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+Project Gutenberg's The Grotesque in Church Art, by T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: The Grotesque in Church Art
+
+Author: T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2012 [EBook #39264]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART ***
+
+
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+Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
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+
+
+THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART.
+
+
+
+
+  Only 400 copies of this Book published
+  for Sale, and this is No. 315
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE STORY OF JONAH, RIPON.]
+
+
+
+
+  The Grotesque
+  in Church Art
+
+
+  By T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  WILLIAM ANDREWS & CO., 5, FARRINGDON AVENUE, E.C.
+  1899.
+
+
+
+
+Preface.
+
+
+The designs of which this book treats have vast fields outside the English
+church works to which it has been thought good to limit it. Books and
+buildings undoubtedly mutually interchanged some forms of their ornaments,
+yet the temple was the earlier repository of man's ideas expressed in art,
+and the proper home of the religious symbolism which forms so large a
+proportion of my subject. In view also of the ground I have ventured to
+hint may be taken up as to the derivation, of a larger number than is
+generally supposed, of church designs from heathen prototypes by the hands
+of apprenticed masons, it is fitting that the evidences should be from
+their chisels. The only exceptions are a few wall-paintings, which serve
+to point a difference in style and origin.
+
+In every case the examples are from churches in our own land. The
+conclusions do not nearly approach a complete study of the questions, the
+research to the present, great as it is, chiefly shewing how much has yet
+to be learned in order to accurately compare the extant with the
+long-forgotten. The endeavour has been to present sufficient to enable
+general inferences to be drawn in the right direction.
+
+Of the numerous works consulted in the course of this essay, the most
+useful has been "Choir Stalls and their Carvings," sketched by Miss Emma
+Phipson. While tendering my acknowledgments for much assistance obtained
+from that lady's book, I would add that the 'second series' suggested
+cannot but equal the first as a service to the cause of comparative
+mythology and folk-lore.
+
+This place may be taken to dispose of two kinds of grotesques in church
+art which belong to my title, though not to my intention.
+
+The memorial erections put into so many churches after the middle of the
+sixteenth century are to be placed in the same category as the less often
+ludicrous effigies of earlier times, and may be dismissed as "ugly
+monumental vanities, miscalled sculpture." The grotesqueness of some of
+these sepulchral excrescences may in future centuries be still more
+apparent, though to many even time cannot supply interest. Not all are
+like the imposing monument to a doctor in Southwark Cathedral, on which,
+by the way, the epitaph is mainly devoted to laudation of his _pills_.
+Yet, though the grotesque is not entirely wanting in even these monuments,
+it is chiefly through errors of taste. The worst of them are more pathetic
+than anything else. The grotesque proper implies a proportion of levity,
+whereas the earnestness evinced by these effigies are more in keeping with
+the solemnity of the church's purpose than the infinitely more artistic
+and unobtrusive ornament of the fabric. The other class of grotesque is
+the modern imitation of mediæval carving, with original design. Luckily,
+it is somewhat rare to find the spirit of the old sculptors animating a
+modern chisel. One of the best series of modern antiques of this kind is a
+set of gargoyles at St. Nicholas's, Abingdon, executed about 1881, of
+which I think it worth while to append a warning sample.
+
+These two classes are left out of account in the following pages.
+
+[Illustration: MODERN GARGOYLE, ABINGDON, 1881.]
+
+
+
+
+Contents.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE
+
+  PREFACE                                                v
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                           1
+
+  DEFINITIONS OF THE GROTESQUE                           5
+
+  THE CARVERS                                            9
+
+  THE ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF CHURCH GROTESQUES           19
+
+  GOTHIC ORNAMENT NOT DIDACTIC                          24
+
+  INGRAINED PAGANISM                                    27
+
+  MYTHIC ORIGIN                                         34
+
+  HELL'S MOUTH                                          60
+
+  SATANIC REPRESENTATIONS                               64
+
+  THE DEVIL AND THE VICES                               78
+
+  ALE AND THE ALEWIFE                                   99
+
+  SATIRES WITHOUT SATAN                                106
+
+  SCRIPTURAL ILLUSTRATIONS                             112
+
+  MASKS AND FACES                                      121
+
+  THE DOMESTIC AND POPULAR                             134
+
+  THE PIG AND OTHER ANIMAL MUSICIANS                   152
+
+  COMPOUND FORMS                                       157
+
+  NONDESCRIPTS                                         169
+
+  REBUSES                                              173
+
+  TRINITIES                                            175
+
+  THE FOX IN CHURCH ART                                184
+
+  SITUATIONS OF GROTESQUE ORNAMENT IN CHURCH ART       213
+
+  INDEX                                                219
+
+[Illustration: A ROOF SUPPORTER, EWELME, OXON.]
+
+
+
+
+The Grotesque in Church Art.
+
+
+
+
+Introduction.
+
+
+[Illustration: GORGONIC MASK, EWELME.]
+
+The more lofty the earlier manifestations of man's intellect, the more
+complete and immediate seems to have been their advancement. That is to
+say, where the products of genius depend mainly upon the recognition of
+great principles and deliberate adherence to them, they are more
+satisfying than when success depends upon dexterous manipulation of
+material. What I have in view in this respect in connection with
+architecture has its co-relative in language. The subtlety and poetic
+force of Ayran roots shew a refined application of principle--that of
+imagery--in far advance of the languages rising from them. The successive
+growths of the detail of language, for use or ornament,--and the useful of
+one age would seem to become the ornamental of another--necessarily often
+forsake the high purity of the primeval standard, and give rise, not only
+to the commonplace, but, by misconception or wantonness, to perversion of
+taste. So in architecture. Temples were noble before their ornaments. The
+grotesque is the slang of architecture. Nowhere so much as in Gothic
+architecture has the grotesque been fostered and developed, for, except
+for a blind adherence to ancient designs, due to something like gild
+continuity, the whole detail was introduced apropos of nothing. The
+assisting circumstance would appear to have been the indifference of the
+architects to the precise significance of the detail ornaments of their
+buildings. Gothic, or in fact any architecture admitting ornament, calls
+for crisp sub-regular projections, which shall, by their prominence and
+broken surface, attract the eye, but by the vagueness of their general
+form attract it so slightly as to lose individuality in a general view.
+These encrusting ornaments, by their opposition to the light of what the
+carvers call a "busy" surface, increase and accentuate rather than detract
+from the effect of the sweep of arches or dying vistas of recurring
+pillars. They afford a sort of punctuation, or measurers of the rhythm of
+the composition. Led from point to point, the eye gathers an impression of
+rich elaboration that does not interfere with its appreciation of the
+orderliness of the main design.
+
+These objects gained, the architects did not, apparently, enquire what the
+lesser minds, who carved the boss or dripstone, considered appropriate
+ornament. Hence we have a thousand fancies, often beautifully worked out,
+but often utterly incongruous with the intent of the edifice they are
+intended to adorn, and unworthy of the architecture of which they are a
+part.
+
+As in language the grotesque is sometimes produced by inadvertency and
+misconception, so in ornament not all the grotesque is of set purpose, and
+here the consideration of the less development of the less idea has its
+chief example. As original meaning became lost, the real merit of
+earnestness decreased, and the grotesque became an art.
+
+Moreover, the execution of Gothic ornament is excellent in proportion to
+its artistic easiness. Thus the foliate and florate designs are better
+carved than the animal forms, and both better than the human. With the
+exception of little else besides the Angel Choir at Lincoln, and portions
+of the Percy Shrine at Beverley, there is nothing in Gothic representation
+of sentient form really worthy of the perfect conceptions of architecture
+afforded by scores of English churches. It may, of course, be considered
+that anything but conventional form is out of place as architectural
+ornament; on the other hand, it must not be ignored that conventionality
+is a growth. It is only to be expected, therefore, that where the artist
+found character beyond his reach he fell readily into caricature, though
+it is a matter for surprise to find such a high standard of ability in
+that, and in the carved work generally. We find no instances of carving so
+low in absolute merit as are the best of the wall-paintings of the same
+periods.
+
+The sources from which the artists obtained their material are as wide as
+the air. A chief aim of this volume is to indicate those sources, and this
+is done in some cases rather minutely, though not in any exhaustively. The
+point of view from which the subject is surveyed is that the original
+detail of the temples entirely consisted of symbols of worship and
+attributes, founded chiefly upon astronomical phenomena: that owing to the
+gild organization of the masons, the same forms were mechanically
+perpetuated long after the worship of the heavenly bodies had given way to
+Christianity, often with the thinnest veil of Christian symbolism thrown
+over them. To this material, descended from remote antiquity, came
+gradually to be added a multitude of designs from nature and from fancy.
+
+[Illustration: HARPY, EXETER.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: RAGE AND TERROR, RIPON.]
+
+
+Definitions of the Grotesque.
+
+
+The term "Grotesque," which conveys to us an idea of humourous distortion
+or exaggeration, is simply _grotto-esque_, being literally the style of
+art found in the grottos or baths of the ancients. The term rose towards
+the end of the fifteenth century, when exhumation brought to light the
+fantastic decorations of the more private apartments of the licentious
+Romans. The use at that period of a similar style for not unsimilar
+purposes gave the word common currency, and it has spread to everything
+which, combined with wit or not, provokes a smile by a real or pretended
+violation of the laws of Nature and Beauty. In its later, and not in its
+original, meaning is the word applied to the extraordinary productions of
+church art. We may usefully inquire as to the causes of those remarkable
+characteristics of Gothic art which have caused the word Grotesque to
+fittingly describe so much of its detail.
+
+The joke has a different meaning for every age. The capacity for
+simultaneously recognizing likeness and contrast between things the most
+incongruous and wide-sundered, which is at the root of our appreciation of
+wit, humour, or the grotesque, is a quality of slow growth among nations.
+No doubt early man enjoyed his laugh, but it was a different thing from
+the laughter of our day. Many races have left no suspicion of their ever
+having smiled; even where there are ample pictorial remains, humour is
+generally unrepresented. The Assyrians have left us the smallest possible
+grounds for crediting them with its possession. Instances have been
+adduced of Egyptian humour, but some are doubtful, and in any case the
+proportion of fun per acre of picture is infinitesimally small. The
+Greeks, perhaps, came the nearest to what we consider the comic, but with
+both Greek and Roman the humour has something of bitterness and sterility;
+even in what was professedly comic we cannot always see any real fun.
+Where it strikes out unexpectedly in brief flashes it is with a cold light
+that leaves no impression of warmth behind. The mechanical character of
+their languages, with a multitude of fixed formulæ, is perhaps an index to
+their mental development. The subtleties of wit ran in the direction of
+gratifying established tastes and prejudices by satirical references, but
+rarely condescending to amuse for mere humour's sake. Where is found the
+nearest approach to merriness is in what now-a-days we regard as the least
+interesting and meritorious grade of humour, the formal parody. The Greeks
+had, outside their fun, let it be noted, something better than jococity,
+and that was joyousness. The later Romans became humourous in a low way
+which has had a permanent influence upon literature and art.
+
+Sense of humour grew with the centuries, and by the time that the Gothic
+style of architecture arose, appreciation of the ludicrous-in-general
+(_i.e._ that which is without special reference to an established phase of
+thought) is traceable as a characteristic of, at least, the Teuton
+nations. It must be admitted that the popular verbal fun of the middle
+ages is not always easy to grasp, but it cannot be denied that where
+understood, or where its outlet is found in the graphic or glyphic arts,
+there is allied to the innocent coarseness and unscrupulousness, a
+richness of conceit, a wealth of humour, and a delicate and accurate sense
+of the laughable far beyond Greek wit or Roman jocularity.
+
+It is to the embodiments of the spirit of humour as found in our mediæval
+churches that our present study is directed.
+
+It may be as well to first say a little upon those comicalities which may
+be styled 'grotesques by misadventure.' This is a branch of the subject to
+be approached with some diffidence, for it is in many cases difficult to
+discriminate between that which was intended to be grotesque, and that
+which was executed with serious or often devout feelings, but for one of
+several causes often presenting to us an irresistibly comic effect.
+
+The causes may be five. First, the varying mechanical and constructive
+incompetency of the artists to embody their ideas. Second, the copying of
+an earlier work with executive ability, with strong perception of its
+unintentional and latent humour, but without respect to, or without
+knowledge of, its serious meaning. Third, the use of symbolic
+representation, in which the greater the skill, often the greater the
+ludicrous effect. Fourth, the change of fashion, manners, and customs.
+Fifth, a bias of mind which impelled to whimsical treatment.
+
+Consideration of the causes thus roughly analysed will explain away a
+large proportion of the irreverence of the irreverent paintings and
+carvings which excite such surprise, and sometimes disgust, in the minds
+of many modern observers of ecclesiological detail.
+
+It will be seen that the placing of carvings in any one of these five
+classes, or in the category of intentional grotesques, must, in many
+cases, be a mere matter of opinion. For the present purpose it will not be
+necessary to separate them, except so far as the plan of the work does it
+automatically. Many ecclesiastical and other seals afford familiar
+instances of the 'comic without intention,' parallel to what is said above
+as to carvings.
+
+
+
+
+The Carvers.
+
+
+[Illustration: LINCOLN, _14th cent._]
+
+Seemingly probability and evidence go hand in hand to shew that a great
+bulk of the church mason work of this country was the work of foreigners.
+Saxon churches were probably first built by Roman workmen, whose erections
+would teach sufficient to enable Saxons to afterward build for themselves.
+Imported talent, however, is likely to have been constantly employed.
