned-in which requires repeat blocking, and all such as
+requires blocking in more than one colour, is "pinned on." On the other
+hand, covers which are finished after being once blocked on back or side
+which require no second<span class="pagenum">[Pg 107]</span>
+impression may be adjusted with the angle gauge or blocks. Many make use
+of both at the same time. Such covers then have been turned in all round
+when being worked, whilst "pinning on" requires that the covers should
+not have been turned in.</p>
+
+<p>The practical bookbinder who has to deal with turned-in covers
+frequently gets over the difficulty by making two incisions about 2 cm.
+apart with the knife upon the turned-in edge at the place where it
+should be pinned on, and opening out the material at the incisions, thus
+making a loose margin for pinning on.</p>
+
+<p>For pinning on covers as well as backs, a template is cut from wrappers
+or thin board, which is adjusted on the cover and the register holes
+made with an awl. When pinning-on has to be done for blocking which has
+to be repeated very many times, the register points are strengthened
+behind with stiff paper to prevent them from breaking or tearing away
+and thus becoming inaccurate.<a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+   <a href="images/i_116l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_116.jpg" width="200" height="174"
+      alt="Fig. 65&mdash;Appliances used in blocking backs.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 65&mdash;Appliances used in blocking backs.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To enable the most various widths of backs to be quickly inserted and to
+supply a substitute for the thick layers of cardboard packing which make
+a fine impression impossible, a special contrivance with metal pads has
+been made. This is shown in the sketch herewith.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has already been made of the table (or matrix). This is a bed of
+stout boards which is intended to serve the double purpose of saving the
+blocks when blocking thin articles (backs of covers, &amp;c.) and also for
+strengthening and equalising the resistance from below when working on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a> </span>
+heavier articles. Faults arising during working, such as insufficient adhesion
+of the gold (and an increased pressure) may be set right by pasting on
+pieces of paper to the matrix or table.</p>
+
+<p>The matrices consist of strong but thin material; the best is wrappers
+or the thinnest board. After use they are kept for subsequent
+repetitions of the same or for other work.</p>
+
+<p>The lettering must always be set up fresh for each job, whilst the
+ornamental pieces may be arranged on the tables or matrices at hand
+after the existing original impression.</p>
+
+<p>Setting the type is a special art and calls for considerable taste and
+skill; the letters very easily slip out of the type-holder, especially
+where very small type is used, unless special precautions are taken to
+prevent this. Here we will pass over the most important point in the
+arrangement of the types and refer to the paragraph dealing with
+"Lettering" under "Hand-tooling"; what holds good there always holds
+good here.</p>
+
+<p>Lettering is always set upon special pieces of board and afterwards
+encased in a type-holder, as it demands much more attention and
+subsequent correction. These boards should likewise be wrappers of the
+same thickness as those used at the same time for the ornaments. For
+fixing, cobblers' wax is likewise used. The favourite method frequently
+adopted of using glue coated with paste is not to be recommended,
+because the letters do not admit of proper setting upon this gelatinous
+mass. Not only do the lines of letters require to be kept right by means
+of a strip of metal or metal line, they must be carefully adjusted after
+taking a light impression, especially when using a very small type. The
+first pull must be under so light a pressure that on a soft paper
+everything is distinctly visible. The lines are arranged from this
+proof, whilst each single letter is carefully checked. Where letters do
+not show up properly they must be backed up with paper of<span class="pagenum">[Pg 109]</span>
+suitable thickness on the board until all unevenness disappears. The
+lighter the pressure applied the easier it will be to make corrections.
+Letters heavily pressed at the outset can seldom be properly rectified
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>In large editions it does happen, in spite of all precautions, that
+single letters work loose and fall out; this may damage parts of the
+plate as well as valuable covers, and one therefore tries to guard
+against it. Some take narrow strips of cloth and paste one round each
+line of type, others pour liquid glue between the lines which, when
+thoroughly dry and hard, is a very sure means of preventing the falling
+out of any piece of type.</p>
+
+<p>When everything is in order, the type is likewise inserted; various
+parts of the back of the board are well waxed and the table is then
+pushed in and the press closed tight. It remains closed until all parts
+are thoroughly dry, for it is only then that we may feel assured that no
+parts can fall out. The drying may be hastened by opening the press
+about a quarter of an hour later and drawing out the plate, likewise the
+table, and now allowing plate and table to dry by exposure. If any parts
+of the plate should lift, wax must again be applied and once more
+pressed.</p>
+
+<p>When the plates and press are got into working order, and the backs or
+covers have received their register marks by means of the template, the
+blocking may be commenced. The table is drawn out, a piece of work
+pushed in to the register, and the press closed. It is necessary that
+the press should have been previously regulated to the thickness of the
+article being blocked, and to begin with a light pressure at first, as
+heavier pressure can be applied afterwards if required. Cloth requires
+sharper pressure than leather. Large heavy covers are always blocked
+with the press quite closed, whilst small things like single titles, hat
+linings, ties, &amp;c., are finished with only a short pull of the lever.
+The correct regulation of the pressure rests with the worker.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a> </span>
+</p>
+
+<p>We distinguish between blocking in blind, gold, colour, and relief.
+Blocking in blind, both on leather and cloth, should not be attempted
+upon articles which have become very dry. A good plan is to store them
+in a cellar the night before and to bring out only as many as can be
+finished in the next half-hour's work. Blocking in blind can only be
+done on matt or grained material, as its effect is nil upon a smooth
+polished surface.</p>
+
+<p>The finish can be considerably heightened in special cases by going over
+the impression with a brush and white of egg after the first blocking
+and then again pressing under less heat. Calf leather, and undressed
+calf in particular, receives its splendid brown colour by being
+previously damped with boiled or distilled water to which a little
+spirit has been added. The impression on a damped ground is first made
+somewhat warmer and afterwards repeated when the press has cooled a
+little, occasionally wiping the blocks with a waxed cloth. The
+impression must in all cases be even in colour and have a high finish;
+if this is not so, the lighter places must be once more damped with a
+small brush and again impressed.</p>
+
+<p>Articles to be blocked in gold must be prepared with some substance to
+which the gold will adhere. The finisher uses a fluid or dry adhesive
+according to the material he is working upon. Of liquid sizes, diluted
+white of egg or, in some cases, dissolved gelatine or blood serum is
+used almost exclusively. These liquids, which are applied with a sponge
+or, for fine work, with a brush, are called the "ground" or "sizing." Of
+dry adhesives, we know only the gilding powder, which consists of resin
+with now and then an addition of dried white of egg. The other powders
+used by the finisher are rice flour or potato flour; these are not used
+as adhesives but to prevent the gold sticking at places where it is not
+wanted. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Leather and cloth are sized with white of egg; silk and other woven
+materials are finished without special sizing, and also surfaced papers
+and cardboard goods, as they are treated with finishers' powder, a wet
+preparation being unsuitable.</p>
+
+<p>Size for blocking is thinner than for hand finishing, and when it has to
+be washed over the whole of a cloth cover it is still further diluted.
+Glair for brushing over an impression consists of one part white of egg
+and one part vinegar; to every 1/2 litre 1 g. of powdered borax is
+added, the whole beaten to a froth and filtered. For coating-over, take
+one part white of egg, two parts water, and to every 1/2 litre add 10
+drops of glycerine and 1 g. borax. If a larger quantity of glair is
+required for coating over, it may be thinned with water or vinegar; but
+size made with vinegar must not be applied to fancy coloured cloths.</p>
+
+<p>Gilding powder may be yellow or white, the latter kind is rougher and is
+suitable for silk stuffs and also where blocking has to be done over
+colour on cloth. Yellow powder is softer and is apt to clog the finer
+cut tools; it is more suitable for the preparation of paper <i>de luxe</i>,
+for blocking surface and chromo papers, and for photo cases.</p>
+
+<p>Gilding powder is sprinkled by means of a box which has a double layer
+of fine gauze instead of a bottom. By tapping upon the box a fine shower
+of powder is dusted on to the surface to be gilded.</p>
+
+<p>Glair is made in the workshop; the powder is bought ready prepared&mdash;to
+make it would take too much time.</p>
+
+<p>For blocking in alloyed metals, gelatine size is used, as it is a
+powerful adhesive. A tablet of gelatine is soaked in 1/4 litre of water
+overnight and next morning is dissolved in the bath. Gelatine is used to
+cover the whole surfaces and is laid on when lukewarm. Blood serum
+serves the same purpose. Ox blood is allowed to coagulate, and the
+hardened mass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a> </span>
+thus produced is placed over a cloth strainer, or hair sieve, and the
+liquid albumen allowed to drain from it; the process is hastened by
+cutting the caked blood into small pieces. Only the clear liquid which
+is strained off is to be used&mdash;a pinch of borax will make it keep
+longer.</p>
+
+<p>For finishing bindings, real gold-leaf&mdash;orange tint&mdash;is used almost
+exclusively, the cheaper green gold being used only for sample cases and
+school books. Alloyed metal and aluminium (this is now commonly used
+instead of the quickly oxydizing silver) are used almost solely in the
+manufacture of papers <i>de luxe</i> and for placards.</p>
+
+<p>Pure gold-leaf is always laid on the sized cover after the surface to be
+blocked has been lightly gone over with a ball of oiled cotton wool, or
+a slightly greased rag. This must never be done to such a degree as to
+cause grease spots. Calf must not be thus treated with grease, but if
+the gold is not likely to stick at certain places, the first impression
+may be picked out with a brush slightly oiled so as to make the leaf
+adhere. Dark polished calf will, however, stand a little oil.</p>
+
+<p>Fine leathers are first stamped and the impression is gone over with a
+brush, then the gold is laid on and again impressed. The gold is lifted
+from the cushion with a gilder's tip or a pad of cotton wool and
+transferred to the cover. The gilder's tips consist of square pieces of
+cardboard a little smaller than the piece of gold to be used, to the
+under side of which is pasted a piece of cloth. A handle of cardboard or
+a button is pasted on top for convenience of holding.</p>
+
+<p>Draw this tip lightly over the hair, press it on the gold, which will
+lightly adhere to it, and then transfer the gold to the surface to be
+stamped, where it is pressed down with cotton wool, which should be
+surgical wool, as that kind is free from knots. Many prefer a tuft of
+cotton wool rolled into a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a> </span>
+handy size, this is likewise drawn over the hair, and the rest done as
+before.</p>
+
+<p>When gilding powder is used, the gold must not be laid on with the pad.
+The gold must be placed on the powder by hand only, a task calling for
+considerable adroitness. The gold is taken up with the gold-knife, aided
+by a moistened finger-tip taking a corner, passed over the surface with
+the knife, brought to the required position with the hanging corner, and
+now the knife is taken away flat sideways. The gold must lie quite even
+on the powdered surface. Any subsequent shifting of the gold is entirely
+out of the question, because the layer of powder would be disturbed and
+might not hold in places.</p>
+
+<p>To know exactly what degree of heat should be applied requires special
+study, and the pity is that fixed rules cannot be given&mdash;one day a black
+morocco goat-skin may stand a great heat, whilst on another day the same
+heat applied to similar stuff might burn it up. Cloth is always the
+same, calf leather papers, skytogen, &amp;c., are much more difficult. On
+the whole, the following rules may be observed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Guilding guide">
+<tr><td align="left">Cloth</td><td align="left">white of egg (or glair) </td><td align="left">medium heat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sheep-skin</td><td align="left">white of egg (or glair) </td><td align="left">slight heat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Goat-skin</td><td align="left">white of egg (or glair) </td><td align="left">medium heat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morocco</td><td align="left">white of egg (or glair) </td><td align="left">medium heat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silk</td><td align="left">white gilding powder</td><td align="left">short hot pressure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Surface papers and cardboards</td><td align="left">yellow</td><td align="left"> short medium pressure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Calf</td><td align="left">glair</td><td align="left">hot (light leathers somewhat less heat)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Varnished paper</td><td align="left">white gilding powder</td><td align="left">little heat</td></tr>
+</table></div><br>
+
+<p>The latter contains sufficient adhesive matter in the colour without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a> </span>
+using any other size, even for alloyed gold, but the covers must,
+however, be slightly moist. For this purpose they are left overnight in
+a damp cellar or placed between slightly damped boards.</p>
+
+<p>We have already spoken of the matrix. Where silk or other thin woven
+materials are to be blocked, a firm hard board must be laid on the table
+and frequently changed, otherwise the impression will be defective. For
+ribbons for wreaths, &amp;c., a suitable piece of paper which had been
+damped some time before should be laid underneath.</p>
+
+<p>Although relief blocking upon bindings seems to be out of favour, there
+are numerous styles of imitation relief practised nowadays, especially
+in imitation of cut leather or wrought metal. This work necessitates the
+matrix or table being prepared with great care, as it must be the
+counterpart of the plate. For this purpose an impression is first made
+upon a stout cardboard, which is fixed firmly enough on the bed to
+prevent its shifting, the block being affixed to the platen. Upon this
+first cardboard are laid the raised parts according to the height
+required, likewise cut out of stout cardboard, continuing to place a
+layer upon the other until a true negative of the block is obtained.
+Small and slightly raised ornamentation is not specially underlaid,
+using instead a piece of stout board well smeared with cobblers' wax,
+which, after standing awhile under the plate in the closed press, will
+make a very exact and firm base. Matrices made up of several layers of
+cardboard pasted on top of each other are also, when finished, covered
+with a piece of pasted packing paper and then pressed. This leaf
+prevents single pieces from working loose and sticking to the block.</p>
+
+<p>For relief stamping, leather or cloth is stretched upon thin wrappers.
+The guide points must be made a little further apart on account of the
+material shrinking slightly under relief stamping. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Colour blocking, which has gained such unexpected popularity, gives the
+finisher no little trouble. As blind blocking is done by the press, so
+also may colour blocking be done if the blocks are coloured with the
+brilliant colours specially prepared for printing. A colour roller, made
+by moulding English roller composition on a wooden pin, is used for
+colouring the blocks. The worker himself may cast these rollers in a
+well-greased mould. The roller composition is dissolved in water, and
+after being poured into the mould is allowed to stand a few hours to
+cool. The colour blocker keeps about three rollers ready, of which one
+is used for light colours, another for middle tones, and the third
+solely for black. The rollers are either fixed in a fork with two
+handles or an axle goes through the wooden pin which is bound in leather
+at each end wherein the axle revolves in the hollow of the hand.<a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+   <a href="images/i_124l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_124.jpg" width="150" height="149"
+      alt="Fig. 66&mdash;Colour roller.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 66&mdash;Colour roller.</span>
+</div>
+<p>The rollers spread the colour upon a stone of suitable size. The colour
+should be laid on the rollers&mdash;not on the stone&mdash;not too thickly, and
+then evenly distributed on the stone by bringing the roller over it
+backwards and forwards. Both stone and roller must always be cleaned
+after use; perfect cleanliness must be carefully observed throughout.
+The stone is cleaned with petroleum, the remaining colour is removed
+from the roller by passing it several times over a sheet of glass,
+rubbing it down with petroleum before again using it so as to remove any
+particle of dust adhering.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the colours may appear as bright as possible, a little
+varnish is added to them, which in every case must be of a kind to suit
+the particular colour. Dammar varnish is suitable for light colours, and
+for darker colours amber varnish. Where great brilliancy is required,
+Venetian turpentine is added; but this lengthens the time required for
+drying if a little too much is added. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 116]</span></p>
+
+<p>In every case, however, a little siccative must be added to every
+colour; a few drops materially quicken the drying.</p>
+
+<p>Colour blocking can only be done when the blocks have been secured to
+the plate, as this must be opened each time it is coloured.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest colour-printing is where one colour appears between the
+impression in gold, and in this case it is generally done by first
+making the impression in gold and then in colour.</p>
+
+<p>In more complex work several colours are to be used; at the present time
+the work is frequently produced requiring colours side by side and
+superimposed, together with gold, bronze, and aluminium.</p>
+
+<p>The process is in each case as follows: From the block supplied by the
+engraver an impression is made which forms a matrix. It is best to
+select a piece of board exactly the size of the covers to be printed and
+at the two places to be taken by the guide points pieces of vellum are
+firmly pasted, being already pierced for the guide points, these vellum
+additions being further secured by pasting over them a strip of paper or
+cloth. For every block to be used a similar board with its vellum
+additions is prepared. Upon the ground of this first matrix the other
+auxiliary matrices are likewise first impressed with the block&mdash;all of
+them black, of course, so that it would be possible at any time to fit
+in the blocks.</p>
+
+<p>Every new block for colour printing is pressed into the ground of the
+auxiliary matrix belonging to it; also for the so-called
+first-impression block.</p>
+
+<p>It must be understood that colour printing can be done well only upon a
+perfectly even and smooth surface, therefore it is wise with
+first-impression blocks, as well as larger colour plates, to repeat the
+impression, only slightly warm after having given a very hot impression
+the first time. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Surface papers are an exception as they generally stand very little
+heat.</p>
+
+<p>It helps here either to let the newly made covers get half dry or,
+better, to let them lie longer in a damp room.</p>
+
+<p>When different colours are to be superimposed, the order in which they
+are printed is a matter of some importance. As a rule, the so-called
+warm tones (yellow, brown, red, or colours containing much of these) are
+printed first; the cold tones (blue or others containing much blue)
+being afterwards laid on. White is also classed as a cold tone, but for
+technical reasons it must nearly always be printed first. If these rules
+are observed, serious mistakes will seldom be made.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, proof impressions of the different colours must be taken upon
+white cardboard, which should be marked for reference, in the same way
+noting the proportion of the colours used in mixed colours. If the
+outline block is to be printed in colour, it comes last; gold stamping
+being done first.</p>
+
+<p>The process of printing in bronze is similar to colour printing, as the
+bronze is dusted over a preliminary impression in colour (gold upon red
+or yellow ochre, aluminium upon white, coloured bronze upon a suitable
+similar colour). Bronze is not printed upon colour, because the bronze
+sticks too easily to such surfaces in places where it is not wanted; it
+is then much better to use gold-leaf.</p>
+
+<p>Should it be necessary on the score of economy to make a double working
+in bronze, the cover must be previously washed with glair.</p>
+
+<p>Leaf metals, pure or alloyed, are printed upon colours after they have
+been slightly dusted with gilding powder, and with moderate heat. The
+colours, however, must previously be allowed to dry thoroughly. Larger
+surfaces are wholly prepared with glair to prevent the gold from
+adhering where not required. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 118]</span></p>
+
+<p>Most of the colours must cover well where it is not intended that they
+should have a translucent effect. A good covering is not secured by
+laying the colour on thickly but by properly mixing the colours, and
+often also by giving a second coat after the first surface has dried.
+Above all, one must avoid too thick and greasy colours. Black must
+always be printed with a strong good covering colour, as must also the
+outline block.</p>
+
+<p>For colour printing, the press must be of the same temperature as the
+room. In winter it is slightly warmed an hour before use, and when
+necessary this must be repeated later.</p>
+
+<p>There are quite a number of little dodges not easily communicated but
+which are quickly picked up in practice.<a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_127.jpg" width="150" height="161" alt="Fig. 67&mdash;Stuck-on gauges." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 67&mdash;Stuck-on gauges.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Simple work is not adjusted by pins, but is pushed up to three guides;
+moreover, the gauge of the press is not generally used, but three little
+pieces of board are firmly glued to the table instead. The illustration
+(<a href="#Fig_67">Fig. 67</a>) will clearly show the arrangement. At the letters A the pieces
+of board are glued, to which the cover to be blocked is pushed up.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent these gauges from being pushed off, or to facilitate refixing
+in the event of their becoming loose, the gauge generally supplied with
+the press is brought close up behind them. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Treatment of Sewn Books: Fastening in Covers and Finishing Off.</span></h3>
+
+<p>For better-class bindings and where hand tooling is to be done the
+covers are not made in advance as the books are formed and then case and
+covering made on the book itself. This results in a better appearance
+and a stronger connection between the book and its cover.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been explained (Chap. V., pp. 87-88) how the so-called
+hollow back is made in boarding.</p>
+
+<p>This kind of back, however, is only used in ordinary binding in half or
+whole cloth. For leather or half-leather bindings a strip of wrapping
+paper or thin cardboard is cut. The exact size is taken with a piece of
+paper across the back from the first to the last section. This strip
+must be exactly the same length as the cut boards to be used. The
+strips&mdash;afterwards representing raised bands&mdash;are laid upon this
+packing; these strips are best cut from waste pieces of cow-hide, but if
+this is not to hand, paste pieces of waste goat-skin three ply thick,
+press lightly, and, when dry, cut out of this material strips not
+exceeding 2 mm. in width. The position of the bands is carefully
+measured with the dividers and marked with pencil and straight-edge and
+the strips are then glued on in their places. The bands are left
+projecting over the edge until quite dry and at 3 mm. from the edge, and
+are then pared down to it. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a> </span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="101" height="33" alt="Headband." title="">
+<span class="caption">Headband.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For extra half-leather work the backs are previously glued round on the
+book itself. A strong&mdash;not too thick&mdash;packing paper is selected, the
+back is thinly coated with rather thick glue, and the paper, a little
+wider than four times the width of the back, is so laid on the back as
+to leave, say, the first two sheets free. As far as it sticks, the paper
+is rubbed down, then folded back to the other joint exactly at the last
+section, brought back tight over the back, and now firmly rubbed down on
+the strip left free at the first sheet. Exactly at the first sheet the
+paper is again folded over and pasted over the back, afterwards
+repeating the preceding glueing process. In this way the paper is folded
+from the joint and glued three times. The overlapping parts are cut off.
+The back now consists of four layers, the first of which is glued on to
+the book, the other three, of course, forming an arch over it, although
+they themselves are glued together. What is overlapping at top and
+bottom is cut off with the shears close by the headband, care being
+taken that the back is truly squared. The headband should be nearly but
+not quite as high as the squares. By so doing, the back will be 1/2 mm.
+shorter at each end after cutting than the boards. For this work the
+book is placed in the press so that the back stands out free.</p>
+
+<p>Bands that are to be fixed on are likewise placed in position and are
+then glued on with a round.</p>
+
+<p>The backs are covered with cloth or leather. The former is cut the
+required size, that is, allowing 2 to 3 cm. in width to overlap at each
+side, glued, the rounded backing strip laid exactly in the middle, and
+then placed in the hollow of the left hand. The right hand takes the
+book and both are brought together so that the backing fits exactly in
+each joint but corresponding to the height of the boards. When this
+adjustment has been obtained, the parts overlapping on the boards are
+pressed down for a time, and after again seeing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a> </span>
+that the position is right, they are drawn over firmly. It is best to
+stand the volume on its fore-edge and, using the palms of both hands
+together, rub the covering material firmly down on the boards. When the
+back is properly drawn on, the head and tail are turned in. With hollow
+backs the joints must be well rubbed down. It is necessary to cut off a
+small piece of the corner of the board at the joints at top and bottom;
+this may be done either with a sharp knife or shears, and, of course,
+before the book is covered.</p>
+
+<p>To make the turn-in (on the book), the book is placed with its back on
+the table, letting both boards fall back so that they lie open on the
+table. Take hold of the book at the edge between index and middle finger
+of the left hand and lift it out of the boards at the head; the right
+hand, with the help of the folder, turns the pasted lap inwards and rubs
+it well down without creases or wrinkles. After both pieces have been
+thus turned in, the back is further worked at the head to give it a good
+shape.<a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_130.png" width="300" height="138" alt="Fig. 68&mdash;Turning in the head." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 68&mdash;Turning in the head.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same process is gone through with books bound in whole cloth or half
+leather. In the latter case the leather must, of course, be pared down,
+as also in half calf or whole leather, the work with these being
+somewhat more elaborate.</p>
+
+<p>It is here of the utmost importance that the greatest attention should
+be given to careful paring of the leather, especially<span class="pagenum">[Pg 122]</span>
+seeing that the leather is not too thick in the joint; if so, it must be
+reduced to the required thickness. It must be pared at the head so that
+the turn-over does not appear any thicker than the rest of the back.
+Leather used for covering books must be worked with paste, and paste
+only.<a name="Fig_6970" id="Fig_6970"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_131.png" width="251" height="191" alt="Figs. 69 and 70&mdash;The head: good and bad." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 69 and 70&mdash;The head: good and bad.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It must be drawn tight over the bands, and these should be well rubbed
+down with the folder. The turning-in is done in the same way, but the
+overlap&mdash;as far as the actual width of the book is concerned&mdash;is again
+drawn out so that it projects about 2 mm. over the headband.</p>
+
+<p>This projecting leather is pressed quite flat&mdash;not slant-wise&mdash;over the
+headband, so that seen from above it almost covers the latter.</p>
+
+<p>All half and full leather bound books have the corners of the boards
+next to the head pared down. This is done before covering&mdash;it not only
+makes the turning-in easier but the book has a better appearance and
+opens better.</p>
+
+<p>When the turning-in is finished, the book is opened wide and the boards
+adjusted so that both turnings-in are uniform and sharp and also that it
+has already, to a certain extent, a deep groove, and then closed. If no
+layer of waste paper has previously been sewn in, it may now be placed
+in the joint, so that after drying the boards may open quite freely and
+nicely. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>The closed book is now "tied up," that is to say, a cord is looped and
+tied right round the back at the joint. The turn-in is thus drawn in at
+the pared-down parts. Behind the cord the head and tail are pressed down
+with the folder to right and left, slightly outwards; whatever may have
+been drawn in by the cord is put right on the inside edge and the edges
+are rubbed sharp and square with the folder. The book is lying
+throughout on the paring stone, not upon the press-board.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing applies to made cases as well as to those backs which are
+pasted on the books. With the former it is necessary to round the backs.
+This is done by drawing the back underneath a folder with a wave-like
+motion. It can easily be done after being once seen. To give the back a
+good hold on the book from the very outset, the inserted part is pasted
+narrowly at the joint before being laid on the pasted leather so that at
+this place it firmly adheres to the back.</p>
+
+<p>Backs that are stuck to the book itself are cut open about 2 cm. long at
+the joints with a small knife in order to take the "turn-in"; for the
+rest the work is the same.</p>
+
+<p>Corner making and covering are here exactly the same as already
+explained for the ready-made cover.</p>
+
+<p>Books bound in half or full cloth with hollow backs are treated in the
+following way: The glued cloth is laid flat upon the table, the back of
+the book placed in the centre of it, the book lifted up, lightly
+pressing the cloth to the back with the flat hand only, and then sharply
+rubbing down the overlapping sides at the joint with the point of the
+folder, rubbing the sides as well. For this, lay the book on the edge of
+the table so that the back stands clear. If the sides were brought over
+the boards at once, neither a sharp groove could be obtained nor would
+it be possible to draw over the cloth without creases. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>We now come to the finishing of the books, but we must first deal with
+the fastening of the book into the cover. By covers is understood either
+a cover made to fit a book to hand or a cover to which a book is to be
+made to fit. The latter is the more difficult.</p>
+
+<p>The book, when pulled to pieces, without end papers and sewing, should
+be about one-sixth thinner than with the paddings of the cover, thin
+books, of course, a little more. Thickness of thread and compressing or
+allowing to swell in sewing should equalize what difference there may
+be.</p>
+
+<p>If the book is ready trimmed, edges finished, pressed&mdash;it should always
+be cloth jointed&mdash;it is cased in. A packing is pasted on the back, that
+is to say, similar to glueing the back, the back is pasted on to the
+book itself, a strip of paper the proper width is laid on so that the
+two first sheets remain free, rubbed down, folded back from the other
+joint, pasted on the free margin, and the surplus cut off.</p>
+
+<p>In this way, not only is the back pasted over but it gets another
+covering of paper. The padding of the cover is now rounded, either by
+drawing it under the folder in the way mentioned or by drawing it to and
+fro over a chock fixed in the press. The book must suit the cover so
+that it fits tight into the joints. The padding of the back is glued,
+the book laid in, the boards at both sides well drawn over, a covering
+of paper laid over the back, and then well rubbed down with the flat
+folder. The pressing that finds so much favour is altogether
+superfluous, as it takes absolutely no effect upon the glued back. It is
+only when the covers are somewhat too narrow that the joints are
+improved by pressing. After the glue has set a little, the end papers
+are pasted on, <i>i.e.</i>, they are pasted over and lie open until
+thoroughly dry. It is done as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Insert a piece of waste paper under the cloth joint, the joint itself
+getting a thin coat of rather weak glue. The bands,<span class="pagenum">[Pg 125]</span>
+which must remain free although cut off to leave only 2 cm. in length,
+are laid over the joint and likewise glued. Now lay the book square
+before you, the open board next the table edge, and with the point of a
+knife first lift the bands from the cloth joint, lay them taut over the
+smooth board and smooth them down with the knife so that everything lies
+smooth and even, taking special care that the bands are not noticeable
+in the joint through any evenness. The cloth joint is now drawn over and
+well rubbed down on the board, the latter being at the same time well
+pressed on the joint so that it has quite a straight sharp edge.</p>
+
+<p>The book lies open in this way to dry, but it may be turned, placed on a
+board, pushed up to the joint, and the other side similarly pasted on.<a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_134.jpg" width="300" height="62" alt="Fig. 71&mdash;The pasted-down book." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 71&mdash;The pasted-down book.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Plainer bindings, especially school books and publishers' cheap cases,
+are often pasted down with only the outer leaf or white end paper and
+without a cloth joint, whilst here the coloured end paper has still to
+be pasted down; in the former case proceed as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The back&mdash;without packing&mdash;is simply glued over, the packing rounded.
+The book is properly placed in the cover, and the outside fly
+leaf&mdash;afterwards an end paper&mdash;and bands are pasted, the latter at the
+same time being smoothed out with a knife or folder; the boards are then
+closed, pressing them over very sharply. The book is turned and the
+other side done in the same way, and at once pressed.</p>
+
+<p>Where a cloth joint has to be pasted on, a paste-down must be pasted on
+to the board. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 126]</span></p>
+
+<p>The practice of doing the coloured end papers at the same time as the
+book is not so good as subsequent pasting down, as they are then less
+likely to be injured during trimming and colouring the edges, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The paste-down is first cut to size a little less than the book itself
+and fastened in with thin glue so that the paper is close to the joint
+but not so close as to cause it to swell. The counterpart of the fly
+leaf is pasted on to it, both leaves are cut with a knife close along
+the joint, for back and front, about 1/2 cm. wide, are pushed up, thinly
+pasted, and pasted into the book up to the pressed joint. The leaves so
+hinged in are now raised, the under leaf thinly coated with thin glue,
+the leaf closed and rubbed down under paper with a folder. Immediate
+pressing is to be avoided, as the thin glue is very easily squeezed out.
+After a while the pressing is done, of course, when zinc plates&mdash;if
+necessary, polished boards&mdash;should be inserted between the end papers,
+and not too great pressure applied.</p>
+
+<p>If the boards have been fastened on with paste and without a back, zinc
+plates are also used, but between the first and last sheets of the book,
+so as to press these very smooth and to prevent the plates from sticking
+to the damp end papers.</p>
+
+<p>Half or whole cloth, half leather, or, generally speaking, all bindings
+which are not pasted down open, are laid upon a board, pasting thinly
+with thin paste first one side, then turning the book and pasting the
+other, and then pressing. In doing quantities, ten may be done before
+pressing.</p>
+
+<p>Cheap work is often pressed by laying the volumes crosswise upon each
+other and pressing in batches between boards. Books with a deep joint
+where the bands are either laid on the board or laced in are always
+pasted down open. Where cloth or leather jointed, this is done in a
+similar way to boarding in covers, except that the bands need not be considered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a> </span>
+here, as they have already been seen to. Working the leather well in the
+joint and firmly pressing back the board after turning in the head
+lighten this work and improve the appearance of the joint. Leather
+joints are always pasted down open with paste, but must, of course, be
+left lying longer.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called double end papers, that is, without cloth or leather
+joint, are very effective. Only the best and strongest paper can be used
+for these. The double sheet, folded in the middle, is narrowly pasted at
+the back and fixed in the joint of the book&mdash;not in the fold of the
+joint but in the joint made by pressing. This prevents the bend coming
+on the place where the paper has already become weakened by sharp
+creasing, but near it. The half for the fly leaf is at once pasted down;
+that to be pasted on the board must first be cut to size. The end paper
+is cut off at head and tail of the book, the book opened, the end paper
+laid over the board, and with the dividers is marked out on the
+paste-down parallel with the edges, somewhat less than the book. At the
+fold marked by the edge of the board at the joint, nick in with the
+scissors up to the mark made, slip under this a zinc plate, and on this
+cut the end paper by the mark up to the nicks. It is understood that the
+end papers should not be cut off right round the book, otherwise they
+would become too scant at the fore-edge.</p>
+
+<p>A piece of waste paper is now laid under the paste down, thinly coated
+with glue, the leaf drawn tightly over the board and rubbed down; at the
+same time a piece of paper is laid over the joint as above. When pasting
+in the cover, the book is placed square and the joint strongly and
+briskly rubbed down with finger and thumb of both hands.<a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_137.jpg" width="150" height="116" alt="Fig. 72--Treatment of tear-off." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 72&mdash;Treatment of tear-off.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A paper having a design must, of course, be laid in the same direction
+as the book. Where paste-down and fly leaf are to be pasted on
+separately, it must be so arranged that, after<span class="pagenum">[Pg 128]</span>
+the pasting, one leaf forms the counterpart of the other, that is to
+say, the design must run through and be broken only by the joint. To
+effect this it is necessary that the paste-down should be first pasted
+on; when pasting on the fly leaf the work can be made right.</p>
+
+<p>Silk paste-down and fly leaves are frequently used for extra work, the
+silk here being stretched over a piece of stout paper and pasted
+narrowly at the edges. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Hand Finishing.</span></h3>
+
+<p>When the books have been bound they are generally ornamented in gold or
+in some other way. Although the more elaborate finishing in gold is not
+done in the ordinary bindery, but is confined to the art binderies,
+sufficient instruction will be given here for the simpler finishing on
+back and side.</p>
+
+<p>Gold finishing is only learned at the cost of much patience and long,
+painstaking practice. Although the technical schools teach finishing in
+a comparatively short time&mdash;usually in a few months&mdash;only the
+ground-work can thus be acquired, for it takes years of practice to
+teach all the technicalities and to make an expert finisher, equal to
+any calls made upon him.</p>
+
+<p>It may also be mentioned here that in most technical schools the work is
+executed with the very best and most suitable tools and, furthermore,
+the whole interior arrangement of the workshop is as favourable to the
+work as can be conceived, and thus all conditions for good work prevail.
+When young workers come from such an institution to work under strange
+conditions, where they have to struggle along with unfamiliar and
+perhaps unsuitable and antiquated tools, bad light, and other drawbacks,
+it is not to be wondered at if they&mdash;at the outset, at least&mdash;do not
+answer all expectations. Similar inconveniences have less effect upon
+old and experienced workers, as they have the steadiness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a> </span>
+and assurance which come to them as the result of long years of work,
+and they, therefore, never become nervous and fidgety. A cool head and a
+steady hand are the first essentials in a finisher, and after these the
+feeling for neatness and exactness.</p>
+
+<p>Gold tooling has evolved from the blind tooling of the 15th century,
+which up to that time had been the only method of decoration for the
+exterior of books, excepting where gold or jewels were used. The first
+application of this method was in drawn lines made by running the heated
+fillet alongside the rule, and even to-day the fillet, although improved
+in make, still retains its place as a suitable tool for the decoration
+of leather backs and sides. Speaking generally, blind tooling is not
+sufficiently appreciated by finishers, especially in shops doing much
+hand tooling; to many it is almost unknown, and they would be at a loss
+if there were any demand for it, and yet it is eminently suitable for
+simple finishing with slender resources, to obtain a result at once
+chaste and striking without excessive ornament, and this without a
+costly assortment of tools and other special appliances.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to the details in the work of finishing, a few
+preliminary observations may be made.</p>
+
+<p>Blind tooling is the ornamenting of leather with tools without the
+application of gold. It might also be correctly described as matt
+tooling. Its peculiarity and beauty consist in its rendering the tooling
+on the leather in a darker tone. Blind tooling may be executed upon
+leathers of any colour, but its full decorative effect is seen only upon
+light colours, especially upon undyed calf and pig-skin and also upon
+coloured unpolished calf.</p>
+
+<p>To produce the deepest and most uniform tone it is necessary to damp the
+leather previous to tooling. As it is well that the whole surface to be
+tooled should retain some moisture<span class="pagenum">[Pg 131]</span>
+it is advisable to damp it evenly with a sponge on beginning the work.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest tools are, as already mentioned, the fillets, which may be
+single, double, or triple, with lines of equal or different thickness.</p>
+
+<p>The design is carefully traced with dividers, folder, and rule, and the
+heated tools run along the rule. Before applying the tool, which should
+be only moderately heated, the line previously marked out should be
+damped with a suitable brush. The instant the moisture has been absorbed
+by the leather, the tool should be applied. There should be no hissing,
+as the tool should be only lukewarm for the first application. The roll
+must touch the leather at the beginning without any uncertainty and the
+line made at once and without stopping, as otherwise a darker shade
+would appear in places.<a name="Fig_7374" id="Fig_7374"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_140.jpg" width="251" height="185" alt="Figs. 73 and 74&mdash;Simple line designs." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 73 and 74&mdash;Simple line designs.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Each time before using the roll it is passed over a well-greased piece
+of leather.</p>
+
+<p>The impression should appear uniformly brown; if it is lighter at any
+part, it has not been sufficiently damped; if darker at another place
+from the beginning, then that part was too damp. Success depends before
+everything else upon uniform damping of the leather and correct heating
+of the tool.</p>
+
+<p>With ordinary cleanliness and care, complete success is assured in this
+method of finishing. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 132]</span></p>
+
+<p>After the surface of the leather has again become dry in all places, the
+whole design is again gone over, but this time with the roll a little
+hotter, at the same time rubbing the roll well with the greased cloth.
+If there had been unevenness in the depth of colour before, it will
+hardly be possible to remedy it now, for the light places remain so and
+the dark ones become even darker.</p>
+
+<p>Where blind filleting is done it is usual to do die tooling at the same
+time. It is advisable&mdash;especially for novices&mdash;to apply the die without
+heat to the damp leather, then to damp specially and apply the die
+lukewarm as in filleting. Tooling with dies is essentially different
+from filleting in the method of execution. The fillet polishes whilst
+running on, the die remains on the one place, and yet every part must
+receive an equally good impression. In order to secure a good impression
+from a die it is necessary to apply it promptly, and press without
+hesitating as to where to begin. To ensure all parts of the tool being
+well impressed, its surface is slightly curved lengthwise, and according
+to this curve the die must be rocked to and fro whilst impressing. If
+too much time is wasted before the die is applied the impression will
+turn out lighter. By allowing the heated die to remain long on the
+surface of the leather, the latter loses its moisture at that place and
+the die could not produce any further deepening of the colour. Such
+places must be again damped and tooled until a uniform tone is attained.
+Care must be taken that this repetition does not produce "doubling,"
+that is, a blurred appearance of the design, and also that it does not
+lead to indistinctness of outline.</p>
+
+<p>Blind tooling upon light leathers is to-day called upon to satisfy the
+needs of the less wealthy just as it was 300 years ago, for in such a
+style of decoration the utmost durability and moderate cost are
+combined, and its very simplicity enhances its beauty.<a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a> <span class="pagenum">[Pg 133]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_142.png" width="350" height="472" alt="Fig. 75&mdash;Half-calf extra tooled in blind." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 75&mdash;Half-calf extra tooled in blind.</span>
+</div><p> <span class="pagenum">[Pg 134]</span></p>
+<a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_143.png" width="350" height="504" alt="Fig. 76&mdash;Leather binding with simple design in blind." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 76&mdash;Leather binding with simple design in blind.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now for the hand finishing. It is first of all necessary that we should
+be able to letter straight, at first upon a board. For the tooling of
+long straight lines, dotted lines, or other style of lines upon the
+sides, rolls are required, upon the circumference of which the design is
+engraved, whilst for tooling upon the back the so-called fillets are
+generally used, which likewise are used only for lines or patterns.
+Besides, certain kinds of ornaments are here printed with dies&mdash;the rows
+of letters with the type-holder in which these are set.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a> </span>
+All these tools are heated over a flame&mdash;best over gas&mdash;to the
+temperature suited to the material operated upon. To make the gold
+adhere, the material to be tooled is sized or "glaired" with one part
+vinegar to three parts white of egg well whisked or beaten and filtered,
+as is done in blocking. Other materials for sizing will be dealt with
+later.<a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_144.png" width="350" height="529" alt="Fig. 77&mdash;Simple gold tooling on sides." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 77&mdash;Simple gold tooling on sides.</span>
+</div><p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Lines are made along the sides and at corners of the boards, especially
+on paper-covered boards; this is called "running a line up" or
+"filleting."</p>
+
+<p>The line to be gilded is clearly marked with a sharp folder, picked out
+with glair, and the gold, which is taken up on the roll, is printed in.<a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_145.png" width="400" height="499" alt="Fig. 78&mdash;Tooled cover." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 78&mdash;Tooled cover.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gold leaf is cut on the cushion into narrow strips about 1 cm. wide,
+and the warm (each time wiped clean) and slightly greased roll is
+lightly passed over it so that the strip of gold adheres to the
+circumference of the roll, and then rolled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a> </span>
+off with a firm and even pressure on to the place intended.</p>
+
+<p>This is now gone over with a wool rag (or gold rag), and only the
+printed line is left; the surplus gold remains in the rag.<a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_146.png" width="400" height="500" alt="Fig. 79&mdash;Specimen of tooling done in the Düsseldorf Technical School." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 79&mdash;Specimen of tooling done in the Düsseldorf
+Technical School.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Near the finishing stove should stand&mdash;as also for blind tooling&mdash;a
+shallow saucer containing water and also a common brush similar to those
+sold with bottles of gum. A drop of water is thrown from this brush on
+to the hot tool in order to test its heat. Cloth is printed with fairly
+hot tools; they should hiss a little when tested. Goat-skin requires a
+heat almost sufficient to produce hissing, whilst hissing<span class="pagenum">[Pg 138]</span>
+would indicate too hot a tool for use on morocco, and all sheep-skins
+will bear only moderate heat. If the roll was too hot, the gold would
+have no brilliance, and if too cold, would appear broken. Calf requires
+the same heat as cloth, but quick working, especially on first applying
+the tool. The roll has a long handle which rests against the shoulder
+whilst held in the right hand. When getting into position for an
+impression the thumb-nail of the left hand is used as a guide and
+support.<a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_147.png" width="450" height="314" alt="Fig. 80&mdash;Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 80&mdash;Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A line around a cover is marked out correctly with dividers and folder,
+picked out with size, and printed in gold in the same way. The rolls
+have a notch, which is for starting and ending at the corners; these
+must always be joined exactly. Rolls for two or more lines must print
+the corners perfectly diagonal, and for this purpose such rolls are cut
+so as to print a true diagonal corner; one corner being made for the
+beginning and the other for the end. Of course it is impossible to print
+long lines with only one revolution of the roll. The roll is run along
+the line from starting point until<span class="pagenum">[Pg 139]</span>
+near the end, lifted off, and again placed on the spot just quitted, a
+little behind the starting point of the roll, so that this part does not
+show. This is repeated as often as the length of the line necessitates.