+Edward the Confessor brought back with him from France new French designs
+for the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey, and doubtless he brought French
+masons also. Anglo-Norman is strongly Byzantine in character, and though
+the channels through which it passed may be various, there is little doubt
+that its origin was the great Empire of the East. Again, the great
+workshop of Europe, where Eastern ideas were gathered together and
+digested, and which supplied cathedrals and cathedral builders at command,
+was Flanders; and there is little doubt that during some five centuries
+after the Norman Conquest, Flemings were employed, in a greater or less
+degree, on English work. Italians were largely employed. The Angel Choir
+of Lincoln is one distinct witness to that. The workmen who executed the
+finely-carved woodwork of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, King's College,
+Cambridge, and Westminster Abbey, in the sixteenth century, were chiefly
+Italians, under the superintendence of Torregiano, a Florentine artist. He
+was a fellow-pupil of Michael Angelo, and is best known by the dastardly
+blow he dealt him with a mallet, disfiguring him for life. The resentment
+of Lorenzo de Medici at this caused Torregiano to leave Florence. He came
+to England in 1503.
+
+The architect, however, of King Henry VII.'s Chapel was Bishop Alcock, an
+Englishman, born at Hull, the already existing Grammar School of which
+place he endowed, and, perhaps, rebuilt. Many other architects of English
+buildings were Englishmen, probably the majority, and doubtless a large
+proportion of the workmen also,[1] but it would be idle to deny that
+imported art speaks loudly from work of all the styles.
+
+The carved detail may be relied upon to tell us something, and it speaks
+of an original reliance upon the East, which was never outgrown. The
+carvings found in England are not marked by anything at all approaching a
+national spirit, even in the limited degree that was possible. Except for
+a few carvings of armorial designs, and still fewer with slight local
+reference, there are none in wood or stone which would not be equally in
+place in any Romance country in Europe. The carvings, also, in the
+Continental churches present familiar aspects to the student of English
+ornament.
+
+But if we have yet to wait some fortunate discovery of rolls of workmen's
+names, with their rate of wages, we are not without such interesting
+information concerning the old carvers as is contained in portraits they
+have left of themselves. Just as authors sometimes recognize how
+satisfactory it is to have their "effigies" done at the fronts of their
+books, so have the carvers of old sometimes attached to their works
+portraits of themselves or their fellows, in their habits as they lived,
+in their attitudes as they laboured.
+
+[Illustration: AN INDUSTRIOUS CARVER, LYNN.]
+
+Our first carver hails from Lincolnshire. In 1852, when the Church of St.
+Nicholas, Lynn, was restored, the misericordes were taken out and not
+replaced, but passed as articles of commerce eventually to the
+Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, London. Among these is a view of a
+carver's studio, shewing the industrious master seated, tapping carefully
+away at a design upon the bench before him. There are three apprentices in
+the background working at benches; there are at the back some incised
+panels, and a piece of open screen-work. Perhaps we may suppose the
+weather to be cold, for the carver has on an exceedingly comfortable cloak
+or surcoat. At his feet reposes his dog.
+
+[Illustration: CARVER'S INITIALS, ST. NICHOLAS'S, LYNN.]
+
+There is an interesting peculiarity about these Lynn carvings; the sides
+of the misericordes are designs in the fashion of monograms, or rebuses.
+The sides supporting the carver are his initials, pierced with his carving
+tools, a saw and a chisel. The difficulty is the same in all of the set;
+the meaning of the monograms is not to be lightly determined. In this case
+it may be U.V., or perhaps U is twice repeated.
+
+[Illustration: COMMUNICATING A STRIKING IDEA, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The next carvers belong to the following century. Here also we see the
+principal figures in the midst of work. In this case, however, there has
+arrived an interruption. Either one of the workers is about to commit
+mock assault and battery upon another with a mallet, or a brilliant idea
+for a grotesque has just struck him, and he hastens to impart it. From the
+expression of the faces, and the attitudes for which two other workmen
+have stood as models, at the sides, the latter may be the more likely. It
+is not impossible that the carver of the fine set of sixty-eight
+misericordes in Beverley Minster had in mind the incident of the blow
+given to Michael Angelo, and it would be interesting to know if any of
+Torregiano's Italians worked at Beverley. This aproned, noisy, jocular
+crew are very different from the dignified artist we have just left, but
+doubtless they turned out good work of the humorous class.
+
+The two "sidesmen" are occupied in the two ways of shewing intelligence
+and contempt known as "taking a sight," etc.
+
+[Illustration: MUTUAL CONTEMPT, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The next carver is a figure at Wellingborough, Northamptonshire. This is
+locally known as the Wellingborough shoemaker, but nearly all local
+designations of such things are wrong, and this is no exception. Elsewhere
+in speaking of this sedate figure, I have conjectured he may be cutting
+something out of leather, and not making shoes. However, I have since
+arrived at Miss Phipson's conclusion: the figure can only be that of a
+carver. He is fashioning not a leather rosette, but a Tudor rose in oak,
+to be afterwards pinned with an oak pin in some spandrel. He is rather a
+reserved-looking individual, but a master of his craft, if we may suppose
+he has "turned out" the two eagles at his right and left.
+
+[Illustration: A PIECE OF FINE WORK, WELLINGBOROUGH.]
+
+No doubt there were several ways of building churches, or supplying them
+with their art decorations. Some masons would be attached to a cathedral,
+and be lent or sent here and there by arrangement. Others would be ever
+wandering, seeking church work. Others might come from abroad for
+particular work, and return with the harvest of English money when the
+work was done. For special objects there were depôts. It is an
+acknowledged fact that the black basalt fonts of Norman times were
+imported from Flanders. There are occasionally met other things of this
+material with the same class of design, evidently from the same source,
+such as the sculptured coffin-lid at Bridlington Priory, given on a
+following page. I have not seen it noted, but I think it will be
+established that "brasses," so much alike all over the country, were
+mostly ready-made articles also from Flanders. From the stereotyped
+conventionality of the altar-tomb effigies, they also may be judged to be
+the productions of workshops doing little but this work, and probably
+foreign.
+
+What is required to determine the general facts on these points is a
+return from various fabric accounts. We shall probably find both English
+and foreign carvers. There is little or no doubt that the carvers of our
+grotesques were members of the mysterious society which has developed into
+the modern body of Freemasons. It would be interesting--if it were not so
+apparently impossible--to trace in the records of early Freemasonry, not
+only the names and nationalities of the masons and carvers, but the
+details of that fine organization which enabled them to develope ideas and
+improvements simultaneously throughout Europe; and which would tell us,
+moreover, something of the master minds which conceived and directed the
+changes of style. But the masonic history of our carvers is much enveloped
+in error to the outside world. Thus we are told that in the minority of
+Henry VI. the masons were suppressed by statute, but that on his assuming
+the control of affairs he repealed the Act, and himself became a mason;
+moreover, we are told he wrote out "Certayne Questyons with Awnsweres to
+the same concerning the Mystery of Maconrye" which was afterwards "copyed
+by me Johan Leylande Antiquarius," at the command of Henry VIII.; the MS.
+being gravely stated to be in the Bodleian Library. No such MS. exists at
+the Bodleian Library. If it did, its diction and spelling (which is all on
+pretended record in certain books probably repudiated by the masonic body
+proper) would instantly condemn it as a forgery. Certainly an Act was
+passed, 3 Henry VI., which is in itself a historical monument to the
+importance of Freemasonry. It is a brief enactment that the yearly
+meetings of the masons, being contrary to the Statute of Labourers (of 25
+Edward III., 1351) fixing the rates of labour, which the masons varied and
+apparently increased, were no longer to be held; offenders to be judged
+guilty of felony. The Commons did not quite know what to style the
+meetings, using in this short Act the following terms for them: Chapters,
+Assemblies, Congregations, and Confederacies.
+
+But important though this proves the masons to have been, there is no
+account of the statute being repealed until the 5 Elizabeth, when another
+took its place equally intolerant to the spirit of Freemasonry, and
+Freemasonry really only became legal by the Act of 6 George IV.
+
+But the prohibition of 1424 was not abolition. If the masons were debarred
+from being allowed to exercise their advanced notions of remuneration, or
+to have any legal recognition whatever, it scarcely seems to have affected
+their action. For if they had refrained from exercising their freedom, and
+submitted to being put down by statute, it is probable we should have met
+them in the form of more ordinary gilds as instituted by other craftsmen.
+But we do not meet them thus, and the inference is that they went on in
+their own way, at their own time, and at their own price. It may be
+presumed that the more or less migratory habits of the masons made the Act
+impossible to be rigidly enforced.
+
+Coming down towards the end of Gothic times, we find, at any rate, there
+was one place where images might be ordered. In the Stanford
+churchwardens' accounts for 1556 there occur the following entries:--
+
+  "It. In expences to Abyndon to speke for ymages         vijd.
+   It. for iij ymages, the Rode, Mare, and John   xxijs. iiijd."
+
+It will have been noticed that the portraits of the carvers are Late. It
+is a great merit, on antiquarian grounds, that Gothic work, prior to the
+revival in art, was too much unconscious to admit anything so
+self-personal as a thought of the workers themselves, though frequently
+their 'marks' are unobtrusively set upon their works. By the sixteenth
+century, the sculptor's art developed with the rest of mental effort, and
+the artists drank fresh draughts from the springs coming by way of Rome,
+springs whose waters had been concerned in the existence of nearly all the
+art that had been in Europe for ten centuries.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DOG AND BONE, BRECHIN.]
+
+
+The Artistic Quality of Church Grotesques.
+
+
+The grotesque has been pronounced a false taste, and not desirable to be
+perpetuated. Reflection upon the causes and meanings of Gothic grotesque
+will shew that perpetuation is to be regretted for other than artistic
+reasons. If the taste be false yet the work is valuable on historic
+grounds, for what it teaches of its own time and much more for what it
+hints of earlier periods of which there is meagre record anywhere.
+Therefore it would be well not to confuse the student of the future with
+our clever variations of imperfectly understood ideas. Practically the
+grotesque and emblematic period ended at the Reformation; and it was well.
+
+But while leaving the falseness of the taste for grotesques an open
+question, there is something to be said for them without straining fact.
+For it is certain that there is underlying Gothic grotesque ornament a
+unique and, if not understood, an uncopiable beauty, be the subject never
+so ugly. The fascinating element appear to be, first, the completeness of
+the genius which was exercised upon it. It not only conveys the
+travestying idea, but also sufficiently conveys the original thought
+travestied.
+
+What is it at which we laugh? It shall be a figure which is of a kind
+generally dignified, now with no dignity; generally to be respected, but
+now commanding no respect; capable of being feared, but now inspiring no
+fear; usually lovable, but now provoking no love. It shall be a figure of
+which the preconceived idea was either worthy or dreadful--which suddenly
+we have presented to us shorn of its superior attributes. Ideals are
+unconsciously enshrined in the mind, and when images proclaiming
+themselves the same ideals appear in sharp degraded contrast--we laugh.
+Thus we affirm the correctness of the original judgments both as to the
+great and the contemptible imitating it, for laughter is the effect of
+appreciation of incongruity. Custom overrides nearly all, and blunts
+contrast of ideas, yet wit, darting here and there among men, ever finds
+fresh contrasts and fresh laughter.
+
+[Illustration: DOG AND BONE, CHRISTCHURCH, HAMPSHIRE.]
+
+Further counts for something the excellence of the artistic management,
+which in the treatment of the most unpromising subjects filled the
+composition with beautiful lines. It was left to Hogarth's genius to
+insist on the reality of "the line of beauty" as governing all loveliness,
+and he suggests that a perceptive recognition of this existed on the part
+of the classic sculptors. This applies to their work in general, but he
+also mentions their frequent addition of some curved object connected
+with the subject, as though it were a kind of key to the artistic
+composition. Whether consciously or not, the ancients used many such
+adjunctive curved lines, and Hogarth's conclusions cannot be styled
+fanciful. The helmet, plume, and serpent-edged ægis of Minerva, the
+double-bowed bolt and serpents of Jupiter, the ornaments of the trident,
+the aplustre and the twisted rope of Neptune, the bow and serpent of
+Apollo, the plume of Mars, the caduceus of Mercury, the ship-prow of
+Saturn, the gubernum or rudder of Venus, the drinking horn of Pan,
+together with many another form to be observed in particular works of the
+ancients, is each a definite and perfect example of the faultless line.
+Now, to repeat, many--an infinite number--of the ornaments of Gothic
+architecture, and not less the grotesque than any other description, are
+likewise composed of the most beautiful lines conceivable, either
+entirely, or combined with lines of abrupt and ungraceful turn that seem
+to deliberately provoke one's artistic protest; and yet the whole
+composition shall, by its curious mixture of beauty and bizarre, its
+contrast of elegance with awkwardness, leave a real and unique sense of
+pleasure in the mind. Doubtless the root of this pleasure is the
+gratification of the mind at having secretly detected itself responding to
+the call of art to exercise itself in appreciative discrimination. This
+may be unconsciously done; and in a great measure the qualities which give
+the pleasure would be bestowed upon the work in similar happy
+unconsciousness of the exact why and wherefore. Often, as in the ancient
+statues, a small curved form is introduced as an appendage to a mediæval
+grotesque.
+
+[Illustration: HAWKS OR EAGLES? WELLINGBOROUGH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.]
+
+Thus we see that there are combinations of two kinds of contrast which
+make Gothic grotesques agreeable, the artistic contrasts among the mere
+lines of the carvings, and the significatory contrasts evolved by the
+meanings of the carvings.
+
+As far back as the twelfth century, a critic of church grotesques
+recognized their combination of contrasts. This was St. Bernard of
+Clairvaux, who, speaking of the ecclesiastical decoration of his time,
+paid the grotesques of church art the exact tribute they so often merit;
+probably the greater portion of what he saw has given place to succeeding
+carvings, though of precisely the same characteristics. He calls them "a
+wonderful sort of hideous beauty and beautiful deformity." He, moreover,
+put a question, many times since repeated by hundreds who never heard of
+him, asking the use of placing ridiculous monstrosities in the cloisters
+before the eyes of the brethren when occupied with their studies.
+
+It is not possible to explain the "use" of perpetuating the barbarous
+symbols of a long-forgotten past; but it will be interesting to shew that
+there were actual causes accounting for their continued existence and
+their continued production, unknown ages after their own epoch.
+
+
+
+
+Gothic Ornaments not Didactic.