+In order to secure good corners, the roll is lifted just before reaching
+the corner and a corner tool is used for the corner itself. At no point
+should one be able to see where the roll was set on or taken off, and
+the result should be a straight, even line, showing no trace of
+inequality.<a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_148.png" width="450" height="459" alt="Fig. 81&mdash;Cover with laurel motive done in the Düsseldorf
+Technical School." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 81&mdash;Cover with laurel motive done in the Düsseldorf
+Technical School.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For single lines, the gold is generally taken up on the previously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a> </span>
+heated roll; but in using wider rolls it is better to lay the gold on
+with the tip and press it well down with surgical cotton wool.</p>
+
+<p>Places where the gold did not stick or which look gritty must be sized
+afresh and once more tooled. The beginner generally finds that the gold
+does not stick at the point where he begins, a sure sign that he
+hesitated too long on commencing.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been said that white of egg is used for making the gold
+adhere, and there are, indeed, very few materials requiring any other
+treatment, yet we know of a number of cases where white of egg alone is
+insufficient to fulfil this purpose&mdash;not, indeed, because it is
+unsuitable, but because the quality of the leather is such that the
+white of egg would be absorbed too quickly (calf, tanned sheep) or that
+it would take badly and unequally.</p>
+
+<p>Just as certain kinds of leather are difficult to treat, so also are
+old, long-stocked skins. If the finisher knows that such a piece of
+leather lies before him, he ought to rub it down on the raw side with
+best olive oil; it will thus receive a substitute for the lost natural
+fatty matter and become more supple. This oiling, of course, is only
+practicable with dark leathers, as light leathers nearly always become
+darker. A skin so treated should be rolled up and laid aside for a few
+days.</p>
+
+<p>At any rate, such a defective leather is improved by a previous washing
+with size, no matter whether it be made from vellum, gelatine, or glue.
+It must not, however, be made from the commonest kinds of glue, as these
+make the leather dull.</p>
+
+<p>Vellum cuttings, or gelatine, are soaked overnight in water sufficient
+to cover, and next day dissolved in a sort of glue-pot. This sizing must
+be used very thin and should not be quite cold. In using ordinary glue,
+two drops of medium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a> </span>
+strength to about three table-spoonfuls of warm water will suffice.</p>
+
+<p>Many finishers prefer thin paste water as a size, with which they coat
+the whole surface; personally, however, I would only recommend it for
+unpolished calf&mdash;but here there is a real necessity for it. In this case
+it is liberally laid on in large sweeps with a sponge&mdash;not new, and free
+from grit&mdash;and then well rubbed into the pores of the leather with the
+ball of the hand. The surplus is quickly washed off with clean water.</p>
+
+<p>Large surfaces left plain are also washed with gum tragacanth, because
+this sizing leaves no lines behind. About 10 grammes of tragacanth to
+1/4 litre water are soaked in a vessel, and after swelling it is well
+stirred. This solution is also laid on with a sponge, but is not rubbed
+in, neither is it subsequently washed off.</p>
+
+<p>These two methods of sizing will be found sufficient to meet all cases.</p>
+
+<p>There are certain materials that do not allow the use of a liquid
+sizing, particularly silk and velvet. The latter is no longer finished
+by hand, and even blocking velvet is now considered bad style.</p>
+
+<p>For gold tooling on such materials gilding powder is used; it is to be
+had either white or yellow, but for hand tooling the white only is
+required.</p>
+
+<p>Although no exact rules can be given for determining the temperature of
+the tools used upon the various materials, yet we must try to give a
+general rule for each kind.</p>
+
+<p>We will use the following terms to distinguish the different degrees of
+heat: Lukewarm, <i>i.e.</i>, not the slightest hissing when tested; medium,
+<i>i.e.</i>, just on the border of hissing; hot, slightly hissing. In the
+following group the method of sizing is repeated, and a scheme for the
+approximately exact temperature of the tools is given. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Cloth, goat-skin, and marbled leather (without previous sizing, white of
+egg): medium heat.</p>
+
+<p>Sheep-skin and lamb-skin (glue size, white of egg): medium heat. Calf
+(white of egg): hot.</p>
+
+<p>Morocco goat (without sizing, white of egg): medium heat.</p>
+
+<p>Morocco, Levant morocco, crushed morocco (glue size&mdash;painted in, white
+of egg): lukewarm.</p>
+
+<p>Pig-skin, Russia, seal (without sizing, white of egg): lukewarm.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has already been made of a wash of paste water for matt calf. As
+a rule, the whole surface is washed with this preparation, as it is
+thereby rendered less liable to finger marks. In the very best shops
+there is still another method. The leather is washed down with
+tragacanth and the previously impressed design picked out with white of
+egg and quickly tooled with tools medium to hot.</p>
+
+<p>Vellum requires a special treatment. On the day before it is to be
+finished in gold it is washed with alum solution and, for gold tooling,
+sized with undiluted white of egg and tooled lukewarm.</p>
+
+<p>When tooling is done with powder it is dusted on by means of a
+powder-box, over which is stretched some thin material, and tooled
+lukewarm.</p>
+
+<p>The great convenience in the use of powder induces many binders to adopt
+it for leather and cloth also. This practice is objectionable, and the
+conscientious finisher will always avoid it. It may be excused when a
+name has to be printed on a Prayer-book or similar article in a hurry,
+or when an article is already varnished, as powder in such a case is
+very convenient and satisfactory, but under any other conditions it is a
+sign of incompetence.</p>
+
+<p>Tooling upon powder on leather looks very gritty and unsightly after
+having undergone many changes of temperature, as the latter greatly
+affects this material. Its brightness vanishes<span class="pagenum">[Pg 143]</span>
+entirely&mdash;a thing that never happens when white of egg has been used.</p>
+
+<p>It must still be observed that tooling with lukewarm tools must be done
+slowly, and with hot tools quickly. Nearly all inexperienced finishers
+use too hot tools.<a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_152.png" width="300" height="457" alt="Fig. 82&mdash;Leather binding with fern motive done in the Düsseldorf Technical School." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 82&mdash;Leather binding with fern motive done in the
+Düsseldorf Technical School.</span>
+</div>
+<br>
+<p>So far, we have dealt with the preparation for finishing and tooling
+with a roll. Besides this tool there are fillets, gouges, and dies, all
+nearly the same, being dies, and only differing in shape. Nearly all
+beginners are unreasonably afraid to use the <a name="gouge" id="gouge"></a>gouge. Any one able to use
+the roll properly will have little difficulty with the gouges. A genuine
+technical difficulty does arise when only a small portion of a curve may
+be worked (which frequently happens) on account of its having to be
+joined to another. Moreover, the joining of one curve to another must
+not be seen. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Every single gouge of the complete set (it should contain at least 20
+pieces) forms the quarter of a circle. The gouges are chosen according
+to the design, so that the tools placed thereon cover the outlined
+design exactly, and the tool numbers are noted on the designs so that
+they may be quickly and surely picked up when required for use.</p>
+
+<p>The tyro is apt to select sizes too large and to print the curve sloping
+instead of perpendicular; this must be guarded against.</p>
+
+<p>Double gouges are not easily used in the same way, as the joinings
+cannot be concealed; they may be used for making first outlines, which
+must be finished with single curves.<a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="251" height="145" alt="Fig. 83&mdash;Simple gold tooling on squares." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 83&mdash;Simple gold tooling on squares.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Faulty places must be done over and over again until the whole is
+perfect and brilliant and all the gold adhering.</p>
+
+<p>Fillets are nothing more than long narrow dies of either simple or
+ornamental lines. It is the practice of the old school to widen the
+impression of narrow fillets by continuous rocking of the hand to right
+and left, as they are fond of doing when lettering with a type-holder.
+This practice is fundamentally wrong. Work finished in this way will
+never show the quiet and uniform brilliance in the gold to be seen in
+work where the movement was only in the direction of the dies and
+fillets.</p>
+
+<p>Besides tooling the front sides, the inside edges or squares are
+generally ornamented in extra work. A simple but very effective
+decoration for the edge consists of a line close to the edge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a> </span>
+of the board and also one close to the end paper and a connecting line
+at the corner; such an edge is previously polished with a burnisher. To
+do this the leather is slightly damped, the tool moderately heated&mdash;not
+hissing&mdash;and then polished with long even strokes.<a name="Fig_84" id="Fig_84"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_154.png" width="250" height="342" alt="Fig. 84&mdash;Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement, Leipzig." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 84&mdash;Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement,
+Leipzig.</span>
+</div><br>
+<a name="Fig_8586" id="Fig_8586"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_155.png" width="400" height="261" alt="Figs. 85 and 86&mdash;Two designs in gold for squares." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 85 and 86&mdash;Two designs in gold for squares.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the help of rolls and dies, even richer decoration may be produced,
+and really artistic ornament designed and executed on the inside as well
+as on the outside cover. Such work, however, does not come within the
+limits of this treatise. We must be satisfied with giving a few
+illustrations of the less elaborate designs. Rolls are very often used
+in finishing the edges, so as to fill up at once the whole width of the
+space, and about this we must say a few words. Rolls with a<span class="pagenum">[Pg 146]</span>
+pattern have, as is known, no notch, and therefore may be used for a run
+on of any length without a break. For smaller margins and cheap work the
+rolls are frequently run over each other. This saves time but it does
+not produce a nice effect, as the design is blurred at the point of
+crossing. It is better to lay the gold leaf on one side and to remove it
+exactly at the corner and then tool; the side next to it is now treated
+in exactly the same way, giving special attention to the removal of the
+leaf at the corner. The design is thus made to join together at the
+corners without crossing, because the roll will only leave its
+impression as far as the gold goes. For extra work, however, a die
+suiting the roll in width and design should be chosen, and leaving as
+much of the corners as the die will cover free from gold, the remainder
+of the surface is covered with the leaf and tooled. With a little skill,
+the roll can be taken up exactly where the gold leaf ceases. The edge is
+then cleaned with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a> </span>
+gold rag and fresh gold laid on for the corner die and then tooled. By
+this method the design at the corner is correctly finished.<a name="Fig_8789" id="Fig_8789"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_156.png" width="250" height="444" alt="Figs. 87, 88, and 89&mdash;Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T = Sub Title." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 87, 88, and 89&mdash;Three simple backs. T, d, B =
+Title; N, T = Sub Title.</span>
+</div>
+<br>
+<p>Gold tooling on the back is more difficult on account of its convexity.
+For this work the volume is placed in a little wooden press which finds
+a place upon the bench, or in a special contrivance which can be screwed
+to the bench. <a name="Fig_90" id="Fig_90"></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a> </span></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+   <a href="images/i_157l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="101" height="115"
+      alt="Fig. 90&mdash;Type-holder with centre position.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 90&mdash;Type-holder with centre position.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To ensure good results in tooling the back, it is necessary that the
+work to be done should be accurately marked out beforehand. The bands
+are measured out by means of the dividers if they do not already show as
+raised bands. With a pointed folder draw this traced design accurately
+upon a strip of cardboard. Blind lines are made upon cloth before the
+latter has become quite dry; in other cases tool the first impression
+hot and vigorously, pick out the impression with white of egg, and then
+tool with lukewarm fillets. In making lines, the fillets may be drawn to
+and fro, whereby a great brilliancy will be produced. Gold lines or
+ornamental fillets are picked out with white of egg and then tooled in
+gold. For simple lines the gold is taken up from the cushion; for
+ornamental fillets the gold is carried to the back.</p>
+
+<p>Lettering the back is an art in itself as regards the arrangement of the
+lines, but besides this it requires considerable practical experience.
+The letters are composed and screwed up in the type-holder for printing.
+The type-holder, with the letters, must never be placed over the heating
+stove, for in Germany letters made of lead are still most generally
+used, and these would melt very quickly if placed over the stove.
+Moreover, the letters should be screwed up just tight enough to prevent
+their falling out. The heat expands them and they are then locked quite
+firmly enough in the type-holder.</p>
+
+<p>In arranging the letters the following general rules should be
+observed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1.&mdash;Always use types from the same fount in a title.</p>
+
+<p>2.&mdash;For books printed in Gothic (black letter) type use Gothic
+letters; for books printed in Latin types use the same for
+lettering.</p>
+
+<p>3.&mdash;All lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or
+in caps. only. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 149]</span></p>
+
+<p>4.&mdash;Gothic and Latin in a title are inconceivable.</p>
+
+<p>5.&mdash;Except for abbreviations, points are no longer used in the
+titles of books, not even at the end; neither is a comma placed
+after the author's name.<a name="Fig_9194" id="Fig_9194"></a></p>
+
+<p>6.&mdash;Nowadays, a short line is always made under the author's name. </p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_158.png" width="450" height="570" alt="Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94&mdash;Four backs tooled in the Düsseldorf Technical School." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94&mdash;Four backs tooled in the
+Düsseldorf Technical School.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As regards the length of line and choice of types, the following should
+be observed:&mdash;<span class="pagenum">[Pg 150]</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1.&mdash;The most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent
+by larger type or spacing. </p><a name="Fig_95" id="Fig_95"></a></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_159a.png" width="450" height="243" alt="Fig. 95&mdash;Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical School." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 95&mdash;Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical
+School.</span>
+</div>
+<a name="Fig_9697" id="Fig_9697"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_159.png" width="450" height="324" alt="Figs. 96 and 97&mdash;Two richly decorated insides done in the Düsseldorf Technical School." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 96 and 97&mdash;Two richly decorated insides done in the
+Düsseldorf Technical School.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>2.&mdash;The oftener a short conjunction or article (for, the, and, or,
+&amp;c.) is placed between the lines, the more effective will the title
+be; such words must be set in smaller type. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 151]</span></p>
+
+<p>3.&mdash;Two lines of equal length should not come together; long and
+short alternating as much as possible.</p>
+
+<p>4.&mdash;The author's name is set in type a little smaller than the
+principal catch-word.<a name="Fig_99101" id="Fig_99101"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_160.png" width="450" height="583" alt="Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101&mdash;Four richly tooled backs." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101&mdash;Four richly tooled backs.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>5.&mdash;The lettering is most effective when the type is selected and
+arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then
+decreases. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 152]</span></p>
+
+<p>6.&mdash;Unnecessary length tends to indistinctness; the best title
+tells what the book is in very few words, and should be easily read
+at a little distance.<a name="Fig_102" id="Fig_102"></a> </p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_161.png" width="350" height="479" alt="Fig. 102&mdash;Rich half-calf extra binding." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 102&mdash;Rich half-calf extra binding.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is impossible to mark out the whole of the title with the dividers
+unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the spaces can be measured.
+The best guide is the eye. The distance between the lines should be
+equal; a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed
+at half the distance between the lines. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>If a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile,
+latter, &amp;c.) follows one without long downstrokes (never, miner, memoir,
+&amp;c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long
+downstrokes (poppy, Ganges, &amp;c.) comes over one having long upstrokes.
+In this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the
+printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his title never
+being so cramped into little space.</p>
+
+<p>The effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by
+evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher. Such a
+back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine
+double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head
+is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. It is
+essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed,
+especially the title.</p>
+
+<p>Tooling a square is frequently done. The beginner should always use the
+roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. It
+is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces,
+which require skill to use. Special attention should be given to
+joinings at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen.</p>
+
+<p>For the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs (pp.
+149, 150, 151) as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and
+also two specimens of highly ornamented insides (p. 150).<a name="Fig_103104" id="Fig_103104"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_162.jpg" width="450" height="54" alt="Figs. 103 and 104&mdash;Tooling on heads." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 103 and 104&mdash;Tooling on heads.</span>
+</div>
+
+<br>
+<p>The head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work. Of
+course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the
+smallness of the surface. Fillets and rolls are generally used for this
+work, being worked on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a> </span>
+the cap as seen in the illustrations, and always directed towards a central
+point. The gold for the head and tail and edges is cut to size on the
+cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the gold taken up by the book
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of
+edges.<a name="Fig_105107108" id="Fig_105107108"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<img src="images/i_163a.jpg" width="401" height="88" alt="Figs. 105, 106, and 107&mdash;Tooling on the edges of the boards." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 105, 106, and 107&mdash;Tooling on the edges of the
+boards.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_163b.png" width="400" height="475" alt="Fig. 108&mdash;Motive executed in the Düsseldorf Technical School." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 108&mdash;Motive executed in the Düsseldorf Technical
+School.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lining is done on almost all books. For this the "jigger" is used. It is
+heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement
+is drawn along the straight edge. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a> </span>
+The line is drawn away from the worker, that is, contrary to the way one
+would draw a line with a lead pencil. Lines are drawn along paper, past
+back and corners, often also right round the edge, over leather or cloth
+and cover; the closer to the edge the more effective the line.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury.
+For trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains
+uncovered.<a name="Fig_109110" id="Fig_109110"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_164a.jpg" width="450" height="159" alt="Fig. 109&mdash;Case to protect book." title="">
+</div>
+
+<div class="caption center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Figs. 109 and 110">
+<tr><td align="center">Fig. 109&mdash;Case to protect book.</td><td align="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Fig. 110&mdash;Cut-out case.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>The parts <i>A</i> overlap and are either pasted together or wired with the
+machine.<a name="Fig_111112" id="Fig_111112"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i_164b.jpg" width="450" height="146" alt="Fig. 110&mdash;Cut-out case." title="">
+</div>
+
+<div class="caption center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig. 111">
+<tr><td align="center">Fig. 111&mdash;Book cover.</td><td align="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Fig. 112&mdash;Cover in case form.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>Similar cases of thinner boards&mdash;but covered&mdash;are made for hymn and
+prayer books. They are always pasted, covered with a dark pressed paper;
+and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining
+illustration (Fig. 110).</p>
+
+<p>Hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover; this <span class="pagenum">[Pg 156]</span>
+would be cut from stout paper, generally calf-leather paper, the colour of the
+case covering (See Fig. 111).</p>
+
+<p>Covers made in case form entail more work (Fig. 112). The centre piece
+has a joint at each side; this part is, therefore, covered with cloth,
+which extends over the parts <i>B</i> and <i>C</i>, all the rest being covered
+with dark pressed paper. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a> </span>
+</p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Account Books.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Account books are nowadays almost always made by wholesale firms, but
+there are still, now and then, considerable orders given to medium and
+small firms for special work; yet it is just in these small shops that
+antiquated methods of work are still followed to a certain extent, to
+deal fully with which would require a volume in itself.</p>
+
+<p>To-day, the methods generally followed are based upon the principle that
+the spring back, reaching a finger's width over the side, must work
+strongest on the book itself, and that such a one opens best. Upon this
+principle is based the untanned leather spring back, which, being a
+patent, has become a somewhat expensive style.</p>
+
+<p>It is cheaper to make up the backs with wrappers, for which machines are
+also to be had; but, nevertheless, the principle is the same, and both
+answer the same purpose, although the former is lighter and more
+durable; it cannot be denied, however, that after long use the cover
+works loose.</p>
+
+<p>For account books, only the best and strongest paper&mdash;ruled or
+printed&mdash;is used, always according to sample. Of course, the work of
+ruling can hardly be considered as coming within the scope of this book.</p>
+
+<p>The paper is folded together in sections of three to five sheets,
+according to the thickness and quality of the paper. For heavy books a
+strip of jaconet is folded in the middle <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a> </span>
+of the inner sheet of each section before sewing, and, in any case, this should
+be done with every first and last three sheets. The end paper makes a
+section in itself, which, like all others, is taken up in the sewing&mdash;it
+has previously been attached to the third section by means of strips of
+jaconet. In the end paper a coloured fly leaf and linen joint are
+pasted.<a name="Fig_113114" id="Fig_113114"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<img src="images/i_167.jpg" width="401" height="142" alt="Figs. 113 and 114&mdash;End papers for account books." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 113 and 114&mdash;End papers for account books.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following is a practical way of making the end paper:&mdash;</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>1.&mdash;Take a strip of linen (not cloth) three fingers wide, and glue
+on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour,
+and fold in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>2.&mdash;One sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin
+glue, and the hinged leaf No. 1 is pasted to it.</p>
+
+<p>3.&mdash;The end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the
+first section, the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of
+the ruled paper; around the whole section a strip of jaconet is
+sewn, or</p>
+
+<p>3a.&mdash;A piece of jaconet 1 cm. wide is so hinged to the white double
+sheet of this section that half of it remains free; in this fold
+the second section is sewn.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Better-class work intended to serve for years of office use is again
+being sewn with thread on tapes; the cheaper work is machine
+wire-stitched. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a> </span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In hand sewing, double bands&mdash;a wide, strong linen tape&mdash;are used, end
+to end, of course, and with strong thread.</p>
+
+<p>The bands are also stretched upon the sewing frame; for folio, at least
+six are used, and for quarto not less than four.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been said that the sections are sewn throughout, and,
+further, that the end section is likewise similarly sewn with them
+through the linen joint&mdash;in high class work with coloured cordonnet
+silk. All sheets, without exception, are kettle-stitched at the end.
+Large books are not usually glued up the whole of the back, but only at
+head and tail, with perhaps a little in the middle; they are only
+completely glued up after having been rounded in the press, as this
+makes them retain their shape longer.</p>
+
+<p>If it is decided to do any marbling, the fore-edge is marbled
+immediately after trimming it. Rounding is more pronounced in this than
+in ordinary work, otherwise the spring back would have no effect with
+such bulk, and the book would easily go out of shape.</p>
+
+<p>The account book is also pressed, but not in the same way as printed
+books, as the former has its groove pressed quite out. After careful
+adjustment between boards, they are squared to the edge of the first and
+last sheet, the whole lifted into the press, and the back glued with
+very hot glue. The bands are generally left outside the boards, as they
+would leave marks too pronounced on the book if pressed inside. After
+the book has thoroughly dried in the press, it is cut at top and bottom,
+marbled, or some other suitable treatment given to the edges, and then
+pasted up. The "clothing up" of the account book is done either with
+soft leather and paste or with mole-skin specially prepared for the
+purpose; in the former case the bands are omitted, that is, only the
+parts between the bands are pasted. In <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a> </span>
+pasting up with mole-skin, only the back may be glued&mdash;never the covering
+material. The covering material has a loose overlap of 4 cm. at each
+side.</p>
+
+<p>Account books take a stronger headband than other books; it must reach
+on to the board, which it binds to the book. For this purpose the board
+must first have been affixed.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, a thin but very strong board is laid&mdash;about 1-1/2
+mm. from the joint&mdash;upon the first sheet, which has been completely
+coated with glue; the bands are pasted out upon this board, as also are
+the leather or beaver clothing overlaps.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that this thin board is not stout enough for this heavy
+book, therefore a second heavier board&mdash;or, if necessary, even a
+third&mdash;is pasted to it; but as the back now goes over on to the board,
+the heavier board must be set back sufficiently to prevent it from
+pushing into the back when opening the book.</p>
+
+<p>As the pasting together of these boards makes them very thick, and such
+thick boards not being easily cut, they are generally cut the required
+size beforehand. Before pasting the thicker board upon the first board,
+the back is prepared.<a name="Fig_115" id="Fig_115"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="251" height="128" alt="Fig. 115&mdash;Boards cut out at head." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 115&mdash;Boards cut out at head.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>First of all, the headband. It is carried on to each board 3 cm. deep,
+and the boards must therefore be cut out the same distance up to the
+edge; at <i>A</i> the board is bevelled off on the inside. Now cut a piece of
+coloured chamois leather&mdash;dark red or green&mdash;5 cm. wide and as long as
+the distance from one notch across the back to the other. The back at
+<i>B</i> is <span class="pagenum">[Pg 161]</span>
+now glued, the strip of leather laid on so that it projects 1-1/2 cm. beyond
+the edge, and the ends at each side brought equally to the bevelled part
+<i>A</i>. At both sides these are pushed in under the thin board and well
+pasted down, whilst the piece projecting over the edge is glued and
+turned backwards; but in order to strengthen the piece on the back of
+the book, a piece of card as long as the width of the back is laid in.</p>
+
+<p>The back is selected either from ready-made undressed leather backs of
+suitable length and width, or is made on the machine. The practice of
+pasting the backs at the edges only does not seem satisfactory, because
+on the one hand it does not give sufficient spring, and on the other the
+single sections easily work loose. For pasted backs, stout wrappers are
+taken, and the strips are cut so that each one slightly overlaps in
+width the one preceding. The glued and fitted strips are either pressed
+hot in the rounding press or put through a rolling machine built for the
+same purpose. The finished backs should be allowed to dry for a short
+time. Where there is no machine suitable for this work, the backs must
+be pasted into each other, beginning at the outside, and well rubbed
+down upon a board made with grooves of various dimensions. The older
+method of pasting the backing upon the book itself is still followed,
+although it does not produce the firm arch nor give such a good shape as
+the former method. When it must be done, the following is the way to
+proceed: The size is taken by laying a piece of paper across the back
+(taking in 1/2 cm. of the board on each side), and with the dividers
+this measure is marked out on a strip of wrapping paper, which must be
+the exact length of the board, but wide enough to project about a hand's
+width over each board. So that this should not have an unsightly
+appearance in the book, it is bevelled along each side.<a name="Fig_116" id="Fig_116"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_171a.jpg" width="251" height="108"
+alt="Fig. 116&mdash;Suggestion for account book back. K&mdash;Pared edge; T&mdash;Part to be pasted." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 116&mdash;Suggestion for account book back. K&mdash;Pared
+edge; T&mdash;Part to be pasted.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to the measurement marked by the dividers at <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a> </span>
+top and bottom, a rule is laid from <i>a</i> to <i>a</i>, and along this a sharp line is
+drawn with the folder, and the lappets projecting underneath the rule
+are bent upwards. At this line thus marked, the wrapper is folded over
+and creased with the folder. A second parallel line is made in the same
+way, about 6 to 7 mm. farther out, from <i>b</i> to <i>b</i>. The back thus
+prepared is rounded in the middle part; a strip the size <i>a</i> to <i>a</i>
+might still be pasted in the centre. To fasten this to the book, both
+strips are glued with strong glue from <i>b</i> to the edge, the back brought
+into position, glued, and pressed down. From this it will be seen that
+the back stretched across the book is not glued on from <i>a</i> to <i>b</i>. A
+few more pieces of wrapping paper are still glued on to this first back
+to increase the strength of the arch; each one is measured separately
+after the one preceding it has been glued into its place, always
+measuring from <i>a</i> to <i>a</i>.<a name="Fig_117" id="Fig_117"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_171b.jpg" width="150" height="46" alt="Fig. 117&mdash;Suggestion for account book back." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 117&mdash;Suggestion for account book back.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such backs do not adhere quite firmly, and it is advisable to insert
+another narrower glued strip, opening the book in the middle, of course,
+to do this. After inserting the back, the book is closed, and the back
+will now lie close and tight <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a> </span>
+to the book. It is trimmed at top and bottom with a sharp knife and finished
+off with a rasp if necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy boards are hinged on to this back. They are cut to fit, and,
+beginning at the fold <i>b</i>, are placed so that the edge of the board
+stands a little away from the joint.<a name="Fig_118" id="Fig_118"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_172.jpg" width="200" height="88" alt="Fig. 118&mdash;Boarded account book." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 118&mdash;Boarded account book.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Where it is possible to glue up hot, the back should be made in advance.
+It is, however, essential that the spring back should be slightly
+over-rounded, that is to say, that its ends should first be pressed out
+so that they can be pushed on to the back; only thus can it be really
+effective, and must, moreover, be shaped to three-quarters of a circle.</p>
+
+<p>An apparatus recently put on the market for glueing without heat, solely
+by wrapping up in drilling, is little better than a toy, which saves
+neither time nor material. The inventor can hardly be in the
+trade&mdash;certainly not a practical worker.</p>
+
+<p>The prepared backs are fastened to the books as follows: Cut a strip of
+stout linen so that it projects a little at each end and 3 to 4 cm. at
+each side; glue the inside of the rounded back evenly, and then fasten
+in the linen strip so that it projects equally at ends and sides. At
+head and tail the ends are brought over on the outside, and the back
+thus made is forced on the book. Before doing so, a line should be drawn
+on the thin boards about 1-1/2 to 2 cm. from the joint, glue up to this
+line; the strip with the back would be drawn up at both sides and then
+pressed down. To make these backs lie closer, a strip of packing may
+similarly be inserted. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a> </span>
+</p>
+
+<p>So then the same work is done here with the glued-up backs as in the old
+style with the packed spring backs; here the back is just hinged on
+cloth, there it is made from a piece of wrapper. The thick board is set
+on in the same way as in the other style of work, set off from the glued
+back about 1 to 1-1/2 cm. To fill up this space, lay in each groove a
+piece of cord of suitable thickness which has been well pasted, rubbing
+in the paste quite smooth, and, after drying, paste over with stout
+paper.</p>
+
+<p>Very thick books have a rather clumsy appearance with their many
+superimposed boards; this is improved by bevelling on all four sides the
+upper thick board.</p>
+
+<p>To protect the book, leather bands are pasted on the back, also
+something to add strength is generally put on at head and tail, which is
+then covered with specially strong leather. For covering, linen,
+mole-skin; for heavy and extra work, pig-skin and cow-hide are used.
+Leather is, of course, always pared down, thoroughly coated with paste,
+well stretched over, and well rubbed down in all hollows at the joints,
+bands, &amp;c.&mdash;side panels are also let in&mdash;and turned in. Where the back
+disappears under the thick board, the turn-in is cut in almost up to the
+edge at <i>b</i> with sharp scissors; if it were cut right to the edge it
+would be visible, which must be avoided. For turning-in at the head, it
+is obvious that the book must lie open as in the illustration.<a name="Fig_119" id="Fig_119"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_173.jpg" width="350" height="61" alt="Fig. 119&mdash;To show where turn-in is to be cut." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 119&mdash;To show where turn-in is to be cut.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The corners of account books must always be rounded. Metal corners on
+account books are clumsy, damage the writing desks and other books
+coming into contact with them, and even when using the best mill-boards
+it is impossible to fix <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a> </span>
+them so firmly that they will not work loose in the course of time. In their
+stead, leather corners and guards may be fixed, which are frequently
+tastefully finished in blind or gold.<a name="Fig_120" id="Fig_120"></a></p>
+
+<br>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+   <a href="images/i_174l.png">
+     <img src="images/i_174.jpg" width="150" height="235"
+      alt="Fig. 120&mdash;Hand numbering machine.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 120&mdash;Hand numbering machine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All books for office use are either folioed or paged, <i>i.e.</i>, either
+each page or each sheet gets a consecutive number in order to facilitate
+reference from the index. This may be done either by the hand numbering
+machine or by the larger machine worked with a treadle. In both cases
+the figures succeed each other automatically whilst printing.</p>
+
+<p>It is always advisable to do this work before binding, as it is then
+easier and, besides, there is less chance of the fresh ink smudging when
+each single sheet of the sections is pushed up.</p>
+
+<p>The manipulation of this apparatus is so simple that further explanation
+seems superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>Where bound books have to be paged, small pieces of blotting-paper must
+be laid between the sheets to prevent smudging.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>The manufacture of guard books for bills, letters, &amp;c., comes into the
+same department as the making of account books. Guards are cut 4 cm.
+wide and folded in sixes along the middle, and sewn with strong thread,
+end to end, upon a strip of linen stretched upon a piece of wrapper to
+which bands have been pasted to further strengthen. The sections are
+sewn together at intervals of about 2 cm., so as to allow room for the
+papers that are to be pasted in. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a> </span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The stiff back with the sewn-on guards is now pasted into a cover, which
+is made with a back measurement as seen in the illustration. An
+insertion for the back is not cut for this purpose, but the two boards
+are hinged together with a strip of stiff paper somewhat wider than the
+back. The book is then provided with a linen or mole-skin back and
+corners, covered with paper, and, after the guarded back has been pasted
+in, is lined with paper. If it is intended to gum the guards, the
+gumming should be attended to before the sewing. The guards are fanned
+up slightly and brushed with gum-dextrine, to which a little sugar and a
+few drops of glycerine have been added, so that when dry the gum should
+not be too brittle.<a name="Fig_121" id="Fig_121"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_175.jpg" width="251" height="89" alt="Fig. 121&mdash;Suggestion for back of guard book." title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 121&mdash;Suggestion for back of guard book.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For all such work a thumb index is generally required; each page takes
+one or more letters, or a specification is given, according to which the
+binder counts off the number of pages required for each letter&mdash;X and Y
+being here excluded. Nowadays, the indices are cut with index shears,
+which not only regulates the depth of the index but also avoids the
+acute angles which are so easily torn in.</p>
+
+<p>Commence cutting from the back, that is, with the Z; this, being the
+last letter, is not cut out. Then count off W, cut with the shears, and
+cut off what remains below to the bottom edge with a sharp knife, to do
+which a narrow thin board is slipped underneath. The further you proceed
+towards A, the longer is the strip which has to be cut out with the
+knife. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a> </span>
+</p>
+
+<p>When the excisions for the whole alphabet have been made, the letters
+are pasted on. These are sold ready printed, and nowadays are almost
+always in one piece for back and front.</p>
+
+<p>The printed sheet with the alphabet is glued or gummed on the back, and,
+after drying, the alphabet is creased lengthwise and either cut so or
+punched out with a suitable tool. The single letters are damped and
+stuck in position.</p>
+
+<p>One might also insert a strip of zinc after the cutting in of the
+letters and cut the length at once.</p>
+
+<p>Cheaper kinds of account books for temporary use are often made with
+fixed backs; the packing is simply omitted, but the head and tail are
+pasted a little to make the turn-over hold better. No matter whether the
+cover be of leather or cloth, paste must be used, as this ensures the
+back adhering strongly to the book. Such a method of binding can be
+recommended for music.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>Portfolios for drawings, &amp;c., are often required; the boards are hinged
+together with paper as previously described for guard books, the inside
+of the back lined with cloth, and the outside covered with leather or
+cloth. The turn-in is pasted over the lined back.<a name="Fig_122" id="Fig_122"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<img src="images/i_176.jpg" width="251" height="139" alt="Fig. 122&mdash;Pattern for dust flaps. (Leinwand = Linen hinge.)" title="">
+<span class="caption">Fig. 122&mdash;Pattern for dust flaps. (Leinwand = Linen
+hinge.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If books are to be made so that they can be fastened, slits must either
+be made with a chisel, through which the tape ends<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a> </span>
+are drawn from the outside to the inside and there pasted down, or else
+small round eyelet holes are made, and then proceed as before.</p>
+
+<p>Dust-proof flaps are hinged on to three sides of a thin board with
+strips of linen in the following style, and lined and covered
+separately. The body itself is likewise made of thin board. (See Fig.
+122.)</p>
+
+<p>The whole arrangement is pasted on to the back board of the portfolio.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a> </span></p>
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">School Books and Mounting.</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The school book, perhaps the most despised branch of work in the
+bindery, has unjustly come to be treated as a sort of step-child by
+bookbinder and bookseller. Although everything has been cut down as
+finely as possible as regards paper and printing, yet the cost of
+binding must also be cut down, and a profit on the whole is still looked
+for. Thus it is that school books can only be produced by machinery.
+Folding, sewing, board cutting, trimming, and lettering are all done
+exclusively by machinery. All finishing work, pressing, headbanding,
+decorating the paper covers, have fallen off. The cover is always made
+in advance and the book fixed into it. A good goat-skin is seldom used
+for the back, almost always split sheep-skin, thereby also saving
+paring, or the so-called split horse-hide. These latter are put on the
+market in various colours and grains and are well suited for the work. A
+third-rate marbled paper is used for covering, as prices are not given
+for better kinds. A stout smooth paper is strongly recommended for end
+papers.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently, in the smaller towns, there are still produced Bible
+histories, catechisms, and the like in half-leather bindings, tanned
+sheep-skin, the sale of which is likely to be large and assured for many
+years. The whole skin must be damped and well stretched previous to
+cutting out, in order that it may be cut into backs to the best
+advantage. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 170]</span></p>
+
+<p>The backs are laid on top of each other and pressed out in the wooden
+press between two old boards to remove all superfluous moisture. The
+edges are then pared with a sharp knife, the backs pasted, laying every
+two with pasted sides together to prevent their drying, and the books
+fixed in the leather backs. For this purpose the books are set in boards
+previously cut to size. In this case the books take tight backs; the
+joints are well rubbed down with the folder.</p>
+
+<p>Thinner volumes in cloth have likewise tight backs. The cloth for the
+backs is cut into strips of handy length as wide as the length of the
+backs must be, is glued and cut a suitable width with a knife upon the
+cutting board, measuring with the eye. Recently, the so-called "taking
+off," as practised in fancy goods work, has been adopted for the sake of
+its cleaner and neater results in pasting and glueing covers. A large
+zinc plate is coated with glue, neither too thick nor too thin, the
+cover is laid face downwards and taken up, so that it is evenly coated
+all over with the glue or paste. The work requires some practice, but it
+is very quick and, above all, is neat and clean. The boards are laid
+upon these strips by a worker (allowing for the thickness of the back),
+turned in at top and bottom by a second worker, and the books at once
+fixed in. The backs, still damp, fit very well to the books, the joints
+are well rubbed in; covering and pasting on are done afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Where hand sewing must be done, the end papers should be first attached
+to each first and last section, double in front, single at the end.
+Sewing should never be upon two bands only but on three at least, better
+upon four, so that the two middle ones can be changed each time. In
+order to expedite the scraping of the bands, the threads are untwisted
+before pulling out from each other, the loose end need not exceed 1-1/2
+cm., as a long band holds no better than a short <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a> </span>
+one, care being taken that it is always firmly pasted down. The drawn-out
+volumes are placed in batches on top of each other, all bands lying
+outwards. The projecting ends are well brushed with a hard brush, which
+renders them easy to scrape down. If it is intended to paste down the
+bands, the whole of the ends might now be pasted, the books lifted off
+one by one, and the bands pasted over on to the end paper. It is better
+to leave the ends free and to paste down when glueing up. They then
+become more thoroughly saturated with the paste and are pressed at once,
+and thus join the boards so much better.</p>
+
+<p>It may be mentioned that school books with tight backs are more lasting
+than with hollow backs, no matter whether leather or cloth be used.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>Mounted articles, <i>i.e.</i>, placards, maps, drawings, &amp;c., to be mounted
+on boards or linen, are frequently sent to the ordinary bindery. Things
+to be mounted on boards must be mounted whole, those that are to be
+rolled up or folded are mounted on linen. Placards are generally printed
+on very stout paper, and these should be well damped upon the back with
+sponge and water before pasting, and only when the paper is perfectly
+limp and stretched should the pasting be done, otherwise creases are
+sure to be caused by the stretching of the paper after mounting. A piece
+of packing paper the size of the placard to be mounted must also be
+pasted upon the back of the mounting board to prevent the board from
+"drawing." Only when the mounting is completed may the mount be cut to
+size and, if necessary, bound.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="101" height="155" alt="Ordinary work Very small corners diagram" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>This binding is done by marking with the dividers a border about 1-1/2
+cm. wide along the trimmed edge and laying a pasted strip of coloured
+paper and, turning it over, drawing it on to the back with a piece of
+clean waste paper, and well rubbing down. At the corners the strip is
+cut obliquely, as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a> </span>
+in the case of a book, nipped, and turned in. This is done at the first two
+sides lying opposite to each other. At the other side the strip is laid
+not quite up to the ends and cut with the shears slightly obliquely, so
+that the finished corner appears as in the accompanying illustration. Of
+course, when such work is done in large quantities, another method is
+followed. For this the board would be cut to size, back and front&mdash;1 cm.
+narrower and shorter&mdash;likewise, and the boards bound beforehand. The
+strips are not turned in at the corners of the first two sides, but the
+whole side is rubbed down and the ends cut flush. The strips for the
+other two sides are cut to size, at the same time cutting off the
+corners obliquely at both sides, then pasted and drawn over the edges.
+When mounting on large surfaces, one person alone is not able to do the
+work&mdash;there must be some one to render assistance.</p>
+
+<p>Such large pieces are always rubbed down under a piece of stout paper.
+As the hand cannot pass over the whole surface evenly and easily, a
+large piece of waste paper rolled into a ball and held firmly in the
+hand is used for rubbing down.<a name="Fig_123" id="Fig_123"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+   <a href="images/i_181bl.png">
+     <img src="images/i_181b.jpg" width="101" height="190"
+      alt="Fig. 123&mdash;Eyeleting machine.">
+   </a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 123&mdash;Eyeleting machine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The finished placard is placed between boards to dry. For hanging them,
+either eyelets with rings as sold are used or two holes, about 5 cm.
+apart, are punched with the eyelet pliers in the middle of the top edge
+and eyelets clamped in with the punch pliers. For doing large quantities
+it is advisable to procure a machine, the small eyeleting machine,
+which pierces and clamps the eyelet at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>Mounting plates, plans, drawings, or maps on cloth is done in the
+following way: Paper can only be properly mounted upon a very tightly
+stretched <span class="pagenum">[Pg 173]</span>
+linen or cotton material; linen being generally used in England. Where such
+work is frequently to be done, so-called drawing boards ought to be at
+hand. These are wooden boards, best when made to fit into each other so
+that they can be enlarged to suit the work in hand.<a name="Fig_124127" id="Fig_124127"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;">
+<img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="140" height="473" alt="Figs. 124 to 127&mdash;Showing stages of pinning down for stretching." title="">
+<span class="caption">Figs. 124 to 127&mdash;Showing stages of pinning down for
+stretching.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The board must, of course, be perfectly clean on the stretching side,
+otherwise the back of the mounted article would be soiled. If necessary,
+the surface may be covered with waste paper before stretching. The
+material should be left about 5 cm. larger all round for convenience of
+stretching and working. The stretching is best done with drawing pins,
+which may be used again and again for the same work. The method of
+stretching is as follows: Woven fabrics stretch less in direction of the
+warp than the woof, therefore stretching is begun in the former
+direction. The material is fixed with pins at two corners of one side,
+stretching it firmly at the same time. The material will be drawn
+outwards a little on the stretched side (Fig. 124). To counteract this,
+a pin is fixed in the middle of the opposite side, after having pulled
+the material over so that the side <i>A</i> forms a straight line. The whole
+side <i>A</i> is then pinned down, the pins not being more than 5 cm. apart
+(Fig. 125).</p>
+
+<p>Now draw out the pin on the <i>B</i> side and pin down the whole side, firmly
+stretching the material all the while, beginning at the middle and
+working towards the sides (Fig. 126). <span class="pagenum">[Pg 174]</span></p>
+
+<p>The third side is pinned down by first fixing a pin in the centre, then
+in the centre of the halves to right and left, then proceeding with the
+smaller divisions in the same fashion. The material is pulled far enough
+to form a straight line (Fig. 127). The last side is well stretched and
+pinned down as just described. In this way a surface not only entirely
+free from wrinkles and creases is produced, but the texture of the
+material will run straight.</p>
+
+<p>In mounting upon cloth, special care must be taken that the paper is
+perfectly limp and flexible; but this must not be due to its having been
+too thickly coated with paste.</p>
+
+<p>Large wall maps made up of many pieces must be very carefully damped and
+must be allowed to lie damp a long time. Attention must be given to the
+colours, which are apt to run, and also to the proper fitting of the
+various pieces, as these have often been stretched in various ways in
+the lithographic press, or through irregular drying have taken unequal
+sizes. Damping and pasting must be repeated to help to remedy this until
+the whole fits together perfectly.</p>
+
+<p>Maps to be folded must be cut into sections of suitable size. In order
+that they may fold together well, the various pieces are set slightly
+apart, the horizontal lines slightly less (1-1/2 mm.), the longitudinal
+somewhat more, where there are many parts up to 3 mm.</p>
+
+<p>Perfect fitting is here essential, and to insure this it is advisable to
+mark out the divisions with the folder and rule. This is not necessary
+for small maps, the eye will then be sufficient guide. Thorough rubbing
+down is absolutely necessary to make every part adhere.</p>
+
+<p>When perfectly dry, the material is taken from the stretcher, the edges
+accurately trimmed, and the map folded upon the cross lines into one
+long strip, and then this strip is folded over in zigzag fashion to the
+given size.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of such a map is greatly improved by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a> </span>
+sharply pressing awhile, for which a zinc plate should be inserted between each
+fold.</p>
+
+<p>Such maps are often placed in a small light case of cardboard covered
+with cloth, or a light cover is made, into which the map is so pasted at
+the back board that it lies ready for use when opened.</p>
+
+<p>Paintings, drawings in colour, or wash drawings cause exceptional
+difficulties, as the moisture of the pasting medium tends to dissolve or
+make the colours run. In such cases smaller sheets are placed between
+sheets of damp blotting paper, and it is stuck upon the pasted
+underside. When the object permits it, it is glued on without previous
+damping. Large tracings present the greatest difficulties as the paper
+stretches very much and, on account of its delicacy, is not easily
+manipulated and is liable to crease. Such work requires several hands.