+
+
+Reflection will not lead us to believe carvings to have been placed in
+churches with direct intent to teach or preach. Many writers have
+coincided in producing a general opinion that the churches, as containing
+these carvings, were practically the picture (or sculpture) galleries and
+illustrated papers for the illiterate of the past. This supposition will
+not bear examination. It would mean that in the days when humble men
+rarely travelled from home, and then mostly by compulsion, to fight for
+lord or king, or against him, the inhabitant of a village or town had for
+the (say) forty years sojourn in his spot of Merrie England, a small
+collection of composite animals, monsters, mermaids, impossible flowers,
+etc.--with perhaps one doubtful domestic scene of a lady breaking a vessel
+over the head of a gentleman who is inquisitive as to boots--with which to
+improve his mind. Sometimes his church would contain not half-a-dozen
+forms, and mostly not one he could understand or cared to interpret.
+
+Misericordes, the secondary seats or shelves allowed as a relaxation
+during the ancient long standing services, are invariably carved, and
+episode is more likely to be found there than anywhere else in the church.
+Hence, misericordes have been specially selected for this erroneous
+consideration of ornament to be the story-book of the Middle Ages. This is
+unfortunate for the theory, for they were placed only in churches having
+connection with a monastic or collegiate establishment. They are in the
+chancels, where the feet of laymen rarely trod, and, moreover, there would
+be few hours out of the twenty-four when the stalls would not be occupied
+by the performers of the daily offices or celebrations.
+
+The fact appears to be that the carvings were the outcome of causes far
+different from an intention to produce genre pictures. It is patent that
+anything which kept within its proper mechanical and architectural
+outline, was admitted. What was offered depended upon a multitude of
+considerations, but chiefly upon the traditions of mason-craft. The Rev.
+Charles Boutell has an apt description touching upon the origin of the
+carvings: calling them "chronicles," he says they were "written by men who
+were altogether unconscious of being chroniclers at all.... They worked
+under the impulse of motives altogether devoid of the historical element.
+They were influenced by the traditions of their art, by their own
+feelings, and were directed by their own knowledge, experience, and
+observation, and also by the associations of their every-day lives." This
+appears to explain in general terms the sources of iconography. In brief,
+the sculptor had a stock-in-trade of designs, which he varied or
+supplemented, according to his ability and originality.
+
+That the stock-in-trade, or traditions of the art, handed down from
+master to apprentice, generation after generation, persistently retained
+an immense amount of intellectualia thus derived from a remote antiquity,
+is but an item of this subject, but the most important of which this work
+has cognizance.
+
+[Illustration: SEA-HORSE DRAGONZED, LINCOLN, _14th cent._]
+
+
+
+
+Ingrained Paganism.
+
+
+We at this day may be excused for not participating in the good St.
+Bernard's dislike to the "hideous beauties" of the grotesque, and for not
+deploring, as he does, the money expended on their production. For many of
+them are the embodiments of ideas which the masons had perpetuated from a
+period centuries before his time, and which could in no other way have
+been handed down to us. There are many reasons why books were unlikely
+media for early times; for later, the serious import of the origin of the
+designs would be likely to be doubted; and for the most part the special
+function of the designs has been the adornment of edifices of religion.
+They were, in fact, religious symbols which in various ages of the world
+have been used with varying degrees of purity. One of the Rabbis,
+Maimonides, has an instructive passage on the rise of symbolic images.
+Speaking of men's first falling away from a presumed early pure religion
+he says:--"They began to build temples to the stars, ... and this was the
+root of idolatry ... and the false prophet showed them the image that he
+had feigned out of his own heart, and said it was the image of that star
+which was made known to him by prophecy; and they began after this manner
+to make images in temples and under trees ... and this thing was spread
+throughout the world--to serve images with services different one from
+another and to sacrifice unto, and worship them. So in process of time the
+glorious and fearful name was forgotten out of the mouth of all living ...
+and there was found on earth no people that knew aught save images of wood
+and stone, and temples of stone which they built." The ancient Hindoo
+fables also indicate how imagery arose; they speak of the god Ram, "who,
+having no shape, is described by a similitude." The worship of the "Host
+of Heaven" was star-worship, or "Baalim."
+
+The Sabean idolatry was the worship of the stars, to which belongs much of
+the earlier image carving, for the household gods of the ancient Hebrews,
+the Teraphim (as the images of Laban stolen by Rachel), were probably in
+the human form as representing planets, even in varying astronomical
+aspects of the same planet. They are said to have been of metal. The
+ancient Germans had similar household gods of wood, carved out of the root
+of the mandragora plant, or alraun as they called it, from the
+superstition kindred to that of the East, that the images would answer
+questions (from _raunen_ to whisper in the ear). Examination of many
+ancient Attic figurines appears to shew that they had a not unsimilar
+origin, reminding us that both Herodotus and Plato state the original
+religion of the Greeks to have been star-worship, and hence is derived the
+[Greek: Theos] god, from [Greek: Thein] to run. Thus in other than the
+poet's sense are the stars "elder scripture."
+
+A large number of the forms met in architectural ornament, it may be
+fittingly reiterated, have a more or less close connection with the
+worships which existed in times long prior to Christianity. A portion of
+them was continuously used simply because the masons were accustomed to
+them, or in later Gothic on account of the universal practice of copying
+existing works; unless we can take it for granted in place of that
+practice, that there existed down to Reformation days "portfolios" of
+carver's designs which were to the last handed down from master to
+apprentice, as must have undoubtedly been the case in earlier times. Other
+portions of the ancient worship designs are found in Christian art because
+they were received and grafted upon the symbolic system of the Church's
+teaching. The retention of these fragments of superseded paganism does not
+always appear to have been of deliberate or willing intention. The early
+days of the Church even after its firm establishment, were much occupied
+in combating every form of paganism. The converts were constantly lapsing
+into their old beliefs, and the thunders of the early ecclesiastical
+councils were as constantly being directed against the ancient
+superstitions. Sufficient remains on record to shew how hard the gods
+died.
+
+To near the end of the fourth century the chief intelligence of Rome
+publicly professed the Olympic faith. With the next century, however,
+commenced a more or less determined programme of persecutory repression.
+Thus, councils held at Arles about 452 ruled that a bishop was guilty of
+sacrilege who neglected to extirpate the custom of adoring fountains,
+trees, and stones. At that of Orleans in 533 Catholics were to be
+excommunicated who returned to the worship of idols or ate flesh offered
+to idols. At Tours in 567 several pagan superstitions were forbidden, and
+at Narborne in 590; freemen who transgressed were to have penance, but
+slaves to be beaten. At Nicea in 681 image worship was allowed of
+Christ.[2] At Augsburgh (?) in 742 the Count Gravio was associated with
+the Bishop to watch against popular lapses into paganism. In 743 Pepin
+held a council in which he ruled, as his father had done before, that he
+who practised any pagan rites be fined 15 sous (15/22 of a livre). To the
+orders was attached the renunciation, in German, of the worship of Odin by
+the Saxons, and a list of the pagan superstitions of the Germans. The
+Council of Frankfort in 794 ordered the sacred woods to be destroyed.
+Constantinople had apparently already not only become a channel for the
+conveyance of oriental paganism in astro-symbolic images, but was also
+evidently nearer to the lower idolatry of heathenism than the Church of
+the West. Thus we find the bishops of Gaul, Germany, and Italy in council
+at Frankfort, rejecting with anathema, and as idolatrous, the doctrines of
+the Council of Constantinople upon the worship of images.
+
+While all this repression was going on, the Church was making itself
+acceptable, just as the Mosaic system had done in its day, by assimilating
+the symbols of the forbidden faiths. Itself instituted without formularies
+or ceremonial, both were needed when it became a step-ladder of ambition
+and the expedient displacer of the corrupt idolatries into which
+sun-worship had disintegrated. Hence among the means of organization,
+observance and symbol took the place of original simplicity, and it is
+small wonder that ideas were adopted which were already in men's minds.
+Elements of heathenism which, after the lapse of centuries, still clung to
+the Church's robes, became an interwoven part of her dearest symbolism. If
+men did not burn what they had adored, they in effect adored that which
+they had burned.
+
+In spite, however, of edicts and adoptions, paganism has never been
+entirely rooted out; what Sismondi calls the "rights of long possession,
+the sacredness of time-hallowed opinion, and the potency of habit," are
+not yet entirely overcome in the midst of the most enlightened peoples.
+The carvings which point back to forgotten myths have their parallels in
+curious superstitions and odd customs which are not less venerable.
+
+There were many compromises made on account of the ineradicable attachment
+of the people to religious customs into which they were born. Christian
+festivals were erected on the dates of heathen observances. In the sixth
+century, Pope Gregory sent word to Augustine, then in England, that the
+idolatrous temples of the English need not be destroyed, though the idols
+should, and that the cattle sacrificed to the heathen deities should be
+killed on the anniversary of dedication or on the nativities of the
+saints whose relics were within the church.
+
+It is said that it was, later, usual to bring a fat buck into St. Paul's,
+London, with the hunters' horns blowing, in the midst of divine service,
+for the cathedral was built on or near the site of a former temple of
+Diana. This custom was made the condition of a feudal tenure. The story of
+Prosperine, another form of Diana, was the subject of heathen plays, and
+down to the sixteenth century the character appears in religious mystery
+plays as the recipient of much abuse.
+
+Ancient mythology points in one chief direction. "Omnes Deos referri ad
+solem," says Macrobius, "All Gods refer to the sun," and in the light of
+that saying a thousand complicated fables of antiquity melt into
+simplicity. The ancient poets called the sun (at one time symbolically of
+a First Great Cause, at another absolutely) the Leader, the Moderator, the
+Depository of Light, the Ordainer of human things; each of his virtues was
+styled a different god, and given its distinct name. The moon also, and
+the stars were made the symbols of deities. These symbols put before the
+people as vehicles for abstract ideas, were quickly adopted as gods, the
+symbolism being disregarded, and the end was practically the same as that
+narrated by the ancient rabbi just quoted. But it may be doubted whether
+the pantheism of the classic nations was ever entirely gross. The great
+festivals of the gods were accompanied by the initiation of carefully
+selected persons into certain mysteries of which no description is
+extant. Thirlwall hazards the conjecture "that they were the remains of a
+worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic mythology ... grounded on
+a view of nature less fanciful, more earnest and better fitted to awaken
+both philosophical thought and religious feeling." Whether a purer system
+was unfolded to the initiated on these occasions or not, there is little
+doubt that it had existed and was at the root of the symbol rites.
+
+[Illustration: AN IMP ON CUSHIONS, CHRISTCHURCH, HANTS., _early 16th
+cent._]
+
+
+
+
+Mythic Origin of Church Carvings.
+
+
+[Illustration: TAU CROSS, WELLINGBOROUGH.]
+
+The discoveries in Egypt in recent years undoubtedly press upon us the
+fact that there was in Europe an early indigenous civilization, and that
+the exchange of ideas between East and West was at least equal. For the
+purpose of this study, however, the theory of independence is not accepted
+absolutely; it is premised that though there were in numerous parts of the
+old world early native systems of worship of much similarity, yet that
+such relics of them as are met in architecture came from the East.
+
+The mythic ideas at the root of Gothic decoration were probably early
+disseminated through Europe in vague and varying ways, whose chief impress
+is in folk-lore; but the concrete forms themselves appear to have been
+introduced later, after being brought, as it were, to a focus, being
+selected and assimilated at some great mental centre. Alexandria was the
+place where Eastern and Western culture impinged on each other, and
+resulted in a conglomerate of ideas. These ideas, however, were not
+essentially different in their nature, though each school, Assyrian,
+Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, and Hebrew, had diverged widely if they came
+from an unknown common source. But if Alexandria was the furnace in which
+the material was fused, Byzantium appears to have been the great workshop
+where the results were utilized, and from whence they were issued to
+Europe.
+
+Sculptured ornament is not alone in the fact of its being a direct legacy
+from remotely ancient forms, though, on comparing that with any of the
+other arts hitherto recognized as of Eastern origin, it will be found that
+none bears such distinct marks of its parentage, or shews such continuity
+of form. Thus examination of European glazed pottery, which comes perhaps
+the nearest to our subject, shews that the ornamenting devices
+occasionally betray an acquaintance with the old symbolic patterns, but
+there is less recognition of meaning, scarcely any intention to perpetuate
+idea, and no continuity of design. It was not in the nature of the
+potter's purpose that there should be any of these, the difference being
+that for the mason's and the sculptor's art there was a very close
+association with the gild system. The first Christian sculptors would be
+masons brought up in pagan gilds, and the gild instincts and traditions
+had undoubtedly as strong an effect upon their work, on the whole, as any
+religious beliefs they might possess.
+
+The symbolism of the animals of the church in the late points of view of
+the Bestiaries and of the expository writers of the Middle Ages, is not
+here to be made the subject of special attention. That is a department
+well treated in other works, particularly in the volume, "Animal Symbolism
+in Ecclesiastical Architecture," by Mr. E. P. Evans, which yet remains to
+be equalled. It is to be noted, however, that the early Christians,
+seeing the animals and their compounds so integral a portion of pagan
+imagery, endeavoured to twist every meaning to one sufficiently Christian:
+but what is chiefly worthy of note is the unconscious resistance of the
+sculptors to the treatment. Although a multitude of figures can be traced
+as used symbolically in accordance with the Christian dicta, there are at
+least as many which shew stronger affinity to pagan myth. There is
+evidence that this was early recognized by the propogandists. The Council
+of Nice in 787, in enjoining upon the faithful the due regard of images,
+ordered that the works of art were not to be drawn from the imagination of
+the painters, but to be only such as were approved by the rules and
+traditions of the Catholic Church. So also ordained the Council of Milan
+in 1565.