+It is necessary to have clear paste, quite free from knots, which has
+been thinned to the consistency of thick pea-soup. When at all
+practicable, the tracing itself is pasted twice, the first pasting will
+make the paper stretch and the second ensures a proper coating of paste.
+Two persons lift the tracing and turn it over (for very large pieces
+four persons are required); the sheet is laid down at one corner, the
+other three being held up, and the whole gently lowered little by
+little. One person rubs it down slowly, proceeding from the first corner
+and carefully avoiding creases and bubbles.</p>
+
+<p>With such big jobs it is often impossible to avoid tears near where it
+is held by the fingers of the workers unless timely precautions against
+this are taken. The simplest way is to paste strips of paper and to
+stick these on the four corners of the pasted side of the tracing and to
+take hold of these. These strips are removed as the rubbing down
+progresses, making sure, however, that there is still enough paste left
+on these places. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a> </span></p>
+
+<p>Tracings are always mounted upon white paper, even though it has
+afterwards to be cut or mounted on cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Maps that have to be prepared for hanging on walls are always provided
+with a roller at top and bottom; these may be stained and varnished or
+covered with coloured paper. The mounted maps are glued and tacked to
+the half-round rollers. Where all round rollers are used they should be
+ordered in halves. The edges of the map are glued between and the two
+halves then nailed together. Rings are screwed into the top roller for
+hanging, and also a few tapes to tie up the rolled map if required.</p>
+
+<p>Plates and maps, as also placards, are also varnished. Varnishing is
+nowadays always done with spirit varnish, which is convenient for
+working. All papers cannot be simply varnished and done with&mdash;the nature
+of the paper must be taken into consideration. All sized and chromo
+papers may be varnished without preparation. Many note-papers,
+especially unsized and copperplate papers, must first be sized, which
+prevents the resinous parts from penetrating and thus avoids grease
+spots.</p>
+
+<p>The best of all means is glue or gelatine; the former turns the paper
+somewhat yellow. A thin solution is made, which is laid on warm with a
+large sponge in long quick strokes. Where colour or ink is to be dealt
+with, no parts should be touched twice or the colours will be effaced. A
+second coating, however, may be given after the first has dried. The
+spirit varnish to be used&mdash;called map or photo varnish&mdash;is still too
+thick as sold. It is thinned with 90% spirit of wine to the required
+consistency until it runs easily from the brush.</p>
+
+<p>Wide varnish brushes with lead fastenings are used. Two coats of thin
+varnish are better than one coat of thick. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 177]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h2><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Our work is now finished. The author has endeavoured to deal only with
+what comes within the sphere of practical bookbinding.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time there is a sharp dividing line drawn between what we
+may call the practical and artistic bookbinding. To whatever height of
+perfection the latter may still reach, it only begins where the
+practical bookbinder has completed his work faultless in every detail. A
+bad binding does not become a work of art when it has had its exterior
+artistically decorated, it rather calls forth condemnation on its bad
+forwarding and wasted skill in finishing.</p>
+
+<p>Yet in spite of the separation of the practical from the artistic in
+binding, it could hardly be possible&mdash;where the two are so closely
+connected&mdash;that the latter should not now and then be touched upon.
+Should the intention of issuing a book on artistic binding in form
+similar to this be carried out, it would also be necessary to refer
+occasionally to the practical side of binding.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we look in vain in the ordinary bindery for the many little extra
+jobs which, formerly, were the largest portion of the work in artistic
+binding. All the little jewel cases, card cases, cigar cases, &amp;c., which
+made the winter months of the binder&mdash;as late as the sixties and
+seventies&mdash;the busiest and most profitable months of the year, have
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 178]</span>
+vanished from our workshops, as also have the mounting, &amp;c., of embroideries and
+women's work. As a result, the number of those able to execute these
+minor works of the art binder has grown smaller. This branch of work,
+which at one time seemed inseparable from our trade, has partly become a
+separate industry in itself and has partly been drawn into other special
+trades where the work can be done better and cheaper by other means.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore the lettering of portable articles&mdash;spectacle cases, cigar
+cases, purses, pocket-books&mdash;is no longer done; such things&mdash;where they
+are not made to stock&mdash;are made by the leather worker, this also having
+passed away from the binder. This continual loss of work originally
+ours&mdash;not marked by decades now but by still shorter intervals&mdash;should
+make all bookbinders reflect. The question no longer is "How to prevent
+it?" but the more far-reaching one: "How to face the fact?" The only
+possible way is for every master bookbinder&mdash;having regard to prevailing
+conditions&mdash;to immediately put all his skill and energy into some
+special branch of the trade. With this good counsel we would like to
+send forth this little book.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time there are few small towns indeed where one day 50
+cloth cases have to be turned out, to-morrow half a dozen books to be
+bound in half-calf extra, next day 50 fancy boxes, and then, perhaps, a
+few fine velvet-covered cases.</p>
+
+<p>Should there really be found such conditions still existing, no workman
+would be found&mdash;owing to our modern system of training&mdash;able and willing
+to work under such conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Those possessing the essentials in an art craftsman&mdash;infinite pains,
+neatness and exactness&mdash;are sure to make rapid progress. What is still
+required&mdash;an eye for colour and good taste&mdash;are easily acquired, for
+much of the bookbinder's work is based on experience and example.
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 179]</span></p>
+
+<p>He who sees much, especially new things, will soon be able to reproduce
+the things seen, and will, moreover, soon learn to distinguish between
+good and bad. About taste, so-called, it is not worth while arguing, as
+taste is mostly dictated by fashion and is often fashionable folly. The
+thoughtful craftsman, however, should be quite clear as to the
+principles determining what is to be permitted and what rejected in his
+own work; for the rest he may follow the lead of fashion&mdash;he must, in
+fact, if his work lies much in that way.</p>
+
+<p>Our conclusion may, therefore, be summed up in these words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Let the most painstaking neatness and thoroughness be the masters of
+each one.</p>
+
+<p>No man can do everything; he who can do something well, does most.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The End.</span> </h3><span class="pagenum">[Pg 180]</span>
+
+
+
+<br><hr style="width: 45%;">
+<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Index.">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"> PAGE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_157">Account books,</a></td><td align="right">157</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_72">Alum wash for marbling,</a></td><td align="right">72</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_7">Aluminium,</a></td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_8">Armenian bole,</a></td><td align="right">8, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_147">Back, tooling on,</a></td><td align="right">147</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_120">Backs, lining up,</a></td><td align="right">120</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_162">Backs for account books,</a></td><td align="right">162</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_58">Backing,</a></td><td align="right">58</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_59">Backing machine,</a></td><td align="right">11, 59</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_87">Bands, treatment of,</a></td><td align="right">87, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_30">Beating,</a></td><td align="right">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_9">Bindery, arrangement of,</a></td><td align="right">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_130">Blind tooling,</a></td><td align="right">130</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_103">Blocking,</a></td><td align="right">103</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_11">Blocking press,</a></td><td align="right">11, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_81">Blood serum, preparation of,</a></td><td align="right">81</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_112">Blood serum for blocking,</a></td><td align="right">112</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">Boards,</a></td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_160">Boards for account books,</a></td><td align="right">160</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_86">Board cutting,</a></td><td align="right">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_54">Board-cutting machine,</a></td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_87">Boarding,</a></td><td align="right">87</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_163">Boarding account books,</a></td><td align="right">163</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_8">Bole,</a></td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_75">Bole for edges,</a></td><td align="right">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_8">Book-mark,</a></td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_69">Bouquet marbling,</a></td><td align="right">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_7">Bronze,</a></td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_117">Bronze, blocking in,</a></td><td align="right">117</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Brushes for glue, paste, &amp;c.,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_77">Burnishing gilt edges,</a></td><td align="right">77</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Calf,</a></td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_110">Calf, preparation for blocking,</a></td><td align="right">110</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Calf, treatment in finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_64">Carrageen moss for marbling,</a></td><td align="right">64</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_155">Case to protect book,</a></td><td align="right">155</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_93">Case work,</a></td><td align="right">93, <a href="#Page_93">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_7">Celluloid,</a></td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_8">Clasps,</a></td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_45">Cloth joints,</a></td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Cloth, treatment in finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_159">Clothing-up account books,</a></td><td align="right">159</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_28">Collating,</a></td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_115">Colour blocking,</a></td><td align="right">115</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_63">Coloured edges,</a></td><td align="right">63</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_68">Comb marbling,</a></td><td align="right">68</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_4">Cord for sewing,</a></td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_42">Cords, distribution of,</a></td><td align="right">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_11">Corner punching machine,</a></td><td align="right">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_96">Corners,</a></td><td align="right">96, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_18">Counting off,</a></td><td align="right">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_119">Covering,</a></td><td align="right">119</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Cowhide,</a></td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Crushed morocco,</a></td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Dextrine,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_153">Doublure,</a></td><td align="right">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_171">Drawings, mounting,</a></td><td align="right">171</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_168">Dust-proof flaps,</a></td><td align="right">168</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_7">Edges, colouring,</a></td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_62">Edges, finishing,</a></td><td align="right">62</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_7">Edges, marbling,</a></td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_153">Edges of boards, tooling,</a></td><td align="right">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">End papers,</a></td><td align="right">5, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_158">End papers, for account books,</a></td><td align="right">158</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_124">End papers, pasting down,</a></td><td align="right">124</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_49">End-to-end sewing,</a></td><td align="right">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_172">Eyeleting,</a></td><td align="right">172</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_11">Eyeleting machine,</a></td><td align="right">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_69">Eye marbling,</a></td><td align="right">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_144">Fillet, use of,</a></td><td align="right">144</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_129">Finishing,</a></td><td align="right">129</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_10">Finisher's tools,</a></td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_13">Folding,</a></td><td align="right">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_13">Forwarding,</a></td><td align="right">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_71">French marbling,</a></td><td align="right">71</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_20">Gathering,</a></td><td align="right">20, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Gelatine,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_111">Gelatine size for blocking,</a></td><td align="right">111</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_75">Gilder's tip,</a></td><td align="right">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_73">Gilding edges,</a></td><td align="right">73</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Gilding edges, powder,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_111">Gilding edges, powder for blocking,</a></td><td align="right">111</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_8">Glair,</a><a name="Glair" id="Glair"></a></td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_111">Glair for blocking,</a></td><td align="right">111</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_135">Glair for blocking, finishing,</a></td><td align="right">135</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_76">Glair for blocking, gilt edges,</a></td><td align="right">76</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_2">Glue,</a></td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Glue-brush,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Glue-pot,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_51">Glueing-up,</a></td><td align="right">51</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_163">Glueing-up account books,</a></td><td align="right">163</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_7">Gold,</a></td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_75">Gold cushion,</a></td><td align="right">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_75">Gold knife,</a></td><td align="right">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_75">Gold leaf, laying on,</a></td><td align="right">75, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_81">Gold substitute for,</a></td><td align="right">81</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#gouge">Gouge, use of,</a></td><td align="right">143</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">Grey boards,</a></td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_44">Guards,</a></td><td align="right">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_24">Guards for plates and maps,</a></td><td align="right">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_165">Guard-books,</a></td><td align="right">165</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_10">Guillotine,</a></td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Gum,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_141">Gum tragacanth,</a></td><td align="right">141</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_65">Gum tragacanth, for marbling,</a></td><td align="right">65</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_16">Head and tail,</a></td><td align="right">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_153">Head and tail, tooling,</a></td><td align="right">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_121">Head and tail, turning in,</a></td><td align="right">121</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_8">Headband,</a></td><td align="right">8, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_160">Headbands for account books,</a></td><td align="right">160</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_113">Heat applied in blocking,</a></td><td align="right">113</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_137">Heat applied in blocking, of tools in finishing,</a></td><td align="right">137, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_32">Holländering,</a></td><td align="right">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_87">Hollow backs,</a></td><td align="right">87</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_119">Imitation raised bands,</a></td><td align="right">119</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_166">Index cutting, &amp;c.,</a></td><td align="right">166</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_17">Inset,</a></td><td align="right">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_153">Insides, tooling,</a></td><td align="right">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Isinglass,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_154">Jigger, use of,</a></td><td align="right">154</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_44">Joint,</a></td><td align="right">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_49">Kettle stitch,</a></td><td align="right">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_18">Knocking-up,</a></td><td align="right">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_71">Kremser marbling,</a></td><td align="right">71</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_112">Laying on gold leaf,</a></td><td align="right">112</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Leather used in binding,</a></td><td align="right">6, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_97">Leather used in binding, paring,</a></td><td align="right">97</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_140">Leather used in binding, preparation for finishing,</a></td><td align="right">140</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">Leather used in binding, boards,</a></td><td align="right">5, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_148">Lettering,</a></td><td align="right">148</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_108">Lettering, in blocking,</a></td><td align="right">108</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Levant morocco,</a></td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_45">Linen joints,</a></td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_102">Lining for case work,</a></td><td align="right">102</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_4">Machine sewing,</a></td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_171">Maps, mounting,</a></td><td align="right">171</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_23">Maps, mounting, pasting in,</a></td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_176">Maps, mounting, rollers for,</a></td><td align="right">176</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">Marble papers,</a></td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_7">Marbled edges,</a></td><td align="right">7, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_164">Metal corners,</a></td><td align="right">164</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_9">Metal corners, fastenings,</a></td><td align="right">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#THE_METRIC_AND_BRITISH_SYSTEMS">Metric system,</a></td><td align="right">vi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">Middles,</a></td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_85">Millboards,</a></td><td align="right">85</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Morocco,</a></td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Morocco, treatment for finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_171">Mounting,</a></td><td align="right">171</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_165">Numbering machine,</a></td><td align="right">165</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_39">Overcasting,</a></td><td align="right">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_46">Overcast end papers,</a></td><td align="right">46</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_66">Oxgall for marbling,</a></td><td align="right">66</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_97">Paring leather,</a></td><td align="right">97</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_1">Paste,</a></td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_63">Paste-edge,</a></td><td align="right">63</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_22">Pasting,</a></td><td align="right">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_3">Pasting, boards,</a></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_124">Pasting, down,</a></td><td align="right">124</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_69">Peacock marbling,</a></td><td align="right">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Pig-skin, treatment for finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_26">Plates, folding,</a></td><td align="right">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_23">Plates, folding, pasting in,</a></td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_55">Plough,</a></td><td align="right">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_167">Portfolios,</a></td><td align="right">167</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_10">Presses,</a></td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_19">Pressing,</a></td><td align="right">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_36">Pulling to pieces,</a></td><td align="right">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_16">Quires, books in,</a></td><td align="right">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_36">Re-binding,</a></td><td align="right">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_14">Register in folding,</a></td><td align="right">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_114">Relief blocking,</a></td><td align="right">114</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_36">Repairing,</a></td><td align="right">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_136">Roll, use of,</a></td><td align="right">136, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_29">Rolling,</a></td><td align="right">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_11">Rolling, machine,</a></td><td align="right">11, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_57">Rounding,</a></td><td align="right">57</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_11">Rounding, machine,</a></td><td align="right">11, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Russia leather, treatment for finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_41">Sawing-in,</a></td><td align="right">41</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_43">Sawing-in, machine,</a></td><td align="right">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_169">School books,</a></td><td align="right">169</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_74">Scraping edges for gilding,</a></td><td align="right">74, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Seal skin, treatment for finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_40">Sewing,</a></td><td align="right">40, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_159">Sewing, for account books,</a></td><td align="right">159</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_4">Sewing, cord,</a></td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_33">Sewing, frame,</a></td><td align="right">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_52">Sewing, machine,</a></td><td align="right">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_4">Sewing, tapes,</a></td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_34">Sewing, thread,</a></td><td align="right">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Sheep skin, treatment for finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_101">Sides,</a></td><td align="right">101</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_13">Signatures,</a></td><td align="right">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Silk end papers,</a></td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_110">Size for blocking,</a></td><td align="right">110</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_140">Size for old leather,</a></td><td align="right">140</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Size for for various materials,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Fig_55">Spring back,</a></td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_62">Sprinkled edges,</a></td><td align="right">62</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_86">Squares,</a></td><td align="right">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_153">Squares, tooling,</a></td><td align="right">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">Straw-boards,</a></td><td align="right">5, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_4">Tape, sewing,</a></td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_4">Thread, sewing,</a></td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_9">Tools,</a></td><td align="right">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_175">Tracings, mounting,</a></td><td align="right">175</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_71">Trichinal marbling,</a></td><td align="right">71</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_54">Trimming,</a></td><td align="right">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_70">Turkish marbling,</a></td><td align="right">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_96">Turning-in,</a></td><td align="right">96, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_164">Turning-in, on account books,</a></td><td align="right">164</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_49">Two-sheets-on sewing,</a></td><td align="right">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_123">Tying up,</a></td><td align="right">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_8">Varnish,</a></td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_176">Varnishing maps, &amp;c.,</a></td><td align="right">176</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_142">Vellum, treatment for finishing,</a></td><td align="right">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_6">Velvet,</a></td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Glair">White of egg,</a></td><td align="right"><i>see</i> Glair.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_4">Wire sewing and stapling,</a></td><td align="right">4, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_11">Wire sewing and stapling machines,</a></td><td align="right">11, <a href="#Page_35">35,</a> <a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#Page_5">Wooden boards,</a></td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 184]</span>
+<br>
+<br>
+<p class='padtop larger center'>ENGRAVING FOR ILLUSTRATION. </p>
+<p class='smaller center'>HISTORICAL AND PRACTICAL NOTES.</p>
+<p class='smaller center'>By JOSEPH KIRKBRIDE.</p>
+<p class='smaller center'>Crown 8vo. 72 pp. 2 Plates. 6 Illustrations. 1903.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+<p class='larger center'>Price 2s.6d.; Abroad 3s. Strictly Net.</p>
+<hr style="width: 95%;">
+<p class='larger center'>GLUE AND GLUE-TESTING.</p>
+<p class='larger center'>By SAMUEL RIDEAL, D.Sc. Lond.</p>
+<p class='smaller center'>14 Illustrations. 144 Pages. Demy 8vo. 1900.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+<p class='larger center'>Price 10s.6d.; India and British Colonies, 11s.;</p>
+<p class='larger center'>Other Countries, 12s. Strictly Net.</p>
+<hr style="width: 95%;">
+<p class='padtop larger center'>SEALING-WAXES, WAFERS, AND OTHER ADHESIVES</p>
+<p class='smaller center'>For the Household, Office, Workshop, and Factory.</p>
+<p class='smaller center'>By&nbsp; H. C. STANDAGE.</p>
+<p class='smaller center'>Crown 8vo.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 96 Pages.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1902.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+<p class='larger center'>Price 5s.; India and British Colonies, 5s.6d.;</p>
+<p class='larger center'>Other Countries, 6s. Strictly Net.</p>
+<hr style="width: 45%;">
+<p class='smaller center'>THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS, OR POST FREE OF</p>
+<p class='larger center'>SCOTT, GREENWOOD &amp; CO., <br>19 Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 185]</span>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Bookbinding, by Paul Adam
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,6241 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Bookbinding, by Paul Adam
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Practical Bookbinding
+
+Author: Paul Adam
+
+Translator: Thos. E. Maw
+
+Release Date: March 31, 2012 [EBook #39318]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Hazel Batey and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING.
+
+  Illustration
+
+  PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING
+
+  BY PAUL ADAM,
+
+  _Director of the Duesseldorf Technical School of Artistic and
+  Practical Bookbinding._
+
+  TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY THOS. E. MAW,
+  LIBRARIAN KING'S LYNN PUBLIC LIBRARY.
+
+  WITH 127 ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  LONDON SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO. 19 LUDGATE HILL, E.C.
+
+  NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. 23 MURRAY STREET 1903
+
+  (_The sole right of translation into English rests with Scott,
+  Greenwood & Co._)
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+
+  METRIC AND BRITISH SYSTEMS COMPARED                            vi.
+
+  PREFACE                                                       vii.
+
+  Introductory Remarks on Working Methods and Materials           1
+
+      _A._--Materials for Sewing and Pasting                      1
+
+      _B._--Materials for Covering the Book                       4
+
+      _C._--Materials for Decorating and Finishing                7
+
+      _D._--Tools                                                 9
+
+
+  PART I.
+
+  FORWARDING.
+
+  Chapter   I.--General Preparatory Work                          13
+
+  Chapter  II.--Sewing                                            40
+
+  Chapter III.--Forwarding: Cutting, Rounding, and Backing        54
+
+  Chapter  IV.--Forwarding: Decoration, of Edges and Headbanding  62
+
+  Chapter   V.--Boarding                                          85
+
+
+  PART II.
+
+  FINISHING.
+
+  The Book Cover                                                  93
+
+  Chapter   VI.--Making the Cover                                 95
+
+  Chapter  VII.--Work with the Blocking Press                    103
+
+  Chapter VIII.--Treatment of Sewn Books, Fastening in Covers,
+                 and Finishing Off                               119
+
+  Chapter   IX.--Hand Finishing                                  129
+
+  Chapter    X.--Account Books                                   157
+
+  Chapter   XI.--School Books, Mounting Maps, Drawings, &c.      169
+
+  Conclusion                                                     177
+
+  Index                                                          180
+
+
+
+
+List of Illustrations
+
+
+                                                                Page.
+  Fig. 1           Glue-pot for heating by petroleum.               3
+  Figs. 2 & 3      Holding whilst folding.                         15
+  Fig. 4           Lifting into the Press.                         19
+  Fig. 5           Open sheets laid out for gathering.             20
+  Fig. 6           Sections fanned out for drawing out.            22
+  Fig. 7           Sections fanned out for pasting.                23
+  Fig. 8           Suggestions for mounting on guards.             25
+  Figs. 9-13       Suggestions for folding plates and maps.        26
+  Fig. 14          Collating.                                      28
+  Fig. 15          Rolling machine.                                31
+  Fig. 16          Sewing frame.                                   33
+  Fig. 17          Arrangement on the sewing frame.                33
+  Fig. 18          Arrangement of threads in hollaendering.         35
+  Fig. 19          Small stapling machine for single sheets.       35
+  Fig. 20          Arrangement of staples in brochures.            35
+  Fig. 21          Arrangement of threads in old style of sewing.  41
+  Fig. 22          Arrangement of threads with double cords.       41
+  Fig. 23          Divisions for sawing-in.                        42
+  Fig. 24          Machine for sawing-in.                          43
+  Fig. 25          Suggestions for single and double end papers.   45
+  Fig. 26          Suggestion for double end paper with tear-off.  45
+  Fig. 27          Overcast end paper.                             46
+  Fig. 28          Loops for attaching to frame hooks.             47
+  Fig. 29          Loops for taking frame keys.                    47
+  Fig. 30          Suggestion for sewing on four cords.            48
+  Fig. 31          Suggestion for sewing on six cords.             48
+  Fig. 32          Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on.            50
+  Fig. 33          Thread-sewing machine.                          53
+  Fig. 34          Wire-sewing machine.                            53
+  Fig. 35          Rotary guillotine.                              54
+  Fig. 36          Lever guillotine.                               55
+  Fig. 37          Top edge arranged for when trimming
+                     three edges.                                  56
+  Fig. 38          Rounding the book.                              57
+  Fig. 39          Rounding machine.                               58
+  Fig. 40          Backing machine for small shops.                59
+  Fig. 41          Backing machine for large shops.                59
+  Fig. 42          Backed book arranged for trimming.              60
+  Fig. 43          Marbling outfit.                                66
+  Fig. 44          Suggestion for sprinkling colour.               68
+  Fig. 45          Comb marbling.                                  69
+  Fig. 46          Suggestion for curl marbling.                   69
+  Fig. 47          Bouquet or peacock marbling.                    70
+  Fig. 48          Eye marbling.                                   70
+  Figs. 49 & 50    Arrangement of flat and rounded edges.          74
+  Fig. 51          Top edge arranged for gilding.                  80
+  Fig. 52          Headband shears.                                82
+  Fig. 53          Headband working.                               83
+  Fig. 54          Board-cutting machine.                          86
+  Fig. 55          Spring back.                                    87
+  Fig. 56          Boarded book.                                   88
+  Fig. 57          Section of edge rule.                           89
+  Fig. 58          English style of lacing boards.                 90
+  Fig. 59          View of the most general styles of binding,
+                     showing the divisions of the work.  (Table)   94
+  Fig. 60          Corners cut for turning in.                     96
+  Fig. 61          Corners: Right and wrong.                       96
+  Fig. 62          Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife.          97
+  Fig. 63          Paring with French knife.                       99
+  Fig. 64          Blocking press.                                105
+  Fig. 65          Appliances used in blocking backs.             107
+  Fig. 66          Colour roller.                                 115
+  Fig. 67          Stuck-on gauges.                               118
+  Fig. 68          Turning in the head.                           121
+  Figs. 69 & 70    The head: good and bad.                        122
+  Fig. 71          The pasted-down book.                          125
+  Fig. 72          Treatment of tear-off.                         128
+  Figs. 73 & 74    Simple line designs.                           131
+  Fig. 75          Half-calf extra tooled in blind.               133
+  Fig. 76          Leather binding with simple design in blind.   134
+  Fig. 77          Simple gold tooling on sides.                  135
+  Fig. 78          Tooled cover.                                  136
+  Fig. 79          Specimen of tooling done in the Duesseldorf
+                     Technical School.                            137
+  Fig. 80          Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.          138
+  Fig. 81          Cover with laurel motive done in the
+                     Duesseldorf Technical School.                 139
+  Fig. 82          Leather binding with fern motive done in the
+                     Duesseldorf Technical School.                 143
+  Fig. 83          Simple gold tooling on squares.                144
+  Fig. 84          Design in gold for squares. Tools by,
+                     F. Clement Leipzig.                          145
+  Figs. 85 & 86    Two designs in gold for squares.               145
+  Figs. 87,        Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T =
+    88, & 89         Sub Title.                                   147
+  Fig. 90          Type-holder with centre position.              148
+  Figs. 91, 92,    Four backs tooled in the Duesseldorf Technical
+    93, & 94         School.                                      149
+  Fig. 95          Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical
+                     School.                                      150
+  Figs. 96 & 97    Two richly decorated insides done in the
+                     Duesseldorf Technical School.                 150
+  Figs. 98, 99,    Four richly tooled backs
+    100 & 102                                                     151
+  Fig. 102         Rich half-calf extra binding.                  152
+  Figs. 103 & 104  Tooling on heads.                              153
+  Figs. 105,       Tooling on the edges of the boards.
+    106, & 107                                                    154
+  Fig. 108         Motive executed in the Duesseldorf Technical
+                     School.                                      154
+  Fig. 109         Case to protect book.                          155
+  Fig. 110         Cut-out case.                                  155
+  Fig. 111         Book cover.                                    155
+  Fig. 112         Cover in case form.                            155
+  Figs. 113 & 114  End papers for account books.                  158
+  Fig. 115         Boards cut out at head.                        160
+  Fig. 116         Suggestion for account book back.
+                     _K_ Pared edge; _T_ Part to be pasted.       161
+  Fig. 117         Suggestion for account book back.              162
+  Fig. 118         Boarded account book.                          163
+  Fig. 119         To show where turn-in is to be cut.            164
+  Fig. 120         Hand numbering machine.                        165
+  Fig. 121         Suggestion for back of guard book.             166
+  Fig. 122         Pattern for dust flaps. (Leinwand =
+                     Linen hinge.)                                167
+  Fig. 123         Eyeleting machine.                             172
+  Figs. 124-127    Showing stages of pinning down for stretching. 173
+
+
+
+
+THE METRIC AND BRITISH SYSTEMS.
+
+TABLE OF COMPARISON.
+
+
+    +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+
+    |Metres.|Decimetres.|Centimetres.|Millimetres.|Inches.|
+    +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+
+    | .001  |   .01     |     .1     |     1      |  .039 |
+    | .002  |   .02     |     .2     |     2      |  .079 |
+    | .003  |   .03     |     .3     |     3      |  .118 |
+    | .004  |   .04     |     .4     |     4      |  .157 |
+    | .005  |   .05     |     .5     |     5      |  .197 |
+    | .006  |   .06     |     .6     |     6      |  .236 |
+    | .007  |   .07     |     .7     |     7      |  .276 |
+    | .008  |   .08     |     .8     |     8      |  .315 |
+    | .009  |   .09     |     .9     |     9      |  .354 |
+    | .01   |   .1      |    1       |    10      |  .394 |
+    | .02   |   .2      |    2       |    20      |  .787 |
+    | .03   |   .3      |    3       |    30      | 1.181 |
+    | .04   |   .4      |    4       |    40      | 1.575 |
+    | .05   |   .5      |    5       |    50      | 1.968 |
+    | .06   |   .6      |    6       |    60      | 2.362 |
+    | .07   |   .7      |    7       |    70      | 2.756 |
+    | .08   |   .8      |    8       |    80      | 3.150 |
+    | .09   |   .9      |    9       |    90      | 3.543 |
+    | .1    |  1        |   10       |   100      | 3.94  |
+    | .2    |  2        |   20       |   200      | 7.87  |
+    | .3    |  3        |   30       |   300      |11.81  |
+    | .4    |  4        |   40       |   400      |15.75  |
+    | .5    |  5        |   50       |   500      |19.69  |
+    | .6    |  6        |   60       |   600      |23.62  |
+    | .7    |  7        |   70       |   700      |27.56  |
+    | .8    |  8        |   80       |   800      |31.50  |
+    | .9    |  9        |   90       |   900      |35.43  |
+    | 1     | 10        |  100       |  1000      |39.37  |
+    +-------+-----------+------------+------------+-------+
+
+  WEIGHT.
+                    1 gramme      = 15.44 grains.
+                   28-1/3 grammes = 1 oz. avoird.
+     1 kilogramme  = 1000 grammes = 2.20 lb. avoird.
+
+  LENGTH.
+
+  1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39.37 inches. Roughly speaking, 1 metre =
+  a yard and a tenth.  1 centimetre = two-fifths of an inch. 1 kilometre =
+  1000 metres = five-eighths of a mile.
+
+  VOLUME.
+
+  1 cubic metre = 1000 litres = 35.32 cubic feet.
+  1 litre = 1000 cubic centimetres = .2202 gall.
+
+  HEAT.
+
+  1 calorie = 3.96 British thermal units.
+
+
+COMPARISON BETWEEN FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE THERMOMETERS.
+
+    +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+    |  C.|   F.| C. |  F. | C. |  F. |  C. |  F. |  C. |  F.|
+    +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+    |-25 |-13  |  5 | 41  | 25 |  77 |  65 | 149 | 105 | 221|
+    |-20 | -4  |  8 | 46.4| 30 |  86 |  70 | 158 | 110 | 230|
+    |-17 |  1.4| 10 | 50  | 35 |  95 |  75 | 167 | 115 | 239|
+    |-15 |  5  | 12 | 53.6| 40 | 104 |  80 | 176 | 120 | 248|
+    |-10 | 14  | 15 | 59  | 45 | 113 |  85 | 185 | 125 | 257|
+    | -5 | 23  | 17 | 62.6| 50 | 122 |  90 | 194 | 130 | 266|
+    |  0 | 32  | 18 | 64.4| 55 | 131 |  95 | 203 | 135 | 275|
+    |  1 | 33.8| 20 | 68  | 60 | 140 | 100 | 212 | 140 | 284|
+    +----+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+
+To Convert:--
+Degrees C. to Degrees F., multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32.
+Degrees F. to Degrees C., first subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and
+divide by 9.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Nowadays the bookbinder does not bind only those books given to him for
+this purpose as was the case in former years, for present conditions
+necessitate his undertaking many kinds of work which have little or
+nothing to do with the binding of books, particularly such as are
+connected with the making or finishing of printed matter and paper
+goods, or where pasting, gumming, and glueing are required, which, in
+their turn, are connected with paper and cardboard.
+
+On the other hand, some branches of the bookbinder's craft have now
+become quite distinct, and have developed into special industries, and
+have so enlarged and extended that even their particular methods of
+working and technical terms have quite changed. Cardboard goods, leather
+goods, photo albums, maps, and even account-books are treated by
+particular firms as specialities.
+
+As we must now keep within clearly defined limits, we shall treat here
+only the work of bookbinding proper as far as it is concerned with the
+making of the book for publisher, bookseller, and buyer, and also the
+making of account-books, whilst the other work given to the binder,
+commonly called "fancy goods," must be excluded. _Editions de luxe_,
+charters, illuminated addresses, &c., are likewise excluded, as they are
+quite apart from the ordinary work of the bookbinder, belonging solely
+to artistic bookbinding. When any such work is required the intelligent
+worker will not be at a loss; besides, he will derive ample assistance
+from the illustrations for this class of work.
+
+The parts of this little book have been so arranged as to correspond to
+our present-day division of work: preparatory work, forwarding,
+covering, and finishing. In England and France the various processes
+have for a long time been similarly termed, and although in Germany we
+could not follow their lead without any deviation, because our method of
+work and division of labour are so different, yet the basis of this
+arrangement has been used in this book.
+
+Every text-book has some drawback, the greatest of these being that a
+practical demonstration on the subject is more helpful than the most
+detailed written description, and yet even in the latter a text-book is
+limited. For the rest, I have tried to be as brief and clear as ever
+possible and to avoid faults which I have discovered in my former
+writings of a similar kind.
+
+                                               Paul Adam.
+
+_Duesseldorf, Germany, 1898._
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON WORKING METHODS AND MATERIALS.
+
+
+The bookbinder works with quite a large variety of materials which are
+mostly what we might call "half-made," that is to say, such materials as
+have already undergone some hand or machine process in order to make
+them fit for the work of the bookbinder. This is not the place to go
+into details as to the source of all these materials or the manner of
+their production: that may be seen in special treatises.
+
+We separate into various groups the materials we use.
+
+
+A.--MATERIALS FOR SEWING AND PASTING.
+
+The bookbinder himself prepares his paste from wheaten flour and boiling
+water. Put in a shallow vessel, by preference a stone or enamelled metal
+wash-basin, the quantity of flour required for about eight days, pour in
+as much water as will make a mixture by soaking and stirring of the
+consistency of honey. Add to it boiling water, first slowly, then
+quicker, stirring all the time. It does not do to add the water too
+quickly, as that is likely to make the paste knotty or lumpy, because it
+cannot be stirred quickly enough and the gluten develops unequally. If
+added too slowly, the starch is not heated quickly enough and does not
+thicken sufficiently or not quickly enough, and the paste turns out too
+thin.
+
+Good paste, when cold, should not be stiff like pudding, but should be
+easily worked with a brush. In order to prevent a skin forming on the
+top whilst cooling, pour over the paste as much cold water as will cover
+the surface immediately after the mixing with the boiling water; this
+water is afterwards poured off.
+
+In summer when the paste is made, and whilst still hot, add a few drops
+of turpentine and mix well; this preserves the paste and keeps off
+insects. The addition of alum to the paste tends to make it watery,
+besides having no preservative properties.
+
+If required, paste may be thinned by adding a little warm water. Potato
+flour is often used fraudulently for making paste, but this should only
+be taken when it is possible to use it up quickly, and not for books,
+but only for fancy goods, as this flour does not possess great adhesive
+power and is unsuitable for leather.
+
+Glue is made from the well-known cake glue. The best English glue,
+although the dearest, is the cheapest to use. Good glue whilst soaking
+in water should still retain a certain degree of stickiness, must not be
+greasy, and should have no disagreeable smell. Glue if weighed before
+soaking and afterwards dried and again weighed should give no
+perceptible loss in weight. Good glue should not have a disagreeable
+taste, and above all should not betray the presence of salt.
+
+To obtain the proper consistency in glue for bookbinding, a quantity of
+the cakes is taken and sufficient water poured over it to cover well.
+The next day the gelatinous mass is taken out of the water and dissolved
+in the glue-pot by placing the softened glue in a pot standing in an
+outer vessel containing boiling water. Glue should never be boiled nor
+placed directly on the fire, as that causes the loss of the best part of
+its adhesive property.
+
+Glue and paste are generally worked with a brush. For paste a large
+hollow brush is used; this holds a large quantity of paste and covers a
+large surface. For glue a closer brush with a metal fastening is used,
+because here the hairs cannot be secured with pitch owing to the brush
+being constantly exposed to heat. On the paste brush there must be
+neither ring nor anything else of iron, as this used in paste would
+cause rust, and rust would give iron stains to light-coloured leathers.
+For the same reason no enamelled vessel should be used for paste after
+the enamel has once been chipped or worn.
+
+Laying the glue or paste on a material is called glueing or pasting. A
+zinc-plate is the most serviceable pasting-board, as the paste is easily
+washed off. Glue can be scraped or soaked off and used again.
+Pasting-boards of mill-board or paper are hardly to be recommended, as
+their use entails a considerable loss of material.
+
+Of other adhesive substances, dextrine, gum, gelatine, and isinglass are
+used for certain purposes. The two former are always used cold, the two
+latter warm. The former are dissolved in cold water; gelatine and
+isinglass are soaked exactly like glue, the water poured off, and then
+melted in the glue-pot.
+
+Dextrine and gum are used by the bookbinder almost exclusively for
+pasting larger surfaces, and for laying on these substances a broad thin
+brush fastened with a metal strip is used.
+
+Fig. 1.--Glue-pot for heating by petroleum.
+
+To heat the glue and to maintain the heat a glue-heating apparatus is
+used. The upper part always consists of the glue-pot. The better kinds
+are made of copper or brass wrought or moulded in one piece. For the
+sake of convenience a partition is let into this pot so that thick and
+thin glue may be ready for use at the same time. The glue is not heated
+directly over the flame, but by hot water; to do this the glue-pot is
+placed within a larger vessel containing water, the glue-pot at the same
+time closely fitting to the outer rim of the larger vessel. This
+contrivance is placed over a petroleum, gas, or spirit lamp, which gives
+the required heat. In some districts where brown coal is found, it is
+heated on a specially made contrivance with the brown coal waste.
+
+The latest method of heating is by electricity. The apparatus necessary
+for this has been put on the market by the firm W. Leo, Stuttgart.
+
+The majority of bookbinderies, large and small, use a strong linen
+hemp-spun thread for sewing, the strength of which depends upon the
+weight and size of the sheets to be sewn. As it is inconvenient to be
+obliged to be continually beginning a new thread or knotting, most
+bookbinders use a reel of thread. The so-called Marschall thread is the
+best.
+
+The book is held together by cords, for which the so-called sewing cord
+is used. There are now special kinds made for the purposes of the
+bookbinder; these are lightly twisted out of a long fibrous material so
+that afterwards they can be easily undone for the subsequent necessary
+scraping out. Certain kinds of bindings are sewn upon tapes; strong raw
+linen tape of 1-1-1/2 cm. being the material most generally used.
+
+For machine sewing, thread is generally used. Tinned iron wire, ready
+wound on spools, is also used. It is made in various sizes and used
+according to the weight of the sheets.
+
+
+B.--MATERIAL FOR COVERING THE BOOK.
+
+The real protection against outward injury to the book lies in the
+cover, the inside of which consists of boards more or less strong. Of
+the kinds on the market the bookbinder uses grey-board, which is made
+from waste paper and rags. It is grey, very tough, and flexible, but
+dearer than other raw materials.
+
+Straw-boards made from straw and waste paper are cheaper, but less
+flexible, and are easily broken. They take a very high polish under the
+calendering machine and become very hard, and are therefore very
+suitable for some work if flexibility is not essential. They are
+generally used in all cloth binding.
+
+So-called leather-boards are unsuitable, for, in spite of great
+toughness and pliancy, they are certain to cockle and always remain
+spongy. Wooden-boards are unsuitable for bookbinding on account of their
+small resistance, but are indispensable for fancy goods and portfolios,
+as they can be so nicely cut and are less liable to subsequent cockling
+than any other kind.
+
+Besides these, yellow and blue boards are made. These are coloured to
+suit and serve quite special purposes, mostly fancy goods; but they also
+are not used in bookbinding, on account of their high price.
+
+The thinnest boards are known as middles. This is a strong whitish
+material made entirely from waste-paper. It is used for lining backs,
+limp bindings, and in all cases where flexibility, together with
+durability, is required.
+
+In finished work--books, fancy goods, maps--the boards are never left
+exposed to view, but are covered with paper, cloth, or leather. For the
+inner side of the cover of the book white or coloured paper is
+frequently used, note-paper of the smallest size being more rarely used.
+
+All marbled or pressed papers are made in one standard size. Besides the
+end papers for inside of books, a figured paper has of late been made
+known as "litho printed" for fancy goods. This has been put on the
+market in the most varied kinds, and also with cloth-like impressions,
+under the names damask, brocade, and Leipzig end papers. The use of this
+paper has of late been almost discontinued. The dearest are those
+printed with designs in gold.
+
+Cloth is more durable than paper, calico being mostly used. This is made
+in all colours and designs, and was formerly imported from England; but
+to-day German manufacturers produce a really good article. Plain linen
+cloth, black, green, or grey, sail cloth, buckram, mole-skin, and beaver
+are used in the making of account-books.
+
+Silk is used in the bookbindery as end papers in extra work, and also
+for fancy goods and for lining boxes. The lower grades are seldom used,
+the better qualities being mostly taken.
+
+To-day velvet is still used in the bindery, chiefly as a covering for
+portfolios, albums, and addresses, and except for metal clasps remains
+without ornamentation.
+
+The bookbinder's best material, to which is given the choicest, most
+expensive, and most painstaking decoration, is leather in its various
+kinds. Sheep-skin, undyed or split and dyed, serves for school books and
+other cheap work. Goat-skin and morocco are better kinds, the latter
+being preferable both as regards price and quality.
+
+Morocco is made from the skin of the goat. Morocco, Levant morocco, and
+maroquin all denote the same kind. It is a strong, coarse-grained
+leather imported from the Levant, very tough and durable.
+
+Cape morocco, also called _maroquin ecrase_, is similar to this. This
+has a very large, artificially smooth-pressed grain, and hitherto has
+been higher in price than all other leathers.
+
+Calf (matt or polished) is quite smooth and is only used for fine work.
+Cowhide is similar to this, but of coarser texture, and is only used
+for leather goods, portfolios, and albums; for other work in the bindery
+it is not easily enough worked.
+
+Celluloid is one of the latest materials used for covers. There is
+evidently a good opening for this in the wholesale manufacturies,
+stamped goods, and small fancy goods; whilst on the other hand it is of
+little value to the smaller shops, as it requires machinery for gilding.
+
+
+C.--MATERIALS FOR DECORATING AND FINISHING.
+
+For the decoration of our work, either during or after production, there
+will be a large variety of materials used. Colours are used for the
+decoration of the cut edges and the cut heads of books. The smooth,
+uniformly coloured edges are made by a body colour--carmine, scarlet,
+chrome yellow, silk green, indigo blue. All these colours must be very
+finely ground before using; the addition of a little paste or dissolved
+gelatine makes the colour adhere.
+
+For marbling the edges Halfer's marbling colours are now exclusively
+used; these are to be had ready for use.
+
+Amongst the binders' materials gold takes quite an important place.
+Leaf-gold in various colours is supplied either by the gold-beater or
+the wholesale dealer. The colour most used at the present time is orange
+gold, which is about the same in tint as our current gold coinage. Red
+gold is somewhat deeper in tone. Green gold and lemon gold are
+considerably altered by an alloy of silver, and are sold cheaper.
+Besides gold there are still other leaf-metals used, principally
+aluminium as a substitute for silver. The latter is still being used,
+but its unfortunate property of turning black will by-and-by drive it
+from our workshops. Bronze-leaf is also used for very small jobs in
+large quantities--makers' names on hat linings, ties, &c. Like silver,
+it is also liable to rapid oxidization, which takes place with especial
+rapidity upon leather.
+
+Gold leaf is made in various sizes. The larger size, about 85 mm., is
+the best to use, whilst the very small sizes are better suited for some
+work.
+
+As a ground-work for gilt edges, the so-called _poliment_ (Armenian
+bole) is now generally used. This is cleaned bole, made into a paste,
+and applied in a solution not too thin.
+
+To make the gold stick to the surface, glair or white of egg is used in
+all cases. It must be properly diluted according to whether it is to be
+used for gilt edges or hand-tooling.
+
+Finished work, especially smooth surfaces, is improved by the
+application of varnish, and is at the same time rendered damp-proof. The
+so-called bookbinder's or leather varnish is used for leather, cloth, or
+pressed dark papers. Map varnish, also sold as photographer's varnish,
+is suitable for light articles, maps, placards, &c. At present, spirit
+varnish with its quick drying and high surface is almost exclusively
+used for this purpose. Turpentine varnishes are no longer generally used
+in bookbinderies; in colour printing copal and amber varnishes are used.
+
+The ready-made headband is an article specially manufactured for the
+bookbinder. It is fastened on the book in suitable lengths to cover the
+place where the body and back of books join at head and tail. These
+headbands are to be had in the most varied styles, according to price
+and requirement. For ordinary work a cheap cotton is good enough, for
+fine half-calf bindings a silk headband is used if it is not intended to
+weave by hand a headband of silk thread for decoration known as a worked
+headband.
+
+Besides the headband, the book-marker is required, generally a silk
+braid in bright colours.
+
+It is often necessary to fix clasps to heavy books and also to the
+smaller hymn-books and prayer-books. These are made to suit all
+requirements and in various styles by firms making a speciality of this
+work. The stronger the metal used, the better the clasp and the easier
+for the worker to handle, as clasps of poorer quality are sometimes
+spoilt even whilst being fixed to the books.
+
+Imitation metal fastenings are necessary for certain purposes, although
+their use is now considerably limited. These are the stamped metal rims
+and corner pieces, which are indispensable in the manufacture of sample
+cases, &c. The fancy goods with their decorated borders which were so
+popular at one time have disappeared from the trade; on the other hand,
+there has been a demand for fancy coloured cords made by twisting cords
+together.
+
+
+D.--TOOLS.
+
+The bookbinder's workshop of to-day presents quite a different aspect
+from that of our forefathers, even if we go back only 50 years.
+
+The work benches as now found in small leather or jobbing shops stand
+near wide and lofty windows, each bench having a large drawer at each
+worker's place. Underneath, between the legs of the bench, there is a
+board fixed on supports upon which boxes containing colours or any other
+materials in use are placed within easy reach; and so that the board may
+not inconvenience the worker sitting in front of it, a semi-circular
+opening is cut at each worker's place. At each place there is a stool,
+somewhat higher than an ordinary chair, with three legs and a round flat
+seat. The legs are connected by strong bars for the worker to rest his
+feet upon. Shelves for the larger tools are conveniently arranged on the
+walls, so as not to be a hindrance, but still within easy reach. A few
+smaller chests with drawers are required for the storing of smaller
+tools and pieces of metal ornament, &c.
+
+A sufficient number of wooden presses, pressing boards in folio, quarto,
+and octavo, with the screw key, as well as the press jack belonging
+thereto, must be conveniently placed. The screw key is used when
+applying heavy pressure; the press jack serves as a support during
+certain work which necessitates laying the press on the edge of the
+bench. If we add a few larger and smaller cutting boards and a few
+sewing frames, we have completed the list of the large wooden tools.
+
+The bookbinder requires very many small tools, even if we take into
+account only those necessary for ordinary shop-work. Iron rules and
+squares in various sizes, shears, knives, compasses and spring dividers,
+folders, files, pincers and hammers of different sizes, chisels, gouges,
+and punches.
+
+The finisher's tools are: Gold cushion, gold knife, scraper, steel; and
+furthermore, for hand-tooling, letter-box, fillets, rolls, ornaments,
+and letters, all very fine and very dear tools, which must be kept in
+special cupboards and boxes so as to protect from possible injury. The
+higher the class of work done in the shop, the larger must be the stock
+of these tools.
+
+These are the tools for general work and which no shop could be without;
+but what makes our modern workshop so different in character from what
+it was in former times are the many mechanical contrivances without the
+aid of which practical and profitable work is now inconceivable.
+
+The most necessary iron ally of the bookbinder is the cutting machine,
+either with lever or wheel action, the former for light, the latter for
+heavy work. Machine manufacturers vie with one another in their efforts
+to introduce inventions and improvements; but to-day it would seem
+impossible to make a discovery likely to be of any importance.
+
+The second most necessary machine is for cutting boards. Those with a
+wooden pedestal and table are not so much to be recommended as those
+made entirely of iron.
+
+When gilding in large quantities has to be done, a blocking press is
+necessary; lever action is always to be preferred to the balance or
+rotary action, the latter being of advantage for blocking or relief
+work, and also for fancy paper work. Even the best blocking press has
+some drawback; to be of any value, it necessitates quite an arsenal of
+plates and dies for blocking, and also calls for the constant
+replenishing and renewing of the same.
+
+The standing press is used for heavy pressure applied to large batches
+of books. An iron press with two uprights will be found sufficient even
+for heavy use in most bookbinderies.
+
+The rounding machine is now out of use. The binder rounds the back of
+the book with a hammer, and then it is backed in a backing machine,
+which puts the ridges on both sides of the book. The latest machine now
+being used in some of our large binding shops for this purpose is called
+the rounding and backing machine, which completely rounds and backs the
+book.
+
+The rolling machine of to-day is lighter than were the first models of
+this machine; besides, the work is in many cases unnecessary, as modern
+printed books are generally carefully rolled before they leave the
+printer.
+
+The wire-stitching machine came into use in England about 20 years ago,
+but is now abandoned. The wire-stapling machine is used for pamphlets,
+school-books, &c. Eyeleting and round-cornering machines are smaller
+appliances, whilst the backing machine mentioned above is a very useful
+ally. Machines for scraping and paring leather are used least of all, as
+there is little for them to do in a small bookbindery.
+
+The foregoing is not an exhaustive list of our tools and machines, but
+we will bring to a close these introductory remarks on the usual
+appliances, as mention will be made of the others in their proper
+place.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+FORWARDING.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+GENERAL PREPARATORY WORK.
+
+
+Books reach the bookbinder either in the sheets just as they left the
+printing press or folded and stitched. This folding and stitching is, of
+course, part of the binder's work, so we will begin with the sheet as it
+left the press; this sheet must in the first place be folded ready for
+further manipulations.
+
+By folding we mean the arranging of the parts of a sheet in the order of
+succession required for reading. To facilitate this work the printer
+marks not only the page numbers on each sheet but also gives each sheet
+a number, these numbers being known as signatures. Every sheet is
+printed on both sides; the front side is called the first side, the
+other side the perfecting impression. Both sides are marked by a number
+or (more rarely) a letter. This mark stands at the right-hand side at
+foot of first page and is called the first signature; the second
+signature takes the same position on the second side of the sheet, that
+is, on page 3. Take any book haphazard and you will find the true
+signature on the first and the second signature on the perfecting
+impression, always in the same position. In order to show at a glance
+whether the signature is the first or the second, the compositor adds an
+asterisk, thus--
+
+    1       1*     or     A       A*
+
+  first   second        first   second  signature.
+
+We will see later that there is still another reason for the signature
+in the place mentioned.
+
+When the sheets are to be folded, all the sheets of an impression are
+laid one on top of the other and all lying the same way. The modern
+quick-printing presses gather the sheets automatically, so that a sheet
+is rarely laid the wrong way, excepting through want of care in looking
+over them, or in the knocking-up in the printing office a few sheets or
+a whole batch are thrown out of order. According as we are dealing with
+folio, 4to, or 8vo _format_ we must order the gathering of the sheets
+and, of course, the position of the signature. The commonest _format_ is
+8vo, that is to say, the size which gives eight printed leaves (or 16
+pages) to the sheet. At the same time, the method of folding this
+_format_ is the most economical and includes the others as well.
+
+When folding 8vo sheets the pile lies in front of the worker in such a
+way that all the second signatures lie uppermost at the foot of the
+outside right page and all the first signatures at the left on the under
+side of the sheet; or, in other words, all first-side leaves are turned
+face downward and perfecting impressions face upward.
+
+Printed sheets are never folded according to the edges of the paper, but
+always registered by the printed columns or the page numbers. The novice
+finds this by holding the sheet against the light, but the experienced
+worker is able to fold the sheet without so much as lifting it from the
+table.
+
+Figs. 2 and 3--Holding whilst folding.
+
+The manipulations for the folding of an 8vo sheet are as follows: The
+right hand holds the paper-folder and creases down the folds, the left
+gathers the sheets and moves them about aided by the right.
+
+1.--The right hand takes hold of the sheet at the right a little below
+the middle, brings it over to the left, when it is taken by the left
+hand and properly adjusted according to page numbers or corner of
+printed page (Fig. 2).
+
+2.--Crease with folder from bottom to top (the folder is held slanting
+to the crease, but the edge is used).
+
+3.--With the right hand the right and the left hand the left of the
+folded sheet are taken hold of at about the middle of the longer sides,
+nip together, make a short turn so that the left hand brings the sheet
+with its fore-edge to the folder's body, the left hand lets go, takes
+hold of the sheet between both ends at the middle fold, and adjusts
+pages and edge of fold alike (Fig. 3).
+
+4.--The right hand creases from top to bottom.
+
+5.--Left hand turns sheet over to other side, both hands take hold as
+before, nip together last fold, and adjust pages and fold.
+
+6.--Crease from top to bottom, laying aside sheet to left, fold lying to
+right.
+
+The whole process, which demands considerable dexterity, is only to be
+thoroughly learned by example and imitation; but study the
+illustrations, which are correctly drawn from life.
+
+This is the way sheets are folded when they come direct from the press;
+but if they had already been folded in quires, as is usually the case
+with school and hymn books, the sheets would simply be folded in the
+middle for convenience of storage and despatch.
+
+In this case the quires must first be opened, the crease taken out, and
+the sheets laid open. This work is called "breaking the backs." The
+unfolded sheets are folded in exactly the same manner, but before the
+last crease the sheet is turned, creased from bottom to top, and put
+aside in such a way that the sheet is turned over, that is face
+downwards. If this precaution is not observed, the folded sheets would
+afterwards be found in wrong order.
+
+At this point we might remark that the top, both of the book and the
+single page, is called the head, the bottom the tail. These commonly
+used terms will very frequently crop up.
+
+The folding of a 4to sheet is exactly the same, excepting that the last
+fold is omitted; the second signature lies face upwards at top on the
+right, the first signature lies downwards at top left hand.
+
+Folios are made up but rarely nowadays, except in artistic _editions de
+luxe_, Bibles, and missals; they are simply folded in the middle; the
+signatures appear as in 8vo _format_.
+
+Duodecimo _format_, that is, a sheet printed to make 12 pages on each
+side, is so printed that the third part of the sheet has to be cut off
+with a knife or machine. This work is done in various ways: the sheet
+may be folded without regard to the one-sided elongation; after folding
+the part is cut off with a knife or machine at the proper place and the
+detached portion inserted in the middle of the main section; the small
+section is therefore called "the inset." On the other hand, the inset
+may be cut off before folding and then separately folded and inserted.
+This is the more usual method.
+
+The cutting off of the inset prior to folding can be done in such a way
+with the modern quick-printing presses that the sheets are adjusted and
+cut off in the machine, or they may be folded in sections of six--eight
+sheets and cut open in the fold. For cutting open such sections a very
+sharp knife is required, either the usual bookbinder's knife or, better
+still, a somewhat longer two-edged paper-knife rounded at the end.
+
+Formerly, when printing was not done with such accuracy as now, the
+sheets were folded into sections by means of points. The compositor made
+a point on both sides between main sheet and inset in the furniture
+where the division had to be made; if pins were stuck into the table
+through these points each of the sheets following could be placed on the
+pins.
+
+Thus all sheets are brought to perfect register and may be cut with
+knife and rule or machine exactly through the points. This work is
+called "working to points."
+
+The detached portion appears as a long printed slip upon which are four
+pages or columns side by side. They are folded in a very simple manner.
+
+The page on the right is brought over to lie on the page to the left,
+registered, and creased in the middle, and the double sheet is now
+folded once more in exactly the same way.
+
+Inserting is done as follows: The sheets for insertion are placed to the
+right, the main sheets at the left side of them; the right hand takes a
+sheet to be inserted at about the middle of the fore-edge, the left hand
+at the same time taking a main sheet in such a way that thumb, middle,
+and index finger open the sheet about the middle of the upper fold, and
+raise it so that the right hand can easily slip in the insertion.
+Whilst doing this, the left hand slips to the back, where the forefinger
+manages the adjustment of the sheet inserted. The insertion is nicely
+fitted into the back and must lie close to it. This work is also very
+easy, but it also is much easier to learn it from example and imitation
+than by written instruction.
+
+If the insets were already arranged before folding, that is to say, had
+the sheets been arranged according to page numbers immediately after
+printing as before mentioned, strict attention must be given to see that
+each main sheet has its insertion, otherwise the page sequence would be
+thrown into confusion in binding.
+
+In folding, every fold must be sharply creased down; but a firmness of
+body in the sheets, a smoothness of the single sheet, and a proper
+sharpness in each separate fold can only be obtained by pressing the
+sheets. For this purpose the sheets must first be "knocked up," that is,
+they must first be adjusted at head and back by knocking them together
+on the table. Sheets are never pressed without being counted at the same
+time; this is done both for convenience in pressing and for checking the
+work.
+
+Knocking-up can only be done upon a firm level surface; the beginner had
+better not take too many sheets at one time, say from 20 to 25: these
+are moved to and fro between the palms of the hands so that the back
+fold and upper fold are worked in turn, and at these sides the sheets
+are brought into line.
+
+Knocking-up proceeds quickly if the sheets are handled lightly and
+freely. The single batches thus levelled are brought together and they
+in turn knocked up in the same way. Care must be taken that single
+sheets do not hang back, _i.e._, that all sheets come up to the levelled
+edge.
+
+The knocked-up sheets are counted off--thin paper in hundreds, thick
+paper in fifties. To do this any big lot is taken hold of with the
+right hand--one soon learns to judge the quantity to be taken by the
+fingers--by the fore-edge, giving the hand a turn so as to bring the
+backs uppermost, when the sheets will fan out at the back and thus make
+the counting an easy matter. The left hand counts--pardon, the head
+counts, but the left hand tells off the sheets in such a way that the
+middle and index fingers are alternately inserted in 4, 8, 12, 16, &c.,
+whilst counting 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., and at the same time throwing over the
+sheets held. Every 25th lot of four sheets gives 100, and, of course,
+any other number you please can be counted in the same manner. Each lot
+is once more knocked up, placed in piles crosswise, and afterwards
+pressed.
+
+Fig. 4--Lifting into the Press.
+
+The contrivance for pressing most generally used nowadays is still the
+bookbinder's little wooden hand-press, with wooden, or perhaps iron,
+screws; the former are lighter and handier, the latter heavier but more
+durable and therefore of advantage where heavy pressure is demanded.
+Each lot is placed between pressing-boards; these are about 1-1/2 cm.
+thick and vary in length and width according to the sheets or books to
+be pressed. According to the grain of the wood we speak of long and
+cross boards. On top of the upper and underneath the lower batch we
+place a cross board; it does not matter which way the grain runs in the
+other boards used. This precaution is taken to obviate the probable
+breakage when the cheeks of the press run parallel with the grain of the
+two outer pressing-boards.
+
+The pile of sheets between the pressing-boards is so placed that the
+nuts of the press are at first raised as high as the pile about to be
+pressed requires, then the press is put on the table to the right in
+front of the worker so that the head of one screw at the front touches
+the table edge. The pile is drawn on to the front edge of the table, the
+left hand slips underneath, and the chin presses on top. Whilst raising
+the upper cheek of the press with the right hand, the pile is inserted
+between the opened cheeks, is adjusted, and the press screwed up, first
+by the hand screws and then by the screw key used for this purpose. To
+do this the press with its high cheeks is held firmly between the legs
+and the nuts screwed up with the screw key as tightly as ever possible.
+
+At this stage we might mention a work which is very frequently done in
+the printery, but seldom in the bindery: this is the so-called gathering
+before folding. This work, as we have already mentioned, is done so that
+printed matter for publication can be properly stored or prepared for
+sending away.
+
+Fig. 5--Open sheets laid out for gathering.
+
+The sheets are taken just as they left the press and piled up side by
+side in a row in order of number on a long table, each pile of sheets in
+exactly the same position as the others and just as they would be placed
+for folding; that is to say, for 8vos the first signature at the bottom
+left-hand side underneath, the second signature being at the bottom
+right-hand side on the top.
+
+Generally the work is gathered in batches of 5-6 sheets. The sheets in
+question are then laid out (see Fig. 5).
+
+The worker takes a board the required size, upon which he places the
+sheets when gathered; he begins at No. 1 pile, takes off the top sheet,
+being very careful not to take two, lays it upon the board, and so he
+goes the length of the table, taking the top sheet from each pile. He
+lays the pile of gathered sheets on the end of the table or another
+table standing behind. They are there received by another worker,
+knocked up, and folded in the middle. If only one worker can be spared
+for the job, the gathered sections are placed to one side, but each is
+laid crosswise over the other so that they are easily picked up
+afterwards for knocking up and folding. If the work has more than five
+or six sections, the separately gathered sections must be afterwards
+again gathered in the same manner. Perhaps there may be placed in the
+last section parts of a sheet--the title, addenda, corrigenda,
+frontispiece, diagrams, &c. The treatment of these will be dealt with
+presently (pp. 22-24).
+
+Sheets so gathered must be afterwards opened out for folding in the
+bindery. The section is opened, the crease well pressed out, and the
+whole smoothed down quite flat, care being taken that all sheets lie the
+same way, the opened sections lying side by side according to the
+signatures.
+
+
+Before the folded sheets are arranged or gathered, there is frequently
+still some pasting to be done. The title, for instance, is seldom
+printed with the first sheet, but is usually made up with the preface,
+contents, &c., after printing the last page, often as part of the last
+sheet.
+
+On this account the last sheet must be examined before folding to see
+how it is composed. If it happens that the sheet is to be exactly
+halved, it is best to cut the sheet in the middle and fold each half
+separately. It is even worth while cutting the sheet into quarters if
+the sheets can be pinned on, because it is then possible to fold the cut
+sheets in lots of five or six and to draw out each one singly, as it is
+commonly called "pulling out."
+
+This pulling out is very easy work; each folded batch is separately
+opened in the middle, fanned out with a paper folder so that each sheet
+stands back about 1/2-1 cm. behind the other, and the batch folded
+together again; it would then appear as in Fig. 6.
+
+Fig. 6--Sections fanned out for drawing out.
+
+Take the batch lightly between the finger and the thumb of the left
+hand, and with the right draw off the sheets from the top one by one,
+knock them up, and firmly press down the back fold.
+
+Every part of a sheet which after folding makes less than four pages
+(equal to two leaves) must be pasted on. To do this the parts to be
+pasted are fanned out from the back with the pasting side uppermost,
+that is to say, the sheets are fanned out with the folder in the same
+way as described for "pulling out," until they lie like steps or stairs,
+each sheet displaying an edge of about 3 mm. In this manner all sheets
+so lie upon each other that each is about 3 mm. behind the one under it.
+
+The narrow margin is pasted; to avoid pasting more than the proper
+margin of the top sheet, a piece of waste paper should be laid on top at
+the right distance from the edge. Each leaf has thus a narrow pasted
+edge by which it is secured to the main sheet. So that the pasted edges
+do not stick together whilst each sheet is being fixed in its place,
+which, of course, takes time, the batch is taken between the fingers
+immediately after pasting, and by a few light movements the sheets are
+worked a little further apart.
+
+Fig. 7--Sections fanned out for pasting.
+
+Take the batch at A between the finger and thumb of the right hand, at B
+in the same way with the left; the upper leaves slip gently backwards if
+the right hand bends the batch lightly upwards so that the sheets are
+pushed to B, the left first allows the sheets to slip back and then
+holds them firmly so that the right may repeat this movement several
+times.
+
+The batch is then so placed across the table that it lies to the right
+of the worker with the pasted edge away from him, whilst the pile of
+sheets to which the parts are to be pasted lies to the left, also with
+the back edge away from him. Leaf after leaf is taken up, carefully
+adjusted to back and upper fold, and pasted on to the main section and
+lightly rubbed down to right and left with the finger-tips, putting
+aside to the left each sheet as finished.
+
+Under certain conditions, the pasting on of a so-called correction may
+be a very disagreeable task. If errors have been made in composing or
+printing a page which escaped notice and correction at the proper time,
+a revised page is printed, and this must be inserted by the binder in
+the place of the faulty one. This inserting is done after the folding;
+the faulty leaf is so cut off that a narrow margin is left in the back
+to which the rectified leaf is pasted.
+
+If maps or plans accompany the work these also must be inserted; thin
+sheets need simply be pasted on the back edge like other sheets and
+fixed in their right place; but thick paper is not easily pasted on and,
+besides, would always pull away the next leaf. It is therefore joined to
+a narrow strip of paper about 1 cm. in width and this is pasted and
+fixed in the back. If several plates have to be inserted at the same
+place, or to be fixed at the end of the book, they are joined together
+in sections of suitable thickness. For this, thin paper is hinged in the
+back of the book, that is, the two plates are pasted over each other
+after pasting a narrow margin of about 3 mm. When dry, the double leaf
+so obtained is folded together in the middle of the pasted little guard.
+As this process lessens the leaf which has the back-fold by as much as
+is pasted to the other, the latter is cut down by 3 mm. beforehand.
+
+If there are many such plates to be joined together, they are made up in
+sections of 4 or 6 according to the thickness of the paper, and every 2
+or 3 cut down according to circumstances, and the same number left the
+full size. When all have been properly cut, the edges are fanned out and
+pasted. Then as many as make up a section are taken up and fanned out a
+little further, the pasted edge of No. 1 is laid on 6, 2 on 5, 3 on 4,
+and the batch set aside on the left and the same process gone through
+with the next lot. When dry, the plates thus guarded together are
+creased together at the back.
+
+Plates on thick paper must likewise be mounted on strips of paper. These
+are cut from thin, strong note-paper and are so arranged that their
+thickness in the back is the same as the thickness of the plates. It is
+well to select a paper which when double is as thick as the plates. In
+case the plates are extra thick, the guard is made four-fold. The width
+of the guard must be measured to correspond. If a guard of double
+thickness only is required for filling up, it is cut twice the width of
+the guard and 3 mm. added for pasting on the plate. This gives 2 x 1 cm.
++ 3 mm. = 23 mm. If a guard of four-fold thickness is necessary, the
+result is 4 x 1 cm. + 3 mm. = 43 mm. The plates are fanned out narrowly
+with the back edge uppermost, pasted, and each plate affixed to one of
+the made guards. This work is called "mounting on guards."
+
+When the pasted plates are dry they are folded in the back on the
+following plan according to whether the guard must be two-fold or
+three-fold.
+
+Fig. 8--Suggestions for mounting on guards.
+
+Thus the folded guard completely fills out the space in the back of the
+book. Besides, two, three, or more plates can easily be made into a
+section if the little guards are made up within each other.
+
+Despite this levelling work, the pasted part will still be noticeable;
+the thoroughly dried sections are therefore taken in batches of four or
+five, knocked up at the back edge, and the thick part carefully hammered
+on a stone or iron bed.
+
+Just as paper strips have been used in this work, linen can be used for
+guarding atlases and mounting large maps which are intended for long and
+constant use. To fill out the back, cardboard or thick drawing-paper the
+thickness of the plates (or, if anything, a little less) is used. Of
+this material strips are cut 1 cm. in width and same length as the
+height of the work, cutting a strip for each plate of course. Besides
+these strips, cut some soft white calico into strips 3 cm. in width.
+These are pasted, laid quite straight upon a clean board, two strips of
+paper are placed in the centre side by side on top of the pasted strip,
+and at right and left of each a map is hinged on, the first face
+downwards, the second face upwards. When dry, the section so made is
+creased in the middle, knocked down with the hammer, and pressed for a
+time. By this method two plates are hinged on each guard; by the other
+each plate had its own guard.
+
+Many books are issued with plates larger than the _format_ of the book
+itself; they must be brought to the right size by folding, but in such a
+way that the folded plate is secure from injury during any subsequent
+trimming.
+
+Before making a single fold in the plate, the worker should clearly see
+his way through his scheme for folding, so as to bring the plate to the
+size required with the smallest possible number of creases. Plates which
+are slightly wider and longer than the size of the book are easily made
+to fit if they are folded once or, if necessary, twice across the
+middle, pasting the edge of one fold on a guard and then fixing in its
+place in the book.
+
+Figs. 9-13--Suggestions for folding plates and maps.
+
+If this will not do, the plate must first be folded up from the bottom
+edge far enough to escape damage in trimming, and then the long side
+must be similarly folded. Larger plates must take more folds, always
+working on the principle that the length of the book should first be
+obtained in the best possible way, and afterwards the width is taken as
+the guide in making the folds.
+
+In doing this the plate must be folded now to the front, then to the
+back, so that on drawing it out it opens in a zigzag fashion. For the
+sake of clearness we give illustrations showing the most general methods
+of folding. The part marked A is secured in its place in the book by
+mounting on a paper guard; but one may, by cutting out the map properly,
+leave a small margin which will serve as a guard as shown in Figs. 10,
+12, and 13.
+
+In all cases, however, it is essential that the thickness of the folded
+plates should be equalised by inserting guards in the back of the book.
+
+Formerly, when several plates were inserted one after the other, it was
+customary to place them in such a way that they were trimmed at top and
+bottom alternately; now they are placed so that they are all trimmed at
+the top edge: this is much better, because it keeps the top edge smooth
+and close, thereby keeping out dust and insects. The accompanying
+sketches are based upon this principle.
+
+The so-called two-page illustrations in periodicals must be treated in
+the same way. These are only possible in the middle of a section, where
+they would be caught into the back and injured if the following
+precaution were not observed. Such illustrations are taken out, the back
+edge pasted, and then placed in the back so as to adhere to the
+following sheets, projecting about 1/2 cm.
+
+
+The printed sheets thus treated must now be collected by the same
+process--that is if they have not been gathered in open sheets in the
+printery--into volumes; this work is generally known as gathering after
+folding.
+
+As in gathering open sheets, the piles of folded sheets are placed side
+by side; but as these take up so much less room than the open sheets, in
+most cases the whole work may be laid out at one time.
+
+Clear the longest table procurable, which if not long enough must be
+extended by the addition of small tables, trestles, &c., upon which are
+laid the batches of sheets in fifties, and, beginning with the last
+sheet, work up the row until the title page is reached and the gathering
+ended. Starting from the left, the gathered sheets are placed to the
+right; after the last sheet, _i.e._, the title page, there should be
+sufficient room for placing the gathered sheets and also, if possible,
+for knocking up and collating, that is, checking the sequence of the
+sheets. The gatherer begins with the last sheet on the left, draws the
+top sheet with the right hand on to the left hand held flat to receive
+it, and so goes along the row, drawing from each pile one sheet, which
+drops into its place on top of the preceding one in the left hand. This
+work can be carried on simultaneously by several persons following each
+other, but there must be a sufficient number of persons stationed at the
+end ready to knock up and collate the gathered sheets. In order to
+simplify this work and to enable one to take up the completed gathering
+at the title page, the pile containing the title page sheet is plainly
+marked across the back with a blue or red pencil, so that one sees on
+the back of each single sheet a coloured mark easily seen in the
+gathered and knocked-up sheets.
+
+Fig. 14--Collating.
+
+To collate a book it is taken in both hands. Taking a good hold of it by
+the right hand at the top edge, it is lightly held by the left at the
+bottom towards the back. Now make a turn downwards with the right so
+that the whole pack of sheets springs upwards and spreads out at the
+back like a fan, and the controlling left hand lets them go one at a
+time, whilst checking the sequence of the signatures, that is to say,
+the sheets must be checked to see whether instead of the right
+signatures following in due order there is not a second signature or
+perhaps none at all. In such a case the sheet must be taken out and
+re-folded.
+
+It may be well to refer now to another more detailed branch of this work
+which is necessary for certain purposes. If books which have already
+been used or bound are sent for re-binding it would be very unsafe to
+rely upon the pages being in proper order, especially if they have been
+much torn and have to be mended. Very frequently the leaves of a section
+have been misplaced. In such cases the book is laid flat upon the table,
+the head lying to the top, and, beginning at the title, leaf by leaf is
+lifted with the point of a knife after the way some ignorant persons
+have of using a moistened finger. The knife point is not inserted under
+the leaf lying uppermost but is lightly placed at the top of the leaf
+near the page number and the leaf pushed up from the side so that the
+left index finger takes it as it separates from the succeeding leaf
+whilst the eye scans the page numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. Also with other
+things that do not admit of any other method of collating, _e.g._,
+ledgers, documents, &c., this is the only possible way of doing it.
+
+Nowadays, paper received in the printery has been so well calendered
+beforehand--that is to say, polished between rollers--and after printing
+the sheets are once more so well rolled that the gathered sheets may at
+once be prepared for sewing. Old paper, however, must be beaten or
+rolled to make it firm and solid. The former work will be completely
+forgotten at no very distant date, as the younger generation of masters
+and men show less and less inclination to learn it. For beating, a stone
+about the height of a low table, and a surface about the size of a sheet
+may be used, or a cast-iron plate about 6 cm. in thickness embedded in a
+block of wood the same height as the stone. Upon this firm base--which,
+of course, must stand on the ground floor or in the cellar--the book, or
+section of it if too thick, is beaten with a short-handled iron hammer,
+the face of which measures about 100 sq. cm. All corners and edges are
+well rounded off, and the face is slightly convex. The handle must be
+short, not above 12 cm. long, cut oval, and just thick enough to be well
+grasped. The hole in the hammer is made so that the handle drops a
+little at the (outer) end.
+
+In beating, the sections should be held by the left hand after being
+knocked up. In order to prevent injury to the paper, the sections are
+placed between pieces of waste paper of same size, also a mill-board or
+piece of waste paper to size is laid upon the beating stone. The right
+hand wields the hammer, which must strike the sections (or book) fairly
+and squarely with the full face. The beating is begun at the edge, and
+blow after blow is given in gradually lessening circles until the centre
+is reached, the left hand, of course, keeping up the necessary motion of
+the sections. It requires considerable practice to do this without
+shifting the sections, but if this happens they must again be knocked
+up.
+
+The experienced workman knows by the touch where the book has been
+beaten much or little and works accordingly. The main thing in this, as
+in all other work, is that the book should be again pressed for some
+time--for a night at the least. The beaten volumes are divided into
+several lots or sections about a finger thick, and pressing-boards
+placed between them. If any sections show folds or creases even after
+pressing, they must be once more beaten and pressed.
+
+Fig. 15--Rolling machine.
+
+The work of beating, as already said, has been almost entirely
+superseded by the rolling machine. In treatises by theorists, one finds
+over and over again that books are not so well bound nowadays owing to
+the "practice of hand-beating being discontinued." This opinion is
+absurd, and arises from a very superficial technical knowledge and
+wholly imperfect acquaintance with the requirements of our craft. A
+machine-rolled or unbeaten book is always much better than one
+imperfectly beaten, for here nothing is demanded but sheer force, and
+that is always exercised with better results by a machine. As already
+pointed out, our modern printed books do not require any such work;
+besides, the so-called surface papers and printed illustrations prohibit
+both beating and rolling, as such work would destroy the high surface of
+the paper. Old books, on the contrary, where the paper is unsized,
+spongy, and swollen, require some such work, as pressing alone, even for
+days, has not the required effect.
+
+In beating, the work should be divided into sections or lots of 15 to 20
+sheets; they need not be counted, they are measured by the eye. For
+rolling, however, the sheets must be counted off exactly, from 8 to 12;
+they are knocked up and placed between zinc plates of same size and
+passed through the rollers obliquely, the upper back corner being first
+inserted. It is well to introduce the second lot before the first has
+quite passed through the rollers; this not only saves the rollers but
+avoids the extra pressure on the lower corner when a section leaves the
+rollers. For this reason it is advisable to insert the lots right and
+left alternately. The first lot rolled should be examined to test the
+amount of pressure, and at first a lighter pressure should be applied to
+avoid risk of injury.
+
+
+We have now come to the end of the processes through which a book has to
+pass before it is actually made up into book form. Before we take up
+this work there is incidental work to be mentioned which comes before
+the work of binding proper. This is the stitching and treatment of
+stitched or bound books for binding and the necessary repairs thereto.
+
+The stitched or brochured book is no true book form; it is nothing more
+than the gathered sheets of a work in a temporary form, handier and more
+convenient, and therefore more saleable.
+
+To prevent leaves from falling out in the event of their being cut open,
+they are lightly stitched together--_hollaendert_.
+
+How did the name originate? It is difficult to say. Perhaps books
+stitched in this manner were first brought out in Holland.
+
+With this method of sewing, the sheet only gets one short thread in the
+middle; but as the sewing of each sheet separately would entail a
+considerable loss of time, that old contrivance of the bookbinder for
+most kinds of sewing work, the sewing frame, is here made use of. A base
+or bed has on each front corner a perpendicular screw, upon which is
+placed a movable cross-bar with a slit. This bar is regulated by two
+screws; lay cords are fastened to hooks which are slipped through the
+slits, the other ends being knotted to metal keys fixed under the base.
+A narrow movable bar, bevelled to the front of the bed, holds these keys
+when the lay cords are tightened.
+
+Fig. 16--Sewing frame.
+
+There are no lay cords on the sewing frame for the work of Hollaendering
+as in other kinds of sewing, but two strips of zinc plate about 1 to
+1-1/2 cm. in width are fastened so that at the top they are attached to
+the hooks and at the bottom are held with a pin. The lot to be sewn is
+placed rather slant-wise on the bed of the frame to the left, the back
+turned outwards, the head to the sewer, all sheets, therefore, facing
+away from the worker.
+
+Fig. 17--Arrangement on the sewing frame.
+
+The left hand takes the upper sheet with thumb and middle finger, so
+that the forefinger at once falls in the middle of the sheet, turning
+the sheet so that the head _A_ lies to the left and face upwards as
+shown in the illustration; zinc strips are stretched at the points _x_.
+The left hand is introduced into the opened sheets from behind to take
+the needle when pushed in and then to draw it out again; the right hand
+inserts the needle from outside, and also draws out the needle inserted
+from inside by the left hand.
+
+All kinds of sewing on the sewing frame are divided between both hands
+in the same way.
+
+The threaded needle is now introduced into the sheets to the right of
+the right strip at the back fold and again brought out to the right of
+the left strip, the sheets being meanwhile held open by the left hand.
+The thread is drawn out, except for a short end, the second sheet taken
+and laid open, and the needle is now introduced to the left of the left
+strip and brought out to the left of the right strip; and so on, each
+time introducing the needle from the right side to the right of the
+strip and from the left side to the left of the strip, drawing out
+accordingly. The thread is only to be seen on the outside of the strips.
+
+The so-called English darning-needle--a long needle with a long eye--is
+used by the bookbinder. A special thread is made on purpose, the highest
+number being used for hollaendering.
+
+When the sewing frame is packed so full that the sheets can no longer be
+kept properly squared, a sharp knife is taken and the threads cut off
+along the metal strips, and the sheets are then removed from the sewing
+frame. Every sheet is now independent of the other, and has a thread in
+the middle, of which a little may be seen at each needle-hole. These
+ends are afterwards pasted up in the work to follow. It is clear from
+this method of sewing that it is not necessary to tie a second thread on
+to the first when finished, but simply to begin with a new thread,
+letting the ends always project a little.
+
+This method is the more recent and practical. It admits of one kind of
+sheet being sewn immediately after folding: nay, more: whilst one folder
+is still busy folding, another may begin to hollaender. It is not till
+afterwards that the sheets are gathered. Gathered sheets are sewn in the
+same way, and are more easily knocked up than when sewn on cords and the
+threads left uncut after the old style instead of on metal bands. In
+hollaendert sheets the threads lie as shown in Fig. 18.
+
+Fig. 18--Arrangement of threads in hollaendering.
+
+Fig. 19--Small stapling machine for single sheets.
+
+Lately, in brochuring, the sheets are not hollaendert, but sewn with wire
+on the machine. This is a very good method when the finest possible
+staple closing from the outside is used. For this work a small machine
+is used, similar to those used for wiring documents, copy-books, and
+single sheets, which have an automatic wire-drawing action.
+
+The batch of sheets is here arranged face upwards to the right of the
+worker. The right hand takes the sheet by the head, opening it at the
+same time with the forefinger, and inserts it in the groove of the
+machine, which is at the same moment set in motion. With each different
+sheet the position of the staple must be changed so that all do not
+stand the same height, as it would cause the paper to be cut through in
+pressing.
+
+The accompanying sketch shows the arrangement of the collected
+brochures.
+
+Fig. 20--Arrangement of staples in brochures.
+
+It is barbarous to sew more tightly with wire, for in the necessary
+pulling to pieces to bring them to their former state for binding they
+are sure to be more or less damaged. Sewing with a large machine using
+strips of gauze cannot be recommended.
+
+The further treatment of hollaendert or wire-sewn sheets is dealt with
+towards the end of the chapter.
+
+
+Most of the books given to the small binder do not come to him fresh
+from the printer, but sewn, used or unused, cut open, or as published.
+The sheets for binding must, as far as possible, be restored to the
+condition they were in before they were sewn. It is absolutely necessary
+that they should be made into loose single sheets. This work is called
+"pulling to pieces." The outer cover is torn off, the thread or wire
+inside the sheet removed, and the sheets very carefully separated one by
+one. When they are all pulled to pieces they are pushed open a little at
+the back, first to one side, then to the other, and scraped with a knife
+from top to bottom so as to remove all dirt, glue, &c., adhering.
+
+Where the sheets had been cut open and the inner leaves worked out of
+place, they must be well pushed into the back again. The sheet is
+lightly held half-open in the left hand, and the leaves are knocked into
+the back with a long folder or knife.
+
+If sheets are found badly folded they must now be properly re-folded.
+Any torn places must be repaired. A special chapter ought really to be
+devoted to this, for repairing and restoring is an art in itself. Here,
+only the most necessary work can be mentioned.
+
+There are three different kinds of tears: tears in the print, in the
+margin, and in the back. The first may be torn with slanting edges; in
+such a case, both edges must be carefully pasted, fitted to each other,
+a piece of paper laid over and under, and then well rubbed down. If the
+tear has not slanting edges, but is clean cut, it is always best to
+paste the edges likewise and to join the pieces by overlapping very
+slightly. It always looks better than the patching with strips of
+paper--a method adopted even by good workmen. The pasting on of pieces
+of tissue paper is to be condemned.
+
+In cases of repairs like the foregoing, a piece of unpasted tissue paper
+may be laid on the repaired place and rubbed down, so that any paste
+exuding cannot do harm, and besides, it will serve to strengthen a weak
+place. It may be used, however, only on condition that the tint is
+exactly the same as that of the other paper.
+
+Tears at the margin are repaired by pasting on strips of the same paper
+or of a kind as near as possible in texture and tint. To make the mend
+less noticeable, the paper should be torn beforehand, that is to say, by
+tearing one side of the paper the edge is less sharply defined and
+appears more like part of the sheet and is hardly perceptible.
+
+Tears in the back (if outside) leaves are mended by pasting them down on
+to the following inner leaf; afterwards the glue makes this place still
+stronger. If the middle leaf is likewise torn, a narrow strip is pasted
+into the back. This may be cut true by the straight-edge if a very
+narrow strip suffices, but if the tear is here also sideways a piece of
+torn paper must be pasted on. If there are backs, torn off corners, or
+the like to be put in, a suitable paper is selected, a piece a little
+larger than the missing piece cut off the edge of the damaged leaf
+neatly pasted, the patch laid on slightly overlapping, and well rubbed
+down under a piece of waste paper. When thoroughly dry, the loose edges
+of the patch should be carefully torn off so as to slope and taper off
+nicely.
+
+When all parts are repaired and the sheets again in proper order, the
+book is pressed for a while between boards.
+
+It is thus that good books are treated, and although it would be better
+to return books of no special value as not worth the labour, still it
+does happen that cheap books--mostly school books and periodicals--have
+to be repaired. A quick way of getting through such work is as
+follows:--
+
+A larger piece of similar paper is well pasted and laid upon a clean
+cutting-board, and from this piece strips of the required width are cut,
+laid down in their place, and cut to length with the shears, and well
+rubbed down under waste paper. If the pasted piece becomes dry before it
+is used it must be coated again.
+
+All repaired sheets must be laid between mill-boards to dry.
+
+Worn and damaged periodicals are repaired in the same way. Generally the
+numbers are curled towards the fore-edge. Before commencing to pull to
+pieces they should be rolled towards the back, especially close to the
+back, to straighten them. The leaves must all be well pushed into the
+back, turned down corners (so-called dogs' ears) must be turned up, and
+two-page illustrations must be pasted away from the back. There are
+generally single or double leaves at the end of each copy or
+sheet--these must be pasted on. This work is not done singly, but the
+whole volume is at once laid open from back to front for pasting. All
+parts of the sheets to be pasted are placed at the front edge of the
+table, the edges fanned out, the other sheets wherein they are to be
+placed being meanwhile pushed further back so that they are not touched
+during pasting. The fanned-out sheets are pasted and each is rubbed down
+on to the sheet following.
+
+It has already been said that in pulling to pieces the wire or thread
+sewing must be removed; this is not always easy. To begin with, the
+wires must be first bent upwards; if they are firmly glued to the
+outside of the back, the latter has first to be softened by smearing it
+very thickly with paste, and after leaving it some little time the glue
+may be scraped off and the wires loosened. Not until then can the wires
+inside the sheets be removed and the sheets separated. The backs of
+books that have been bound are softened in the same way.
+
+Even to-day--Heaven help us!--well-got-up books, even illustrated works,
+are sewn through sideways with coarse wire staples. Great care must be
+used in removing these and in separating the sheets, so that the
+bookbinder may at least try to undo the harm caused by barbarous methods
+practised either in thoughtlessness or ignorance.
+
+It sometimes happens that the back of a book is so bad that it is
+necessary to cut it clean off. The leaves are then made up into sections
+of 6 to 8, levelled at the back, and overcast with a fine needle and
+fine thread. This work can be done quicker with an ordinary
+sewing-machine, adjusting it for the longest stitch.
+
+New works consisting of thin single sheets are done in the same way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SEWING.
+
+
+Modern books are fastened together by sewing; as a rule thread is used,
+and always in sewing good books. Thread sewing is very much better than
+wire stitching. In the first place, thread has not the disadvantage of
+rusting, to which wire is always subject; secondly, thread does not
+break the paper in the back, as so frequently happens when cheap paper
+containing much wood fibre is wire-stitched. The greatest advantage of
+thread sewing over wire lies in the flexibility of the spun thread; with
+sharp pressure it lies flat in the sheet, whilst wire does not give at
+all. Besides, it is flexible the whole length, and this adds greatly to
+the life of the book.
+
+All thread sewing is now done by machinery and is really satisfactory.
+Only the very smallest job shops sew their books by hand.
+
+The principle of sewing is to fasten each sheet to several cords or
+bands by means of a long thread running right along the inside of the
+sheet. These cords give the book its hold to the cover; therefore the
+more cords used, the more firmly is the book secured to its cover. There
+are now two methods of fastening the sheets on the cords; first, there
+is the older method of passing the thread along and out of the sheet,
+around the cord, and again into the sheet, and repeating the same
+movement at the next band.
+
+Fig. 21--Arrangement of threads in old style of sewing.