+
+The Artists, however, did not invent the images so much as use old
+material, and, the injunctions of the Council notwithstanding, the ancient
+symbols apparently held their ground. The protests of St. Nilus, in the
+fifth century, against animal figures in the sanctuary, were echoed by the
+repudiations of St. Bernard in the twelfth and Gautier de Coinsi in the
+thirteenth, a final condemnation being made at the Council of Milan in
+1565, all equally in vain. Though the force of the myth symbols has passed
+away, they have left another legacy than the grotesques of church art. The
+art works of the Greeks arose from the same materials, the glorious
+statues and epics being the highest embodiment of the symbolic, so loftily
+overtopping all other forms by the force of supreme physical beauty as to
+almost justify and certainly purify the religion of which they were the
+outcome; so, later, the same ideas clothed with the moral beauty of
+supreme unselfishness enabled Christianity to take hold of the nations.
+
+By the diatribes of Bernard we can see what materials were extant in the
+twelfth century for a study of worship-symbols and of the grotesque,
+though he ignores any possible meaning they may have. He says, "Sometimes
+you may see many bodies under one head; at other times, many heads to one
+body; here is seen the tail of a serpent attached to the body of a
+quadruped; there the head of a quadruped on the body of a fish. In another
+place appears an animal, the fore half of which represents a horse, and
+the hinder portion a goat. Elsewhere you have a horned animal with the
+hinder parts of a horse; indeed there appears everywhere so multifarious
+and so wonderful a variety of diverse forms that one is more apt to con
+over the sculptures than to study the scriptures, to occupy the whole day
+in wondering at these than in meditating upon God's law."
+
+It has now to be observed how far the symbolic fancies of ancient beliefs
+have left their impress on the grotesque art of our churches.
+
+A common representation of the great sun-myth was that of two eagles, or
+dragons, watching one at each side of an altar. These were the powers of
+darkness, one at each limit of the day, waiting to destroy the light. This
+poetic idea has come down to us in many forms. Greek art was unconsciously
+frequent in its use of the form, and mediæval sculptors, being often quite
+ignorant of the significance of the design, use it in a variety of ways,
+in many of which the likeness to the original is entirely lost, the
+composition ending in but a semi-natural representation of birds pecking
+at fruit. In the above block from Lincoln Minster, the altar is well
+preserved. In the next block, which is from a carving connected with the
+preceding one, the idea is more distantly hinted at.
+
+[Illustration: THE ALTAR OF LIGHT AND THE BIRDS OF DARKNESS, LINCOLN.]
+
+[Illustration: SYMBOLS OF DARKNESS, LINCOLN.]
+
+At Exeter, an ingenious grotesque composition of two duck-footed harpies,
+one on either side of a _fleur-de-lis_, is evidently from the same source.
+Examples of this could be multiplied very readily.
+
+[Illustration: THE ALTAR OF LIGHT AND THE BIRDS OF DARKNESS, EXETER.]
+
+The Cat and the Fiddle are subjects of carvings at Beverley and at Wells.
+
+Man has an almost universal passion for the oral transmission of the
+fruits of his mental activity. In the particular instances of many lingual
+compositions this passion has become an inveterate race habit, and the
+rhymes or reasons have been transmitted verbally to posterity long after
+their original meaning has been lost or obscured. It is no new thing that
+a nursery rhyme has been found to be the relic of an archaic poem long
+misunderstood or perverted. The lines as to "the cat and the fiddle" are
+an excellent instance of the aptitude to continue the use of metrical
+composition the sense of which has departed. The full verse is, as it
+stands, a curious jumble of disconnected sentences.
+
+  "Hey, diddle, diddle, the cat and the fiddle,
+    The cow jumped over the moon,
+  The little dog laughed to see such sport,
+    While the dish run away with the spoon."
+
+[Illustration: THE WEEKS DANCING TO THE MUSIC OF THE MONTH, BEVERLEY
+MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: HEY, DIDDLE, DIDDLE, THE CAT AND THE FIDDLE, WELLS.]
+
+I am not aware that any attempt has yet been made to explain this
+extraordinary verse. Examination seemingly shews that it was originally a
+satire in derision of the worship of Diana. The moon-goddess had a
+three-fold existence. On the earth she was Diana. Among the Egyptians we
+find her as Isis, and her chief symbol was the cat. Apuleius calls her the
+mother of the gods. In the worship of Isis was used a musical instrument,
+the sistrum, which had four metal bars loosely inserted in a frame so as
+to be shaken; on the apex of this frame, which was shaped not unlike a
+horse-shoe, was carved the figure of a cat, as emblematic of the moon. The
+four bars are said by Plutarch to represent the elements, but it is more
+likely they were certain notes of the diapason. The worship of Isis passed
+to Italy, though the Greeks had previously connected the cat with the
+moon. The fiddle, as an instrument played with a bow, was not known to
+classic times, but the word for fiddle--_fides_--was applied to a lyre. It
+is equivalent to a Greek word for gut-string. In the light of what
+follows, I suggest that "the Cat and the Fiddle" is a mocking allusion to
+the worship of Diana upon earth.
+
+In the heavens the moon-goddess had the name of Luna, and her chief symbol
+was the crescent, which is sometimes met figured as a pair of cow's horns.
+Images of Isis were crowned with crescent horns; she was believed to be
+personified in the cow, as Osiris was in the bull, and her symbol, a
+crescent moon, is met in sculpture over the back of the animal. This
+apparently suggested the second line.
+
+The third personality of the goddess was Hecate, which was the name by
+which she was known in the infernal regions,--which means of course, in
+nature, when she was below the horizon. Now another name by which she was
+known was Prosperine (Roman), and Persephone (Greek), and her carrying
+down into Hades by Pluto (Roman), or Dis (Greek), was the fable wrought
+out of the simple phenomenon of moon-set. I suggest that the last line of
+the verse is a grotesque rendering of the statement that--
+
+  "Dis ran away with Persephone."
+
+Dis is equivalent to Serapis the Bull, otherwise Ammon, Æsculapius, Nilus,
+etc., that is, the Sun. Why the little dog laughed to see such sport is
+not easy to explain. It may be an allusion to one of the heads of Hecate,
+that of a dog, to indicate the watchfulness of the moon. There is another
+Hecate (a bad, as the above-mentioned was considered a beneficient deity),
+but which was originally no doubt the same, whose attributes were two
+black dogs, _i.e._, the darkness preceding and following the moonlight in
+short lunar appearances. Or it may be an allusion to the fact that the dog
+was associated with Dis, being considered the impersonation of Sirius the
+Dog-star. In various representations of the rape of Prosperine, Dis is
+accompanied by a dog, _e.g._, the grinning hound in Titian's picture.
+
+Prosperine's symbol of a crescent moon was adopted as one of those of the
+Virgin Mary, and Candlemas Day, 2nd February, takes the place of the Roman
+festival, the candles used to illustrate the text, "a light to lighten the
+Gentiles," being the representatives of the torches carried in the
+processions which affected to search for the lost Prosperine.
+
+Hindoo mythology has also a three-fold Isis, or moon-goddess; namely, Bhu
+on earth, Swar in heaven, Pátála, below the earth.
+
+The moon-deity has not come down to us as in every case a female
+personation. This is, however, explained by an early fable [in the
+Puránas] of the Hindoos, in which it is narrated that Chandra, or Lunus,
+lost his sex in the forest of Gauri, and became Chandri, or Luna. The
+origin of this has yet to be discovered; it may be nothing more than the
+account of an etymological change, produced by a transcript of dialect.
+
+Whether the Beverley artist knew that the cat was a moon-symbol may be
+doubted. The fiddle has four strings, as the sistrum had four bars. As
+well as the elements and the four seasons of the year, the four may mean
+the four weeks. It will be observed that as the Hours are said to dance by
+the side of the chariot of the sun, so here four weeks dance to the music
+of the moon-sphere; the word moon means the measurer, and the cat is
+playing a dance measure!
+
+The cat is not a very frequent subject. At Sherborne she is shewn hanged
+by mice, one of the retributive pieces which point to a confidence in the
+existence of something called justice, not always self-evident in the
+olden-time. Rats and mice are the emblem of St. Gertrude. The dog had a
+higher place in ancient estimation than his mention in literature would
+warrant; the fact that among the Romans he was the emblem of the Lares,
+the household gods, is a weighty testimonial to that effect, while the
+Egyptians had a city named after and devoted to the dog.
+
+Among the pre-existing symbols seized by the Christians, the Egyptian
+Cross and Druidical Tau must not be overlooked. It is found on the
+capitals of pillars at Canterbury and other places; the example given in
+the initial on page 34 is perhaps the latest example in English Gothic.
+Its admission as a grotesque is due to its, perhaps merely accidental, use
+as a mask as noted in the chapter on "Masks and Faces."
+
+The sinuous course of the sun among the constellations is mentioned in
+literature as far back as Euripides as an explanation of the presence of
+the dragon in archaic systems of mythology. This may have been the origin
+of the figure. Yet in addition to that there always seems to have been the
+recognition of an evil principle, of which by a change of meaning, the
+dragonic or serpentine star-path of the sun was made the personification
+or symbol. According to Pausanius the "dragon" of the Greeks was only a
+large snake.
+
+It might not be impossible to collect several hundreds of names by which
+the deistic character of the sun has been expressed by various peoples;
+and the same applies, though in a less degree, to the Darkness, Storm,
+Cold, and Wet, which are taken as his antithesis. One of the oldest of
+these Dragon-names is Typhon, which is met in Egyptian mythology. Typhon
+is said to be the Chinese _Tai-fun_, the hot wind, and, if this be so,
+doubtless the adverse principle was taken to be the spirit of the desert
+which ever seeks to embrace Egypt in its arid arms. The symbol of Typhon
+was the crocodile, and doubtless the dragon form thus largely rose. Ráhu,
+an evil deity in Hindoo mythology, though generally called a dragon, is
+sometimes met represented as a crocodile, and his numerous progeny are
+styled crocodiles. The constellation called by the Japanese the crocodile
+is that known to us as the dragon. Can it be that in the universal dragon
+we have a chronicle of our race's dim recollection of some survival of the
+terrible Jurassic reptiles, and hence of their period?
+
+But the myth has ever one ending; the power of the evil one is destroyed
+for a time by the coming of the sun-god, though eventually the evil
+triumphs, that is dearth recurs.
+
+In the Scandinavian myth, Odin the son of Bur, broke for a season the
+strength of the great serpent Jörmungard, who, however, eventually
+swallowed the hero. Thus was Odin the sun; and his companions, the other
+Asir, were more or less sun attributes. In the case of Egypt the god is
+Horus (the sun-light), the youthful son of Osiris and Isis, who drives
+back Typhon to the deserts; for that country the rising of the Nile is the
+happy crisis. Horus is sometimes called Nilus. Whether the above
+derivation of the word Typhon be correct or not, which may be doubtful,[3]
+that of Horus from the root _Hur_ light, connected with the Sanscrit _Ush_
+to burn (whence also Aurora, etc.,) is certain. When the great myth became
+translated to different climates, the evil principle took on different
+forms of dread. Water, the rainy season in some countries, the darkness
+and cold of winter in others, were the Dragon which the Hero-god, the Sun,
+had to overcome--out of which conflict arose myths innumerable, yet one
+and the same in essence. Apollo slew the Python, the sunbeams drying up
+the waters being his arrows; Perseus slew the Dragon, by turning him to
+stone, which perhaps means that the spring sun dried up the mud of the
+particular locality where the fable rose. Later, Sigurd slew the Dragon
+Fafnir. When the Christians found themselves by expediency committed to
+adopt the form, and to a certain degree the spirit, of heathen beliefs,
+the Sun _versus_ Darkness, or the Spring _versus_ Winter myth was a
+difficulty in very many places. At first the idea was kept up of a
+material victory over the adverse forces of nature, and we find honourable
+mention of various bishops and saints, who--by means of which there is
+little detail, but which may be supposed to be that great monastic
+beneficence, intelligent drainage--conquered the dragons of flood and fen.
+It is somewhat odd that the Psalmist attributes to the Deity the victory
+of breaking the heads of the "dragons in the waters."
+
+Thus St. Romain of Rouen slew there the Dragon Gargouille, which is but
+the name of a draining-gutter after all, and hence the grotesque
+waterspouts of our churches are mostly dragons.
+
+St. Martha slew the Dragon Tarasque at Aix-la-chapelle, but that name is
+derived from _tarir_, to drain. St. Keyne slew the Cornish Dragon, and, to
+be brief, at least twelve other worthies slew dragons, and doubtless for
+their respective districts supplied the place of the older myth. Among
+these, St. George is noteworthy. He is said to have been born at Lydda, in
+Syria, where his legend awaited the Crusaders, who took him as their
+patron, bringing him to the west, as the last Christian adoption of a
+sun-myth idea, to become the patron saint of England. A figure of St.
+George was a private badge of English kings till the time of the Stuarts.
+On the old English angel the combat is between St. Michael and the Dragon,
+and though St. George is generally shewn mounted, as was also sometimes
+Horus, the Egyptian deity, he is sometimes represented on foot, like St.
+Michael. The Dragon is generally the same in the two cases, being the
+Wyvern or two-legged variety.
+
+Another form of dragon is drake. Certain forms of cannon were called both
+dragons and drakes. Sometimes the dragon is found termed the Linden-worm,
+or Lind-drake, in places as widely sundered as Scotland and Germany. It is
+said this is on account of the dragon dwelling under the linden, a sacred
+tree, but this is probably only, as yet, half explained.
+
+Perhaps through all time the sun-myth was accompanied by a constant
+feeling that good and evil were symbolised by the alternation of season.
+It is to be expected that the feeling would increase and solidify upon the
+advent of Christianity, for the periodic dragon of heathendom was become
+the permanent enemy of man, the Devil. The frequent combats between men
+(and other animals) and the dragons, met among church grotesques, though
+their models, far remote in antiquity, were representations of sun-myths,
+would be carved and read as the ever-continuing fight between good and
+evil. That, however, it is reasonable to see in these Dragon sculptures
+direct representatives of the ancient cult, we know from a fact of date.
+The festival of Horus, the Egyptian deity, was the 23rd of April. That is
+the date of St. George's Day.
+
+Less than the foregoing would scarcely be sufficient to explain the
+frequency and significance of the Dragon forms which crowd our subject.
+
+During the three Rogation days, which took the place of the Roman
+processional festivals of the Ambarvalia and Cerealia, the Dragon was
+carried as a symbol both in England and on the continent. When the Mystery
+pageantry of Norwich was swept away, an exception was made in favour of
+the Dragon, who, it was ordained, "should come forth and shew himself as
+of old."
+
+The Rogation Dragon in France was borne, during the first two days of the
+three, before the cross, with a great tail stuffed with chaff, but on the
+third day it was carried behind the cross, with the tail emptied of its
+contents. This signified, it is said, the undisturbed dominion of Satan
+over the world during the two days that Christ was in Hell, and his
+complete humiliation on the third day.
+
+In some countries the figure of the Dragon, or another of the Devil, after
+the procession, was placed on the altar, then drawn up to the roof, and
+being allowed to fall was broken into pieces.
+
+Early Keltic and other pastoral staves end in two Dragons' heads,
+recalling the caduceus of Mercury and rod of Moses; the Dragon was a
+Keltic military or tribal ensign. Henry VII. assumed a red dragon as one
+of the supporters of the royal arms, on account of his Welsh descent;
+Edward IV. had as one of his numerous badges a black dragon. A dragon
+issuing from a chalice is the symbol of St. John the Evangelist, an
+allusion to the dragon of the Apocalypse.
+
+[Illustration: THE SLAYER OF THE DRAGON, IFFLEY.]
+
+The Dragon combat here presented is from the south doorway of Iffley
+Church, near Oxford. In this example of Norman sculpture, the humour
+intent is more marked than usual. The hero is seated astride the dragon's
+back, and, grasping its upper and lower jaws, is tearing them asunder. The
+dragon is rudely enough executed, but the man's face and extremities have
+good drawing. The cloak flying behind him shew that he has leaped into
+the quoin of vantage, and recalls the classic. The calm exultation with
+which the hero seizes his enemy is only equalled by the good-natured
+amusement which the creature evinces at its own undoing.
+
+We now arrive at a form of the sun-myth which appears to have come down
+without much interference. The god Horus is alluded to as a child, and in
+a curious series of carvings the being attacked by a Dragon is a child. It
+is attempted, and with considerable success, to be represented as of great
+beauty. The point to explain is the position of the child, rising as it
+does from a shell. This leads us further into the various contingent
+mythologies dealing with the Typhon story. Horus (also called Averis, or
+Orus), was in Egyptian lore also styled Caimis, and is equivalent to Cama,
+the Cupid of the Hindoos. Typhon (also known as Smu, and as Sambar) is
+stated to have killed him, and left him in the waters, where Isis restored
+him to life. That is the account of Herodotus, but Ælian says that Osiris
+threw Cupid into the ocean, and gave him a shell for his abode. After
+which he at length killed Typhon.
+
+Hence the shell in the myth-carvings to be found to-day in mediæval
+Christian churches.
+
+The Greeks represented Cupid, and also Nerites, as living in shells, and,
+strangely enough, located them on the Red Sea coast, adjacent to the home
+of the Typhon myth. It is probable that the word _sancha_, a sea-shell,
+used in this connection, is from _suca_, a cave, a tent; and we may
+conjecture that there is an allusion to certain dwellers in tents, who,
+coming westward, worked, after a struggle, a political and dynastic
+revolution, carrying with it great changes in agriculture. This is a
+conjecture we may, however, readily withdraw in favour of another, that
+the shell itself is merely a symbol of the ocean, and that Cupid emerging
+is a figure of the sun rising from the sea at some particular zodiacal
+period.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHILD AND DRAGON, LINCOLN.]
+
+Another story kindred to that of Typhon and Horus is that of Sani and
+Aurva, met in Hindoo literature. They were the sons of Surya, regent of
+the Sun (Vishnu); Sani was appointed ruler, but becoming a tyrant was
+deposed, and Aurva reigned in his place. This recalls that one of the
+names given to Typhon in India was Swarbhánu, "light of heaven," from
+which it is evident that he is Lucifer, the fallen angel; so that
+accepting the figurative meaning of all the narratives, we can see even a
+propriety in the Gothic transmission of these symbolic representations.
+
+It may be added to this that the early conception of Cupid was as the god
+of Love in a far wider and higher sense than indicated in the later
+poetical and popular idea. He was not originally considered the son of
+Venus, whom he preceded in birth. It is scarcely too much to say that he
+personified the love of a Supreme Unknown for creation; and hence the
+assumption by Love of the character of a deliverer.
+
+There are other shell deities in mythology. Venus had her shell, and her
+Northern co-type, Frigga, the wife of the Northern sun-god, Odin, rode in
+a shell chariot.
+
+The earliest of our examples is the most serious and precise. The Dragon
+is a very bilious and repulsive reptile, while the child form, thrice
+repeated in the same carving, has grace and originality. This is from
+Lincoln Minster.
+
+The next is also on a misericorde, and is in Manchester Cathedral. Here
+the shell is different in position, being upright. The Child in this has
+long hair.
+
+[Illustration: DRAGON AND CHILD, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The third example is from a misericorde at Beverley Minster, the series at
+which place shews strong evidence of having been executed from the same
+set of designs as those of Manchester Cathedral, and were carved some
+twelve years later. Many of the subjects are identically the same, but in
+this case it will be seen how a meaning may be lost by a carver's
+misapprehension. The shell would not be recognizable without comparison
+with the other instances, and the Dragon has become two. The head of the
+Child in this carving appears to be in a close hood, or Puritan infantile
+cap, which, as the "foundling cap," survived into this century. In all the
+three carvings, the Dragons are of the two-legged kind, which St.
+George is usually shewn slaying. It is a little remarkable that the
+Child's weapon in all three cases is broken away. The object borne
+sceptre-wise by the left hand child in the Lincoln carving, is apparently
+similar to the Egyptian hieroglyphic [symbol], the Greek [Greek: z],
+European s. It may be worth while to suggest that the greatly-discussed
+collar of ss, worn by the lords chief justices, and others in authority,
+may have its origin in this hieroglyphic as a symbol of sovereignty,
+rather than in any of the arbitrary ascriptions of a mediæval initial.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHILD AND DRAGON, MANCHESTER.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SLAYING OF THE SNAIL, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The weapon is evidently a form of the falx, or falcula, for it was with
+such a one (and here we see further distribution of the myth) that Jupiter
+wounded Typhon, and such was the instrument with which Perseus slew the
+sea-dragon: the falx, the pruning-hook, sickle or scythe, is an emblem of
+Saturn, and the oldest representation of it in that connection shew it in
+simple curved form. Saturn's sickle became a scythe, and the planet deity
+thus armed became, on account of the length of his periodical revolution,
+our familiar figure of Father Time. Osiris, the father of Horus, is styled
+"the cause of Time." An Egyptian regal coin bears a man cutting corn with
+a sickle of semi-circular blade. In many parts of England, the sickle is
+spoken of simply as "a hook."
+
+[Illustration: GROTESQUE OF HORUS IN THE SHELL. THE PALMER FOX EXHIBITING
+HOLY WATER. NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+Apparently the carver of the Beverley misericorde was conscious he had
+rendered the shell very badly, for in the side supporter of the carving he
+had placed, by way of reminder as to an attack upon the occupant of a
+shell, a man in a fashionable dress, piercing a snail as it approaches
+him. In mediæval carvings, as in many of their explanations, it is
+scarcely a step from the sublime to the ridiculous.
+
+One other carving which seems to point to the foregoing is at New
+College, Oxford. It is a genuine grotesque, and may be a satire upon the
+more serious works. It represents, seated in the same univalve kind of
+shell as the others, a fox or ape in a religious habit, displaying a
+bottle containing, perhaps, water from the Holy Land, the Virgin's Milk,
+or other wondrous liquid. One of the side carvings is an ape in a hood
+bringing a bottle.
+
+
+
+
+Hell's Mouth.
+
+
+[Illustration: HELL'S MOUTH, HOLY CROSS, STRATFORD-ON-AVON.]
+
+Hell's Mouth was one of the most popular conceptions of mediæval times.
+Except so far as concerns the dragon form of the head whose mouth was
+supposed to be the gates of Hell, the idea appears to be entirely
+Christian. "Christ's descent into Hell" was a favourite subject of Mystery
+plays. In the Coventry pageant the "book of words" contained but six
+verses, in which Hell is styled the "cindery cell." The Chester play is
+much longer, and is drawn from the Apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus. This
+gospel, which has a version in Anglo-Saxon of A.D. 950, is no doubt the
+source from which is derived a prevalent form of Hell's Mouth in which
+Christ is represented holding the hand of one of the persons engulped in
+the infernal jaws. This is seen in a carving on the east window of
+Dorchester Abbey.
+
+The Mouth is here scarcely that of a dragon, but that of an exceedingly
+well-studied serpent; for intent and powerful malignity the expression of
+this fine stone carving would be difficult to surpass. The Descent into
+Hell is one of a series, on the same window, of incidents in the life of
+Christ; all are exceedingly quaint, but their distance from the ground
+improves them in a more than ordinary degree, and their earnest intention
+prevails over their accidental grotesqueness. The beautiful curves in this
+viperous head are well worthy of notice in connection with the remarks
+upon the artistic qualities of Gothic grotesques.
+
+[Illustration: HELL'S MOUTH, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+The verse of the Gospel (xix., 12), explains who the person is. "And [the
+Lord] taking hold of Adam by his right hand he ascended from hell and all
+the saints of God followed him." The female figure is of course Eve, who
+is shewn with Adam in engravings of the subject by Albert Durer (1512,
+etc.,) and others. The vision of Piers Ploughman (_circa_ 1362), has
+particular mention of Adam and Eve among Satan's captive colony. Satan, on
+hearing the order of a voice to open the gates of Hell, exclaims:--
+
+  "Yf he reve me of my ryght he robbeth me by mastrie,
+  For by ryght and reson the reukes [rooks] that be on here
+  Body and soul beth myne both good and ille
+  For he hyms-self hit seide that Syre is of Helle,
+  That Adam and Eve and al hus issue
+  Sholden deye with deol [should die with grief] and here dwell evere
+  Yf thei touchede a tree othr toke ther of an appel."
+
+A MS. volume in the British Museum, of poems written in the thirty-fourth
+year of the reign of Henry VI., has "Our Lady's Song of the Chyld that
+soked hyr brest," in which other persons than Adam and Eve are stated to
+have been taken out of hell on the same occasion:--
+
+  "Adam and Eve wyth hym he take,
+  Kyng David, Moyses and Salamon
+  And haryed hell every noke,
+  Wythyn hyt left he soulys non."
+
+The belief in the descent in Hell can be traced back to the second
+century. The form of Hell as a mouth is much later.
+
+There is mention of a certain "Mouth of Hell," which in 1437 was used in a
+Passion play in the plain of Veximiel; this Mouth was reported as very
+well done, for it opened and shut when the devils required to pass in or
+out, and it had two large eyes of steel.
+
+The great east window of York Cathedral, the west front and south doorway
+of Lincoln, and the east side of the altar-screen, Beverley Minster, have
+representations of the Mouth of Hell. The chancel arch of Southleigh has a
+large early fresco of the subject, in which two angels, a good and a bad
+(white and black), are gathering the people out of their graves; the black
+spirit is plucking up certain bodies (or souls) with a flesh-hook, and his
+companions are conveying them to the adjacent Mouth. In a Flemish Book of
+Hours of the fifteenth century (in the Bodleian Library) there is a
+representation with very minute details of all the usual adjuncts of the
+Mouth, and, in addition, several basketsful of children (presumably the
+unbaptized) brought in on the backs of wolf-like fiends, and on sledges, a
+common mediæval method of conveyance.
+
+Sackvil mentions Hell as "an hideous hole" that--
+
+  "With ougly mouth and griesly jawes doth gape."
+
+Further instances of Hell's Mouth are in the block of the Ludlow ale-wife
+on a following page.
+
+
+
+
+Satanic Representations.
+
+
+[Illustration: WINCHESTER COLLEGE, _14th century_.]
+
+Quaint as are the grotesques derived from the great symbolic Dragon, there
+is another series of delineations of Evil, which are still more curious.
+These are the representations of Evil which are to be regarded not so much
+symbolic as personal. The constant presence of Satan and his satellites on
+capital and corbel, arcade and misericorde, is to be explained by the
+exceedingly strong belief in their active participation in mundane affairs
+in robust physical shapes.
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+It would, perhaps, not seem improper to refer the class of carving
+instanced by the three cuts, next following, to the Typhon myth. I think,
+however, a distinction may be drawn between such carvings as represent
+combat, and such as represent victimization; the former I would attribute
+to the myth, the latter to the Christian idea of the torments consequent
+on sin. At the same time, the victim-carving, generally easily disposed of
+by styling it "Satan and a Soul," is undoubtedly largely influenced by
+the myth-idea of Typhon (by whatever name known) as a _seizer_, as
+indicated definitely in one of his general names, Gráha. The figure was
+naturally one according well with the mediæval understanding of spiritual
+punishment, and its varieties in carving are numerous enough to furnish an
+adequate inferno. The Dorchester example is a small boss in the groined
+ceiling of the sedilia of celebrants; that at Ewelme is a weather-worn
+parapet-ornament on the south of the choir; the carving at Farnsham is on
+a misericorde.
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, EWELME, OXON.]
+
+Not entirely, though in some degree, the two next illustrations support
+the theory, of punishment rather than conflict, for the others.
+
+[Illustration: REMORSE, YORK.]
+
+The carving in York Cathedral is of a graceful type; there is one closely
+resembling it at Wells. The Glasgow sketch is from the drawing of a
+fragment of the cathedral; it is more vivid and ludicrous than the other.