+
+Nowadays, this method is almost entirely discarded. When for special
+reasons, or on account of its greater strength, it is desired to imitate
+the old method, the sewing is done on double cords; that is to say, for
+every cord two cords are stretched alongside each other and regarded as
+one. This sewing is more tedious, as the thread must take up each cord
+as shown in Fig. 22.
+
+Fig. 22--Arrangement of threads with double cords.
+
+These somewhat elaborate modes of sewing have been simplified in recent
+years by making saw-cuts in the back, in which the cords are laid. By
+this means the sewing thread never actually passes out of the sheet, but
+is drawn behind the cord lying in the saw-cut and thus holds it.
+
+That is why we "saw-in" our books. The sawing-in is done with a broad
+saw; the so-called "tenon saw" being the one most generally used. The
+saw-cut must correspond exactly to the thickness of the cord to be used,
+should be less deep than wide, and should not take up too much glue when
+glueing up, as this might easily turn brittle. By inclining the saw to
+right and left alternately during sawing, the resulting cut will be
+something like this -----/__\-----; this is the best and most usual
+form. The common practice of widening the cut by means of a coarse file
+gives a triangular cut like this -----\/----- which is objectionable, as
+the groove gets filled with glue, thus rendering the thread liable to
+break. As many cuts must be made in the book as there are cords to be
+used, besides the so-called kettle stitch at head and tail by which the
+thread is passed from one sheet to the other. Dividing the back for
+sawing-in is done by marking off 1 cm. from the head and twice as much
+from the tail and dividing the rest into equal portions with the
+dividers. An octavo should never be sewn on less than four cords, and a
+folio on six. If obliged to use less through low prices, then three must
+be taken as the minimum number, and that only in exceptional cases. If
+the books are very small--as, for instance, prayer-books and hymn-books
+less than 7 cm. in height--it may then be permissible to sew on two
+cords. The division for the different sizes for sawing-in is made as
+shown in Fig. 23.
+
+Fig. 23--Divisions for sawing-in.
+
+The saw-cuts at the kettle stitch are less deep and quite narrow; they
+only mark the place where the thread is to pass in and out.
+
+It may be wondered why the distances between the cords, when using four
+or six, are unequal; the reason for this will be explained when we come
+to the sewing of such sizes.
+
+In sawing-in, the batch to be sawn is knocked up head and back and put
+between two boards--if the volumes are thin, several may be laid
+together--so that the back projects about 1/2 cm. beyond the edges of
+the boards. The first and last sheet of each volume have previously been
+laid aside, as these, with one exception, are not sawn-in.
+
+Books and boards are now clamped in a small hand-press, which is screwed
+up by hand only. For convenience of working, the press with the screws
+is laid flat upon the table, so that the nuts are against the table
+edge. The press is propped up at the back by the press-jack. The
+divisions for the cords are marked on the back with a lead pencil after
+measuring with the dividers, and the cuts made according to the
+markings. If several volumes of the same size are to be sawn-in, the top
+sheet of the first batch sawn is used as a guide for marking the others,
+thus saving the work of measuring each one with the dividers. Where much
+sawing-in is done, a sawing-in machine is employed. The sheets are
+placed, backs downwards, in a moveable box, which is led over
+a system of circular saws.
+
+Fig. 24--Machine for sawing-in.
+
+After the work of sawing-in, the first and last sheets are replaced, the
+volumes again collated, and the end papers put in place; the sheets are
+now ready for sewing.
+
+End papers are the blank leaves which the binder places at the beginning
+and end of a book. They vary according to the style of the book. Every
+end paper consists of a "fly leaf" (this lies over the title page in the
+book), the "paste-down," and in most cases of a "tear-off." For the
+stronger end papers and in half-leather bindings a cloth joint is used.
+Whilst dealing with these end papers, we must not forget the narrow
+guard; it is worked on the prepared end paper (as will be shown later)
+by folding over, and serves to enclose the title or end page with which
+it is sewn. The words joint, guard, and swell may here be more clearly
+explained, as they are used very frequently in the bindery. In the first
+place, we call the part where back and cover are joined by a sort of
+hinge "the joint," also strips of leather, cloth, &c., used for making
+this part are called "joints"; secondly, the slightly raised part of the
+back, caused by pressing or sewing, is shortly called "the swell"; and
+any strips of linen or paper fastened into the back of the book for
+hingeing maps, plates, &c., are called "guards."
+
+For use as end papers, a paper must be selected which suits in quality
+and tone the printed paper. Nothing shows lack of taste more than the
+use of a blue end paper with a paper of yellow tone. For both back and
+front a double sheet is necessary and is cut the required size. A paper
+guard, about the width of three fingers, is made from a piece of stout
+waste paper and pasted on a narrow margin at the back of the double
+leaf, in order to protect it in the joint and also for fastening on the
+cover. If there are single leaves to be used up, two of these might be
+pasted to each other narrowly on the back and upon this the guard; this
+is the so-called double end paper.
+
+If instead of these only a single leaf is taken, then we have a single
+end paper; this is used for cheap school books and generally at the back
+only.
+
+The accompanying sketch shows both these end papers with the small guard
+already folded. This folding of the guard is not very easy for the
+beginner. The leaf is placed face upwards, square in front of the
+worker, and a very narrow margin at the back edge bent upwards about 3
+mm. in width, the forefinger and thumb of both hands shaping and bending
+the guard, working from the centre to the ends.
+
+Fig. 25--Suggestions for single and double end papers.
+
+Should the sheet from which the end papers are made be a little wider
+than required for the end papers, the tear-off may be folded at the same
+time; with double end papers, the leaf which is to be pasted down later
+is inserted between fly leaf and tear-off, and therefore is called
+"insertion."
+
+Fig. 26--Suggestion for double end paper with tear-off.
+
+If the end papers are to have a cloth joint it must be placed within the
+two leaves or, better, pasted in face inwards. Double cloth joints are
+no longer used in printed books, as they make the end papers too thick,
+and in the subsequent rounding the first sheet is apt to break. The
+joint is here also folded on as before.
+
+Formerly, when linen joints were used, the end paper was simply made by
+inserting the strip of cloth and hingeing on the outside leaf about 1
+cm. from the fold. This, however, has many disadvantages, therefore the
+end papers are made as explained, then carefully tearing off the outside
+leaf in the back in pasting down and cutting it as required it is pasted
+on to the board, as will be more fully explained under "pasting down."
+
+The French paste a double leaf before the first and last sheets after
+having pasted a covering leaf around these.
+
+For extra work, the following style of end paper is the best; it is used
+in England for all high-class work, and in Germany also it has been
+adopted by all the first-class firms.
+
+The end papers consist merely of single leaves the size of the sheet.
+These are fanned out at the back to make a small margin and pasted. The
+first leaf is then pasted down on the end-paper sheet so as to leave a
+margin of about 2 mm.; the second leaf is pasted level with the back.
+All end papers are proceeded with in the same way.
+
+If these are to have a cloth joint it must be pasted on the outside also
+only 2 mm. wide. When the end papers are dry, they must be stitched down
+along the back, 2 mm. from the edge, with the sewing-machine adjusted to
+its longest stitch. It is unnecessary to knot the ends of the
+thread--they are cut clean off. When there is no sewing-machine, the
+volumes must be overcast by hand. This overcasting is done by inserting
+a fine needle near the back of the knocked-up sheets from above and
+drawing the thread almost quite through, the second and following
+stitches all being made from above. The thread would then appear as in
+Fig. 27.
+
+Fig. 27--Overcast end paper.
+
+These end papers are made up before sawing-in and sawn in with the book,
+and when it is not possible to stitch them with the machine they must be
+sawn in before overcasting, or the sawing would cut the threads.
+
+Now for the sewing. We stretch the requisite number of cords, which are
+secured to the hooks at the top by a simple loop which is easily undone
+as soon as it is taken off the hook. At the bottom a double loop is
+made, through which a key is passed so as to hold the stretched cord
+underneath the moveable board.
+
+Fig. 28--Loops for attaching to frame hooks.
+
+Fig. 29--Loops for taking frame keys.
+
+The length of the cords is regulated by the thickness of each book, and
+as it is possible to sew a number of books at the same time when they
+are all sewn the same way, the length of the cords is regulated
+accordingly; it also depends upon the kind of books to be sewn. Cheap
+books get 3 cm. for every cord on each side more than the thickness of
+the book, that is 6 cm. plus the thickness of the book. School books get
+still shorter cords. For extra work, where the ends of the cords are
+laced through the boards, one should allow double. It is easy to
+calculate the length required for a single volume, but rather difficult
+for a batch of books varying in thickness; it is then better to measure.
+For example, suppose we have to sew a batch of six books, all differing
+in thickness but measuring in all 25 cm. high; we would allow for cheap
+work: 6 vols., each taking 6 cm. extra lengths = 36 cm. + total height,
+25 cm., making 61 cm.; for extra work: 6 vols., each taking 12 cm. extra
+lengths = 72 cm. + 25 total height = 97 cm. length of cord.
+
+The collated batch of books is laid on the bed of the sewing frame as in
+hollaendering (Fig. 17), the sheets taken hold of in the same way, and
+laid open for sewing. Of course the cords are adjusted to the saw-cuts,
+and it is better to push them more to the right than to the left, so as
+to give the left arm full play. Here also, as in hollaendering, the left
+hand does the work behind the cords inside the sheet, whilst the right
+inserts the needle from the front and again brings it out.
+
+Fig. 30--Suggestion for sewing on four cords.
+
+Fig. 31--Suggestion for sewing on six cords.
+
+The first and last sheets--called end sheets--are sewn a little
+differently from the others, as the needle is here not inserted and
+drawn out exactly at the cord but at a little distance from it so as to
+allow them to be adjusted afterwards. Sewing[1] with us is invariably
+begun with the last sheet at the right, working on to the left, and
+reversing the process with the following sheet, and so to the end, so
+that the thread one way passes from and the other to the worker. With
+all other sheets, excepting the end sections, the thread is inserted at
+the kettle stitch and brought out at the next cord, round the cord, and
+inserted at the same hole, to be brought out again at the next cord, and
+so on till the thread comes out at the other kettle stitch and is
+inserted in the next sheet to go through the same process. With books
+sewn on four cords, it is allowable to skip one of the two middle cords
+alternately, so that each time the thread passes on to the right the
+right middle cord is skipped, and the left is skipped when the thread
+passes in the opposite direction. This facilitates and shortens the work
+without taking away from durability or quality. Books on 6 cords may be
+treated in the same way; the right and left of each pair of cords may
+be skipped alternately. It was for this reason that we paid attention to
+the distribution of the cords on the back when sawing-in (see Fig. 23).
+
+Footnote 1: In England, France, and part of Holland, sewing is begun
+with the title page.
+
+This method of sewing is known as "end to end," in contradistinction to
+"two sheets on." The former is the better method and is essential for
+valuable books, unless the sections are exceptionally thin. The latter
+is "good enough" (_i.e._, not worth much) for the trade and cheap work.
+As far as strength is concerned it would do, but a book sewn in this way
+does not swell sufficiently in the back to make a proper backing groove.
+
+It is an old rule in bookbinding that each sheet after it has been sewn
+should be pressed down with the needle so that the backs of the sheets
+lie close and firm together; this is called "pressing down." Should
+this, however, not be sufficient, the back must be knocked firm from
+time to time with the dividers or a rule.
+
+The first and last sheets must be fastened to the one following and
+preceding respectively; but in the course of the sewing this enchaining
+to the preceding sheets--the so-called kettle stitch--is only necessary
+in the case of very thick sections. It is done by passing the needle
+through and bringing it out between the two preceding sheets at each end
+and thus chaining on the then top sheet to the one lying underneath.
+
+The two-sheets-on sewing is done by laying open the second sheet on top
+of the first after making the first stitch in the first sheet and then
+passing the needle through the second sheet, then the third stitch is
+made in the first sheet and the fourth in the second sheet. One length
+of thread is used for the two sheets. Where the sheets have not been cut
+open, the left hand lightly takes the sheets in turn where they have
+been cut, a folder is placed in the middle and is shifted from one to
+the other as required. The process is the same whether there are only
+three cords or even six.
+
+Fig. 32--Suggestion for sewing two-sheets-on.
+
+It has already been said that several volumes of the same kind can be
+sewn on top of each other on the sewing frame; in this case the volumes
+must be separated from each other after the sewing is completed.
+
+The free ends of the cords are untwisted so that they may be scraped
+open more easily afterwards, and then one volume after another is drawn
+along the cords to the ends until they are twice the length of the free
+cords away from each other, which, of course, will vary according to the
+subsequent style of binding.
+
+So then we allow 6 and 12 cm. according to circumstances; but this
+length is curtailed to 3 cm. in the cheap school books, because the
+shorter the cords the quicker they are scraped open. Every cord is cut
+in the middle between the books with the shears, thus separating each
+volume from the other. The strands of the loose ends of the cords are
+now completely untwisted by inserting the cord in the groove of the
+scraper and repeatedly rubbing it up or down with the back of a knife.
+
+After scraping the cords, the end-paper guards are always pasted down;
+the book is laid with the back to the front edge of the table, the first
+sheet with the end paper is turned downwards, the end-paper guard is
+bent up a little so that it stands away from the sheet, paste it neatly
+and carefully, close the section and adjust it so that the sheet in the
+end paper is level with the others, but not the end paper itself--this
+must project a little at the back. When only one finger is required for
+pasting it must be the middle finger, so that the forefinger is free
+from paste and ready to take hold of anything.
+
+If stitched end papers are used for extra work, a sheet of paper is laid
+on the second sheet so as to leave 3 mm. free, paste this strip and
+bring down upon it the once-more closed first sheet, taking care to
+square it at the outside with the body of the book.
+
+The folder should be brought down firmly over the outer sheets after
+pasting down so as to ensure the paste sticking.
+
+If the pasting-on of the joints is not properly carried out, the result
+will be that in most cases the book opens badly when finished.
+
+In half-cloth or other simple bindings, the scraped cords may be pasted
+on at once. Bring a little paste (about the size of a pea) upon the
+point of a folder under the slightly raised cord, pasting the latter
+evenly and neatly upon the paste-down of the end paper so that the
+pasted-down strands of the cord lie like a feather. To prevent the
+pasted cords sticking to each other, the books are piled up back and
+front until dry. In extra work, the cords--which are also longer--must
+by no means be pasted on; a piece of waste paper or a cover the size of
+the sheet is pasted outside the sections under the cords, level with the
+backs. This serves partly as a protection for the end papers and partly
+to make a good joint when covering.
+
+The volumes so prepared are now glued up. They must be knocked up at
+head and back; they are then placed with the backs outwards on a board
+specially kept for this work--the glueing board--with the fore-edge of
+which they must be exactly level. On top must be placed a smaller board
+or a heavy piece of iron, likewise level with the book. The book backs
+are thus held firmly between the glueing boards, the left hand holding
+them firmly by pressing on the top, the right hand glueing the backs
+with very hot but not thick glue; rub this well in with the point of a
+hammer, and after having firmly squeezed the glue out of the brush, use
+it for taking off the surplus glue from the backs. An old trick of the
+bookbinder is to heat the hammer for this work. It is a bad plan to give
+the back a thick coating of glue and then allow it to dry, because it at
+once becomes brittle. Some experienced workers place the books between
+the glueing boards so as to leave about 1 cm. projecting, as it is
+thought that the glue thereby gets better between the sheets; but this
+method is out of date and is of no special value. It is, however, of
+great importance that the glued book should be laid so that it is truly
+square at the head as well as the back, for if this is neglected no
+amount of trouble will save the book from being cut out of shape.
+
+Before passing on to the next chapter we have still to mention the
+mechanical contrivances for sewing. For small as well as large
+binderies, machines have been invented both for wire stitching and
+thread sewing; the former are more generally used, the latter not being
+sufficiently perfect in construction to meet all demands for speed and
+accuracy. Then also the method of fastening the book in the cover
+differs so much from the traditional method that we must still hope for
+improvement. When this comes to pass, this machine will then supersede
+the wire-stitching machine, with all its unavoidable disadvantages. The
+working of the machines is so simple that they are attended to almost
+entirely by girls. We refrain from giving descriptions of mechanical
+appliances within the limits of a short treatise, as any day may bring
+forth new inventions which are certain to effect great changes in this
+department. Besides these costly appliances there are also simpler
+sewing-machines for small shops, by which books are sewn in very simple
+fashion over steel needles, by means of which the cords may afterwards
+be drawn along.
+
+Fig. 33--Thread-sewing machine.
+
+Fig. 34--Wire-sewing machine.
+
+As these machines demand very large saw-cuts, they can only be used for
+trade work and any cheap lines. We only mention them to draw attention
+to their existence. Unprinted paper and music are sewn on tapes as well
+as cords. This method of sewing is described in Chapter IX.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+CUTTING, ROUNDING, BACKING.
+
+Fig. 35--Rotary guillotine.
+
+
+In nearly all cases the book is trimmed after glueing, and it is best to
+do this before the glue is quite set. Even in extra work books are
+nowadays trimmed on three sides, that is, before the book is rounded
+each side is cut one after the other. This method has the advantage that
+it is quicker, that the top and bottom corners of the round fore-edge
+cannot break, and that it is easy to treat every side during the process
+of marbling.
+
+Of course, in the best work the book is first cut at the front, rounded,
+pressed, and then cut top and bottom.
+
+Under present conditions we might completely abandon the old method of
+trimming with the plough, for, although this is a most valuable tool, it
+would not pay to use it now, and the shops where it is still in use are
+few and far between; besides, our German machines now do the work so
+thoroughly and accurately that we are able to execute the highest class
+of work by their aid.
+
+Fig. 36--Lever guillotine.
+
+The machines worked by a lever are very suitable for small shops and
+small books. Rotary action is for heavier work and is more suitable
+where both heavy and light work have to be done.
+
+The fore-edge is generally trimmed first; the back of the book is
+carefully adjusted to the "back gauge," the back gauge is so adjusted by
+moving backwards and forwards that the knife comes exactly upon the
+point marked beforehand. The first principle to be observed in trimming
+is that as little as ever possible should be taken off the book.
+Measuring and marking for trimming are done with the dividers; the
+latter is called "marking for cutting." When the back gauge has been
+adjusted so that the points lie directly under the knife, the clamp
+which holds the book in position is screwed down and the machine set in
+motion. The book must be cut smooth and quite free from any jaggedness,
+and if this has not been accomplished the knife must be ground or, at
+least, well sharpened.
+
+Something must be done in trimming top and bottom to prevent the groove
+at the back from receiving too much pressure. The simplest means is to
+glue a thick board on the under side of the clamp. If a piece of stout
+cloth has been pasted to this board, it will afterwards be easily
+removed from the clamp if it is lightly glued on at two places only. If
+cloth is not used, pieces of the board will adhere to the clamp and
+cause no little inconvenience.
+
+Instead of this, there are metal plates sold which are fastened to the
+clamp in a simple way, either by screws or springs, and they are just as
+simply removed.
+
+The bottom edge has to be cut first, as one is thus able to adjust the
+head--which, of course, must be rectangular--against the back gauge and
+then to make the bottom edge parallel. After cutting this edge, the book
+is turned round and the bottom edge adjusted on the back gauge so as to
+get the top edge ready for cutting. Whilst doing this, care must always
+be taken that the book is placed under the clamp so that the arrangement
+made for saving the groove from pressure is effective.
+
+Fig. 37--Top edge arranged for trimming when trimming three edges.
+
+As our machines are made to cut from left to right, the book back must
+be on the left.
+
+Very often a book contains so many folded plates that it is considerably
+thinner in some places than at others. These thin places must be
+properly packed with paper or strips of board, otherwise the knife is
+sure to tear or jag, no matter how sharp it may be. This packing may be
+left in the book until the book is quite finished and then taken out.
+
+If any fibrous matter has stuck to the bottom sheets through cutting on
+a much-used bed, it must be removed with a very sharp knife.
+
+The trimmed volumes are "rounded," _i.e._, they are rounded and the
+groove made at the back to which the boards have to be fitted. For this
+reason the grooves must be made to suit the thickness of the boards to
+be used.
+
+Fig. 38--Rounding the book.
+
+To round a book, slightly damp its glued back, place it on a firm stone
+or metal bed, and knock it round with a hammer. Properly speaking the
+process is as follows: The left hand takes hold of the back of the book
+lying flat before the worker and works it into a round form, the right
+hand helping all the time by beating it along the back from one end to
+the other.
+
+In this way each side is treated alternately until the back is evenly
+rounded. The rounding of the fore-edge should be equal to one-third of a
+circle.
+
+Books that have been hammered so much that they fall straight from the
+centre towards both sides are called "over rounded"; if, on the
+contrary, the book is round at the sides and almost straight in the
+middle the book is called "flat rounded." The latter occurs when the
+thread used in sewing has been too thin or held down too much (see page
+37). Great care must be taken to avoid what is called springing a
+section--this is generally caused by a break in the glued back; but it
+is almost impossible to round a book perfectly if the sections are very
+thick or if it contains many pasted-in plates.
+
+There are now very useful machines for rounding books, also hand
+machines. The work connected with these consists simply in turning the
+book a few times, pushing the back up to the rollers each time.
+
+Fig. 39--Rounding machine.
+
+When the book is properly rounded, it is "backed," that is, it is so
+placed between backing boards that they are away from the back just as
+much as is required for the groove, the width of the latter depending
+upon the thickness of the boards; a small thin volume gets thin boards
+and therefore a small groove; a thicker volume requires thick boards,
+and, of course, a deeper groove. The made groove should be a little
+deeper than the board set in it. The book and backing boards are placed
+in a wooden press, screwing up by hand and once more carefully
+adjusting. To do this, the press is first placed lengthwise on the table
+so that one end projects a little over the front edge of the table; the
+evenness of the rounding is then perfected--one hand at the back and the
+other at the front edge pushing and adjusting. The better and truer the
+book has been rounded before laying in the boards the less there will be
+to do when placed in the press. If the rounding is correct, the head and
+tail must be examined to see that they are exactly rectangular, for the
+book may have been knocked untrue, and the evenness of the
+grooves--which are easily disturbed--is also examined.
+
+Backing and rounding is the most important work as far as regards the
+appearance of the book when finished; it must be done with the greatest
+exactitude and requires much practice. Although it is hardly
+perceptible, yet the great difficulty lies in the book itself being so
+very easily shifted.
+
+When the book is placed in the press without a fault it is screwed up as
+tightly as possible with the screw key, and through this the grooves
+already project over the edges of the backing boards; but a sharp groove
+can only be obtained by the help of the hammer.
+
+The hammer, however, must not be used blindly on the back, but by
+lightly knocking, blow by blow, the first and last 4-6 sheets must be
+brought over the edges of the boards. This done, the whole of the back
+is well pasted, and after remaining thus a short time it is then rubbed
+with the point of the hammer along the sheets until all superfluous glue
+is soaked and scraped off. With a handful of paper cuttings the back is
+rubbed smooth and clean. The use of a toothed _cachir_ iron is strictly
+forbidden, but the round side of this tool may be used instead of the
+hammer.
+
+Fig. 40--Backing machine for small shops.
+
+For backing, we have also a useful machine--the backing machine. For
+small shops it is made for clamping only, and the making of the groove
+is done with the ordinary hammer. For large shops this machine has a
+roller going right across the back which forms the groove down each
+side.
+
+Fig. 41--Backing machine for large shops.
+
+Valuable books are either trimmed at the front and at once backed or
+they may be backed before trimming. This is generally done with bulky
+books, as they are liable to throw out a section, and this danger is
+lessened by backing first. The work of backing remains the same. If the
+fore-edge has already been trimmed, care must be taken that the grooves
+do not suffer during trimming after backing. One way of effecting this
+is to lay the book on a special cutting board with the edge up to the
+groove, or by making use of the arrangement on the clamp already
+described, and adjusting the groove of the book to the blocks fixed on
+the clamp.
+
+Should the fore-edge not have been cut, the book must again be knocked
+straight after backing; to do this a strong cord is tied round the book
+about 1-1/2 cm. from the back, the book is then laid upon a firm bed,
+and the back again knocked straight; this work is called "tying up."
+
+Fig. 42--Backed book arranged for trimming.
+
+It facilitates the work if the book is taken up and lightly held in the
+left hand whilst the right holds the hammer and knocks the round inwards
+until the book is once more square.
+
+The squared book is now trimmed, and it is not until the trimming is
+finished that the cord is loosened.
+
+In pressing, several volumes of the same size can be done in the hand
+press at one and the same time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MARBLING, GILDING, &C., THE EDGES AND HEADBANDING.
+
+
+The edges of a book are nearly always finished off in some way or
+another, as the plain white edges would quickly become soiled. As a
+matter of fact, the binder always uses a covering of gold or colour for
+this purpose, and care should be taken that this way of treating the
+edges is decorative and not the reverse.
+
+In small binderies the edge is most usually sprinkled. A small brush
+with a handle (such as is used for blacking shoes) is dipped into a very
+thin coloured liquid and rubbed over a fine sieve which is fixed in a
+frame. The sieve is kept at sufficient distance from the edges of the
+book to allow the little drops of colour to fall like a fine rain. For
+this work the book is screwed up in the press (which is laid flat) by
+means of the press-jack. As a sprinkling colour, nut-wood stain thinned
+with water is used, or indigo, carmine, Prussian blue, mahogany brown,
+green cinnabar, all well diluted with water, with the addition of a
+little paste and borax or a few drops of dilute carbolic to prevent the
+paste turning sour; aniline dyes have a common appearance. The sprinkle
+must fall very finely upon the edges, therefore the first large drops
+should be taken out of the brush by giving it a few preliminary rubs
+over the sieve.
+
+A few variations are made in sprinkled edges by scattering damp sawdust,
+sand, or bran on the edges before sprinkling, thus producing a coarser
+kind of sprinkling. Similarly rice, barley, even starch or drops of wax
+are used. All these edges are out of date and in really good workshops
+are every day falling more and more into disuse, preference being given
+to marbling upon a sized ground.
+
+For the production of even marbling an edge-marbling roller has recently
+been brought out.
+
+Rubber rollers--one or two--together with the automatic colouring
+rollers bearing aniline dyes mixed with glycerine, are made up into a
+handy contrivance by means of which smooth coloured edges can be rolled
+over. These edges are passable only when carefully and skilfully
+executed; as a rule they look coarse and common and are taken up only by
+badly equipped shops. Marbling rollers can be used for comb marbling as
+well as for small veined marbling.
+
+We may say that the coloured edge is the oldest style.
+
+Earth colours which cover well--cinnabar[2] (red or green), carmine,
+chrome yellow, graphite, bismuth, and also other colours that cover
+well, indigo, carmine, and Prussian blue--are ground to a fine powder
+and thoroughly mixed with water and a little paste or gelatine so that
+the edges may be evenly covered.
+
+Footnote 2: Cinnabar if not _red_ must be a preparation with other
+colour.--_Trans._
+
+Only printed books are put in the press, and in this case they must
+first be rubbed down with alum water. After about five minutes the
+colour may be laid on. Hog's-hair brushes are used for this. Recently,
+eosin has been used to colour red and picric acid for yellow, both well
+diluted with water.
+
+The paste edge is a variety of the coloured edge; it is produced by
+loading paste with a very strong colour so that it covers well when laid
+on. With the blunt point of a stick, a bluntly pointed cork, or even the
+finger-tip, figures may be traced in the colour when laid on, and then
+the figures may be brought out better by going over the lines with a
+pointed stick. The work demands a skilled draughtsman if a good effect
+or something more than the very simplest design is desired.
+
+The book must be pressed for pasting the edges, and the paste colour
+must not be laid on too thickly or it will spring off when dry.
+
+Coloured as well as paste edges will take gold tooling and afford
+considerable scope to the skilful and thoughtful workman.
+
+The finest way of finishing edges and the one allowing greatest variety
+of treatment is known as marbling; this is a special process.
+
+Formerly regarded as a secret art, it is now an easily acquired branch
+of our work, thanks to the careful experiments and excellent
+demonstrations of the master bookbinder, Herr Joseph Halfer, of Buda
+Pesth.
+
+The whole process of marbling depends upon the peculiarity possessed by
+colours of floating upon a sized surface when they are mixed with
+oxgall, and a colour containing more gall forcing off the one first
+applied. Besides, the colours may be drawn about with a pencil or stick
+without their mixing. If the smooth edges of a book are brought into
+contact with such a floating surface-colour they will take up the
+colours completely.
+
+Ground and colour must each have certain fixed degrees of consistency,
+and the atmosphere both in and out of doors has also a great influence
+upon the work.
+
+The prepared body, shortly known as "the body," is at present always
+composed of boiled Carrageen moss. To every litre[3] of water exactly 12
+g. are added and the liquid is put in a saucepan, which is never used
+for any other purpose, and placed on the fire, great care being taken to
+catch it just at boiling point or it will all boil over. At the right
+moment take the saucepan from the fire and strain the contents through a
+hair sieve, what remains being thrown away as useless. The body may be
+used the next day, but for figured edges it is better after having been
+kept three days, and for veined marbling five days. The vessel
+containing the body must be kept covered so as to exclude all dust.
+
+Footnote 3: Not quite a quart.
+
+Gum tragacanth (known as "gum dragon") can also be used as a body, but
+Halfer's colours are not intended to be used with this.
+
+A marbling trough to contain the body is used whilst working; it is made
+of zinc plate, is about 15 cm. in width, 50 cm. in length, and 3 cm. in
+depth, and has a sloping partition soldered near one end, and the colour
+not taken up is drawn into the division thus made.
+
+Illustration: Marbling Trough
+
+A bowl, about 6 cm. across the top, is kept for each colour, and also a
+hog's-hair brush and a birch-twig brush.
+
+A small bundle of birch twigs is tied round with thread, leaving about 4
+cm. of the twigs free, the thickness of the lowest part tied not
+exceeding 1 cm. The bristles of the brush are tied back so as to form
+loops and held awhile in boiling water so that they retain their shape
+after drying and untying. With a brush made up in this way, drops may be
+laid on anywhere.
+
+For all drawn-out edges only bristle brushes are used, whilst for all
+other edges a brush is used only for laying on the first colour. For
+some edges a wide brush is used, so that the whole trough can be filled
+at one blow; a carpet brush with a short handle is most convenient to
+use.
+
+A little stick for tracing the colours is also necessary--a butcher's
+skewer is as good as anything. Besides this, the colours are drawn by
+combs of various widths; these are easily made by glueing pins with
+their heads at fixed distances between two strips of mill-board: the
+result is a tool resembling a comb. All requisites can be conveniently
+kept in a little wooden box together with the colours. Nowadays only
+Halfer's ready-made colours are used.
+
+Fig. 43--Marbling outfit.
+
+Any one wishing to learn the process of marbling edges would be wise not
+to attempt all the styles at once, but should be content to learn one
+before proceeding to another. We will commence with "comb" marbling,
+also known as "feather" marbling.
+
+When marbling is to be done, the colours must always be tested first. A
+little colour is shaken into each bowl and its brush placed with it, and
+one or two drops of prepared oxgall added to each colour so as to make
+the colour float on the surface.
+
+One prepares one's own oxgall. An ox gall in the gallbladder is procured
+from a butcher, a glass funnel is placed in a bottle which has been
+weighed beforehand, and the bottom of the gall bladder is pierced so
+that the bladder empties its contents into the bottle. After finding the
+weight of the gall, add to the weight of the gall alone one-sixth and
+pour into it spirit of wine until the weight is equalized; shake
+thoroughly and strain the mixture, which will now be quite clear and
+ready for use.
+
+The colours, with their brushes, are placed in the order in which they
+are to be used, beginning with the darkest and finishing with the
+lightest.
+
+A drop of colour is let fall from the black brush upon the body, the
+surface of which had previously been drawn off with a strip of paper;
+the surface of this drop must be about the size of a crown piece. If
+part of the colour sinks to the bottom, the body is too thin or the
+colour too thick, or the drop was too large and could not spread quickly
+enough; in the latter case the surplus colour will be seen lying at the
+bottom and will have no connection whatever with the colour on the
+surface; but if a cloudy connection can be traced from the surface to
+the bottom then the body has already become sour and in most cases unfit
+for use. If the colour does not retain its smooth outlines and becomes
+jagged, it also shows that the body is too old. If, however, the drop
+extends as desired and shows none of the faults above mentioned, a drop
+of blue colour is let fall in the centre of the first, which drives out
+the first drop in the form of a ring; when it has not this effect, but
+strongly contracts again, a drop of gall must be added, the colours
+wiped off to the sloping partition, and the whole process repeated. If
+the action of the colour was too strong, a little undiluted colour must
+be added. If the result is satisfactory, a drop of red is added to the
+blue. The colour scheme is seen in the accompanying drawing. Lastly,
+yellow is dropped into red, and black is thereby reduced to a very thin
+ring.
+
+Illustration: s--black; b--blue; r--red; yellow in centre.
+
+Before each new sprinkling, the old layer of colour must be wiped off.
+To do this, cut strips of stout waste paper about two fingers in width
+and a little longer than the trough is wide. The edge of the strip is
+placed slantingly at the end of the tank in the surface of the body and
+the surface colour drawn off, at the same time lightly pressing the ends
+of the strip against the sides of the trough.
+
+When the colours are satisfactory, the little stick is traced in and out
+amongst them. If too much colour follows the stick, the body is too
+thick; only a narrow line of colour must follow the stick.
+
+If the colours are thus correctly prepared, the whole trough is
+sprinkled in the following manner: Along the middle of the trough the
+darkest colour is sprinkled in what we might call links, that is, each
+drop is linked to the one preceding.
+
+Fig. 44--Suggestion for sprinkling colour.
+
+The second colour is sprinkled on in the same way; one circle, however,
+is on the right and the other on the left of the centre colour. Into
+each drop of the second colour let a drop of the third and then of the
+fourth colour fall.
+
+Illustration: Colour trace form.
+
+The colours must then be traced crosswise with the stick in this form
+and then likewise with the comb. Neither stick nor comb should be dipped
+more than about 2 mm. below the surface, otherwise the body is set in
+motion and the colours disarranged.
+
+The combs should not be made too fine, 30 to 35 teeth for every 10 cm.
+is the best width and sufficient for most cases. If the comb is drawn
+back again from the other end it produces drawn-back marbling; this is
+rarely applied.
+
+The finished comb marbling can be still further varied if figures are
+traced in it with the stick as shown in Fig. 46.
+
+Fig. 45--Comb marbling.
+
+Fig. 46--Suggestion for curl marbling.
+
+Illustration: Double comb colour form.
+
+If a double comb is made--one that allows two combs to pass each other,
+their teeth being 2 cm. apart--bouquet or peacock and eye marbling can
+be produced. The double comb is drawn over the length of the trough, at
+the same time moving the two combs up and down evenly. This motion
+causes the colours to assume the form shown in the accompanying
+illustration.
+
+Bouquet or peacock marbling is produced by drawing the double comb
+through the finished comb marble design, and if the double comb is used
+immediately after the cross tracing with the stick, eye marbling is the
+result.
+
+With a little thought it would be easy to invent other fancy designs,
+but these are better applied to paper, as trimmed edges are more
+beautiful and effective when the marbling is of simpler design.
+
+Fig. 47--Bouquet or peacock marbling.
+
+Fig. 48--Eye marbling.
+
+Large marble, called also Turkish marble, is produced as follows, using
+the same arrangement of colours. Only the first colour is laid on
+ringwise; all other colours are scattered in smaller drops from brushes.
+A darker colour is chosen for the last--brown, blue, olive, grey--to
+which is added a few more drops of gall and as much spirit of soap
+(_spiritus saponatus_), as sold by the druggists. This last colour is
+prepared in a larger and shallow basin. The largest brush is taken with
+the hand and dipped, shaken out a little, and then lightly knocked on
+the left hand so as to sprinkle the colour. The drops will fall in a
+dense shower, and, owing to their extra impetus, will drive together the
+preceding ones, and yet they will form the principal colour in the
+design. If it is desired to have veins of white in the design, a few
+drops of gall should be added to a little water in a bowl and used as
+any other colour; the same applies when using white in comb marbling. In
+a similar manner the so-called Kremser style of marbling is produced,
+but fewer colours are then used, generally only black and red, red and
+blue, brown and blue, green and red, at the end sprinkling a little of
+the strong principal colour to which, besides the spirit of soap, a drop
+of pure stone oil--not petroleum--from the chemist has been added. As
+last colour, blue grey (black with a little blue), brown, or grey is
+used.
+
+Recently, a sort of paper termed Trichinal marble has been very
+prominent on the market. Black and light brown or red and light brown or
+black, red, and light brown, or white, are all sprinkled on with a
+brush, length (not cross) wise drawn through, and then grey with a few
+drops of turpentine (but very driving) is sprinkled on with a small
+brush. The single drops have ragged edges and produce a peculiar effect.
+
+Thin-veined or French marbling is done upon the same ground, though it
+can also be done on a somewhat thinner body. The colours, however, are
+diluted by 50% water, and, consequently, more gall is added. As a rule,
+only two colours are used; blue, red; brown, blue; brown, green; black,
+red; black, blue. The first colour is laid on in rings with a brush and
+must be strong enough to spread over two-thirds the width of the trough;
+the second colour is sprinkled over with a little birch broom in drops
+that spread out to the size of a half-crown. Lastly, the so-called
+sprinkling-water is sprinkled over with one dash from the large brush as
+already explained. Sprinkling-water consists of two parts water and one
+part spirit of soap. The small veins must be driven quite close together
+and the eyes made by the sprinkling-water must not be larger than a
+small pea.
+
+It should be observed that for this kind of marbling only the darker
+shade of red is to be taken, as the light carmine lake colour sinks and
+does not give a fine effect. India red is best of all.
+
+
+The sprinkled colours are first tested with strips of paper; cuttings of
+clean note-paper are saved for this purpose. The edges of a book can be
+marbled only when the book is level or straight, therefore they must be
+marbled either before rounding or the book already rounded must be
+levelled by knocking it on a stone or metal slab. In all cases the
+marbling is done--both with papers and books--by dipping from one corner
+to the other diagonally opposite, but never deeper than just sufficient
+to take off the layer of colour. To prevent the colour from getting
+between the leaves, the edges are held between zinc plates, which must
+be dried each time after using. To make the paper or edges take the
+colours more readily and to prevent any subsequent running off, the
+edges are lightly washed down with alum water. This wash is made by
+boiling 100 g. of alum in 1/2 litre of water and using it solely for
+this work.
+
+The alum solution is laid on with a sponge, with which the edges are
+washed over. The moisture must have thoroughly soaked in, therefore it
+is necessary to do it 10 minutes before marbling.
+
+If, however, the edges have become thoroughly dry they will take the
+colours badly. This occurs in from 20 to 30 minutes, according to the
+temperature. Marbling can only be done in a warm room where the
+temperature is equable and where there is no dust.
+
+The marbling bath must be of the same temperature as the room. The body
+must be skimmed each time before sprinkling the colours, but the colours
+must be sprinkled on immediately afterwards.
+
+An excellent treatise on the work of marbling edges has appeared under
+the title: [4]_Fortschritte der Marmorirkunst. Von Joseph Halfer.
+William Leo, Stuttgart._
+
+Footnote 4: The Development of the Art of Marbling.
+
+
+Illustration: Pressing Board Profile
+
+Gilding edges takes up most time when only occasional books are to be
+done. The fore-edge can be treated either flat or round. In every case
+the book must be placed in the press within boards. These boards are
+narrow strips, about 1/2 cm. thick and up to 5 cm. in width; they must
+be of equal thickness and bevelled only on long side, the edge itself
+must be rounded.
+
+Many makers send out boards bevelled right from one side to the other.
+This kind is very unsuitable and has many disadvantages. The boards must
+not be made from wood of very open grain, and firs and oaks must not be
+used. The boards are to be somewhat longer than the edge about to be
+treated, so that the edge may be as firm and tight as possible and at
+the same time easy to work upon; two outer boards are added to those
+regularly used, as shown in Figs. 49 and 50.
+
+The inner boards are quite flush with the book: the latter must on no
+account stand back. The outer boards are about 3 mm. behind the others;
+the book is so placed in the press, and here again the book and boards
+must be exactly level with the press cheeks. The press is then screwed
+up as tight as possible. If the inner boards have not perfectly straight
+edges they must be planed down.
+
+Figs. 49 and 50--Arrangement of flat and rounded edges.
+
+The edges are to be scraped down quite smooth with a scraper or, if
+necessary, with a knife; the scraper must not be sharpened for this
+purpose as the carpenter sharpens his tools, that is, not to a cutting
+edge but as though it were for carving, until a bevel (or turned edge)
+of about 3 mm. has been ground. The edge thus gets a turned edge, with
+which the book is scraped. If it should cease to "take," the old edge is
+rubbed down with a steel and a new one made by a few firm strong
+rubbings. The edge should be wetted a little to prevent its heating.
+Flat edges are scraped with a flat scraper, rounded edges with one
+suitably rounded. In this case the round of the blade must be more
+decided than that of the edges, as it would otherwise be impossible to
+get into all parts of the edges. Scraping with pieces of glass is an
+antiquated, clumsy method.
+
+When scraping, the press should lie flat on the table edge, the other
+end being supported by the press-jack. In scraping, the blade is held in
+both hands, scraping away from the worker, the scraper sloping forwards.
+The press must be made immovable. Scraping is continued until all places
+have been gone over and the whole is perfectly smooth and even. When
+this is accomplished, the edges are thinly coated with paste, which is
+well rubbed in along the sheets with a bundle of waste paper until the
+edges look as if burnished. It is advisable to damp the edges before
+scraping, as the blade then takes hold more uniformly.
+
+Then bolus is mixed with glair as a body colour, laid on sparingly, very
+evenly, and free from streakiness, using a thick hair brush for the
+purpose. Bolus is sold to the trade ready prepared under the name
+"Poliment." Some time before using, it should be scraped into a suitable
+vessel and mixed with glair. The latter is prepared by adding the white
+of an egg to 1/4 litre of water and beating to a froth. It is then
+strained through a piece of linen or, better, through a filtering paper.
+
+After the bolus ground has dried (which takes a few minutes) the gold is
+laid on. There are various methods of doing this. The surest and
+quickest way is to lay it on with the gilder's tip.
+
+A row of long badger hairs is glued between two pieces of cardboard;
+this is drawn a few times over the hair of the head, which makes it take
+the gold easily. Gilders' tips are to be had at any colour dealer's.
+Gold is taken from the gold book, laid upon the gold cushion, and cut
+into suitable strips with the gold knife. The gold cushion consists of a
+piece of calf stretched raw side out on a board. Between the leather and
+the board there is placed a pad of cotton wool, and over the wool a pad
+of blotting-paper. The gold knife is a thin, pliant, two-edged knife
+without a sharp edge, in fact it is better to blunt the fore-edge from
+time to time by rubbing it on a polished steel. If the knife is too
+sharp it will cut the leather cushion. Taking the gold from the book
+will not be found a very easy task. The top leaf covering the gold is
+turned back, the book with the uncovered leaf of gold laid on the
+cushion, and the book slowly lifted up. The gold-leaf remains flat upon
+the cushion and may be cut with the knife as required. If a draught has
+turned the gold-leaf over or made it lie unevenly, it may be righted by
+lightly tapping with the knife on the cushion near the gold; careful
+breathing on the centre of the leaf will help in more awkward cases--the
+rest must be learned by practice. Never attempt to take hold of
+gold-leaf with the fingers; only the experienced workman knows how to
+carry gold-leaf with a finger.
+
+For gilding the edges the deep red gold is always used, or else the
+so-called orange gold, which is somewhat lighter in tone, but never the
+lemon or green gold.
+
+For flat gilt edges the gold is cut about 3 mm. wider than the book and
+into as many strips as would make up the length of the edge if joined
+together.
+
+Before laying on the gold, the bolused edge is brushed down with a hard
+clothes-brush to remove all hair, dust, &c. Glair is now liberally
+applied with a thick hair brush, laying it on separately for each strip.
+The gold is now lifted from the cushion with the gilder's tip so that it
+very slightly projects over the end of the brush and is transferred to
+the wet edges. The tip is brought to within 1 cm. of the surface of the
+edges and with a quick motion the whole surface of the gold is at once
+brought into contact with the glaired edges, which will instantly take
+it up quite greedily. The gold slightly overlaps on to the inner boards.
+In this one continues, preparing the edge for each fresh strip and
+laying on each strip so that it slightly overlaps the other until the
+whole length is covered with gold. If the gold should be injured in any
+way, the press must be tilted so as to allow a little glair to run under
+the gold to the spot and then a larger piece is laid over the faulty
+place. When it is seen that all parts are completely covered, the
+press-jack is put aside, the press is taken by the screws between the
+beams and raised high overhead so that the gilded part is turned
+downwards. One end is carefully lowered until the glair has run to one
+side and dripped off. As soon as the greater part of the moisture has
+been removed, the press is either placed upright with the edge to the
+wall and head downwards or it is laid across the table where it will not
+be disturbed, with the head of one screw on the table edge. In this way
+the moisture runs off quicker, as the whole length of the edge drains
+together. When dry, the edges are burnished, and it is in seizing the
+right moment to do this that the clever finisher shows his skill. The
+first test is made on the boards. If the gold comes off on scratching
+the portion on the inner board with the finger-nail, the edge is still
+too damp; if the scratching makes it shine, it will be all right. The
+experienced worker can trace the progress of drying with more certainty
+by breathing on the edges; the slowness or rapidity with which the
+breath disappears points to the dry or moist state of the edges.
+
+When it is believed that the proper degree of dryness has been obtained,
+the edge is polished with a burnisher. A piece of tracing paper which
+has been waxed on the upper side--that is, the side next the
+burnisher--is laid on the fresh edge to protect it from injury. The
+burnisher is then worked crosswise, stroke by stroke, over the paper
+(through which the edge can be observed) the length of the edge; if it
+is noticed that gold and moisture adhere to the paper near to the
+boards, the work must be laid aside to wait a little longer. If,
+however, the whole process has gone on satisfactorily, the edge is gone
+over with a linen rag and a little beeswax. It is not at all better to
+use a silk rag instead of linen, for it happens too easily that tiny
+threads stick to the gold unnoticed and are afterwards rubbed into the
+edge. After going over the edge with the waxed rag, the bare edges may
+take a greater pressure in burnishing, and if no flaws are now
+perceptible there need be no hesitation in burnishing with very strong
+pressure. The burnisher must be held quite level, the long handle fixed
+against the shoulder and the lower end firmly gripped with both hands
+just above the metal fastening. The fore-edge of the burnisher is not to
+be held parallel to the sheets, but must be at a slight angle; it thus
+slips better over the paper and there is less danger of making rills and
+furrows, and the polish is obtained more rapidly. Flat edges are always
+burnished crosswise, but at the end a broad burnisher may be used for
+going over the edges lengthwise with a few slow, firm strokes, so as to
+ensure a very level surface.
+
+Quick burnishing must always be avoided; it heats the gold, which rubs
+off under the burnisher, and causes holes which can never be remedied.
+
+As soon as one length has been burnished, the waxed cloth must be
+applied before proceeding further.
+
+Slight flaws in the gold itself, or due to bubbles in the glair, may be
+put right by touching the faulty places with a small brush dipped in
+rectified spirit and immediately laying on a piece of gold; if the edges
+had not yet been gone over with the waxed rag, it would be sufficient to
+breathe on the place, lay on the gold, and burnish under paper. This
+need only stand a few minutes, as it quickly evaporates, and may then be
+burnished again at once, first with, then without, the tracing paper. It
+must be observed that such faulty places must be burnished in the
+direction of the sheets, never crosswise.
+
+Rounded edges are more difficult to work; the scraping alone being more
+troublesome. Each piece of gold is halved, laying on each time a little
+beyond the deepest part of the round. The press is so lowered as to give
+a decided slope to the half of the edge to be operated upon. The gold is
+cut to a little more than half width, and only the under side to a
+little beyond the middle is glaired, which in this case must be done
+very freely. The strips of gold-leaf are laid on as before. When one
+side has been covered with gold, the press is turned and the other half
+of the round similarly treated. Care must be taken that there is always
+a liberal supply of glair in the depth of the round. To drain off the
+superfluous glair the press is placed so that the glair runs off on the
+long side; the gold is in consequence better taken up in the round.
+
+Burnishing is here also done under a piece of paper, and it is better to
+work crosswise, first one half to the centre of the round and then the
+other. Only thin books are burnished along the edges with a round
+burnisher. After the round edges have been burnished crosswise they are
+burnished with the round burnisher.
+
+Burnishers are made of agate or of bloodstone; the latter is said to
+produce a higher polish, but this may be due to our being more
+accustomed to its use. In selecting burnishers the flat ones should not
+be too wide and the strongest of the curved ones should be taken.
+
+Top and bottom edges undergo the same treatment in gilding as the flat
+fore-edge, except for a few slight necessary differences in the method
+of fixing the book. In the first instance, long boards are used instead
+of the outer boards--these protect the book from injury. The boards (the
+short sides of cross-boards are often used instead) are laid exactly in
+the groove at the back, but the outer boards are set back so that they
+are exactly in a line with the depth of the round edge. If this
+precaution is neglected, the chances are that little ridges will appear
+in the fore-edge where pressure has been applied. Fig. 51 shows the
+arrangement in the press.
+
+Scraping is done from the back to the fore-edge. As the back is not
+pressed so solid as the rest of the edge, it frequently happens that it
+does not get scraped so smooth. In this case recourse may be had to a
+fine file and fine sand-paper. The rest undergoes the familiar process.
+Take care that no glair runs on to the fore-edge when applying it or
+when draining it off. It is convenient to place the press crosswise on
+the table so that the fore-edge stands at its lower side; the glair then
+drains off the whole length of the edge more evenly and drains more
+towards the fore-edge. Many finishers elevate the press, letting it
+drain towards the fore-edge; there is no danger to the latter if the
+press is tipped forward from the top. On no account must the glair be
+allowed to drain towards the back, as this part is very open and all the
+moisture would gather there.
+
+Fig. 51--Top edge arranged for gilding.
+
+Besides the method of laying on the gold-leaf with the gilder's tip
+there is another which is specially used in gilding hymn-books; a piece
+of gauze is stretched across a frame, passed over the hair, and then the
+gold for the entire length of the edge is at once picked up and laid on.
+Round edges may be similarly covered by means of a couple of threads or
+horse-hairs stretched on a frame. The threads can be shifted to the
+short sides of the frame; they are adjusted to the width of the edge,
+allowing for the rounding, and are slightly greased by passing over the
+hair, and thus pick up the strip of gold at the edges. Just before
+laying on the gold, the threads are adjusted so that the gold fits the
+shape of the edge. Then plenty of glair is applied and the gold quickly
+and truly laid on.
+
+This method is not exactly difficult, but it is not quite so safe as
+laying on with a gilder's tip, especially for very large edges.
+
+The simplest way of laying on for flat edges is by means of strips of
+paper. This has the advantage of allowing a larger number of gold strips
+being made ready for laying on at one time. Select a piece of stiff and
+not too thin paper, cut into strips about the width of the strips of the
+gold-leaf, draw one side of the paper across the hair, and then take up
+the leaf so as to allow it to project a little over the edge of the
+paper strip. After glairing, strip by strip is laid on.
+
+For very cheap work it is often necessary to gild edges with alloyed
+gold. Such edges are not so carefully and thoroughly prepared; in
+particular, they are not scraped, but rubbed down with sand-paper. Blood
+serum is used instead of white of egg; this is prepared by allowing
+ox-blood to stand a few days and then filtering off the clear liquid.
+
+Aluminium is laid on a gelatine solution: one tablet of gelatine to
+1/4 litre of water.
+
+Gilt edges are also frequently tooled or scraped and painted. This work
+comes within the sphere of the art binder and cannot be dealt with in
+this book.
+
+All other coloured and marbled edges can be burnished in the same way as
+gilt edges. In good work this must always be done.
+
+
+In small shops headbands are made to this day of striped calico, which
+is cut into strips of 2 cm. wide right across the pattern, and one edge
+is pasted round a thin cord. After drying, pieces the exact size of the
+back of the book are cut off. The back of the book at the head is glued
+with a not too thin glue and the headband glued on so that the pad made
+by the cord lies on top of the edges and thus covers the place where
+book and cover join.
+
+Fig. 52--Headband shears.
+
+Woven headbands are now to be had so cheap that it is no longer
+necessary for the binder to make his own. The cheaper kinds are woven
+of cotton, and of these there are bands made which have two pads, each
+edge having a different colour. This band is cut along the middle for
+use; for the rest, it is cut into pieces according to the width of the
+book and then glued on to the back. Better kinds in silk are only woven
+on one side, therefore the cutting asunder is not necessary. For work in
+quantities, the headbands are cut the size of the back with the
+adjustable headband shears.
+
+For extra work the headband is hand-worked in silk. This work can only
+be learned by practice, although its execution is not difficult; such
+books are only headbanded after boarding.
+
+To make the filling for the headband, cut into strips pieces of vellum
+which have been pasted together, between which a piece of tough, thin
+pasteboard may be pasted to further strengthen. These strips are cut a
+little less than the height of the squares and a little longer than the
+width of the back. So as to facilitate the work, the strip is at once
+curved to the rounding of the back.
+
+Take two silk threads of the kind sold as "Cordonnet" silk, each thread
+of a different colour. Both threads are threaded in a sewing needle, the
+threads taken double, the ends of both double threads knotted together.
+The book is clamped in the ends of a press and stands slanting a little
+outwards. The needle is inserted in the back groove of the first sheet
+at the left hand underneath the kettle stitch and the thread drawn out
+to the knots. Thus one thread is always above and another below. The
+strip of vellum is now placed upright on the outside edge of the head,
+the thread is brought over from below, and is stitched from above to
+below close to the head, with the hanging needle through the first
+sheet under the kettle stitch outwards. Bring the same thread once more
+up over the strip, let the needle hang in the hollow of the fore-edge,
+taking in its stead the other thread which takes up the first, bringing
+it out underneath the vellum strip. By this, the first thread is firmly
+drawn as a chain stitch into the headband now beginning. The second
+thread is now brought upwards but need not again be taken through the
+sheet; it is taken back under the vellum strip once, and at the second
+time the needles are changed in the hollow as the first thread one more
+takes up the second thread and draws it into a chain. Thus the work goes
+on; after several journeys the thread is once again drawn out through a
+sheet until both threads are brought out at the other end of the back
+and pasted down. The first knots must also be undone and the ends pasted
+so that they do not show on the back. It is essential that the vellum
+strips should be always firmly and evenly sewn upon the edge, and also
+that every winding of the thread and the chain lies quite regular.
+
+Fig. 53--Headband working.
+
+It is possible to make a variation by making a few stitches with a third
+thread of another colour in the centre of the headband. Any vellum
+projecting at the ends must be cut off flush with the book.
+
+
+Some books are given a marker; this is made of silk ribbon or of a
+cheaper kind specially woven for the purpose. It is cut long enough to
+allow of its projecting a little at the head and pasted there, and at
+the same time comfortably held by the finger at the corner diagonally
+opposite. The marker is glued on before headbanding.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+BOARDING.
+
+
+The boards may be fastened to the covers in various ways, apart from
+casing, _i.e._, fixing books in publishers' ready-made cases.
+
+     1. Fastening upon bands (ordinary fastening).
+
+     2. Fastening below bands (fastening on a deep groove).
+
+     3. Drawing the bands through the boards (fastening with laced
+     bands).
+
+The boards for the books are nowadays manufactured from pulp, excepting
+in a few districts in Pomerania and East Prussia where wood boards are
+still occasionally made. Of these pulp boards the better kinds are
+called mill-boards; the cheaper are called straw-boards. Leather boards
+are not suitable for books as they invariably wrinkle or cockle. The
+boards may be cut to size before fastening on, or this may be done even
+after the fastening on has been completed. The former is generally
+practised where there is a board-cutting machine, but even then further
+attention is usually given to the shaping of the boards in the case of
+"extra" work.
+
+The board-cutting machine is a very useful ally, for by the aid of
+quickly adjusted rectangles and parallels a board may be cut perfectly
+true.
+
+The boards are selected according to the size and thickness of the book,
+marked out, and cut perfectly rectangular. The boards must slightly
+project at top and bottom as well as fore-edge so as to afford
+sufficient protection to the book. The margins so projecting are called
+the squares. Small books are allowed a small square, as a matter of
+course, and large books a square correspondingly larger.
+
+Fig. 54--Board-cutting machine.
+
+Where there is no board-cutting machine, the boards must be cut to size
+with the knife upon a cutting-board, using a straight edge for the line.
+
+The knife used is the well-known bookbinder's knife--Henckel Bros.'
+Solingen make is the best. These knives--both in fixed and removable
+wooden handles--are made of "glass hard" steel. If the point is worn
+away, a piece about 1/2 cm. long is knocked off with a hammer on an iron
+edge, thus making a fresh edge. The cutting-boards must be of maple,
+beech, or pear tree.
+
+If it is intended to shape the edges of the board on the book, it must
+be cut about 1 cm. larger each way so as to allow for further trimming.
+
+Fastening the boards to the book is called "boarding." This can
+generally be done as well with paste as with glue; the former is
+preferable but necessitates longer pressing and drying. Glueing is
+quicker, but the bands cannot then be pressed so evenly into the boards.
+
+For ordinary fixing on the bands, the insides of the boards are pasted
+to about 3 cm. in width, the bands also pasted, and the board laid on,
+bringing it well up to the groove. If it is intended to glue up, the
+bands are also glued, provided they have not already been glued on--a
+method preferred by many experienced hands. The bands must be pasted so
+that they radiate from the back without any tangle; a morsel of paste
+the size of a pea is laid on the band from underneath with the folder or
+point of a knife, the band smoothed down, and the thing is done. After
+glueing-up, the book is pressed between boards. If zinc plates are
+placed under the boards whilst pressing, the pasted parts will be
+pressed quite smooth and shiny.
+
+Fig. 55--Spring back.
+
+For cloth or half-cloth binding a hollow back is frequently glued on. To
+make the covering material of the back more lasting, a back is made up
+of strong wrappers or some other tough material, which extends over the
+back underneath the cover. This backing material must be cut 4 to 5 cm.
+wider than the width of the back and about 1 cm. longer each way than
+the book. This strip is pared very narrowly along both sides with a
+sharp knife on the so-called paring stone. A second strip--the
+backing--of the same material is cut the same length but exactly the
+width of the back of the book and is glued on to the middle of the wider
+strip. The overlapping parts at the sides are broken in towards the
+middle, close by the inner packing, and the crease well pressed down
+with the folder. These overlapping edges are then turned back again and
+a rule is laid on the packing parallel with the edge but drawn back to
+the middle about 2 to 3 mm. according to the thickness of the cover. If
+the moveable flaps are now again laid over towards the centre and
+narrowly creased near the first fold over the rule, a second parallel
+fold is obtained which allows the book to open much better. The back in
+section appears as illustrated in Fig. 55 after the middle part of the
+packing has undergone the necessary rounding.
+
+Fig. 56--Boarded book.
+
+Rounding can be done either by rubbing the middle part round with a
+proper wooden tool in a rounding board having several hollows of various
+degrees of convexity, or by drawing the back with a rocking motion under
+a broad folder. Such a made-up back must fit perfectly true to the
+groove and on the back. This is the hollow back. Before fastening it to
+the book, the latter must have a piece of stout paper pasted over the
+back; good packing-paper is the best. Newspapers and loose
+advertisements out of magazines are not at all satisfactory and must not
+be used. The book is glued and the paper laid on and glued. In doing a
+large batch the books may be pasted in the press and the paper pasted
+on.
+
+Many experts glue the hollow backs on and use paste for the board. Very
+frequently the glue comes through and spoils the end papers. It is
+better to raise the flaps of the back, paste the tear off of the end
+paper, paste the bands on to it, and the loose flaps as well, and then
+paste this on the outside and set the board on it. The latter must be
+set back a little further in this case so that the book moves freely in
+the joint. The back, therefore, is a hollow arch stretching over the
+book from groove to groove, the loose flaps of the packing adhering
+between book and board. The book is pressed until thoroughly dry--best
+between zinc plates.
+
+Fig. 57--Section of edge rule.
+
+For shaping boarded books an edge rule is used. This is a thin iron rule
+not much longer than the width of the book. On the long edge an iron pin
+about the width of the edge is soldered. This tool is inserted between
+book and board so that the iron pin lies close to the edge of the book;
+if the board is trimmed along this it will leave the board exactly as
+much larger than the book as is the width of the rule.
+
+Knives or points must be well grasped in cutting boards. The edge must
+be clean and square.
+
+If the boarded book has a hollow back, first one end is shaped and the
+projecting back is neatly cut clean and straight to the other board with
+the shears, and then the other end is shaped.
+
+Boards are fixed on a deep groove by pasting them on the outside to a
+width of about 3 cm., placing them direct on the book, backing them
+firmly into the groove, and then pasting the bands very smoothly upon
+the boards. A folded piece of waste paper is placed on the pasted part,
+a piece of zinc plate over it, and the book then pressed. The double
+leaf is used to prevent any sticking to the zinc plate, which bands are
+particularly liable to do if the plates had not been properly cleaned
+after previous use.
+
+Boards to be fastened into a deep groove must be lined with waste paper;
+this is done with paste. When packing, a narrow strip of paper must be
+brought over the inner edge of the board in the groove to the outside,
+so that the cut edge of the board is covered and does not strain or
+swell.
+
+This is also done when boarding, as follows:--
+
+At the present time, all good half or whole leather bindings have the
+boards laced through in good shops. At the outset the bands must be left
+with longer ends for this--5 cm. at least on each side. A parallel line
+is marked on the board along the back about 6 to 8 mm. from the groove.
+The board is fitted on the book just as was done when fixing in the
+groove, and exactly opposite each band a point is made on the marked
+lines. The board is then removed and at the points marked is pierced
+slanting inwards--about half right angle--with a pointed awl. The board
+is turned, and sideways, near every first hole, a second hole is made
+which likewise takes a slanting direction to the board. The bands are
+drawn through these holes, and to be able to do this the bands must be
+well pasted and twisted to a point; cutting off the extreme ends of the
+bands will facilitate the drawing through. To draw the bands quite firm
+and tight the boards are stood upright in the groove, the bands drawn
+through as tight as possible, and in this position--that is, with the
+boards half open--they are knocked down with a hammer upon a firm bed.
+The principal thing to be observed is that the bands are pasted fast in
+the holes, but where they are seen they are knocked down quite flat. The
+boards are now slowly closed, the ends of the bands projecting at the
+outside are cut off short, and the book pressed, using zinc plates
+inside and out.
+
+Fig. 58--English style of lacing boards.
+
+The French method of lacing is not much practised in other countries; it
+is somewhat more roundabout, and is done before cutting--immediately
+after glueing up. The boards are each shifted to right or left for
+cutting and cut together. By so doing, the edges always correspond
+exactly to the back groove.
+
+Illustration: Pressing Board Profile.
+
+For every band there are three holes bored forming a triangle. The awl
+holes are directed towards the middle of this triangle. The band must
+describe this course. The end is pushed under the piece of the band seen
+on the inside of the board, the bands drawn tight, with board standing
+upright as before described, also well knocked down in the same way, and
+the end cut off just beyond the piece under which it is drawn. The book
+is then pressed between zinc plates.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+THE COVER.
+
+
+Formerly only one way of making the cover was known, and that was the
+gradual making of it on the book itself. This has been considerably
+changed of late owing to the production of immense quantities for
+publishers' requirements. Book and cover are now in many cases made
+separately, the former being afterwards glued into its cover or "cased."
+
+The publisher's case is nowadays a necessary evil, without which we
+cannot get along and which we have got to take into account. In spite of
+it, bindings are still being produced in the old approved way,
+particularly in small establishments and in high-class shops. Before we
+proceed with the preparation of the cover after the trimming, we must
+know how it is intended to treat the book. In the preceding chapter we
+have learned the methods of boarding, and this now leads to the methods
+of covering. Previous to that, however, we would like to give a plan
+showing the various ways of treating the volumes under consideration,
+and then the chapter on the covers may be given (see plan on page 94).
+
+
+VIEW OF THE MOST GENERAL STYLES OF BINDING, SHOWING THE DIVISIONS OF THE
+WORK.
+
+Table of Headings:
+
+Col. A: Folding. Pulling to pieces.
+Col. B: Sewing.
+Col. C: Hollaendering.
+Col. D: Gluing. Pasting.
+Col. E: Pressing. Cutting.
+Col. F: Marbling and gilding edges.
+Col. G: Rounding. Backing.
+Col. H: Boarding.
+
+  -------------------||------------------------|
+                     ||    WORK ON THE BOOK.   |
+                     ||------------------------|
+                     ||                        |
+                     ||       Forwarding.      |
+                     ||                  Second|
+                     ||First stage.      stage.|
+                     ||--|--|--|--|--|--||--|--|
+  Style of Binding.  || A| B| C| D| E| F|| G|H |
+  -------------------||--|--|--|--|--|--||--|--|
+  Brochure           ||--|  |--|  |  |  ||  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+    "   Paper boards ||--|--|  |--|--|  ||  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  School books       ||--|--|  |--|--|  ||  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Half cloth (bound) ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+    "        (cased) ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Whole cloth (bound)||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+    "         (cased)||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Half leather       ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Half calf, extra   ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Whole leather      ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+  Publishers' cases  ||--|--|  |--|--|--||--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  |  |  |  ||  |  |
+
+
+  Table of Headings:
+
+  Col. I: Making the case.
+  Col. J: Covering.
+  Col. K: Pressing.
+  Col. L: Preparing the leather.
+  Col. M: Covering.
+  Col. N: Fastening the book in the cover.
+  Col. O: Pasting down.
+  Col. P: Jointing.
+  Col. Q: Pasting down end papers.
+  Col. R: Hand tooling and decorating.
+
+
+  -------------------||-------------------------------|
+                     ||        WORK ON THE COVER.     |
+                     ||-------------------------------|
+                     ||                               |
+                     ||Casing.  Covering.  Finishing. |
+                     ||                               |
+                     ||--|--|--||--|--||--|--|--|--|--|
+  Style of Binding.  || I| J| K|| L| M|| N| O| P| Q| R|
+  -------------------||--|--|--||--|--||--|--|--|--|--|
+  Brochure           ||  |  |  ||  |  ||--|  |  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+    "   Paper boards ||  |--|  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  School books       ||--|--|  ||  |  ||  |--|  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Half cloth (bound) ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |--|  |  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+    "        (cased) ||--|  |--||  |  ||--|--|  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Whole cloth (bound)||  |  |  ||  |--||  |--|  |  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+    "         (cased)||--|--|--||  |  ||--|--|  |  |  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Half leather       ||  |  |  ||--|--||  |--|  |  |--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Half calf, extra   ||  |  |  ||--|--||  |  |--|--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Whole leather      ||  |  |  ||--|  ||  |  |--|--|--|
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+  Publishers' cases  ||--|--|--||  |  ||--|  |--|--|  |
+                     ||  |  |  ||  |  ||  |  |  |  |  |
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+MAKING THE COVER.
+
+
+The boards for making the covers are cut the required size exactly as
+when cutting for glueing; a packing of thin cardboard or thin wrappers
+is cut for the back. The width of the back from first to last sheet is
+carefully measured by laying across it a strip of paper, the dividers
+are adjusted to the measure, and this is transferred to the wrapping
+paper. The packing is cut to suit the boards in height. When cloth only
+is used for the cover, the cloth is cut 2 to 2-1/2 cm. longer and about
+4 cm. wider than the packing. The width of the back depends upon the
+question of cost or other consideration. In whole-cloth bindings the
+cloth is, of course, cut in one piece and 1 to 1-1/2 cm. larger all
+round than the boards and back taken together. Glue is always used for
+cloth. As piles of pieces of cloth shift about in glueing, a touch of
+glue is given to two corners of the pile and left to dry a little. These
+corners hold the pieces of cloth in position whilst being glued and
+prevent the edges from being smeared. In glueing cloth it must be seen
+that the glue is well rubbed into the grain or artificial indentations.
+
+For covers which have only the back made, the packing is laid upon the
+middle of the glued cloth and the boards hinged on right and left at
+side of it, leaving, however, as much space between as is required by
+the joint and the thickness of the boards. As a rule, the space required
+will be as much as the thickness of the board. In making leather backs
+one allows a little more.
+
+The cloth back is at once turned in at head and tail after the boards
+have been laid on, and the cover rubbed down in the groove with the
+folder.
+
+Turning-in is done by pushing the side to be operated on a little over
+the edge of the table, and with the thumbs the cover is pressed over the
+edges of the boards with a sliding motion, whilst the forefingers hold
+the cover underneath.
+
+Whole-cloth bindings are turned in in the same way, but in this case the
+corners must be first cut off obliquely as shown in the illustration.
+
+Fig. 60--Corners cut for turning in.
+
+The cloth is cut off at the corners so close that only as much as the
+thickness of the board remains. Thick boards have therefore more cloth
+left at the corners than thin ones.
+
+Fig. 61--Corners: Right and wrong.
+
+The top and bottom edges must be turned in before the fore-edge. At the
+corners, the cloth is nipped a little with the folder, without, however,
+making an oblique fold; there should rather be a hollow round turn-over
+remaining which is only drawn on with the fore-edge, then from the
+corner slanting to the board.
+
+The edges must always be turned in quite sharp; there must never be a
+hollow place on the edge of the board. On the other hand, it looks bad
+if the edges have been much rubbed down with the folder, at least with
+cloth; it is different with leather.
+
+The turned-in cover is turned and the front side well rubbed down under
+paper with the folder. When cloth has once been glued it must not be
+allowed to lie long as it rolls up and sticks together, which renders it
+practically unworkable.
+
+The finished covers are laid between pasteboards to dry; only when the
+drying has to be done in a hurry may they be hung on stretched cords.
+The latest in this work is a case machine which turns out 550 cases per
+hour.
+
+When leather is used, it must first be pared, that is to say, the parts
+to be turned in where it is too thick in the joint must be gradually
+thinned.
+
+Fig. 62--Paring with Offenbach or Berlin knife.
+
+The paring knife, of which there are various kinds, is used for this
+work. The best known and the most generally used are the Offenbach and
+the Berlin, both very much alike except for a slight difference in the
+edge. The quickest paring knife is made after the French pattern.
+
+This knife is called a "thrusting" knife because of the manner of using
+it, in contradistinction to those generally used with a cutting motion;
+but even these a skilful worker will be able to use with a thrusting
+motion. The under side of the paring knife is covered with leather.
+
+A lithographic stone or piece of marble will serve as a bed upon which
+to pare the leather. The stone is set in a frame under which there is a
+bar to hold it against the edge of the table so that it does not work
+backwards whilst in use. All edges are rounded off and the surface is
+ground and polished.
+
+Ability in paring does not entirely depend upon the skilful use of the
+knife but also upon the way the left hand manipulates the leather and
+upon a thorough knowledge of the nature of the leather. It should not be
+forgotten that the latter has a grain, though very few bookbinders pay
+any heed to this. With many leathers it is a very difficult matter to
+pare against the grain, especially pig-skin and cow-hide. One may
+generally take it that a leather pares best in the direction in which it
+stretches least. The grain runs from the back to the sides. The
+Offenbach knife is narrower and ground more to a square point than the
+Berlin knife, the edge of which forms a sort of half right-angle to the
+blade. See manner of holding the knife in Fig. 62.
+
+Quick working is an advantage of the Offenbach knife, which is due to
+the fact that less attention need be given to holding the leather on the
+stone, and paring proceeds from left to right, the left hand at the same
+time helping to push the knife. The Berlin make pares from right to
+left; here the blade is held almost parallel to the edge of the leather,
+the point of the knife inclining to the leather; with the other the edge
+is cut over slantingly with the point outwards.
+
+To use the French knife requires more practice; the cutting edge is
+almost at right angles to the knife, and, besides, the method of holding
+it is somewhat unusual. For paring all thick leathers or large surfaces
+it surpasses all other makes in execution. To make the leather more
+workable for paring it is previously manipulated, that is to say, it is
+turned flesh side outwards and rolled to and fro, whilst firm pressure
+is applied with the second and third fingers of the right hand, thus
+making it pliable.
+
+Fig. 63--Paring with French knife.
+
+In an ordinary bindery thin or split leathers are mostly used; these do
+not require very much paring, which is only necessary for pig-skin and
+the finest moroccos. The latter leather is narrowly pared about 2 to 3
+mm. wide along the edge for half as well as for whole bindings. Only the
+back is pared the whole width, therefore 1 to 1-1/2 cm. has to be nicely
+gradated. Broken places, inequalities of the edge, or even holes to be
+filled in, greatly add to the difficulty of the work.
+
+In the thicker skins also--thick places often occur in the otherwise
+thin skins--the joint must be thinned down. The packing is laid upon the
+wrong side of the leather and its position marked out with the folder.
+The leather is pared about 1 cm. in width along this line, that is to
+say, it is pared so that 1/2 cm. right and left along the mark the
+thickness of the leather is reduced.
+
+As a rule, first-class books are not provided with a cover made in
+advance, and even those described by publishers as "super extra" do not
+rise above morocco goat.
+
+We have to do with the following leathers which are mostly used for the
+publishers' bindings: Goat-skin (of oriental hybrid sheep), morocco
+goat, sheep-skin (unsplit sheep-skin), and split sheep-skin [or
+so-called skivers]. There is another goat-skin, not Levanted, sold and
+used under the name "bastard" leather. "Levanting" means to imitate by
+pressing the grain natural to the skins from the Levant. Most kinds of
+our leather receive their grain by such process.
+
+For whole-leather bindings a narrow margin is pared down all round the
+edges, the turn-in at the back is pared just as much as is necessary,
+and also at the corners. The leather corners are cut slant-wise at the
+outset, and the paring is done so that the thinning begins exactly at
+the edge of the board.
+
+In leather bindings the board, as well as the back packing, is glued on,
+rubbed down, and the edges then pasted and turned in, the leather is
+rubbed down sharply in the joint, the back, and on the edges; but a
+folder must never be used on the leather covering the board itself.
+
+It frequently happens that the board is finished off with round corners;
+in this case, the method of turning in cloth as well as leather is
+slightly different. The two neighbouring edges are turned in. The
+leather or other material is cut off not quite so close as for square
+corners, and the material is drawn very smoothly and neatly over the
+edges in little folds, using a pointed folder for the work.
+
+Illustration: Cover corner shapes, 1
+
+Illustration: Cover corner shapes, 2
+
+Books not wholly covered with cloth or leather get corners of the same
+material as is used for the back. Cloth corners are not cut singly, but
+a strip of material long enough for the required number of corners is
+glued and then cut with the shears into pieces of this shape or, better,
+placing them on the boards in such a way that the material projects a
+little over the corner of the board. First of all, the lappets of the
+top and bottom edges are turned in, the corners nipped in the manner
+shown, and then the lappets of the fore-edge are also turned in. Leather
+corners are treated in the same way, but these are cut from waste pieces
+according to the zinc stencil plate kept for the purpose, and then pared
+down.
+
+Illustration: Cover corner shapes, 3
+
+Glue is used for fixing on cloth corners, but strong paste is always
+used for leather. All edges and corners are well rubbed down with the
+folder and left smooth and sharp, but, on the other hand, the grain on
+the board side must be left uninjured. Insufficient paring of the
+corners or using only the fingers for turning-in causes very thick
+edges; such work is out of date and would not be done by any thoughtful
+workman.
+
+Illustration: Half cloth or half leather corner.
+
+Books bound in half-cloth or half-leather have the sides covered with
+paper; the latter often with cloth. When cloth sides are used, the
+material must always harmonize with the back both in regard to colour
+and texture. On each side to be turned in the paper is cut 1 to 1-1/2
+cm. larger than the surface of the board to be covered. The paper is cut
+along the back with the knife and rule. The corners are turned down in
+half right-angles according to the size of the cloth or leather corners
+and somewhat smaller than these, and cut off with the shears as shown in
+the illustration, using the fold as a guide.
+
+Illustration: Small corner diagram
+
+In ordinary work with very small corners, especially in large
+quantities, the corners may simply be cut off diagonally, and if there
+are many covers they are knocked up and the cutting is done with knife
+and rule or with the machine.
+
+As a trade article for the publishers, the finished cover is lined with
+paper on the inside, both for the sake of improved appearance and to
+prevent the drawing outwards. For every board a sheet of paper is cut
+about 1/2 cm. smaller than the board and pasted on. The covers are
+placed between boards to dry.
+
+Covers are generally decorated in some way; as a rule by means of the
+blocking press. Where they get any hand tooling, it is always done on
+the book when bound, for which no case is made in advance. Simple gold
+lines along the back and corners of the cover are excepted; such work is
+known as "filleting."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+WORK WITH THE BLOCKING PRESS.
+
+
+We make a distinction between gold tooling and blind tooling. The latter
+is simply an impression on the leather or other material without the use
+of gold, whilst the other is an impression upon a specially prepared
+leather or other surface, using gold leaf.
+
+Skill in blocking depends first of all upon a tasteful and suitable
+selection and arrangement of the engraved blocks and letters necessary
+for the decoration and inscription.
+
+The blocks, &c., are to be had ready made from the engravers in properly
+arranged sets; but still it is essential that the finisher should
+possess certain artistic taste and feeling, especially in making up the
+lettering. It must be borne in mind that in an inscription or title the
+principal part (word or line) must be distinguished by larger or heavier
+type; furthermore, two lines of equal length must never appear in an
+inscription. Short words (the, and, for, &c.) worked into an inscription
+as separate lines add considerably to its appearance. See pp. 148 to 153
+for what is said on the arrangement of the title in hand lettering. The
+same applies to the arrangement of all lettering.
+
+The blocks and letters are always fixed to the upper part of the
+press--the platen.
+
+To enable alterations to be made quickly or to secure pieces which may
+have slipped, there is a draw-out plate made in all modern blocking
+presses. The engraved blocks are not affixed to this plate with glue but
+with cobblers' wax. The following is a practical way of managing the
+ornamental blocks: On a thin but very strong board about the size of the
+article to be blocked, the blocks are arranged with the backs uppermost,
+the engraved face being next to the board. This board is fixed with wax
+exactly in the centre of the lower part of the press--the table. By
+"exactly in the centre" it is to be understood that the centre of the
+various blocks brought together lies on or near the centre of the
+draw-out plate. If there are more and heavier blocks fixed to the upper
+than to the lower side of the plate, the latter must be lowered a
+little--in a word, the plate must be so adjusted that all parts receive
+equal pressure. It is only by making a few trials that one can learn
+exactly what is right.
+
+The press should be warmed by this time, and it is well to slide in the
+table with the blocks adjusted upon it, and to let it remain under light
+pressure until plate and table are warmed throughout and no trace of
+moisture may be seen on either. Now put a little wax on each block, lay
+over them a piece of stout wrapping paper, cardboard, or similar stuff,
+push in and press gently; the wrapper also may be waxed. After about
+five minutes, open the press to see whether all parts have stuck. Until
+this takes place the press must remain closed. If, however, all pieces
+are sticking fast, draw out the table and examine the imprint of each
+particular part to see whether the pressure is equal; if this is not so,
+it remains to be seen whether such inequality is due to a faulty fixing
+of the plate and, if necessary, to rectify it; otherwise, pieces of
+paper must be made up into a suitable packing and laid upon the back of
+the blocks until all inequalities are removed and an even impression is
+obtained.
+
+This done, the back of the set-up blocks, or the wrappers affixed
+thereto, is waxed at as many places as required, or rather as far as
+the set-up blocks extend, the plate pushed in, and the press closed
+until the set-up blocks adhere to the upper plate. The lighter this
+first impression is made, the easier it will be to detect any inequality
+on the table (or matrix) and to set it right by backing up with paper.
+
+Fig. 64--Blocking press.
+
+Before proceeding further, a few words must be said about the
+construction of our modern blocking presses. For modern blocking we use
+knee-lever presses, whilst balances are now no longer used.
+
+On the upper part there is a sliding plate--the so-called platen--which
+draws out on prismatic rails.
+
+A second plate works on hinges at the side of the sliding (or draw-out)
+plate and can be pulled out to the left. This plate is used principally
+for colour blocking--the other plate for gold.
+
+Blocking can be done in gold and colour immediately after each other,
+and if the plate is in duplicate, four impressions can be made in
+succession without having to take off and change the plate.
+
+In the upper plate there are round borings for the gas burners or hot
+irons used for heating the press; the latter are out of date and do not
+produce a steady temperature.
+
+It now remains to insert the article to be blocked in the press so that
+it will be blocked exactly on the spot required.
+
+There are several ways of attaining this object, which are adopted
+according to the kind of work in hand. The surest way is to mark the
+place by pins.
+
+Two large drawing pins are pasted upon pieces of cardboard, a second
+piece of board is placed over each one so that the head is embedded
+between the two pieces but leaving the points free. The gauges thus made
+are fixed with wax at convenient places, best on the middle line above
+and below the table but in such a way that they themselves are not
+touched by the plate. To prevent their falling off, a larger piece of
+cloth is pasted over them, always leaving the points visible. The surest
+preventive against falling off is to have screw-on gauges. A strip of
+metal having a slit in the middle can be screwed tightly to the table by
+means of a screw passed through the slit. At the end a steel point about
+1/2 cm. long is riveted on. With this gauge the points can be adjusted
+to any position on the table as required.
+
+All work not turned-in which requires repeat blocking, and all such as
+requires blocking in more than one colour, is "pinned on." On the other
+hand, covers which are finished after being once blocked on back or side
+which require no second impression may be adjusted with the angle gauge
+or blocks. Many make use of both at the same time. Such covers then have
+been turned in all round when being worked, whilst "pinning on" requires
+that the covers should not have been turned in.
+
+The practical bookbinder who has to deal with turned-in covers
+frequently gets over the difficulty by making two incisions about 2 cm.
+apart with the knife upon the turned-in edge at the place where it
+should be pinned on, and opening out the material at the incisions, thus
+making a loose margin for pinning on.
+
+For pinning on covers as well as backs, a template is cut from wrappers
+or thin board, which is adjusted on the cover and the register holes
+made with an awl. When pinning-on has to be done for blocking which has
+to be repeated very many times, the register points are strengthened
+behind with stiff paper to prevent them from breaking or tearing away
+and thus becoming inaccurate.
+
+Fig. 65--Appliances used in blocking backs.
+
+To enable the most various widths of backs to be quickly inserted and to
+supply a substitute for the thick layers of cardboard packing which make
+a fine impression impossible, a special contrivance with metal pads has
+been made. This is shown in the sketch herewith.
+
+Mention has already been made of the table (or matrix). This is a bed of
+stout boards which is intended to serve the double purpose of saving the
+blocks when blocking thin articles (backs of covers, &c.) and also for
+strengthening and equalising the resistance from below when working on
+heavier articles. Faults arising during working, such as insufficient
+adhesion of the gold (and an increased pressure) may be set right by
+pasting on pieces of paper to the matrix or table.
+
+The matrices consist of strong but thin material; the best is wrappers
+or the thinnest board. After use they are kept for subsequent
+repetitions of the same or for other work.
+
+The lettering must always be set up fresh for each job, whilst the
+ornamental pieces may be arranged on the tables or matrices at hand
+after the existing original impression.
+
+Setting the type is a special art and calls for considerable taste and
+skill; the letters very easily slip out of the type-holder, especially
+where very small type is used, unless special precautions are taken to
+prevent this. Here we will pass over the most important point in the
+arrangement of the types and refer to the paragraph dealing with
+"Lettering" under "Hand-tooling"; what holds good there always holds
+good here.
+
+Lettering is always set upon special pieces of board and afterwards
+encased in a type-holder, as it demands much more attention and
+subsequent correction. These boards should likewise be wrappers of the
+same thickness as those used at the same time for the ornaments. For
+fixing, cobblers' wax is likewise used. The favourite method frequently
+adopted of using glue coated with paste is not to be recommended,
+because the letters do not admit of proper setting upon this gelatinous
+mass. Not only do the lines of letters require to be kept right by means
+of a strip of metal or metal line, they must be carefully adjusted after
+taking a light impression, especially when using a very small type. The
+first pull must be under so light a pressure that on a soft paper
+everything is distinctly visible. The lines are arranged from this
+proof, whilst each single letter is carefully checked. Where letters do
+not show up properly they must be backed up with paper of suitable
+thickness on the board until all unevenness disappears. The lighter the
+pressure applied the easier it will be to make corrections. Letters
+heavily pressed at the outset can seldom be properly rectified
+afterwards.
+
+In large editions it does happen, in spite of all precautions, that
+single letters work loose and fall out; this may damage parts of the
+plate as well as valuable covers, and one therefore tries to guard
+against it. Some take narrow strips of cloth and paste one round each
+line of type, others pour liquid glue between the lines which, when
+thoroughly dry and hard, is a very sure means of preventing the falling
+out of any piece of type.
+
+When everything is in order, the type is likewise inserted; various
+parts of the back of the board are well waxed and the table is then
+pushed in and the press closed tight. It remains closed until all parts
+are thoroughly dry, for it is only then that we may feel assured that no
+parts can fall out. The drying may be hastened by opening the press
+about a quarter of an hour later and drawing out the plate, likewise the
+table, and now allowing plate and table to dry by exposure. If any parts
+of the plate should lift, wax must again be applied and once more
+pressed.
+
+When the plates and press are got into working order, and the backs or
+covers have received their register marks by means of the template, the
+blocking may be commenced. The table is drawn out, a piece of work
+pushed in to the register, and the press closed. It is necessary that
+the press should have been previously regulated to the thickness of the
+article being blocked, and to begin with a light pressure at first, as
+heavier pressure can be applied afterwards if required. Cloth requires
+sharper pressure than leather. Large heavy covers are always blocked
+with the press quite closed, whilst small things like single titles, hat
+linings, ties, &c., are finished with only a short pull of the lever.
+The correct regulation of the pressure rests with the worker.
+
+We distinguish between blocking in blind, gold, colour, and relief.
+Blocking in blind, both on leather and cloth, should not be attempted
+upon articles which have become very dry. A good plan is to store them
+in a cellar the night before and to bring out only as many as can be
+finished in the next half-hour's work. Blocking in blind can only be
+done on matt or grained material, as its effect is nil upon a smooth
+polished surface.
+
+The finish can be considerably heightened in special cases by going over
+the impression with a brush and white of egg after the first blocking
+and then again pressing under less heat. Calf leather, and undressed
+calf in particular, receives its splendid brown colour by being
+previously damped with boiled or distilled water to which a little
+spirit has been added. The impression on a damped ground is first made
+somewhat warmer and afterwards repeated when the press has cooled a
+little, occasionally wiping the blocks with a waxed cloth. The
+impression must in all cases be even in colour and have a high finish;
+if this is not so, the lighter places must be once more damped with a
+small brush and again impressed.
+
+Articles to be blocked in gold must be prepared with some substance to
+which the gold will adhere. The finisher uses a fluid or dry adhesive
+according to the material he is working upon. Of liquid sizes, diluted
+white of egg or, in some cases, dissolved gelatine or blood serum is
+used almost exclusively. These liquids, which are applied with a sponge
+or, for fine work, with a brush, are called the "ground" or "sizing." Of
+dry adhesives, we know only the gilding powder, which consists of resin
+with now and then an addition of dried white of egg. The other powders
+used by the finisher are rice flour or potato flour; these are not used
+as adhesives but to prevent the gold sticking at places where it is not
+wanted.