+A comparison of these two affords a good idea of the excellent in Gothic
+ornament. The Glasgow carving lacks everything but vigor; the York
+production, though no exceptional example, has vigor, poetry, and grace.
+
+We will now revert to the more personal and "human" aspect of Satan.
+
+[Illustration: REMORSE, GLASGOW.]
+
+A writer[4] in the _Art Journal_ some years ago offered excellent general
+observations upon the ideas of the Evil One found at various periods. He
+pointed out that the frolicsome character of the mediæval demon was
+imparted by Christianity, with its forbidden Satan coming into contact
+with the popular belief in hobgoblins and fairies which were common in the
+old heathen belief of this island, and so the sterner teaching was tinged
+by more popular fancies.
+
+There is much truth in this, except that for the hobgoblins and fairies we
+may very well read ancient deities, for the ultimate effect of
+Christianity upon Pagan reverence was to turn it into contempt and
+abhorrence for good and bad deities alike. We can read this in the slender
+records of ancient worships whose traces are left in language. Thus _Bo_
+is apparently one of the ancient root-words implying divinity; _Bod_, the
+goddess of fecundity; _Boivani_, goddess of destruction; _Bolay_, the
+giant who overcame heaven, earth and hell; _Bouders_, or _Boudons_, the
+genii guarding Shiva, and _Boroon_, a sea-god, are in Indian mythology.
+_Bossum_ is a good deity of Africa. _Borvo_ and _Bormania_ were guardians
+of hot springs, and with _Bouljanus_ were gods of old Gaul. _Borr_ was
+the father of Odin, and _Bure_ was Borr's sister. The _Bo_-tree of
+India is the sacred tree of wisdom. In Sumatra _boo_ is a root-word
+meaning good (as in _booroo_). _Bog_ is the Slavonic for god. These are
+given to shew a probable connection among wide-spread worships.
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, DORCHESTER.]
+
+We are now chiefly concerned with the last instance. The Slavonic _Bog_, a
+god, is met in Saxon as a goblin, for the "boy" who came into the court of
+King Arthur and laid his wand upon a boar's head was clearly a "bog" (the
+Saxon _g_ being exchanged erroneously for _y_, as in _dag's aeg_, day's
+eye, etc). In Welsh, similarly, _Brog_ is a goblin, and we have the evil
+idea in _bug_.
+
+  "Warwick was a bug that feared us all."
+              --_Shakespeare. Henry IV., v., 2._
+
+That is "Warwick was a goblin that made us all afraid." The Boggart is a
+fairy still believed in by Staffordshire peasants. We have yet _bugbear_,
+as the Russians have _Buka_, and the Italians _Buggaboo_, of similar
+meaning.
+
+As with the barbaric gods, so with the classic deities, who equally
+supplied material of which to make foul fiends. Bacchus, with the legs and
+sprouting horns of a goat, that haunter of vine-yards, then his fauns
+constructed on the same symbolic principle, gave rise to the satyrs.
+These, offering in their form disreputable points for reprobation, were
+found to be a sufficiently appropriate symbol of the Devil. The reasons of
+variety in the satyr figure are not far to seek, beyond the constant
+tendency of the mediæval artist to vary form while preserving essence.
+Every artist had his idea of the devil, either drawn from the rich depths
+of a Gothic imagination, from the descriptions accumulated by popular
+credulity, and most of all from that result of both--the Devil of the
+Mystery or Miracle Plays.
+
+The plays were performed by trade gilds. Every town had many of these
+gilds, though several would sometimes join at the plays; and even very
+small villages had both gild and plays. There are yet existing some slight
+traces of the reputation which obscure villages had in their own vicinity
+for their plays, of which Christmas mumming contains the last tattered
+relic. So that, the Devil being a favourite character in the pieces so
+widely performed, it is not surprising to find him equally at home among
+the works of the carvers, who, according to the nature of artists of all
+time, would doubtless holiday it with the best, and look with more or less
+appreciation upon such drama as was set before them.
+
+Where we see Satan as the satyr, he is the rollicking fiend of the Mystery
+stage, tempting with sly good-humour, tormenting with a grim and ferocious
+joy, or often merely posturing and capering in a much to be envied height
+of the wildest animal spirits. There is in popular art no trace, so far as
+the writer's observation extends, of that lofty sorrow at man's
+unworthiness, which has occasionally been attributed to Satan.
+
+The general feeling is that indicated by the semi-contemptuous epithets
+applied to the satyr-idea of "Auld Clootie" (cloven-footed), and "Auld
+Hornie," of our Northern brethren.
+
+[Illustration: A MAN-GOAT, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+Horns were among all ancient nations symbolic of power and dignity.
+Ancient coinages shew the heads of kings and deities thus adorned. The
+Goths wore horns. Alexander frequently wore an actual horn to indicate his
+presumption of divine descent. The head dress of priests was horned on
+this account. This may point to a pre-historic period when the horned
+animals were not so much of a prey as we find them in later days; thus the
+aurochs of Western Europe appears to have been more dreaded by the wild
+men of its time, than has been, say, the now fast-disappearing bison by
+the North American Indians. On the other hand, the marvellous continuity
+of nature's designs lead us to recognize that the carnivorous animals must
+always have had the right to be the symbols of physical power. Therefore,
+the idea of power, originally conveyed by the horns, is that carried by
+the possession of riches in the shape of flocks and herds. The pecunia
+were the means of power, and their horns the symbol of it. With the
+Egyptians, the ox signified agriculture and subsistence. Pharaoh saw the
+kine coming out of the Nile because the fertility of Egypt depends upon
+that river. So that it is easy to see how the ox became the figure of the
+sun, and of life. Similar significance attached to the sheep, the goat,
+and the ram. Horus is met as "Orus, the Shepherd." Ammon wore the horns of
+a ram. Mendes was worshipped as a goat.
+
+[Illustration: A CHERISHED BEARD, CHICHESTER.]
+
+The goat characteristics are well carved on a seat in All Souls. A goat
+figure of the thirteenth century at Chichester has the head of a man with
+a curious twisted or tied beard, clutched by one of the hands in which the
+fore feet terminate. The clutching of the beard is not uncommon among
+Gothic figures, and has doubtless some original on a coin, or other
+ancient standard design. At St. Helen's, Abingdon, Berkshire, in different
+parts of the church, three heads, one being a king, another a bishop, are
+shewn grasping or stroking each his own beard. It is to be remembered that
+the stroking of the beard is a well-known Eastern habit.
+
+Of close kindred to the goat form is the bull form. Just as Ceres
+symbolized the fecundity of the earth in the matter of cereals, so Pan was
+the emblem by which was figured its productiveness of animal life. Thus
+Priapus was rendered in goat form, as the ready type of animal sexual
+vigor; but not less familiar in this connection was the bull, and that
+animal also symbolizes Pan, who became, when superstition grew out of
+imagery, the protector of cattle in general. An old English superstition
+was that a piece of horn, hung to the stable or cowhouse key, would
+protect the animals from night-fright and other ills. When the pagan Gods
+were skilfully turned into Christian devils, we find the bull equally with
+the goat as a Satanic form, and several examples will be seen in the
+drawings.
+
+The ox, as the symbol of St. Luke, is stated to refer, on account of its
+cud-chewing, to the eclectic character of this evangelist's gospel.
+Irenæus, speaking of the second cherubim of the Revelation, which is the
+same animal, says the calf signifies the sacerdotal office of Christ; but
+the fanciful symbolisms of the fathers and of the Bestiaries are often
+indifferent guides to original meaning. It may be that in the ox forms we
+have astronomical allusions to Taurus, Bacchus, to Diana, or to Pan. A
+note on the emblems of the Evangelists follows in the remarks on the
+combinatory forms met in grotesque art.
+
+Before passing on to consider particular examples of satyr or bull-form
+fiends, a few words may be said as to another form which, though allied to
+the dragon-shape embodiments, has the personal character. This is the
+Serpent. The origin of this appears to be the translation of the word
+_Nachasch_ for serpent in the Biblical account of the momentous Eden
+episode, a rendering which, without philological certainty, is
+countenanced by the general presence of the serpent in one form or another
+in every system of theology in the world. Jewish tradition states that the
+serpent, with beauty of form and power of flight, had no speech, until in
+the presence of Eve he ate of the fruit of the Tree, and so acquired
+speech, immediately using the gift to tempt Eve. Other traditions say that
+Nachasch was a camel, and became a serpent by the curse. Adam Clarke
+maintained that Nachasch was a monkey. The traditional and mystic form of
+the angels was that of a serpent. _Seraph_ means a fiery serpent. In
+Isaiah's vision, the seraphim are human-headed serpents. One of the most
+remarkable items in the history of worship is the account of the symbolic
+serpent erected by Moses, and the subsequent use of it as an idol until
+the time of Hezekiah. In the first satire of Perseus, he says, "paint two
+snakes, the place is sacred!"
+
+[Illustration: THE SERPENT, ELY.]
+
+The use of the serpent as the Church symbol of regeneration and revival of
+health or life is not common in carvings. In these senses it was used by
+the Greeks, though chiefly as the symbol of the Supreme Intellect, being
+the special attribute and co-type of Minerva. The personal apparition
+which confronted Eve is not so infrequent, though without much variety.
+
+In a representation of the temptation of Adam and Eve among the
+misericordes of Ely, the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is shewn
+of a very peculiar shape. The serpent, whose coils are difficult to
+distinguish from the foliage of the tree, has the head of a saturnine
+Asiatic, who is taking the least possible notice of "our first parents,"
+as they stand eating apples and being ashamed, one on each side of the
+composition.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD SERPENT, CHICHESTER. _13th century._]
+
+A carving in the choir of Chichester Cathedral shews in a double
+repetition, one half of which is here shewn, the evil head with an attempt
+at the legendary comeliness, mingled with debased traits, that is
+artistically very creditable to the sculptor. As though dissatisfied with
+the amount of beauty he had succeeded in imparting to the heads on the
+serpents, he adds, on the side-pieces of the carving, two other heads of
+females in eastern head-dresses, to which he has imparted a demure Dutch
+beauty, due perhaps to his own nationality. Human-headed serpents are in
+carvings at Norwich and at Bridge, Kent.
+
+[Illustration: DEMURENESS MEDITATING MISCHIEF. DEUTCHO-EGYPTIAN MASK,
+CHICHESTER.]
+
+With regard to Satan's status as an angel, a considerable number of
+representations of him are to be found, in which he conforms to a
+prevalent mediæval idea as to the plumage of the spirit race. Angels are
+found clothed entirely with feathers, as repeated some scores of times in
+the memorial chapel, at Ewelme, of Alice, Duchess of Suffolk,
+grand-daughter of Chaucer, who died in 1475. The annexed block shews a
+small archangel which surmounts the font canopy, and is of the same
+character as the chapel angels. At All Souls, Oxford, is a carving of a
+warrior-visaged person wearing a morion, and armed with a falchion and
+buckler. He is clad in feathers only, appearing to be flying downward, and
+is either a representation of St. Michael or Lucifer.
+
+[Illustration: ANGEL, EWELME.]
+
+[Illustration: ST. MICHAEL, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+Satan is often similarly treated. Loki, the tempter of the Scandinavian
+Eden, who was ordered to seek the lost Idun he had deceived, had to go
+forth clad in borrowed garments of falcon's feathers with wings. When the
+pageant at the Setting of the Midsummer Watch at Chester was forbidden by
+the Mayor, in 1599, one of the prohibited figures was "the Devil and his
+Feathers."
+
+There may be a connection between the final punishment of Loki and the
+idea embodied in the carvings mentioned above as being at, among other
+places, Wells, York, and Glasgow, and which have been considered as
+conceptions of Remorse. Loki was condemned to be fastened to a rock to
+helplessly endure the eternal dropping upon his brow of poison from the
+jaws of a serpent; only that there is neither in these carvings, nor any
+others noted to the present, any indication of the presence of the
+ministering woman-spirit who for even the fiend Loki stood by to catch the
+death-drops in a cup of mercy.
+
+
+
+
+The Devil and the Vices.
+
+
+[Illustration: RECORDING IMP. ST. KATHERINE'S, REGENT'S PARK. (_Initial
+added_).]
+
+Having examined the various lower forms given by man to his great enemy,
+and now noting that to such forms may be added the human figure in whole
+or part, we will next take in review a few of the sins which bring erring
+humanity into the clutches of Satan; for we find some of the most
+grotesque of antique carvings devoted to representation of what may be
+called the finale of the Sinner's Progress. These are probably largely
+derived from the Mystery Plays; for the moral teaching has the same direct
+soundness. The ideas are often jocosely put, but the principle is one of
+mere retribution. The Devil cannot hurt the Saint and he pays out to the
+Wicked the exact price of his wrong-doing. Thus in nearly all of what may
+be termed the Sin series there is a Recording Imp who bears a tablet or
+scroll, on which we are to suppose the evil commissions and omissions of
+the sinner are duly entered, entitling the fiend to take possession. This
+reminds of the Egyptian Mercury, Thoth, who recorded upon his tablets the
+actions of men, in order that at the Judgment there might be proper
+evidence.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, ELY.
+
+The Account Presented. Satan Satisfied. The Record of Sin.]
+
+There is a series of carvings, examplified at Ely, New College, Oxford,
+St. Katherine's (removed from near the Tower to the Regent's Park) and
+Gayton, which have Satan encouraging or embracing two figures apparently
+engaged in conversation. I have placed these among the Sins, for though no
+very particular explanation is forthcoming as to the meaning of the group,
+it is clear that the two human beings are engaged in some occupation
+highly agreeable to the fiend. This evidently has a connection with the
+monkish story told of St. Britius. One day, while St. Martin was saying
+mass, Britius, who was officiating as deacon, saw the devil behind the
+altar, writing on a slip of parchment "as long as a proctor's bill" the
+sins which the congregation were then and there committing. The people,
+both men and women, appear to have been doing many other things besides
+listening to St. Martin, for the devil soon filled his scroll on both
+sides. Thus far our carvings.