+
+Leather and cloth are sized with white of egg; silk and other woven
+materials are finished without special sizing, and also surfaced papers
+and cardboard goods, as they are treated with finishers' powder, a wet
+preparation being unsuitable.
+
+Size for blocking is thinner than for hand finishing, and when it has to
+be washed over the whole of a cloth cover it is still further diluted.
+Glair for brushing over an impression consists of one part white of egg
+and one part vinegar; to every 1/2 litre 1 g. of powdered borax is
+added, the whole beaten to a froth and filtered. For coating-over, take
+one part white of egg, two parts water, and to every 1/2 litre add 10
+drops of glycerine and 1 g. borax. If a larger quantity of glair is
+required for coating over, it may be thinned with water or vinegar; but
+size made with vinegar must not be applied to fancy coloured cloths.
+
+Gilding powder may be yellow or white, the latter kind is rougher and is
+suitable for silk stuffs and also where blocking has to be done over
+colour on cloth. Yellow powder is softer and is apt to clog the finer
+cut tools; it is more suitable for the preparation of paper _de luxe_,
+for blocking surface and chromo papers, and for photo cases.
+
+Gilding powder is sprinkled by means of a box which has a double layer
+of fine gauze instead of a bottom. By tapping upon the box a fine shower
+of powder is dusted on to the surface to be gilded.
+
+Glair is made in the workshop; the powder is bought ready prepared--to
+make it would take too much time.
+
+For blocking in alloyed metals, gelatine size is used, as it is a
+powerful adhesive. A tablet of gelatine is soaked in 1/4 litre of water
+overnight and next morning is dissolved in the bath. Gelatine is used to
+cover the whole surfaces and is laid on when lukewarm. Blood serum
+serves the same purpose. Ox blood is allowed to coagulate, and the
+hardened mass thus produced is placed over a cloth strainer, or hair
+sieve, and the liquid albumen allowed to drain from it; the process is
+hastened by cutting the caked blood into small pieces. Only the clear
+liquid which is strained off is to be used--a pinch of borax will make
+it keep longer.
+
+For finishing bindings, real gold-leaf--orange tint--is used almost
+exclusively, the cheaper green gold being used only for sample cases and
+school books. Alloyed metal and aluminium (this is now commonly used
+instead of the quickly oxydizing silver) are used almost solely in the
+manufacture of papers _de luxe_ and for placards.
+
+Pure gold-leaf is always laid on the sized cover after the surface to be
+blocked has been lightly gone over with a ball of oiled cotton wool, or
+a slightly greased rag. This must never be done to such a degree as to
+cause grease spots. Calf must not be thus treated with grease, but if
+the gold is not likely to stick at certain places, the first impression
+may be picked out with a brush slightly oiled so as to make the leaf
+adhere. Dark polished calf will, however, stand a little oil.
+
+Fine leathers are first stamped and the impression is gone over with a
+brush, then the gold is laid on and again impressed. The gold is lifted
+from the cushion with a gilder's tip or a pad of cotton wool and
+transferred to the cover. The gilder's tips consist of square pieces of
+cardboard a little smaller than the piece of gold to be used, to the
+under side of which is pasted a piece of cloth. A handle of cardboard or
+a button is pasted on top for convenience of holding.
+
+Draw this tip lightly over the hair, press it on the gold, which will
+lightly adhere to it, and then transfer the gold to the surface to be
+stamped, where it is pressed down with cotton wool, which should be
+surgical wool, as that kind is free from knots. Many prefer a tuft of
+cotton wool rolled into a handy size, this is likewise drawn over the
+hair, and the rest done as before.
+
+When gilding powder is used, the gold must not be laid on with the pad.
+The gold must be placed on the powder by hand only, a task calling for
+considerable adroitness. The gold is taken up with the gold-knife, aided
+by a moistened finger-tip taking a corner, passed over the surface with
+the knife, brought to the required position with the hanging corner, and
+now the knife is taken away flat sideways. The gold must lie quite even
+on the powdered surface. Any subsequent shifting of the gold is entirely
+out of the question, because the layer of powder would be disturbed and
+might not hold in places.
+
+To know exactly what degree of heat should be applied requires special
+study, and the pity is that fixed rules cannot be given--one day a black
+morocco goat-skin may stand a great heat, whilst on another day the same
+heat applied to similar stuff might burn it up. Cloth is always the
+same, calf leather papers, skytogen, &c., are much more difficult. On
+the whole, the following rules may be observed:--
+
+  Cloth             white of egg (or glair)     medium heat
+  Sheep-skin                  "                 slight heat
+  Goat-skin                   "                 medium heat
+  Morocco                     "                 medium heat
+  Silk              white gilding powder        short hot pressure
+  Surface
+    papers and
+    cardboards      yellow   "      "           short medium pressure
+  Calf              glair                       hot (light leathers
+                                                  somewhat less heat)
+  Varnished paper                               little heat
+
+The latter contains sufficient adhesive matter in the colour without
+using any other size, even for alloyed gold, but the covers must,
+however, be slightly moist. For this purpose they are left overnight in
+a damp cellar or placed between slightly damped boards.
+
+We have already spoken of the matrix. Where silk or other thin woven
+materials are to be blocked, a firm hard board must be laid on the table
+and frequently changed, otherwise the impression will be defective. For
+ribbons for wreaths, &c., a suitable piece of paper which had been
+damped some time before should be laid underneath.
+
+Although relief blocking upon bindings seems to be out of favour, there
+are numerous styles of imitation relief practised nowadays, especially
+in imitation of cut leather or wrought metal. This work necessitates the
+matrix or table being prepared with great care, as it must be the
+counterpart of the plate. For this purpose an impression is first made
+upon a stout cardboard, which is fixed firmly enough on the bed to
+prevent its shifting, the block being affixed to the platen. Upon this
+first cardboard are laid the raised parts according to the height
+required, likewise cut out of stout cardboard, continuing to place a
+layer upon the other until a true negative of the block is obtained.
+Small and slightly raised ornamentation is not specially underlaid,
+using instead a piece of stout board well smeared with cobblers' wax,
+which, after standing awhile under the plate in the closed press, will
+make a very exact and firm base. Matrices made up of several layers of
+cardboard pasted on top of each other are also, when finished, covered
+with a piece of pasted packing paper and then pressed. This leaf
+prevents single pieces from working loose and sticking to the block.
+
+For relief stamping, leather or cloth is stretched upon thin wrappers.
+The guide points must be made a little further apart on account of the
+material shrinking slightly under relief stamping.
+
+Colour blocking, which has gained such unexpected popularity, gives the
+finisher no little trouble. As blind blocking is done by the press, so
+also may colour blocking be done if the blocks are coloured with the
+brilliant colours specially prepared for printing. A colour roller, made
+by moulding English roller composition on a wooden pin, is used for
+colouring the blocks. The worker himself may cast these rollers in a
+well-greased mould. The roller composition is dissolved in water, and
+after being poured into the mould is allowed to stand a few hours to
+cool. The colour blocker keeps about three rollers ready, of which one
+is used for light colours, another for middle tones, and the third
+solely for black. The rollers are either fixed in a fork with two
+handles or an axle goes through the wooden pin which is bound in leather
+at each end wherein the axle revolves in the hollow of the hand.
+
+Fig. 66--Colour roller.
+
+The rollers spread the colour upon a stone of suitable size. The colour
+should be laid on the rollers--not on the stone--not too thickly, and
+then evenly distributed on the stone by bringing the roller over it
+backwards and forwards. Both stone and roller must always be cleaned
+after use; perfect cleanliness must be carefully observed throughout.
+The stone is cleaned with petroleum, the remaining colour is removed
+from the roller by passing it several times over a sheet of glass,
+rubbing it down with petroleum before again using it so as to remove any
+particle of dust adhering.
+
+In order that the colours may appear as bright as possible, a little
+varnish is added to them, which in every case must be of a kind to suit
+the particular colour. Dammar varnish is suitable for light colours, and
+for darker colours amber varnish. Where great brilliancy is required,
+Venetian turpentine is added; but this lengthens the time required for
+drying if a little too much is added.
+
+In every case, however, a little siccative must be added to every
+colour; a few drops materially quicken the drying.
+
+Colour blocking can only be done when the blocks have been secured to
+the plate, as this must be opened each time it is coloured.
+
+The simplest colour-printing is where one colour appears between the
+impression in gold, and in this case it is generally done by first
+making the impression in gold and then in colour.
+
+In more complex work several colours are to be used; at the present time
+the work is frequently produced requiring colours side by side and
+superimposed, together with gold, bronze, and aluminium.
+
+The process is in each case as follows: From the block supplied by the
+engraver an impression is made which forms a matrix. It is best to
+select a piece of board exactly the size of the covers to be printed and
+at the two places to be taken by the guide points pieces of vellum are
+firmly pasted, being already pierced for the guide points, these vellum
+additions being further secured by pasting over them a strip of paper or
+cloth. For every block to be used a similar board with its vellum
+additions is prepared. Upon the ground of this first matrix the other
+auxiliary matrices are likewise first impressed with the block--all of
+them black, of course, so that it would be possible at any time to fit
+in the blocks.
+
+Every new block for colour printing is pressed into the ground of the
+auxiliary matrix belonging to it; also for the so-called
+first-impression block.
+
+It must be understood that colour printing can be done well only upon a
+perfectly even and smooth surface, therefore it is wise with
+first-impression blocks, as well as larger colour plates, to repeat the
+impression, only slightly warm after having given a very hot impression
+the first time.
+
+Surface papers are an exception as they generally stand very little
+heat.
+
+It helps here either to let the newly made covers get half dry or,
+better, to let them lie longer in a damp room.
+
+When different colours are to be superimposed, the order in which they
+are printed is a matter of some importance. As a rule, the so-called
+warm tones (yellow, brown, red, or colours containing much of these) are
+printed first; the cold tones (blue or others containing much blue)
+being afterwards laid on. White is also classed as a cold tone, but for
+technical reasons it must nearly always be printed first. If these rules
+are observed, serious mistakes will seldom be made.
+
+Moreover, proof impressions of the different colours must be taken upon
+white cardboard, which should be marked for reference, in the same way
+noting the proportion of the colours used in mixed colours. If the
+outline block is to be printed in colour, it comes last; gold stamping
+being done first.
+
+The process of printing in bronze is similar to colour printing, as the
+bronze is dusted over a preliminary impression in colour (gold upon red
+or yellow ochre, aluminium upon white, coloured bronze upon a suitable
+similar colour). Bronze is not printed upon colour, because the bronze
+sticks too easily to such surfaces in places where it is not wanted; it
+is then much better to use gold-leaf.
+
+Should it be necessary on the score of economy to make a double working
+in bronze, the cover must be previously washed with glair.
+
+Leaf metals, pure or alloyed, are printed upon colours after they have
+been slightly dusted with gilding powder, and with moderate heat. The
+colours, however, must previously be allowed to dry thoroughly. Larger
+surfaces are wholly prepared with glair to prevent the gold from
+adhering where not required.
+
+Most of the colours must cover well where it is not intended that they
+should have a translucent effect. A good covering is not secured by
+laying the colour on thickly but by properly mixing the colours, and
+often also by giving a second coat after the first surface has dried.
+Above all, one must avoid too thick and greasy colours. Black must
+always be printed with a strong good covering colour, as must also the
+outline block.
+
+For colour printing, the press must be of the same temperature as the
+room. In winter it is slightly warmed an hour before use, and when
+necessary this must be repeated later.
+
+There are quite a number of little dodges not easily communicated but
+which are quickly picked up in practice.
+
+Fig. 67--Stuck-on gauges.
+
+Simple work is not adjusted by pins, but is pushed up to three guides;
+moreover, the gauge of the press is not generally used, but three little
+pieces of board are firmly glued to the table instead. The illustration
+(Fig. 67) will clearly show the arrangement. At the letters A the pieces
+of board are glued, to which the cover to be blocked is pushed up.
+
+To prevent these gauges from being pushed off, or to facilitate refixing
+in the event of their becoming loose, the gauge generally supplied with
+the press is brought close up behind them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+TREATMENT OF SEWN BOOKS: FASTENING IN COVERS AND FINISHING OFF.
+
+
+For better-class bindings and where hand tooling is to be done the
+covers are not made in advance as the books are formed and then case and
+covering made on the book itself. This results in a better appearance
+and a stronger connection between the book and its cover.
+
+It has already been explained (Chap. V., pp. 87-88) how the so-called
+hollow back is made in boarding.
+
+This kind of back, however, is only used in ordinary binding in half or
+whole cloth. For leather or half-leather bindings a strip of wrapping
+paper or thin cardboard is cut. The exact size is taken with a piece of
+paper across the back from the first to the last section. This strip
+must be exactly the same length as the cut boards to be used. The
+strips--afterwards representing raised bands--are laid upon this
+packing; these strips are best cut from waste pieces of cow-hide, but if
+this is not to hand, paste pieces of waste goat-skin three ply thick,
+press lightly, and, when dry, cut out of this material strips not
+exceeding 2 mm. in width. The position of the bands is carefully
+measured with the dividers and marked with pencil and straight-edge and
+the strips are then glued on in their places. The bands are left
+projecting over the edge until quite dry and at 3 mm. from the edge, and
+are then pared down to it.
+
+Illustration: Headband.
+
+For extra half-leather work the backs are previously glued round on the
+book itself. A strong--not too thick--packing paper is selected, the
+back is thinly coated with rather thick glue, and the paper, a little
+wider than four times the width of the back, is so laid on the back as
+to leave, say, the first two sheets free. As far as it sticks, the paper
+is rubbed down, then folded back to the other joint exactly at the last
+section, brought back tight over the back, and now firmly rubbed down on
+the strip left free at the first sheet. Exactly at the first sheet the
+paper is again folded over and pasted over the back, afterwards
+repeating the preceding glueing process. In this way the paper is folded
+from the joint and glued three times. The overlapping parts are cut off.
+The back now consists of four layers, the first of which is glued on to
+the book, the other three, of course, forming an arch over it, although
+they themselves are glued together. What is overlapping at top and
+bottom is cut off with the shears close by the headband, care being
+taken that the back is truly squared. The headband should be nearly but
+not quite as high as the squares. By so doing, the back will be 1/2 mm.
+shorter at each end after cutting than the boards. For this work the
+book is placed in the press so that the back stands out free.
+
+Bands that are to be fixed on are likewise placed in position and are
+then glued on with a round.
+
+The backs are covered with cloth or leather. The former is cut the
+required size, that is, allowing 2 to 3 cm. in width to overlap at each
+side, glued, the rounded backing strip laid exactly in the middle, and
+then placed in the hollow of the left hand. The right hand takes the
+book and both are brought together so that the backing fits exactly in
+each joint but corresponding to the height of the boards. When this
+adjustment has been obtained, the parts overlapping on the boards are
+pressed down for a time, and after again seeing that the position is
+right, they are drawn over firmly. It is best to stand the volume on its
+fore-edge and, using the palms of both hands together, rub the covering
+material firmly down on the boards. When the back is properly drawn on,
+the head and tail are turned in. With hollow backs the joints must be
+well rubbed down. It is necessary to cut off a small piece of the corner
+of the board at the joints at top and bottom; this may be done either
+with a sharp knife or shears, and, of course, before the book is
+covered.
+
+To make the turn-in (on the book), the book is placed with its back on
+the table, letting both boards fall back so that they lie open on the
+table. Take hold of the book at the edge between index and middle finger
+of the left hand and lift it out of the boards at the head; the right
+hand, with the help of the folder, turns the pasted lap inwards and rubs
+it well down without creases or wrinkles. After both pieces have been
+thus turned in, the back is further worked at the head to give it a good
+shape.
+
+Fig. 68--Turning in the head.
+
+The same process is gone through with books bound in whole cloth or half
+leather. In the latter case the leather must, of course, be pared down,
+as also in half calf or whole leather, the work with these being
+somewhat more elaborate.
+
+It is here of the utmost importance that the greatest attention should
+be given to careful paring of the leather, especially seeing that the
+leather is not too thick in the joint; if so, it must be reduced to the
+required thickness. It must be pared at the head so that the turn-over
+does not appear any thicker than the rest of the back. Leather used for
+covering books must be worked with paste, and paste only.
+
+Figs. 69 and 70--The head: good and bad.
+
+It must be drawn tight over the bands, and these should be well rubbed
+down with the folder. The turning-in is done in the same way, but the
+overlap--as far as the actual width of the book is concerned--is again
+drawn out so that it projects about 2 mm. over the headband.
+
+This projecting leather is pressed quite flat--not slant-wise--over the
+headband, so that seen from above it almost covers the latter.
+
+All half and full leather bound books have the corners of the boards
+next to the head pared down. This is done before covering--it not only
+makes the turning-in easier but the book has a better appearance and
+opens better.
+
+When the turning-in is finished, the book is opened wide and the boards
+adjusted so that both turnings-in are uniform and sharp and also that it
+has already, to a certain extent, a deep groove, and then closed. If no
+layer of waste paper has previously been sewn in, it may now be placed
+in the joint, so that after drying the boards may open quite freely and
+nicely.
+
+The closed book is now "tied up," that is to say, a cord is looped and
+tied right round the back at the joint. The turn-in is thus drawn in at
+the pared-down parts. Behind the cord the head and tail are pressed down
+with the folder to right and left, slightly outwards; whatever may have
+been drawn in by the cord is put right on the inside edge and the edges
+are rubbed sharp and square with the folder. The book is lying
+throughout on the paring stone, not upon the press-board.
+
+The foregoing applies to made cases as well as to those backs which are
+pasted on the books. With the former it is necessary to round the backs.
+This is done by drawing the back underneath a folder with a wave-like
+motion. It can easily be done after being once seen. To give the back a
+good hold on the book from the very outset, the inserted part is pasted
+narrowly at the joint before being laid on the pasted leather so that at
+this place it firmly adheres to the back.
+
+Backs that are stuck to the book itself are cut open about 2 cm. long at
+the joints with a small knife in order to take the "turn-in"; for the
+rest the work is the same.
+
+Corner making and covering are here exactly the same as already
+explained for the ready-made cover.
+
+Books bound in half or full cloth with hollow backs are treated in the
+following way: The glued cloth is laid flat upon the table, the back of
+the book placed in the centre of it, the book lifted up, lightly
+pressing the cloth to the back with the flat hand only, and then sharply
+rubbing down the overlapping sides at the joint with the point of the
+folder, rubbing the sides as well. For this, lay the book on the edge of
+the table so that the back stands clear. If the sides were brought over
+the boards at once, neither a sharp groove could be obtained nor would
+it be possible to draw over the cloth without creases.
+
+We now come to the finishing of the books, but we must first deal with
+the fastening of the book into the cover. By covers is understood either
+a cover made to fit a book to hand or a cover to which a book is to be
+made to fit. The latter is the more difficult.
+
+The book, when pulled to pieces, without end papers and sewing, should
+be about one-sixth thinner than with the paddings of the cover, thin
+books, of course, a little more. Thickness of thread and compressing or
+allowing to swell in sewing should equalize what difference there may
+be.
+
+If the book is ready trimmed, edges finished, pressed--it should always
+be cloth jointed--it is cased in. A packing is pasted on the back, that
+is to say, similar to glueing the back, the back is pasted on to the
+book itself, a strip of paper the proper width is laid on so that the
+two first sheets remain free, rubbed down, folded back from the other
+joint, pasted on the free margin, and the surplus cut off.
+
+In this way, not only is the back pasted over but it gets another
+covering of paper. The padding of the cover is now rounded, either by
+drawing it under the folder in the way mentioned or by drawing it to and
+fro over a chock fixed in the press. The book must suit the cover so
+that it fits tight into the joints. The padding of the back is glued,
+the book laid in, the boards at both sides well drawn over, a covering
+of paper laid over the back, and then well rubbed down with the flat
+folder. The pressing that finds so much favour is altogether
+superfluous, as it takes absolutely no effect upon the glued back. It is
+only when the covers are somewhat too narrow that the joints are
+improved by pressing. After the glue has set a little, the end papers
+are pasted on, _i.e._, they are pasted over and lie open until
+thoroughly dry. It is done as follows:--
+
+Insert a piece of waste paper under the cloth joint, the joint itself
+getting a thin coat of rather weak glue. The bands, which must remain
+free although cut off to leave only 2 cm. in length, are laid over the
+joint and likewise glued. Now lay the book square before you, the open
+board next the table edge, and with the point of a knife first lift the
+bands from the cloth joint, lay them taut over the smooth board and
+smooth them down with the knife so that everything lies smooth and even,
+taking special care that the bands are not noticeable in the joint
+through any evenness. The cloth joint is now drawn over and well rubbed
+down on the board, the latter being at the same time well pressed on the
+joint so that it has quite a straight sharp edge.
+
+The book lies open in this way to dry, but it may be turned, placed on a
+board, pushed up to the joint, and the other side similarly pasted on.
+
+Fig. 71--The pasted-down book.
+
+Plainer bindings, especially school books and publishers' cheap cases,
+are often pasted down with only the outer leaf or white end paper and
+without a cloth joint, whilst here the coloured end paper has still to
+be pasted down; in the former case proceed as follows:--
+
+The back--without packing--is simply glued over, the packing rounded.
+The book is properly placed in the cover, and the outside fly
+leaf--afterwards an end paper--and bands are pasted, the latter at the
+same time being smoothed out with a knife or folder; the boards are then
+closed, pressing them over very sharply. The book is turned and the
+other side done in the same way, and at once pressed.
+
+Where a cloth joint has to be pasted on, a paste-down must be pasted on
+to the board.
+
+The practice of doing the coloured end papers at the same time as the
+book is not so good as subsequent pasting down, as they are then less
+likely to be injured during trimming and colouring the edges, &c.
+
+The paste-down is first cut to size a little less than the book itself
+and fastened in with thin glue so that the paper is close to the joint
+but not so close as to cause it to swell. The counterpart of the fly
+leaf is pasted on to it, both leaves are cut with a knife close along
+the joint, for back and front, about 1/2 cm. wide, are pushed up, thinly
+pasted, and pasted into the book up to the pressed joint. The leaves so
+hinged in are now raised, the under leaf thinly coated with thin glue,
+the leaf closed and rubbed down under paper with a folder. Immediate
+pressing is to be avoided, as the thin glue is very easily squeezed out.
+After a while the pressing is done, of course, when zinc plates--if
+necessary, polished boards--should be inserted between the end papers,
+and not too great pressure applied.
+
+If the boards have been fastened on with paste and without a back, zinc
+plates are also used, but between the first and last sheets of the book,
+so as to press these very smooth and to prevent the plates from sticking
+to the damp end papers.
+
+Half or whole cloth, half leather, or, generally speaking, all bindings
+which are not pasted down open, are laid upon a board, pasting thinly
+with thin paste first one side, then turning the book and pasting the
+other, and then pressing. In doing quantities, ten may be done before
+pressing.
+
+Cheap work is often pressed by laying the volumes crosswise upon each
+other and pressing in batches between boards. Books with a deep joint
+where the bands are either laid on the board or laced in are always
+pasted down open. Where cloth or leather jointed, this is done in a
+similar way to boarding in covers, except that the bands need not be
+considered here, as they have already been seen to. Working the leather
+well in the joint and firmly pressing back the board after turning in
+the head lighten this work and improve the appearance of the joint.
+Leather joints are always pasted down open with paste, but must, of
+course, be left lying longer.
+
+The so-called double end papers, that is, without cloth or leather
+joint, are very effective. Only the best and strongest paper can be used
+for these. The double sheet, folded in the middle, is narrowly pasted at
+the back and fixed in the joint of the book--not in the fold of the
+joint but in the joint made by pressing. This prevents the bend coming
+on the place where the paper has already become weakened by sharp
+creasing, but near it. The half for the fly leaf is at once pasted down;
+that to be pasted on the board must first be cut to size. The end paper
+is cut off at head and tail of the book, the book opened, the end paper
+laid over the board, and with the dividers is marked out on the
+paste-down parallel with the edges, somewhat less than the book. At the
+fold marked by the edge of the board at the joint, nick in with the
+scissors up to the mark made, slip under this a zinc plate, and on this
+cut the end paper by the mark up to the nicks. It is understood that the
+end papers should not be cut off right round the book, otherwise they
+would become too scant at the fore-edge.
+
+A piece of waste paper is now laid under the paste down, thinly coated
+with glue, the leaf drawn tightly over the board and rubbed down; at the
+same time a piece of paper is laid over the joint as above. When pasting
+in the cover, the book is placed square and the joint strongly and
+briskly rubbed down with finger and thumb of both hands.
+
+Fig. 72--Treatment of tear-off.
+
+A paper having a design must, of course, be laid in the same direction
+as the book. Where paste-down and fly leaf are to be pasted on
+separately, it must be so arranged that, after the pasting, one leaf
+forms the counterpart of the other, that is to say, the design must run
+through and be broken only by the joint. To effect this it is necessary
+that the paste-down should be first pasted on; when pasting on the fly
+leaf the work can be made right.
+
+Silk paste-down and fly leaves are frequently used for extra work, the
+silk here being stretched over a piece of stout paper and pasted
+narrowly at the edges.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+HAND FINISHING.
+
+
+When the books have been bound they are generally ornamented in gold or
+in some other way. Although the more elaborate finishing in gold is not
+done in the ordinary bindery, but is confined to the art binderies,
+sufficient instruction will be given here for the simpler finishing on
+back and side.
+
+Gold finishing is only learned at the cost of much patience and long,
+painstaking practice. Although the technical schools teach finishing in
+a comparatively short time--usually in a few months--only the
+ground-work can thus be acquired, for it takes years of practice to
+teach all the technicalities and to make an expert finisher, equal to
+any calls made upon him.
+
+It may also be mentioned here that in most technical schools the work is
+executed with the very best and most suitable tools and, furthermore,
+the whole interior arrangement of the workshop is as favourable to the
+work as can be conceived, and thus all conditions for good work prevail.
+When young workers come from such an institution to work under strange
+conditions, where they have to struggle along with unfamiliar and
+perhaps unsuitable and antiquated tools, bad light, and other drawbacks,
+it is not to be wondered at if they--at the outset, at least--do not
+answer all expectations. Similar inconveniences have less effect upon
+old and experienced workers, as they have the steadiness and assurance
+which come to them as the result of long years of work, and they,
+therefore, never become nervous and fidgety. A cool head and a steady
+hand are the first essentials in a finisher, and after these the feeling
+for neatness and exactness.
+
+Gold tooling has evolved from the blind tooling of the 15th century,
+which up to that time had been the only method of decoration for the
+exterior of books, excepting where gold or jewels were used. The first
+application of this method was in drawn lines made by running the heated
+fillet alongside the rule, and even to-day the fillet, although improved
+in make, still retains its place as a suitable tool for the decoration
+of leather backs and sides. Speaking generally, blind tooling is not
+sufficiently appreciated by finishers, especially in shops doing much
+hand tooling; to many it is almost unknown, and they would be at a loss
+if there were any demand for it, and yet it is eminently suitable for
+simple finishing with slender resources, to obtain a result at once
+chaste and striking without excessive ornament, and this without a
+costly assortment of tools and other special appliances.
+
+Before proceeding to the details in the work of finishing, a few
+preliminary observations may be made.
+
+Blind tooling is the ornamenting of leather with tools without the
+application of gold. It might also be correctly described as matt
+tooling. Its peculiarity and beauty consist in its rendering the tooling
+on the leather in a darker tone. Blind tooling may be executed upon
+leathers of any colour, but its full decorative effect is seen only upon
+light colours, especially upon undyed calf and pig-skin and also upon
+coloured unpolished calf.
+
+To produce the deepest and most uniform tone it is necessary to damp the
+leather previous to tooling. As it is well that the whole surface to be
+tooled should retain some moisture it is advisable to damp it evenly
+with a sponge on beginning the work.
+
+The simplest tools are, as already mentioned, the fillets, which may be
+single, double, or triple, with lines of equal or different thickness.
+
+The design is carefully traced with dividers, folder, and rule, and the
+heated tools run along the rule. Before applying the tool, which should
+be only moderately heated, the line previously marked out should be
+damped with a suitable brush. The instant the moisture has been absorbed
+by the leather, the tool should be applied. There should be no hissing,
+as the tool should be only lukewarm for the first application. The roll
+must touch the leather at the beginning without any uncertainty and the
+line made at once and without stopping, as otherwise a darker shade
+would appear in places.
+
+Figs. 73 and 74--Simple line designs.
+
+Each time before using the roll it is passed over a well-greased piece
+of leather.
+
+The impression should appear uniformly brown; if it is lighter at any
+part, it has not been sufficiently damped; if darker at another place
+from the beginning, then that part was too damp. Success depends before
+everything else upon uniform damping of the leather and correct heating
+of the tool.
+
+With ordinary cleanliness and care, complete success is assured in this
+method of finishing.
+
+After the surface of the leather has again become dry in all places, the
+whole design is again gone over, but this time with the roll a little
+hotter, at the same time rubbing the roll well with the greased cloth.
+If there had been unevenness in the depth of colour before, it will
+hardly be possible to remedy it now, for the light places remain so and
+the dark ones become even darker.
+
+Where blind filleting is done it is usual to do die tooling at the same
+time. It is advisable--especially for novices--to apply the die without
+heat to the damp leather, then to damp specially and apply the die
+lukewarm as in filleting. Tooling with dies is essentially different
+from filleting in the method of execution. The fillet polishes whilst
+running on, the die remains on the one place, and yet every part must
+receive an equally good impression. In order to secure a good impression
+from a die it is necessary to apply it promptly, and press without
+hesitating as to where to begin. To ensure all parts of the tool being
+well impressed, its surface is slightly curved lengthwise, and according
+to this curve the die must be rocked to and fro whilst impressing. If
+too much time is wasted before the die is applied the impression will
+turn out lighter. By allowing the heated die to remain long on the
+surface of the leather, the latter loses its moisture at that place and
+the die could not produce any further deepening of the colour. Such
+places must be again damped and tooled until a uniform tone is attained.
+Care must be taken that this repetition does not produce "doubling,"
+that is, a blurred appearance of the design, and also that it does not
+lead to indistinctness of outline.
+
+Blind tooling upon light leathers is to-day called upon to satisfy the
+needs of the less wealthy just as it was 300 years ago, for in such a
+style of decoration the utmost durability and moderate cost are
+combined, and its very simplicity enhances its beauty.
+
+Fig. 75--Half-calf extra tooled in blind.
+
+Fig. 76--Leather binding with simple design in blind.
+
+Now for the hand finishing. It is first of all necessary that we should
+be able to letter straight, at first upon a board. For the tooling of
+long straight lines, dotted lines, or other style of lines upon the
+sides, rolls are required, upon the circumference of which the design is
+engraved, whilst for tooling upon the back the so-called fillets are
+generally used, which likewise are used only for lines or patterns.
+Besides, certain kinds of ornaments are here printed with dies--the rows
+of letters with the type-holder in which these are set. All these tools
+are heated over a flame--best over gas--to the temperature suited to the
+material operated upon. To make the gold adhere, the material to be
+tooled is sized or "glaired" with one part vinegar to three parts white
+of egg well whisked or beaten and filtered, as is done in blocking.
+Other materials for sizing will be dealt with later.
+
+Fig. 77--Simple gold tooling on sides.
+
+Lines are made along the sides and at corners of the boards, especially
+on paper-covered boards; this is called "running a line up" or
+"filleting."
+
+The line to be gilded is clearly marked with a sharp folder, picked out
+with glair, and the gold, which is taken up on the roll, is printed in.
+
+Fig. 78--Tooled cover.
+
+The gold leaf is cut on the cushion into narrow strips about 1 cm. wide,
+and the warm (each time wiped clean) and slightly greased roll is
+lightly passed over it so that the strip of gold adheres to the
+circumference of the roll, and then rolled off with a firm and even
+pressure on to the place intended.
+
+This is now gone over with a wool rag (or gold rag), and only the
+printed line is left; the surplus gold remains in the rag.
+
+Fig. 79--Specimen of tooling done in the Duesseldorf Technical School.
+
+Near the finishing stove should stand--as also for blind tooling--a
+shallow saucer containing water and also a common brush similar to those
+sold with bottles of gum. A drop of water is thrown from this brush on
+to the hot tool in order to test its heat. Cloth is printed with fairly
+hot tools; they should hiss a little when tested. Goat-skin requires a
+heat almost sufficient to produce hissing, whilst hissing would
+indicate too hot a tool for use on morocco, and all sheep-skins will
+bear only moderate heat. If the roll was too hot, the gold would have no
+brilliance, and if too cold, would appear broken. Calf requires the same
+heat as cloth, but quick working, especially on first applying the tool.
+The roll has a long handle which rests against the shoulder whilst held
+in the right hand. When getting into position for an impression the
+thumb-nail of the left hand is used as a guide and support.
+
+Fig. 80--Leather binding by Oswald Kob, Bozen.
+
+A line around a cover is marked out correctly with dividers and folder,
+picked out with size, and printed in gold in the same way. The rolls
+have a notch, which is for starting and ending at the corners; these
+must always be joined exactly. Rolls for two or more lines must print
+the corners perfectly diagonal, and for this purpose such rolls are cut
+so as to print a true diagonal corner; one corner being made for the
+beginning and the other for the end. Of course it is impossible to print
+long lines with only one revolution of the roll. The roll is run along
+the line from starting point until near the end, lifted off, and again
+placed on the spot just quitted, a little behind the starting point of
+the roll, so that this part does not show. This is repeated as often as
+the length of the line necessitates. In order to secure good corners,
+the roll is lifted just before reaching the corner and a corner tool is
+used for the corner itself. At no point should one be able to see where
+the roll was set on or taken off, and the result should be a straight,
+even line, showing no trace of inequality.
+
+Fig. 81--Cover with laurel motive done in the Duesseldorf Technical
+School.
+
+For single lines, the gold is generally taken up on the previously
+heated roll; but in using wider rolls it is better to lay the gold on
+with the tip and press it well down with surgical cotton wool.
+
+Places where the gold did not stick or which look gritty must be sized
+afresh and once more tooled. The beginner generally finds that the gold
+does not stick at the point where he begins, a sure sign that he
+hesitated too long on commencing.
+
+It has already been said that white of egg is used for making the gold
+adhere, and there are, indeed, very few materials requiring any other
+treatment, yet we know of a number of cases where white of egg alone is
+insufficient to fulfil this purpose--not, indeed, because it is
+unsuitable, but because the quality of the leather is such that the
+white of egg would be absorbed too quickly (calf, tanned sheep) or that
+it would take badly and unequally.
+
+Just as certain kinds of leather are difficult to treat, so also are
+old, long-stocked skins. If the finisher knows that such a piece of
+leather lies before him, he ought to rub it down on the raw side with
+best olive oil; it will thus receive a substitute for the lost natural
+fatty matter and become more supple. This oiling, of course, is only
+practicable with dark leathers, as light leathers nearly always become
+darker. A skin so treated should be rolled up and laid aside for a few
+days.
+
+At any rate, such a defective leather is improved by a previous washing
+with size, no matter whether it be made from vellum, gelatine, or glue.
+It must not, however, be made from the commonest kinds of glue, as these
+make the leather dull.
+
+Vellum cuttings, or gelatine, are soaked overnight in water sufficient
+to cover, and next day dissolved in a sort of glue-pot. This sizing must
+be used very thin and should not be quite cold. In using ordinary glue,
+two drops of medium strength to about three table-spoonfuls of warm
+water will suffice.
+
+Many finishers prefer thin paste water as a size, with which they coat
+the whole surface; personally, however, I would only recommend it for
+unpolished calf--but here there is a real necessity for it. In this case
+it is liberally laid on in large sweeps with a sponge--not new, and free
+from grit--and then well rubbed into the pores of the leather with the
+ball of the hand. The surplus is quickly washed off with clean water.
+
+Large surfaces left plain are also washed with gum tragacanth, because
+this sizing leaves no lines behind. About 10 grammes of tragacanth to
+1/4 litre water are soaked in a vessel, and after swelling it is well
+stirred. This solution is also laid on with a sponge, but is not rubbed
+in, neither is it subsequently washed off.
+
+These two methods of sizing will be found sufficient to meet all cases.
+
+There are certain materials that do not allow the use of a liquid
+sizing, particularly silk and velvet. The latter is no longer finished
+by hand, and even blocking velvet is now considered bad style.
+
+For gold tooling on such materials gilding powder is used; it is to be
+had either white or yellow, but for hand tooling the white only is
+required.
+
+Although no exact rules can be given for determining the temperature of
+the tools used upon the various materials, yet we must try to give a
+general rule for each kind.
+
+We will use the following terms to distinguish the different degrees of
+heat: Lukewarm, _i.e._, not the slightest hissing when tested; medium,
+_i.e._, just on the border of hissing; hot, slightly hissing. In the
+following group the method of sizing is repeated, and a scheme for the
+approximately exact temperature of the tools is given.
+
+Cloth, goat-skin, and marbled leather (without previous sizing, white of
+egg): medium heat.
+
+Sheep-skin and lamb-skin (glue size, white of egg): medium heat. Calf
+(white of egg): hot.
+
+Morocco goat (without sizing, white of egg): medium heat.
+
+Morocco, Levant morocco, crushed morocco (glue size--painted in, white
+of egg): lukewarm.
+
+Pig-skin, Russia, seal (without sizing, white of egg): lukewarm.
+
+Mention has already been made of a wash of paste water for matt calf. As
+a rule, the whole surface is washed with this preparation, as it is
+thereby rendered less liable to finger marks. In the very best shops
+there is still another method. The leather is washed down with
+tragacanth and the previously impressed design picked out with white of
+egg and quickly tooled with tools medium to hot.
+
+Vellum requires a special treatment. On the day before it is to be
+finished in gold it is washed with alum solution and, for gold tooling,
+sized with undiluted white of egg and tooled lukewarm.
+
+When tooling is done with powder it is dusted on by means of a
+powder-box, over which is stretched some thin material, and tooled
+lukewarm.
+
+The great convenience in the use of powder induces many binders to adopt
+it for leather and cloth also. This practice is objectionable, and the
+conscientious finisher will always avoid it. It may be excused when a
+name has to be printed on a Prayer-book or similar article in a hurry,
+or when an article is already varnished, as powder in such a case is
+very convenient and satisfactory, but under any other conditions it is a
+sign of incompetence.
+
+Tooling upon powder on leather looks very gritty and unsightly after
+having undergone many changes of temperature, as the latter greatly
+affects this material. Its brightness vanishes entirely--a thing that
+never happens when white of egg has been used.
+
+It must still be observed that tooling with lukewarm tools must be done
+slowly, and with hot tools quickly. Nearly all inexperienced finishers
+use too hot tools.
+
+
+Fig. 82--Leather binding with fern motive done in the Duesseldorf
+Technical School.
+
+So far, we have dealt with the preparation for finishing and tooling
+with a roll. Besides this tool there are fillets, gouges, and dies, all
+nearly the same, being dies, and only differing in shape. Nearly all
+beginners are unreasonably afraid to use the gouge. Any one able to use
+the roll properly will have little difficulty with the gouges. A genuine
+technical difficulty does arise when only a small portion of a curve may
+be worked (which frequently happens) on account of its having to be
+joined to another. Moreover, the joining of one curve to another must
+not be seen.
+
+Every single gouge of the complete set (it should contain at least 20
+pieces) forms the quarter of a circle. The gouges are chosen according
+to the design, so that the tools placed thereon cover the outlined
+design exactly, and the tool numbers are noted on the designs so that
+they may be quickly and surely picked up when required for use.
+
+The tyro is apt to select sizes too large and to print the curve sloping
+instead of perpendicular; this must be guarded against.
+
+Double gouges are not easily used in the same way, as the joinings
+cannot be concealed; they may be used for making first outlines, which
+must be finished with single curves.
+
+Fig. 83--Simple gold tooling on squares.
+
+Faulty places must be done over and over again until the whole is
+perfect and brilliant and all the gold adhering.
+
+Fillets are nothing more than long narrow dies of either simple or
+ornamental lines. It is the practice of the old school to widen the
+impression of narrow fillets by continuous rocking of the hand to right
+and left, as they are fond of doing when lettering with a type-holder.
+This practice is fundamentally wrong. Work finished in this way will
+never show the quiet and uniform brilliance in the gold to be seen in
+work where the movement was only in the direction of the dies and
+fillets.
+
+Besides tooling the front sides, the inside edges or squares are
+generally ornamented in extra work. A simple but very effective
+decoration for the edge consists of a line close to the edge of the
+board and also one close to the end paper and a connecting line at the
+corner; such an edge is previously polished with a burnisher. To do this
+the leather is slightly damped, the tool moderately heated--not
+hissing--and then polished with long even strokes.
+
+Fig. 84--Design in gold for squares. Tools by F. Clement, Leipzig.
+
+Figs. 85 and 86--Two designs in gold for squares.
+
+With the help of rolls and dies, even richer decoration may be produced,
+and really artistic ornament designed and executed on the inside as well
+as on the outside cover. Such work, however, does not come within the
+limits of this treatise. We must be satisfied with giving a few
+illustrations of the less elaborate designs. Rolls are very often used
+in finishing the edges, so as to fill up at once the whole width of the
+space, and about this we must say a few words. Rolls with a pattern
+have, as is known, no notch, and therefore may be used for a run on of
+any length without a break. For smaller margins and cheap work the rolls
+are frequently run over each other. This saves time but it does not
+produce a nice effect, as the design is blurred at the point of
+crossing. It is better to lay the gold leaf on one side and to remove it
+exactly at the corner and then tool; the side next to it is now treated
+in exactly the same way, giving special attention to the removal of the
+leaf at the corner. The design is thus made to join together at the
+corners without crossing, because the roll will only leave its
+impression as far as the gold goes. For extra work, however, a die
+suiting the roll in width and design should be chosen, and leaving as
+much of the corners as the die will cover free from gold, the remainder
+of the surface is covered with the leaf and tooled. With a little skill,
+the roll can be taken up exactly where the gold leaf ceases. The edge is
+then cleaned with the gold rag and fresh gold laid on for the corner
+die and then tooled. By this method the design at the corner is
+correctly finished.
+
+
+Figs. 87, 88, and 89--Three simple backs. T, d, B = Title; N, T = Sub
+Title.
+
+Gold tooling on the back is more difficult on account of its convexity.
+For this work the volume is placed in a little wooden press which finds
+a place upon the bench, or in a special contrivance which can be screwed
+to the bench.
+
+Fig. 90--Type-holder with centre position.
+
+To ensure good results in tooling the back, it is necessary that the
+work to be done should be accurately marked out beforehand. The bands
+are measured out by means of the dividers if they do not already show as
+raised bands. With a pointed folder draw this traced design accurately
+upon a strip of cardboard. Blind lines are made upon cloth before the
+latter has become quite dry; in other cases tool the first impression
+hot and vigorously, pick out the impression with white of egg, and then
+tool with lukewarm fillets. In making lines, the fillets may be drawn to
+and fro, whereby a great brilliancy will be produced. Gold lines or
+ornamental fillets are picked out with white of egg and then tooled in
+gold. For simple lines the gold is taken up from the cushion; for
+ornamental fillets the gold is carried to the back.
+
+Lettering the back is an art in itself as regards the arrangement of the
+lines, but besides this it requires considerable practical experience.
+The letters are composed and screwed up in the type-holder for printing.
+The type-holder, with the letters, must never be placed over the heating
+stove, for in Germany letters made of lead are still most generally
+used, and these would melt very quickly if placed over the stove.
+Moreover, the letters should be screwed up just tight enough to prevent
+their falling out. The heat expands them and they are then locked quite
+firmly enough in the type-holder.
+
+In arranging the letters the following general rules should be
+observed:--
+
+  1.--Always use types from the same fount in a title.
+
+  2.--For books printed in Gothic (black letter) type use Gothic letters;
+  for books printed in Latin types use the same for lettering.
+
+  3.--All lines in a title should be set either in lower case only or in
+  caps. only.
+
+  4.--Gothic and Latin in a title are inconceivable.