+
+The story goes further, and states that the devil, having further sins to
+record, but no further space on which to write them, attempted to stretch
+the parchment with teeth and claws, which, however, broke the record, the
+devil falling back against a wall. The story then betrays itself. Britius
+laughed loudly, whereat St. Martin, highly displeased, demanded the
+reason, when Britius told him what he had seen, which relation the other
+saint accepted as being true.
+
+This story is one of a class common among mediæval pulpit anecdotes. It
+cannot well be considered that the carvings arose from the story, nor the
+story from the carvings. Probably both arose from something else,
+accounting for the number of sinners being uniformly two, and for the
+attitude of the fiend in each case being so similar. With regard to the
+latter I must leave the matter as it is.
+
+I venture, as to the signification of the two figures, to make a
+suggestion to stand good until a better be found. In the Mystery Play
+entitled the "Trial of Mary and Joseph" (Cotton MS., Pageant xiv.,
+amplified out of the Apocryphal New Testament, _Protevan_, xi.), the story
+runs that Mary and Joseph, particularly the former, are defamed by two
+Slanderers. The Bishop sends his Summoner for the two accused persons, and
+orders that they drink the water of vengeance "which is for trial," a kind
+of miraculous ordeal by poison. Joseph drinks and is unhurt; Mary likewise
+and is declared a pure maid in spite of facts. One of the Slanderers
+declares that the drink has been changed because the Virgin was of the
+High Priest's kindred, upon which the Slanderer is himself ordered to
+drink what is left in the cup. Doing so he instantly becomes frantic. All
+ask pardon of Mary for their suspicions, and, that being granted, the play
+is ended.
+
+Now the play commences with the meeting of the Two Slanderers. A brief
+extract or two will shew their method.
+
+  1ST DETRACTOR.--To reyse blawthyr is al my lay,
+                    Bakbyter is my brother of blood
+                  Dede he ought come hethyr in al this day
+                    Now wolde God that he were here,
+                  And, by my trewth, I dare well say
+                  That if we tweyn to gethyr apere
+                  Mor slawndyr we t[w]o schal a rere
+                  With in an howre thorwe outh this town,
+                  Than evyr ther was this thouwsand yer,
+                  Now, be my trewth, I have a sight
+                  Evyn of my brother ... Welcome ...
+
+  2ND DETRACTOR.--I am ful glad we met this day.
+
+  1ST DETRACTOR.--Telle all these pepyl [the audience] what is yor name--
+
+  2ND DETRACTOR.--I am Bakbyter, that spyllyth all game,
+                  Both hyd and known in many a place.
+
+Then they fall to, and in terms of some wit and much freedom describe the
+physical condition of she who was "calde mayd Mary."
+
+The Two Slanderers in this play are undoubtedly men, for each styles the
+other "brother." Yet there are words in their dialogue, not suited to
+these pages, which could properly only be used by women. As in at least
+one of the carvings the sinners are women, if my hypothesis has any
+correctness there must be some other form of the story in which the
+detractors are female. It is to be noted, also, that the play from which I
+have quoted has no mention of the devil.
+
+[Illustration: A BACKBITER, ST. KATHERINE'S.]
+
+Years before I met with the play of the trial of Joseph and Mary, I
+considered that the sin of the Two might be scandal, and put down a
+curious carving adjoining the St. Katherine group as a reference to it,
+and suggested it might be a humorous rendering of a Backbiter. This is
+shewn in the accompanying block. It was therefore agreeable to find one
+of the Mystery detractors actually named Backbiter. Against that it may be
+mentioned that the composite figure with a head at the rear is not unique.
+At Rothwell, Northamptonshire, is a dragon attempt, rude though probably
+of late fifteenth century work, with a similar head in the same anatomical
+direction; this is not connected with anything that can be considered
+bearing upon the subject of the Mystery, unless the heads on the same
+misericorde are meant to be those of Jews.
+
+The example at Ely shews the fiend closely embracing the two sinners who
+are evidently in the height of an impressive conversation. One figure has
+a book on its knee, the other is telling the beads of a rosary. At the
+sides are two imps of a somewhat Robin Goodfellow-like character, each
+bearing a scroll with the account of the misdeeds of the sinners, and
+which we may presume are the warrants by which Satan is entitled to seize
+his prey. He is the picture of jovial good-nature.
+
+[Illustration: A BACKBITER, ROTHWELL, NORTHANTS.]
+
+New College, Oxford, has a misericorde of the subject in which the
+figures, female in appearance, are seated in a sort of box. This reminds
+us of Baldini and Boticelli's picture of Hell, which is divided into
+various ovens for different vices. That may be the idea here, or perhaps
+the object is a coffin and is used to emphasize what the wages of sin
+are. They, like the two sinners of Ely, are in animated conversation.
+Satan here is of a bull-headed form with wings rather like those of a
+butterfly. These are of the end of the fifteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+There are foreign carvings described by Mr. Evans as being of the devil
+taking notes of the idle words of two women during mass. This is, perhaps,
+the simple meaning of all this series, and an evidence of the resentment
+of ecclesiastics against the irreverent. There is considerable evidence
+that religious service was scarcely a solemn thing in mediæval times. If
+this is the signification the box arrangement described above may be some
+sort of early pew.
+
+The next example, from St. Katherine's (lately) by the Tower, has the
+fiend in a fashionable slashed suit. The ladies here are only in bust, and
+though of demurely interested expression they have not that rapport and
+animation which distinguish the two previously noticed. Satan does not
+embrace them, but stands behind with legs outstretched and hands, or
+rather claws, on knees, ready to clutch them at the proper moment.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, ST. KATHERINE'S.]
+
+At Gayton, Northants, is a further curious instance of this group. The two
+Sinners are in this case unquestionably males, and, but for the
+coincidence with the preceding examples, the men might have been supposed
+to have been engaged in some game of chance. It will be observed that the
+one to the right has a rosary as in the first-named carving. Satan here
+is well clothed in feathers, and in his left wing is the head of what is
+probably one of the instruments of torture awaiting the very much
+overshadowed victims. It is a kind of rake or flesh-hook, with three
+sharp, hooked teeth; perhaps a figure of the tongue of a slanderer,
+materialized for his own subsequent scarification; it may be added as a
+kind of satanic badge. Satan bears on his right arm a leaf-shaped shield.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, GAYTON, NORTHANTS.]
+
+The vice next to be regarded is Avarice. In a misericorde at Beverley
+Minster we have three scenes from the history of the Devil. One gives us
+the avaricious man bending before his coffers. He has taken out a coin; if
+we read aright his contemplative and affectionate look, it is gold.
+Hidden behind the chest behold Satan, one of whose bullock horns is
+visible as he lurks out of the miser's sight, grinning to think how surely
+the victim is his.
+
+At the opposite end of the carving is the other extreme, Gluttony. A man
+is drinking out of a huge flask, which he holds in his right hand, while
+in the other he grasps a ham (or is it not impossible that this is a
+second bottle). In this the devil is likewise present; he is apparently
+desperately anxious the victim should have enough.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVIL AND THE MISER, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Between these two reliefs appears Satan seizing a naked soul. In the
+original all that remains of the Devil's head is the outline and one
+horn; of the soul's head there remains only the outline; the two faces I
+have ventured to supply, also the fore-arm of the Devil. The fiend is here
+again presented with the attributes of a bullock, rather than a goat.
+Satan has had placed on his abdomen a mask or face, a somewhat common
+method of adding to the startling effect of his boisterous personality.
+The fine rush which the fiend is making upon the soul, and the shrinking
+horror of the latter, are exceedingly well rendered. The moral is, we may
+suppose, that the sinners on either side will come to the same bad end.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVIL AND THE GLUTTON, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Among the seat-carvings of Henry VII's. Chapel, Westminster Abbey, we have
+the vice of Avarice more fully treated, there being two carvings devoted
+to the subject. In the first we see a monk suddenly seized by a quaint and
+curious devil (to whom I have supplied his right fore-arm). The monk,
+horror-stricken, yet angry, has dropped his bag of sovereigns, or nobles,
+and the coins fall out. He would escape if he could, but the claws of the
+fiend have him fast.
+
+[Illustration: DISMAY, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+In the companion carving we have the incident--and the monk--carried a
+little further. The devil has picked him up, thrown him down along his
+conveniently horizontal back, and strides on with him through a wild place
+of rocks and trees, holding what appears to be a flaming torch, which he
+also uses as a staff. The monk has managed to gather up his dearly-loved
+bag of money, and is frantically clutching at the rocks as he is swiftly
+borne along. Satan in the first carving has rather a benevolent human
+face, in the second a debased beast face, unknown to natural history.
+There is no explanation of how Sathanus has disposed in the second scene
+of the graceful dragon wings he wears in the first. It is probable that
+two of the Italians who carved this set each took the same subject, and we
+have here their respective renderings. I mention with diffidence that if
+the mild and timorous face of Bishop Alcock (which may be seen at Jesus
+College, Cambridge), the architect of this part of the abbey, could be
+supposed to have unfortunately borne at any time the expressions upon
+either of these two representations of the monk, the likeness would, in my
+opinion, be rather striking.
+
+[Illustration: THE OVERTAKING OF AVARICE, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: THE TAKING OF THE AVARICIOUS, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: DEMONIACAL DRUMMER, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+On the side carving of the carrying-away scene is shewn a woman, dismayed
+at the sight. On the opposite side a fiend is welcoming the monk with beat
+of drum, just as we shall see the ale-wife saluted with the drone of the
+bagpipes.
+
+[Illustration: VANITY, ST. MARY'S MINSTER.]
+
+A carving at St. Mary's Minster, Isle of Thanet, has the devil looking out
+with a vexed frown from between the horns of a lofty head-dress, which is
+on a lady's head. Whether this be a rendering of the dishonest ale-wife,
+or a separate warning against the vice of Vanity, cannot well be decided.
+
+There was a popular opinion at one time that the bulk of church carvings
+were jokes at the expense of clergy, probably largely because every hood
+was thought to be a cowl. There is, however, no doubt as to the carving
+here presented. It may represent the consecration of a bishop. The
+presence of Satan dominating both the individuals, and pulling forward the
+cowl of the seated figure, appears to declare that this is to illustrate
+the vice of Hypocrisy. It is at New College, Oxford.
+
+[Illustration: HYPOCRISY, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+
+
+
+Ale and the Ale-wife.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE JOLLY TAPSTER, LUDLOW.]
+
+Ale, good old ale, has formed the burden of more songs and satires ancient
+and modern, than will ever be brought together. Ale was the staple
+beverage for morning, noon, and evening meals. It is probable that swollen
+as is the beer portion of the Budget, the consumption of ale, man for man,
+is much less than that of any mediæval time. The records of all the
+authoritative bodies who dealt with the liquor traffic of the olden time
+are crowded with rules and regulations that plainly demonstrate not only
+the universal prevalence of beer drinking in a proper and domestic degree,
+but also the constant growing abuse of the sale of the liquor. In the
+reign of Elizabeth the evils of the tavern had become so notorious, that
+in some places women were forbidden to keep ale-houses.
+
+As far back as A.D. 794, ale-houses had become an institution, for we find
+the orders passed at the Council of Frankfort in that year included one by
+which ecclesiastics and monks were forbidden to drink in an ale-house. St.
+Adrian was the patron of brewers.
+
+In some boroughs (Hull may be given as an instance) in the fifteenth
+century, the Mayor was not allowed to keep a tavern in his year of office.
+Brewers and tavern keepers, with many nice distinctions of grade among
+them, were duly licensed and supervised, various penalties meeting
+attempts at illicit trade. The quality of ale was also an object of
+solicitude, and an official, called the ale-taster, was in nearly every
+centre of population made responsible for the due strength and purity of
+the national beverage. It was customary in some places in the fifteenth
+century for the ale-taster to be remunerated by a payment of 4d. a year
+from each brewer.
+
+It has to be remembered ale was drunk at the meals at which we now use
+tea, coffee, and cocoa; it will be interesting to glance at an instance of
+the rate at which it was consumed. At the Hospital of St. Cross, founded
+in 1132, at Winchester, thirteen "impotent" men had each a daily allowance
+of a gallon and a half of good small beer, with more on holidays; this was
+afterwards reduced to three quarts with some two quarts extra for
+holidays. The porter at the gate had only three quarts to give away to
+beggars. There was great idea of continuity at this establishment; even in
+1836 there was spent £133 5s. for malt and hops for the year's brewing.
+The happy thirteen had each yet three quarts every day as well as a jack
+(say four gallons) extra among them on holidays, with 4s. for beer money.
+Two gallons of beer were also daily dispensed at the gate at the rate of a
+horn of not quite half a pint to each applicant.
+
+[Illustration: LETTICE LITTLETRUST AND A SIMPLE SIMON. WELLINGBOROUGH,
+_14th century_.]
+
+Ale, no more than other things, could be kept out of church. A carving at
+Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, shews us an interview between a would-be
+customer on the one part and an ale-wife on the other part. There is, in a
+list of imaginary names in an epilogue or "gagging" summons to a miracle
+play, mention of one Letyce Lytyltrust, whom surely we see above.
+Evidently the man is better known than trusted, and while a generous
+supply of the desired refreshment is "on reserve" in a dear old jug, some
+intimation has been made that cash is required; he, like one Simon on a
+similar occasion, has not a penny, and with one hand dipped into his
+empty pocket, he scratches his head with the other. His good-natured
+perplexity contrasts well with the indifferent tradeswoman-like air of the
+ale-wife, who while she rests the jug upon a bench, does not relinquish
+the handle. He is saying to himself, "Nay, marry, an I wanted a cup o' ale
+aforetime I was ever served. A thirsty morn is this. I know not what to
+say to t' jade;" while she is muttering, "An he wipe off the chalk ahint
+the door even, he might drink and welcome, sorry rogue tho' he be. But no
+use to cry pay when t' barrel be empty."