+
+  5.--Except for abbreviations, points are no longer used in the titles of
+  books, not even at the end; neither is a comma placed after the author's
+  name.
+
+  6.--Nowadays, a short line is always made under the author's name.
+
+Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94--Four backs tooled in the Duesseldorf Technical
+School.
+
+As regards the length of line and choice of types, the following should
+be observed:
+
+  1.--The most important word (catch-words) should be made prominent by
+  larger type or spacing.
+
+Fig. 95--Group of backs tooled in Carlsruhe Technical School.
+
+Figs. 96 and 97--Two richly decorated insides done in the Duesseldorf
+Technical School.
+
+  2.--The oftener a short conjunction or article (for, the, and, or, &c.)
+  is placed between the lines, the more effective will the title be; such
+  words must be set in smaller type.
+
+  3.--Two lines of equal length should not come together; long and short
+  alternating as much as possible.
+
+  4.--The author's name is set in type a little smaller than the principal
+  catch-word.
+
+Figs. 98, 99, 100, and 101--Four richly tooled backs.
+
+  5.--The lettering is most effective when the type is selected and
+  arranged so that it rises in size towards the middle line and then
+  decreases.
+
+  6.--Unnecessary length tends to indistinctness; the best title tells
+  what the book is in very few words, and should be easily read at a
+  little distance.
+
+Fig. 102--Rich half-calf extra binding.
+
+It is impossible to mark out the whole of the title with the dividers
+unless a specimen copy is at hand from which the spaces can be measured.
+The best guide is the eye. The distance between the lines should be
+equal; a plain line is reckoned as a line of type and must not be placed
+at half the distance between the lines.
+
+If a line with letters having long upstrokes (literature, hostile,
+latter, &c.) follows one without long downstrokes (never, miner, memoir,
+&c.) the lines must come a little closer than when a line having long
+downstrokes (poppy, Ganges, &c.) comes over one having long upstrokes.
+In this respect the binder is in a more difficult position than the
+printer, as the latter need give no attention to this, his title never
+being so cramped into little space.
+
+The effectiveness of a leather back can be considerably heightened by
+evenly smoothing and polishing the title panel with a burnisher. Such a
+back with the title panel enclosed within a square with only a fine
+double line at the head and tail and also a fine line close to the head
+is perhaps the best that an ordinary bookbindery can produce. It is
+essential, however, that every detail should be faultlessly executed,
+especially the title.
+
+Tooling a square is frequently done. The beginner should always use the
+roll for this, although tool makers produce line pieces for the work. It
+is easier to print straight with the roll than with the line pieces,
+which require skill to use. Special attention should be given to
+joinings at corners, so that neither gaps nor overlapping are seen.
+
+For the rest we have given a number of different designs of backs (pp.
+149, 150, 151) as well as a few richly tooled half-calf bindings, and
+also two specimens of highly ornamented insides (p. 150).
+
+
+Figs. 103 and 104--Tooling on heads.
+
+The head and tail and edges are often decorated in higher class work. Of
+course the style of finishing is very limited on account of the
+smallness of the surface. Fillets and rolls are generally used for this
+work, being worked on the cap as seen in the illustrations, and always
+directed towards a central point. The gold for the head and tail and
+edges is cut to size on the cushion, the edges slightly greased, and the
+gold taken up by the book itself.
+
+The accompanying illustrations give suggestions for the gilding of
+edges.
+
+Figs. 105, 106, and 107--Tooling on the edges of the boards.
+
+Fig. 108--Motive executed in the Duesseldorf Technical School.
+
+Lining is done on almost all books. For this the "jigger" is used. It is
+heated so that it hisses slightly, and with one quick and sure movement
+is drawn along the straight edge. The line is drawn away from the
+worker, that is, contrary to the way one would draw a line with a lead
+pencil. Lines are drawn along paper, past back and corners, often also
+right round the edge, over leather or cloth and cover; the closer to the
+edge the more effective the line.
+
+Many of the more costly books take a case to protect them from injury.
+For trade purposes this is simply cut from plain boards and remains
+uncovered.
+
+Fig. 109--Case to protect book.
+
+Fig. 110--Cut-out case.
+
+The parts _A_ overlap and are either pasted together or wired with the
+machine.
+
+Fig. 111--Book cover.
+
+Fig. 112--Cover in case form.
+
+Similar cases of thinner boards--but covered--are made for hymn and
+prayer books. They are always pasted, covered with a dark pressed paper;
+and the edge at the centre is cut with a gouge as seen in the adjoining
+illustration (Fig. 110).
+
+Hymn and prayer books may at times have a cover; this would be cut from
+stout paper, generally calf-leather paper, the colour of the case
+covering (See Fig. 111).
+
+Covers made in case form entail more work (Fig. 112). The centre piece
+has a joint at each side; this part is, therefore, covered with cloth,
+which extends over the parts _B_ and _C_, all the rest being covered
+with dark pressed paper.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ACCOUNT BOOKS.
+
+
+Account books are nowadays almost always made by wholesale firms, but
+there are still, now and then, considerable orders given to medium and
+small firms for special work; yet it is just in these small shops that
+antiquated methods of work are still followed to a certain extent, to
+deal fully with which would require a volume in itself.
+
+To-day, the methods generally followed are based upon the principle that
+the spring back, reaching a finger's width over the side, must work
+strongest on the book itself, and that such a one opens best. Upon this
+principle is based the untanned leather spring back, which, being a
+patent, has become a somewhat expensive style.
+
+It is cheaper to make up the backs with wrappers, for which machines are
+also to be had; but, nevertheless, the principle is the same, and both
+answer the same purpose, although the former is lighter and more
+durable; it cannot be denied, however, that after long use the cover
+works loose.
+
+For account books, only the best and strongest paper--ruled or
+printed--is used, always according to sample. Of course, the work of
+ruling can hardly be considered as coming within the scope of this book.
+
+The paper is folded together in sections of three to five sheets,
+according to the thickness and quality of the paper. For heavy books a
+strip of jaconet is folded in the middle of the inner sheet of each
+section before sewing, and, in any case, this should be done with every
+first and last three sheets. The end paper makes a section in itself,
+which, like all others, is taken up in the sewing--it has previously
+been attached to the third section by means of strips of jaconet. In the
+end paper a coloured fly leaf and linen joint are pasted.
+
+Figs. 113 and 114--End papers for account books.
+
+The following is a practical way of making the end paper:--
+
+     1.--Take a strip of linen (not cloth) three fingers wide, and glue
+     on narrowly two sheets of plain paper or paper of another colour,
+     and fold in the middle.
+
+     2.--One sheet of a double sheet of white paper is coated with thin
+     glue, and the hinged leaf No. 1 is pasted to it.
+
+     3.--The end section is pasted in behind the first sheet of the
+     first section, the white sheet is pasted upon the second sheet of
+     the ruled paper; around the whole section a strip of jaconet is
+     sewn, or
+
+     3a.--A piece of jaconet 1 cm. wide is so hinged to the white double
+     sheet of this section that half of it remains free; in this fold
+     the second section is sewn.
+
+Better-class work intended to serve for years of office use is again
+being sewn with thread on tapes; the cheaper work is machine
+wire-stitched.
+
+In hand sewing, double bands--a wide, strong linen tape--are used, end
+to end, of course, and with strong thread.
+
+The bands are also stretched upon the sewing frame; for folio, at least
+six are used, and for quarto not less than four.
+
+It has already been said that the sections are sewn throughout, and,
+further, that the end section is likewise similarly sewn with them
+through the linen joint--in high class work with coloured cordonnet
+silk. All sheets, without exception, are kettle-stitched at the end.
+Large books are not usually glued up the whole of the back, but only at
+head and tail, with perhaps a little in the middle; they are only
+completely glued up after having been rounded in the press, as this
+makes them retain their shape longer.
+
+If it is decided to do any marbling, the fore-edge is marbled
+immediately after trimming it. Rounding is more pronounced in this than
+in ordinary work, otherwise the spring back would have no effect with
+such bulk, and the book would easily go out of shape.
+
+The account book is also pressed, but not in the same way as printed
+books, as the former has its groove pressed quite out. After careful
+adjustment between boards, they are squared to the edge of the first and
+last sheet, the whole lifted into the press, and the back glued with
+very hot glue. The bands are generally left outside the boards, as they
+would leave marks too pronounced on the book if pressed inside. After
+the book has thoroughly dried in the press, it is cut at top and bottom,
+marbled, or some other suitable treatment given to the edges, and then
+pasted up. The "clothing up" of the account book is done either with
+soft leather and paste or with mole-skin specially prepared for the
+purpose; in the former case the bands are omitted, that is, only the
+parts between the bands are pasted. In pasting up with mole-skin, only
+the back may be glued--never the covering material. The covering
+material has a loose overlap of 4 cm. at each side.
+
+Account books take a stronger headband than other books; it must reach
+on to the board, which it binds to the book. For this purpose the board
+must first have been affixed.
+
+In the first place, a thin but very strong board is laid--about 1-1/2
+mm. from the joint--upon the first sheet, which has been completely
+coated with glue; the bands are pasted out upon this board, as also are
+the leather or beaver clothing overlaps.
+
+It is obvious that this thin board is not stout enough for this heavy
+book, therefore a second heavier board--or, if necessary, even a
+third--is pasted to it; but as the back now goes over on to the board,
+the heavier board must be set back sufficiently to prevent it from
+pushing into the back when opening the book.
+
+As the pasting together of these boards makes them very thick, and such
+thick boards not being easily cut, they are generally cut the required
+size beforehand. Before pasting the thicker board upon the first board,
+the back is prepared.
+
+Fig. 115--Boards cut out at head.
+
+First of all, the headband. It is carried on to each board 3 cm. deep,
+and the boards must therefore be cut out the same distance up to the
+edge; at _A_ the board is bevelled off on the inside. Now cut a piece of
+coloured chamois leather--dark red or green--5 cm. wide and as long as
+the distance from one notch across the back to the other. The back at
+_B_ is now glued, the strip of leather laid on so that it projects
+1-1/2 cm. beyond the edge, and the ends at each side brought equally to
+the bevelled part _A_. At both sides these are pushed in under the thin
+board and well pasted down, whilst the piece projecting over the edge is
+glued and turned backwards; but in order to strengthen the piece on the
+back of the book, a piece of card as long as the width of the back is
+laid in.
+
+The back is selected either from ready-made undressed leather backs of
+suitable length and width, or is made on the machine. The practice of
+pasting the backs at the edges only does not seem satisfactory, because
+on the one hand it does not give sufficient spring, and on the other the
+single sections easily work loose. For pasted backs, stout wrappers are
+taken, and the strips are cut so that each one slightly overlaps in
+width the one preceding. The glued and fitted strips are either pressed
+hot in the rounding press or put through a rolling machine built for the
+same purpose. The finished backs should be allowed to dry for a short
+time. Where there is no machine suitable for this work, the backs must
+be pasted into each other, beginning at the outside, and well rubbed
+down upon a board made with grooves of various dimensions. The older
+method of pasting the backing upon the book itself is still followed,
+although it does not produce the firm arch nor give such a good shape as
+the former method. When it must be done, the following is the way to
+proceed: The size is taken by laying a piece of paper across the back
+(taking in 1/2 cm. of the board on each side), and with the dividers
+this measure is marked out on a strip of wrapping paper, which must be
+the exact length of the board, but wide enough to project about a hand's
+width over each board. So that this should not have an unsightly
+appearance in the book, it is bevelled along each side.
+
+Fig. 116--Suggestion for account book back. _K_--Pared edge; _T_--Part
+to be pasted.
+
+According to the measurement marked by the dividers at top and bottom,
+a rule is laid from _a_ to _a_, and along this a sharp line is drawn
+with the folder, and the lappets projecting underneath the rule are bent
+upwards. At this line thus marked, the wrapper is folded over and
+creased with the folder. A second parallel line is made in the same way,
+about 6 to 7 mm. farther out, from _b_ to _b_. The back thus prepared is
+rounded in the middle part; a strip the size _a_ to _a_ might still be
+pasted in the centre. To fasten this to the book, both strips are glued
+with strong glue from _b_ to the edge, the back brought into position,
+glued, and pressed down. From this it will be seen that the back
+stretched across the book is not glued on from _a_ to _b_. A few more
+pieces of wrapping paper are still glued on to this first back to
+increase the strength of the arch; each one is measured separately after
+the one preceding it has been glued into its place, always measuring
+from _a_ to _a_.
+
+Fig. 117--Suggestion for account book back.
+
+Such backs do not adhere quite firmly, and it is advisable to insert
+another narrower glued strip, opening the book in the middle, of course,
+to do this. After inserting the back, the book is closed, and the back
+will now lie close and tight to the book. It is trimmed at top and
+bottom with a sharp knife and finished off with a rasp if necessary.
+
+The heavy boards are hinged on to this back. They are cut to fit, and,
+beginning at the fold _b_, are placed so that the edge of the board
+stands a little away from the joint.
+
+Fig. 118--Boarded account book.
+
+Where it is possible to glue up hot, the back should be made in advance.
+It is, however, essential that the spring back should be slightly
+over-rounded, that is to say, that its ends should first be pressed out
+so that they can be pushed on to the back; only thus can it be really
+effective, and must, moreover, be shaped to three-quarters of a circle.
+
+An apparatus recently put on the market for glueing without heat, solely
+by wrapping up in drilling, is little better than a toy, which saves
+neither time nor material. The inventor can hardly be in the
+trade--certainly not a practical worker.
+
+The prepared backs are fastened to the books as follows: Cut a strip of
+stout linen so that it projects a little at each end and 3 to 4 cm. at
+each side; glue the inside of the rounded back evenly, and then fasten
+in the linen strip so that it projects equally at ends and sides. At
+head and tail the ends are brought over on the outside, and the back
+thus made is forced on the book. Before doing so, a line should be drawn
+on the thin boards about 1-1/2 to 2 cm. from the joint, glue up to this
+line; the strip with the back would be drawn up at both sides and then
+pressed down. To make these backs lie closer, a strip of packing may
+similarly be inserted.
+
+So then the same work is done here with the glued-up backs as in the old
+style with the packed spring backs; here the back is just hinged on
+cloth, there it is made from a piece of wrapper. The thick board is set
+on in the same way as in the other style of work, set off from the glued
+back about 1 to 1-1/2 cm. To fill up this space, lay in each groove a
+piece of cord of suitable thickness which has been well pasted, rubbing
+in the paste quite smooth, and, after drying, paste over with stout
+paper.
+
+Very thick books have a rather clumsy appearance with their many
+superimposed boards; this is improved by bevelling on all four sides the
+upper thick board.
+
+To protect the book, leather bands are pasted on the back, also
+something to add strength is generally put on at head and tail, which is
+then covered with specially strong leather. For covering, linen,
+mole-skin; for heavy and extra work, pig-skin and cow-hide are used.
+Leather is, of course, always pared down, thoroughly coated with paste,
+well stretched over, and well rubbed down in all hollows at the joints,
+bands, &c.--side panels are also let in--and turned in. Where the back
+disappears under the thick board, the turn-in is cut in almost up to the
+edge at _b_ with sharp scissors; if it were cut right to the edge it
+would be visible, which must be avoided. For turning-in at the head, it
+is obvious that the book must lie open as in the illustration.
+
+Fig. 119--To show where turn-in is to be cut.
+
+The corners of account books must always be rounded. Metal corners on
+account books are clumsy, damage the writing desks and other books
+coming into contact with them, and even when using the best mill-boards
+it is impossible to fix them so firmly that they will not work loose in
+the course of time. In their stead, leather corners and guards may be
+fixed, which are frequently tastefully finished in blind or gold.
+
+
+Fig. 120--Hand numbering machine.
+
+All books for office use are either folioed or paged, _i.e._, either
+each page or each sheet gets a consecutive number in order to facilitate
+reference from the index. This may be done either by the hand numbering
+machine or by the larger machine worked with a treadle. In both cases
+the figures succeed each other automatically whilst printing.
+
+It is always advisable to do this work before binding, as it is then
+easier and, besides, there is less chance of the fresh ink smudging when
+each single sheet of the sections is pushed up.
+
+The manipulation of this apparatus is so simple that further explanation
+seems superfluous.
+
+Where bound books have to be paged, small pieces of blotting-paper must
+be laid between the sheets to prevent smudging.
+
+
+The manufacture of guard books for bills, letters, &c., comes into the
+same department as the making of account books. Guards are cut 4 cm.
+wide and folded in sixes along the middle, and sewn with strong thread,
+end to end, upon a strip of linen stretched upon a piece of wrapper to
+which bands have been pasted to further strengthen. The sections are
+sewn together at intervals of about 2 cm., so as to allow room for the
+papers that are to be pasted in.
+
+The stiff back with the sewn-on guards is now pasted into a cover, which
+is made with a back measurement as seen in the illustration. An
+insertion for the back is not cut for this purpose, but the two boards
+are hinged together with a strip of stiff paper somewhat wider than the
+back. The book is then provided with a linen or mole-skin back and
+corners, covered with paper, and, after the guarded back has been pasted
+in, is lined with paper. If it is intended to gum the guards, the
+gumming should be attended to before the sewing. The guards are fanned
+up slightly and brushed with gum-dextrine, to which a little sugar and a
+few drops of glycerine have been added, so that when dry the gum should
+not be too brittle.
+
+Fig. 121--Suggestion for back of guard book.
+
+For all such work a thumb index is generally required; each page takes
+one or more letters, or a specification is given, according to which the
+binder counts off the number of pages required for each letter--X and Y
+being here excluded. Nowadays, the indices are cut with index shears,
+which not only regulates the depth of the index but also avoids the
+acute angles which are so easily torn in.
+
+Commence cutting from the back, that is, with the Z; this, being the
+last letter, is not cut out. Then count off W, cut with the shears, and
+cut off what remains below to the bottom edge with a sharp knife, to do
+which a narrow thin board is slipped underneath. The further you proceed
+towards A, the longer is the strip which has to be cut out with the
+knife.
+
+When the excisions for the whole alphabet have been made, the letters
+are pasted on. These are sold ready printed, and nowadays are almost
+always in one piece for back and front.
+
+The printed sheet with the alphabet is glued or gummed on the back, and,
+after drying, the alphabet is creased lengthwise and either cut so or
+punched out with a suitable tool. The single letters are damped and
+stuck in position.
+
+One might also insert a strip of zinc after the cutting in of the
+letters and cut the length at once.
+
+Cheaper kinds of account books for temporary use are often made with
+fixed backs; the packing is simply omitted, but the head and tail are
+pasted a little to make the turn-over hold better. No matter whether the
+cover be of leather or cloth, paste must be used, as this ensures the
+back adhering strongly to the book. Such a method of binding can be
+recommended for music.
+
+
+Portfolios for drawings, &c., are often required; the boards are hinged
+together with paper as previously described for guard books, the inside
+of the back lined with cloth, and the outside covered with leather or
+cloth. The turn-in is pasted over the lined back.
+
+Fig. 122--Pattern for dust flaps. (Leinwand = Linen hinge.)
+
+If books are to be made so that they can be fastened, slits must either
+be made with a chisel, through which the tape ends are drawn from the
+outside to the inside and there pasted down, or else small round eyelet
+holes are made, and then proceed as before.
+
+Dust-proof flaps are hinged on to three sides of a thin board with
+strips of linen in the following style, and lined and covered
+separately. The body itself is likewise made of thin board. (See Fig.
+122.)
+
+The whole arrangement is pasted on to the back board of the portfolio.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+SCHOOL BOOKS AND MOUNTING.
+
+
+The school book, perhaps the most despised branch of work in the
+bindery, has unjustly come to be treated as a sort of step-child by
+bookbinder and bookseller. Although everything has been cut down as
+finely as possible as regards paper and printing, yet the cost of
+binding must also be cut down, and a profit on the whole is still looked
+for. Thus it is that school books can only be produced by machinery.
+Folding, sewing, board cutting, trimming, and lettering are all done
+exclusively by machinery. All finishing work, pressing, headbanding,
+decorating the paper covers, have fallen off. The cover is always made
+in advance and the book fixed into it. A good goat-skin is seldom used
+for the back, almost always split sheep-skin, thereby also saving
+paring, or the so-called split horse-hide. These latter are put on the
+market in various colours and grains and are well suited for the work. A
+third-rate marbled paper is used for covering, as prices are not given
+for better kinds. A stout smooth paper is strongly recommended for end
+papers.
+
+Frequently, in the smaller towns, there are still produced Bible
+histories, catechisms, and the like in half-leather bindings, tanned
+sheep-skin, the sale of which is likely to be large and assured for many
+years. The whole skin must be damped and well stretched previous to
+cutting out, in order that it may be cut into backs to the best
+advantage.
+
+The backs are laid on top of each other and pressed out in the wooden
+press between two old boards to remove all superfluous moisture. The
+edges are then pared with a sharp knife, the backs pasted, laying every
+two with pasted sides together to prevent their drying, and the books
+fixed in the leather backs. For this purpose the books are set in boards
+previously cut to size. In this case the books take tight backs; the
+joints are well rubbed down with the folder.
+
+Thinner volumes in cloth have likewise tight backs. The cloth for the
+backs is cut into strips of handy length as wide as the length of the
+backs must be, is glued and cut a suitable width with a knife upon the
+cutting board, measuring with the eye. Recently, the so-called "taking
+off," as practised in fancy goods work, has been adopted for the sake of
+its cleaner and neater results in pasting and glueing covers. A large
+zinc plate is coated with glue, neither too thick nor too thin, the
+cover is laid face downwards and taken up, so that it is evenly coated
+all over with the glue or paste. The work requires some practice, but it
+is very quick and, above all, is neat and clean. The boards are laid
+upon these strips by a worker (allowing for the thickness of the back),
+turned in at top and bottom by a second worker, and the books at once
+fixed in. The backs, still damp, fit very well to the books, the joints
+are well rubbed in; covering and pasting on are done afterwards.
+
+Where hand sewing must be done, the end papers should be first attached
+to each first and last section, double in front, single at the end.
+Sewing should never be upon two bands only but on three at least, better
+upon four, so that the two middle ones can be changed each time. In
+order to expedite the scraping of the bands, the threads are untwisted
+before pulling out from each other, the loose end need not exceed 1-1/2
+cm., as a long band holds no better than a short one, care being taken
+that it is always firmly pasted down. The drawn-out volumes are placed
+in batches on top of each other, all bands lying outwards. The
+projecting ends are well brushed with a hard brush, which renders them
+easy to scrape down. If it is intended to paste down the bands, the
+whole of the ends might now be pasted, the books lifted off one by one,
+and the bands pasted over on to the end paper. It is better to leave the
+ends free and to paste down when glueing up. They then become more
+thoroughly saturated with the paste and are pressed at once, and thus
+join the boards so much better.
+
+It may be mentioned that school books with tight backs are more lasting
+than with hollow backs, no matter whether leather or cloth be used.
+
+
+Mounted articles, _i.e._, placards, maps, drawings, &c., to be mounted
+on boards or linen, are frequently sent to the ordinary bindery. Things
+to be mounted on boards must be mounted whole, those that are to be
+rolled up or folded are mounted on linen. Placards are generally printed
+on very stout paper, and these should be well damped upon the back with
+sponge and water before pasting, and only when the paper is perfectly
+limp and stretched should the pasting be done, otherwise creases are
+sure to be caused by the stretching of the paper after mounting. A piece
+of packing paper the size of the placard to be mounted must also be
+pasted upon the back of the mounting board to prevent the board from
+"drawing." Only when the mounting is completed may the mount be cut to
+size and, if necessary, bound.
+
+Illustration: Binding corner.
+
+This binding is done by marking with the dividers a border about 1-1/2
+cm. wide along the trimmed edge and laying a pasted strip of coloured
+paper and, turning it over, drawing it on to the back with a piece of
+clean waste paper, and well rubbing down. At the corners the strip is
+cut obliquely, as in the case of a book, nipped, and turned in. This is
+done at the first two sides lying opposite to each other. At the other
+side the strip is laid not quite up to the ends and cut with the shears
+slightly obliquely, so that the finished corner appears as in the
+accompanying illustration. Of course, when such work is done in large
+quantities, another method is followed. For this the board would be cut
+to size, back and front--1 cm. narrower and shorter--likewise, and the
+boards bound beforehand. The strips are not turned in at the corners of
+the first two sides, but the whole side is rubbed down and the ends cut
+flush. The strips for the other two sides are cut to size, at the same
+time cutting off the corners obliquely at both sides, then pasted and
+drawn over the edges. When mounting on large surfaces, one person alone
+is not able to do the work--there must be some one to render assistance.
+
+Such large pieces are always rubbed down under a piece of stout paper.
+As the hand cannot pass over the whole surface evenly and easily, a
+large piece of waste paper rolled into a ball and held firmly in the
+hand is used for rubbing down.
+
+Fig. 123--Eyeleting machine.
+
+The finished placard is placed between boards to dry. For hanging them,
+either eyelets with rings as sold are used or two holes, about 5 cm.
+apart, are punched with the eyelet pliers in the middle of the top edge
+and eyelets clamped in with the punch pliers. For doing large quantities
+it is advisable to procure a machine, the small Eyeleting machine,
+which pierces and clamps the eyelet at the same time.
+
+Mounting plates, plans, drawings, or maps on cloth is done in the
+following way: Paper can only be properly mounted upon a very tightly
+stretched linen or cotton material; linen being generally used in
+England. Where such work is frequently to be done, so-called drawing
+boards ought to be at hand. These are wooden boards, best when made to
+fit into each other so that they can be enlarged to suit the work in
+hand.
+
+Figs. 124 to 127--Showing stages of pinning down for stretching.
+
+The board must, of course, be perfectly clean on the stretching side,
+otherwise the back of the mounted article would be soiled. If necessary,
+the surface may be covered with waste paper before stretching. The
+material should be left about 5 cm. larger all round for convenience of
+stretching and working. The stretching is best done with drawing pins,
+which may be used again and again for the same work. The method of
+stretching is as follows: Woven fabrics stretch less in direction of the
+warp than the woof, therefore stretching is begun in the former
+direction. The material is fixed with pins at two corners of one side,
+stretching it firmly at the same time. The material will be drawn
+outwards a little on the stretched side (Fig. 124). To counteract this,
+a pin is fixed in the middle of the opposite side, after having pulled
+the material over so that the side _A_ forms a straight line. The whole
+side _A_ is then pinned down, the pins not being more than 5 cm. apart
+(Fig. 125).
+
+Now draw out the pin on the _B_ side and pin down the whole side, firmly
+stretching the material all the while, beginning at the middle and
+working towards the sides (Fig. 126).
+
+The third side is pinned down by first fixing a pin in the centre, then
+in the centre of the halves to right and left, then proceeding with the
+smaller divisions in the same fashion. The material is pulled far enough
+to form a straight line (Fig. 127). The last side is well stretched and
+pinned down as just described. In this way a surface not only entirely
+free from wrinkles and creases is produced, but the texture of the
+material will run straight.
+
+In mounting upon cloth, special care must be taken that the paper is
+perfectly limp and flexible; but this must not be due to its having been
+too thickly coated with paste.
+
+Large wall maps made up of many pieces must be very carefully damped and
+must be allowed to lie damp a long time. Attention must be given to the
+colours, which are apt to run, and also to the proper fitting of the
+various pieces, as these have often been stretched in various ways in
+the lithographic press, or through irregular drying have taken unequal
+sizes. Damping and pasting must be repeated to help to remedy this until
+the whole fits together perfectly.
+
+Maps to be folded must be cut into sections of suitable size. In order
+that they may fold together well, the various pieces are set slightly
+apart, the horizontal lines slightly less (1-1/2 mm.), the longitudinal
+somewhat more, where there are many parts up to 3 mm.
+
+Perfect fitting is here essential, and to insure this it is advisable to
+mark out the divisions with the folder and rule. This is not necessary
+for small maps, the eye will then be sufficient guide. Thorough rubbing
+down is absolutely necessary to make every part adhere.
+
+When perfectly dry, the material is taken from the stretcher, the edges
+accurately trimmed, and the map folded upon the cross lines into one
+long strip, and then this strip is folded over in zigzag fashion to the
+given size.
+
+The appearance of such a map is greatly improved by sharply pressing
+awhile, for which a zinc plate should be inserted between each fold.
+
+Such maps are often placed in a small light case of cardboard covered
+with cloth, or a light cover is made, into which the map is so pasted at
+the back board that it lies ready for use when opened.
+
+Paintings, drawings in colour, or wash drawings cause exceptional
+difficulties, as the moisture of the pasting medium tends to dissolve or
+make the colours run. In such cases smaller sheets are placed between
+sheets of damp blotting paper, and it is stuck upon the pasted
+underside. When the object permits it, it is glued on without previous
+damping. Large tracings present the greatest difficulties as the paper
+stretches very much and, on account of its delicacy, is not easily
+manipulated and is liable to crease. Such work requires several hands.
+It is necessary to have clear paste, quite free from knots, which has
+been thinned to the consistency of thick pea-soup. When at all
+practicable, the tracing itself is pasted twice, the first pasting will
+make the paper stretch and the second ensures a proper coating of paste.
+Two persons lift the tracing and turn it over (for very large pieces
+four persons are required); the sheet is laid down at one corner, the
+other three being held up, and the whole gently lowered little by
+little. One person rubs it down slowly, proceeding from the first corner
+and carefully avoiding creases and bubbles.
+
+With such big jobs it is often impossible to avoid tears near where it
+is held by the fingers of the workers unless timely precautions against
+this are taken. The simplest way is to paste strips of paper and to
+stick these on the four corners of the pasted side of the tracing and to
+take hold of these. These strips are removed as the rubbing down
+progresses, making sure, however, that there is still enough paste left
+on these places.
+
+Tracings are always mounted upon white paper, even though it has
+afterwards to be cut or mounted on cloth.
+
+Maps that have to be prepared for hanging on walls are always provided
+with a roller at top and bottom; these may be stained and varnished or
+covered with coloured paper. The mounted maps are glued and tacked to
+the half-round rollers. Where all round rollers are used they should be
+ordered in halves. The edges of the map are glued between and the two
+halves then nailed together. Rings are screwed into the top roller for
+hanging, and also a few tapes to tie up the rolled map if required.
+
+Plates and maps, as also placards, are also varnished. Varnishing is
+nowadays always done with spirit varnish, which is convenient for
+working. All papers cannot be simply varnished and done with--the nature
+of the paper must be taken into consideration. All sized and chromo
+papers may be varnished without preparation. Many note-papers,
+especially unsized and copperplate papers, must first be sized, which
+prevents the resinous parts from penetrating and thus avoids grease
+spots.
+
+The best of all means is glue or gelatine; the former turns the paper
+somewhat yellow. A thin solution is made, which is laid on warm with a
+large sponge in long quick strokes. Where colour or ink is to be dealt
+with, no parts should be touched twice or the colours will be effaced. A
+second coating, however, may be given after the first has dried. The
+spirit varnish to be used--called map or photo varnish--is still too
+thick as sold. It is thinned with 90% spirit of wine to the required
+consistency until it runs easily from the brush.
+
+Wide varnish brushes with lead fastenings are used. Two coats of thin
+varnish are better than one coat of thick.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+Our work is now finished. The author has endeavoured to deal only with
+what comes within the sphere of practical bookbinding.
+
+At the present time there is a sharp dividing line drawn between what we
+may call the practical and artistic bookbinding. To whatever height of
+perfection the latter may still reach, it only begins where the
+practical bookbinder has completed his work faultless in every detail. A
+bad binding does not become a work of art when it has had its exterior
+artistically decorated, it rather calls forth condemnation on its bad
+forwarding and wasted skill in finishing.
+
+Yet in spite of the separation of the practical from the artistic in
+binding, it could hardly be possible--where the two are so closely
+connected--that the latter should not now and then be touched upon.
+Should the intention of issuing a book on artistic binding in form
+similar to this be carried out, it would also be necessary to refer
+occasionally to the practical side of binding.
+
+To-day we look in vain in the ordinary bindery for the many little extra
+jobs which, formerly, were the largest portion of the work in artistic
+binding. All the little jewel cases, card cases, cigar cases, &c., which
+made the winter months of the binder--as late as the sixties and
+seventies--the busiest and most profitable months of the year, have
+vanished from our workshops, as also have the mounting, &c., of
+embroideries and women's work. As a result, the number of those able to
+execute these minor works of the art binder has grown smaller. This
+branch of work, which at one time seemed inseparable from our trade, has
+partly become a separate industry in itself and has partly been drawn
+into other special trades where the work can be done better and cheaper
+by other means.
+
+Therefore the lettering of portable articles--spectacle cases, cigar
+cases, purses, pocket-books--is no longer done; such things--where they
+are not made to stock--are made by the leather worker, this also having
+passed away from the binder. This continual loss of work originally
+ours--not marked by decades now but by still shorter intervals--should
+make all bookbinders reflect. The question no longer is "How to prevent
+it?" but the more far-reaching one: "How to face the fact?" The only
+possible way is for every master bookbinder--having regard to prevailing
+conditions--to immediately put all his skill and energy into some
+special branch of the trade. With this good counsel we would like to
+send forth this little book.
+
+At the present time there are few small towns indeed where one day 50
+cloth cases have to be turned out, to-morrow half a dozen books to be
+bound in half-calf extra, next day 50 fancy boxes, and then, perhaps, a
+few fine velvet-covered cases.
+
+Should there really be found such conditions still existing, no workman
+would be found--owing to our modern system of training--able and willing
+to work under such conditions.
+
+Those possessing the essentials in an art craftsman--infinite pains,
+neatness and exactness--are sure to make rapid progress. What is still
+required--an eye for colour and good taste--are easily acquired, for
+much of the bookbinder's work is based on experience and example.
+
+He who sees much, especially new things, will soon be able to reproduce
+the things seen, and will, moreover, soon learn to distinguish between
+good and bad. About taste, so-called, it is not worth while arguing, as
+taste is mostly dictated by fashion and is often fashionable folly. The
+thoughtful craftsman, however, should be quite clear as to the
+principles determining what is to be permitted and what rejected in his
+own work; for the rest he may follow the lead of fashion--he must, in
+fact, if his work lies much in that way.
+
+Our conclusion may, therefore, be summed up in these words:--
+
+Let the most painstaking neatness and thoroughness be the masters of
+each one.
+
+No man can do everything; he who can do something well, does most.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE.
+
+  Account books,                                        157
+
+  Alum wash for marbling,                                72
+
+  Aluminium,                                              7
+
+  Armenian bole,                                      8, 75
+
+
+  Back, tooling on,                                     147
+
+  Backs, lining up,                                     120
+
+  Backs for account books,                              162
+
+  Backing,                                               58
+
+  Backing machine,                                   11, 59
+
+  Bands, treatment of,                               87, 90
+
+  Beating,                                               30
+
+  Bindery, arrangement of,                                9
+
+  Blind tooling,                                        130
+
+  Blocking,                                             103
+
+  Blocking press,                                   11, 105
+
+  Blood serum, preparation of,                           81
+
+  Blood serum for blocking,                             112
+
+  Boards,                                                 5
+
+  Boards for account books,                             160
+
+  Board cutting,                                         86
+
+  Board-cutting machine,                                 10
+
+  Boarding,                                              87
+
+  Boarding account books,                               163
+
+  Bole,                                                   8
+
+  Bole for edges,                                        75
+
+  Book-mark,                                              8
+
+  Bouquet marbling,                                      69
+
+  Bronze,                                                 7
+
+  Bronze, blocking in,                                  117
+
+  Brushes for glue, paste, &c.,                           3
+
+  Burnishing gilt edges,                                 77
+
+
+  Calf,                                                   6
+    " preparation for blocking,                         110
+    " treatment in finishing,                           142
+
+  Carrageen moss for marbling,                           64
+
+  Case to protect book,                                 155
+
+  Case work,                                         93, 95
+
+  Celluloid,                                              7
+
+  Clasps,                                                 8
+
+  Cloth joints,                                          45
+
+  Cloth, treatment in finishing,                        142
+
+  Clothing-up account books,                            159
+
+  Collating,                                             28
+
+  Colour blocking,                                      115
+
+  Coloured edges,                                        63
+
+  Comb marbling,                                         68
+
+  Cord for sewing,                                        4
+
+  Cords, distribution of,                                42
+
+  Corner punching machine,                               11
+
+  Corners,                                          96, 100
+
+  Counting off,                                          18
+
+  Covering,                                             119
+
+  Cowhide,                                                6
+
+  Crushed morocco,                                        6
+
+
+  Dextrine,                                               3
+
+  Doublure,                                             153
+
+  Drawings, mounting,                                   171
+
+  Dust-proof flaps,                                     168
+
+
+  Edges, colouring,                                       7
+    " finishing,                                         62
+    " marbling,                                           7
+
+  Edges of boards, tooling,                             153
+
+  End papers,                                    5, 43, 127
+    " for account books,                                158
+    " pasting down,                                     124
+
+  End-to-end sewing,                                     49
+
+  Eyeleting,                                            172
+
+  Eyeleting machine,                                     11
+
+  Eye marbling,                                          69
+
+
+  Fillet, use of,                                       144
+
+  Finishing,                                            129
+
+  Finisher's tools,                                      10
+
+  Folding,                                               13
+
+  Forwarding,                                            13
+
+  French marbling,                                       71
+
+
+  Gathering,                                         20, 28
+
+  Gelatine,                                               3
+
+  Gelatine size for blocking,                           111
+
+  Gilder's tip,                                          75
+
+  Gilding edges,                                         73
+    " powder,                                           142
+    " powder for blocking,                              111
+
+  Glair,                                                  8
+
+  Glair for blocking,                                   111
+    " finishing,                                        135
+    " gilt edges,                                        76
+
+  Glue,                                                   2
+
+  Glue-brush,                                             3
+
+  Glue-pot,                                               3
+
+  Glueing-up,                                            51
+
+  Glueing-up account books,                             163
+
+  Gold,                                                   7
+    " cushion,                                           75
+    " knife,                                             75
+    " leaf, laying on,                               75, 80
+    " substitute for,                                    81
+
+  Gouge, use of,                                        143
+
+  Grey boards,                                            5
+
+  Guards,                                                44
+
+  Guards for plates and maps,                            24
+
+  Guard-books,                                          165
+
+  Guillotine,                                            10
+
+  Gum,                                                    3
+
+  Gum tragacanth,                                       141
+    " for marbling,                                      65
+
+
+  Head and tail,                                         16
+    " tooling,                                          153
+    " turning in,                                       121
+
+  Headband,                                           8, 81
+
+  Headbands for account books,                          160
+
+  Heat applied in blocking,                             113
+    " of tools in finishing,                       137, 141
+
+  Hollaendering,                                          32
+
+  Hollow backs,                                          87
+
+
+  Imitation raised bands,                               119
+
+  Index cutting, &c.,                                   166
+
+  Inset,                                                 17
+
+  Insides, tooling,                                     153
+
+  Isinglass,                                              3
+
+
+  Jigger, use of,                                       154
+
+  Joint,                                                 44
+
+
+  Kettle stitch,                                         49
+
+  Knocking-up,                                           18
+
+  Kremser marbling,                                      71
+
+
+  Laying on gold leaf,                                  112
+
+  Leather used in binding,                           6, 100
+    " paring,                                            97
+    " preparation for finishing,                        140
+    " boards,                                         5, 85
+
+  Lettering,                                            148
+    " in blocking,                                      108
+
+  Levant morocco,                                         6
+
+  Linen joints,                                          45
+
+  Lining for case work,                                 102
+
+
+  Machine sewing,                                         4
+
+  Maps, mounting,                                       171
+    " pasting in,                                        23
+    " rollers for,                                      176
+
+  Marble papers,                                          5
+
+  Marbled edges,                                      7, 63
+
+  Metal corners,                                        164
+    " fastenings,                                         9
+
+  Metric system,                                         vi.
+
+  Middles,                                                5
+
+  Millboards,                                            85
+
+  Morocco,                                                6
+    " treatment for finishing,                          142
+
+  Mounting,                                             171
+
+
+  Numbering machine,                                    165
+
+
+  Overcasting,                                           39
+
+  Overcast end papers,                                   46
+
+  Oxgall for marbling,                                   66
+
+
+  Paring leather,                                        97
+
+  Paste,                                                  1
+
+  Paste-edge,                                            63
+
+  Pasting,                                               22
+    " boards,                                             3
+    " down,                                             124
+
+  Peacock marbling,                                      69
+
+  Pig-skin, treatment for finishing,                    142
+
+  Plates, folding,                                       26
+    " pasting in,                                        23
+
+  Plough,                                                55
+
+  Portfolios,                                           167
+
+  Presses,                                               10
+
+  Pressing,                                              19
+
+  Pulling to pieces,                                     36
+
+
+  Quires, books in,                                      16
+
+
+  Re-binding,                                            36
+
+  Register in folding,                                   14
+
+  Relief blocking,                                      114
+
+  Repairing,                                             36
+
+  Roll, use of,                                    136, 145
+
+  Rolling,                                               29
+    " machine,                                       11, 31
+
+  Rounding,                                              57
+    " machine,                                       11, 58
+
+  Russia leather, treatment for finishing,              142
+
+
+  Sawing-in,                                             41
+    " machine,                                           43
+
+  School books,                                         169
+
+  Scraping edges for gilding,                        74, 79
+
+  Seal skin, treatment for finishing,                   142
+
+  Sewing,                                            40, 46
+    " for account books,                                159
+    " cord,                                               4
+    " frame,                                             33
+    " machine,                                           52
+    " tapes,                                              4
+    " thread,                                            34
+
+  Sheep skin, treatment for finishing,                  142
+
+  Sides,                                                101
+
+  Signatures,                                            13
+
+  Silk end papers,                                        6
+
+  Size for
+    " blocking,                                         110
+    " old leather,                                      140
+    " for various materials,                            142
+
+  Spring back,                                           88
+
+  Sprinkled edges,                                       62
+
+  Squares,                                               86
+    " tooling,                                          153
+
+  Straw-boards,                                       5, 85
+
+
+  Tape, sewing,                                           4
+
+  Thread, sewing,                                         4
+
+  Tools,                                                  9
+
+  Tracings, mounting,                                   175
+
+  Trichinal marbling,                                    71
+
+  Trimming,                                              54
+
+  Turkish marbling,                                      70
+
+  Turning-in,                                       96, 121
+    " on account books,                                 164
+
+  Two-sheets-on sewing,                                  49
+
+  Tying up,                                             123
+
+
+  Varnish,                                                8
+
+  Varnishing maps, &c.,                                 176
+
+  Vellum, treatment for finishing,                      142
+
+  Velvet,                                                 6
+
+
+  White of egg,                                _see_ Glair.
+
+  Wire sewing and stapling,                           4, 35
+
+  Wire sewing and stapling machines,             11, 35, 52
+
+  Wooden boards,                                          5
+
+
+
+
+  ENGRAVING FOR ILLUSTRATION. HISTORICAL AND PRACTICAL NOTES.
+
+  By JOSEPH KIRKBRIDE.
+
+  Crown 8vo. 72 pp. 2 Plates. 6 Illustrations. 1903.
+
+  Price 2s.6d.; Abroad 3s. Strictly Net.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  GLUE AND GLUE-TESTING. By SAMUEL RIDEAL, D.Sc. Lond.
+
+  14 Illustrations. 144 Pages. Demy 8vo. 1900.
+
+
+  Price 10s.6d.; India and British Colonies, 11s.;
+  Other Countries, 12s. Strictly Net.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  SEALING-WAXES, WAFERS, AND OTHER ADHESIVES
+
+  For the Household, Office, Workshop, and Factory.
+
+  By   H. C. STANDAGE.
+
+  Crown 8vo.       96 Pages.         1902.
+
+
+  Price 5s.; India and British Colonies, 5s.6d.;
+  Other Countries, 6s. Strictly Net.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS, OR POST FREE OF
+
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO., 19 Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Bookbinding, by Paul Adam
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