+
+At Edgeware in 1558, an innkeeper, was fined for selling a pint and a half
+of ale at an exorbitant price, namely, one penny. A quart was everywhere
+the proper quantity, and that of the strongest; small ale sold at one
+penny for two quarts. With regard to the then higher value of money,
+however, the prices may be considered to be about the same as at present,
+and the same may be said of many commodities which appear in records at
+low figures.
+
+Of an earlier date is the tapster of the initial block, from Ludlow, who
+furnishes a comfortable idea of a congenial, and to judge from his pouch,
+a profitable occupation. It is to be presumed the smallness of the barrel
+as compared with that of the jug--probably of copper, and dazzlingly
+bright--was the artist's means of getting its full outline within the
+picture, and not an indication of the relations of supply and demand.
+
+Alas for the final fate of the dishonest woman who could cheat men in the
+important matter of ale! At Ludlow we are shewn such a one, stripped of
+all but the head dress and necklace of her vanity, and carried
+ignominiously and indecorously to Hell's Mouth on the shoulders of a
+stalwart demon (whose head is supplied in the block). In her hand, and
+partaking of her own reverse, she bears the hooped tankard with which she
+defrauded her customers. It is the measure of her woe. The demon thus
+loaded with mischief is met by another, armed with the bagpipes. With
+hilarious air and fiendish grin he welcomes the latest addition to the
+collection of evil-doers within. To the right are the usual gaping jaws of
+Hell's Mouth, into which are disappearing two nude females, who, we may
+suppose, are other ale-wifes not more meritorious than the lady of the
+horned head dress. To the left is the Recording Imp.
+
+[Illustration: THE END OF THE ALE-WIFE, LUDLOW.]
+
+[Illustration: THE FEMALE DRAWER, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+There is allusion in a copy of the Chester Mystery of Christ's Descent
+into Hell, among the Harleian MSS., to an ale-wife of Chester, which
+doubtless suggested this carving. This lady, a little-trust and a cheater
+in her day, laments having to dwell among the fiends; she endeavours to
+propitiate one of them by addressing him as "My Sweet Master Sir
+Sattanas," who returns the compliment by calling her his "dear darling."
+She announces that:--
+
+  "Some tyme I was a tavernere,
+  A gentill gossipe and a tapstere,
+  Of wyne and ale a trustie brewer,
+      Which wo hath me wroughte.
+  Of cannes I kepte no trewe measuer
+  My cuppes I soulde at my pleasuer,
+  Deceaving manye a creature,
+      Tho' my ale were naughte."
+
+The Devil then delivers a short speech, which is one of the earliest
+temperance addresses on record. He says:--
+
+  "Welckome, dere ladye, I shall thee wedd,
+  For many a heavye and droncken head
+  Cause of thy ale were broughte to bed
+  Farre worse than anye beaste."
+
+There is an old saying "pull Devil, pull Baker" connected with the
+representation of a baker who sold his bread short of weight, and was
+carried to the lower regions in his own basket; the ale-wife, of our
+carving, however, does not appear to have retained any power of
+resistance, however slight or ineffectual.
+
+[Illustration: A HORN OF ALE, ELY.]
+
+At All Souls, Oxford, there is a good carving of a woman drawing ale. It
+is not, apparently, the ale-wife herself, but the maid sent down into the
+cellar. The maid, perhaps after a good draught of the brew, seems to be
+blowing a whistle to convey, to the probably listening ears of her
+mistress upstairs, the impression that the jug has not received any
+improper attention from her. The artful expression of the ale-loving maid
+lends countenance to the conjecture that the precaution has not been
+entirely efficacious. It is to this day a jocular expression in
+Oxfordshire, and perhaps elsewhere, "You had better whistle while you are
+drawing that beer."
+
+A carving at Ely represents Pan as an appreciative imbiber from a
+veritable horn of ale.
+
+
+
+
+Satires without Satan.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE SLUMBERING PRIEST, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+There are numbers of grotesques which are satires evidently aimed at sins,
+but which have not the visible attendance of the evil one himself.
+
+Among these must be included a curious carving from Swine, in Holderness.
+The priory of Swine was a Cistercian nunnery of fifteen sisters and a
+prioress. Mr. Thomas Blashill states, "There were, however, two canons at
+least, to assist in the offices of religion, who did not refrain from
+meddling in secular affairs."[5] There was also a small community of
+lay-brethren.
+
+The female in the centre of the carving is a nun; her hood is drawn partly
+over her face, so that only one eye is fully visible, but with the other
+eye she is executing a well-known movement of but momentary duration. The
+two ugly animals between which she peers are intended for hares, a symbol
+of libidinousness, as well as of timidity.
+
+Another carving in the same chancel may be in derision of some official of
+the papal court, which, in the thirteenth century, on an occasion of the
+contumacy of the nuns in refusing to pay certain tithes, caused the
+church, with that adjoining, of the lay brethren, to be closed. The nuns
+defied all authority, broke open the chapels, and in general during the
+long contest acted in a curiously ungovernable, irresponsible manner.
+
+[Illustration: A PAPAL MONSTER, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+At Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire, are some misericordes, which, says
+Miss Phipson, are stated to have originally belonged to Old St. Paul's.
+Among them is the annexed subject. The wicked expression of the face, and
+the general incorrectness of the composition, are a historical evidence of
+indecorum akin to the gestures of the Beverley carvers.
+
+[Illustration: IMPUDENCE, BISHOP'S STORTFORD, HERTFORDSHIRE.]
+
+From the fine choir carvings of Westminster Abbey yet another example is
+given. It is one in which the spirit of the old _Comptes a Plaisance_ is
+well illustrated. A well-clad man, suggesting Falstaff in his prime, is
+seated with a lady among luxurious foliage. His arm is right round his
+companion's waist, while his left hand dips into his capacious and
+apparently well-lined pouch, or gipciere. He has been styled a merchant.
+He is manifestly making a bargain. The lady is evidently a daughter of the
+hireling (_hirudo!_), and is crying, "Give, give." In spite of this being
+the work of an Italian artist, the artistic feeling about it would seem to
+recall slightly the lines of Holbein.
+
+[Illustration: THE WINKING NUN, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: A QUESTION OF PRICE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+The small carving to the right of the above is a highly-elate pig, playing
+the pipe. This is shewn in a short chapter hereafter given on Animal
+Musicians. The initial at the head of this chapter is illustrated with the
+"slumbering priest," the carving of whom is at the right of that of the
+'Unseen Witness,' drawn on page 85. This doubtless implies that some
+portion of the sin of the people was to be attributed to the indifference
+of the clergy. Balancing this, there is in the original carving an aged
+person kneeling, and, supported by a crutch, counting her beads.
+
+In a subsequent chapter (on Compound Forms in Gothic) the harpy is
+mentioned, and shewn to be a not uncommon subject of church art, either as
+from the malignant classic form which symbolized fierce bad weather, or as
+the more beneficient though not unsimilar figure which was the symbol of
+Athor, the Egyptian Venus. A Winchester example which might seem in place
+among the remarks on the Compounds, is included here, as it is evidently
+intended to embody a sin. It serves to show that a modern use of the word
+harpy was well understood in mediæval times. The design is simple, the
+vulture wings being made to take the position of the hair of the woman
+head. She lies in wait spider-wise, her great claws in readiness for the
+prey; and is evidently a character-sketch of a coarse, insatiable daughter
+of the horse-leech.
+
+[Illustration: THE HARPY IN WAIT, WINCHESTER.]
+
+
+
+
+Scriptural Illustrations.
+
+
+[Illustration: ADAM AND EVE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Mystery Plays, we have seen, drew upon the Apocryphal New Testament for
+subjects, but it has simply happened that the examples of vice carvings
+illustrate those writings, for Mystery Plays were in general founded upon
+the canonical scriptures. There are many carvings which have Biblical
+incidents for their subject, but it is often impossible to say whether the
+text were the sole material of the designer, or whether his ideas were
+formed by representations he had seen on the Mystery stage. It may be
+presumed that the effect would not be greatly different in one case from
+the other.
+
+The story of Jonah furnishes a subject for two misericordes in Ripon
+Cathedral. One is in the frontispiece of this volume. In the first the
+prophet is being pushed by three men unceremoniously over the side of the
+vessel which has the usual mediæval characteristics, and, in which,
+plainly, there is no room for a fourth person. The ship is riding easily
+on by no means tumultuous waves, out of which protrudes the head of the
+great fish. The fish and Jonah appear to regard the situation with equal
+complacency.
+
+In the sequel carving Jonah is shewn being cast out by the fish, of
+which, as in the other, the head only is visible. The monster of the deep
+has altered its appearance slightly during the period of Jonah's
+incarceration, its square upper teeth having become pointed. The prophet
+is represented kneeling among the teeth, apparently offering up thanks for
+his deliverance. The sea is bounded by a rocky shore on which stand trees
+of the well-known grotesque type in which they are excellent fir-cones.
+
+[Illustration: THE STORY OF JONAH. THE CASTING OUT.]
+
+These two carvings are of somewhat special interest, as their precise
+origin is known. They are both exceedingly close copies of engravings in
+the Biblia Pauperum, or Poor Man's Bible, otherwise called "Speculum
+Humanæ Salvationis," or the Mirror of Human Salvation. Other Biblical
+subjects in the Ripon Series of Misericordes are from the same source. Did
+the Sculptor or Sculptors of the series fall short of subjects, or were
+their eyes caught by the definite outlines of the prints in the "Picture
+Bible" as it lay chained in the Minster?
+
+The Adoration, in a carving in the choir of Worcester, comes under the
+head of unintentional grotesques. It is a proof that though the
+manipulative skill of the artist may be great, that may only accentuate
+his failure to grasp the true spirit of a subject; and render what might
+have been only a piece of simplicity, into an elaborate grotesque. The
+common-place, ugly features--where not broken away--the repeated attitudes
+and the symmetric arrangement join to defeat the artist's aim. Add to
+those the anachronisms, the ancient Eastern rulers in Edward III. crowns
+and gowns, seated beneath late Gothic Decorated Arches offering gifts,
+and the absurdity is nearly complete. It is difficult to quite understand
+the presence of the lady with gnarled features, on the left, bearing the
+swathed infant (headless) which seems to demonstrate that this was carved
+by a foreigner, or was from a foreign source; for though swathing was
+practised to some extent in England, I can only find that in Holland,
+Germany, etc., and more especially in Italy, the children were swathed to
+this extent, in the complete mummy fashion styled "bambino."
+
+Perhaps the reason of the two figures right and left was that the artist
+went with the artistic tide in representing the recently-born infant as a
+strapping boy of four or five; yet his common-sense telling him that was a
+violation of fact he put the other figure in with the strapped infant to
+show what--in his own private opinion--the child would really be like at
+the time.
+
+We might have supposed it to be St. John, but he was older and not younger
+than the Divine Child. In the Scandinavian mythology, Vali, the New Year,
+is represented as a child in swaddling clothes.
+
+[Illustration: ADORATION OF THE MAGI, WORCHESTER.]
+
+The Scriptural subjects in carved work may be compared with the wall
+paintings which in a few instances have survived the reforming zeal of
+bygone white-washing churchwardens. The comparison is infinitely to the
+advantage of the carvings. These paintings are in distemper and were the
+humble inartistic precursors of noble frescoes in the continental fanes,
+but which had in England no development. To what extent there was merit in
+the mural decoration of the English cathedrals cannot well be stated.
+Such examples, as in a few churches are left to us, are simply
+curiosities. Though changing with the styles they are more crude than the
+sculptures, and the modern eye in search of the grotesque, finds here
+compositions infinitely more excruciatingly imbecile than in any other
+department of art-work of pretension.
+
+[Illustration: BAPTISMAL SCENE, GUILDFORD.]
+
+At the same time when they are considered in conjunction with the most
+perfect of the paintings of their period they are by no means so low in
+the scale of merit as at the first thought might be supposed.
+
+Outside the present purpose of looking at them as unintentional grotesques
+they are very valuable specimens of the English art of painting of dates
+which have, except in illuminations, no other examples.
+
+Those of St. Mary's, Guildford, are very quaint. The first selected from
+the series is a representation of Christ attending the ministration of St.
+John the Baptist. St. John has apparently taken down to the river bank a
+classic font, in which is seated a convert. The Baptist himself, wearing a
+Phrygian cap (probably Saxon), is turning away from the figures of Christ
+and the man in the font, and is apparently addressing a company which does
+not appear in the picture. Just as the font was put in to make the idea of
+baptism easily understood, so, we may suppose, the curious buttons on
+thongs, or whatever they are, were shewn attached to St. John's wrist, to
+indicate that he is speaking of the "shoe-latchets." The waters and bank
+of the Jordan are indicated in a few lines.
+
+[Illustration: CASTING OUT OF DEVILS, GUILDFORD.]
+
+The other selection is still more bizarre. It evidently portrays Christ
+casting out devils. The chief point of interest in this painting is the
+original conception of the devils. Anything more vicious, degraded, and
+abhorrent, it would be difficult to produce in so few lines. Roughly
+speaking, they are a compound of the hawk, the hog, and the monkey; this
+curious illustration is an excellent pendant to the marks made upon early
+Satanic depictions on a previous page. The faces are Saxon, except in the
+case of the man with the sword, who is a distinct attempt at a Roman. The
+artist had evidently in his mind one who was set in authority.
+
+The churches of the Midlands are rich in wall-paintings.
+
+A fine example is in North Stoke Church, Oxfordshire, which has two
+Scriptural subjects, a series of angelic figures, and several other
+figures, etc., only fragmentally visible. They were all found accidentally
+under thick coats of whitewash. It may be doubted whether they were ever
+finished. The two Biblical subjects are "Christ betrayed in the Garden,"
+and "Christ before Pilate." Christ is a small apparently blind-folded
+figure, of which only the head and one shoulder remains. Pilot is the
+Saxon lord, posing as the seated figure of legal authority, poising a
+hiltless sword in his right hand. The figure addressing Pilate is
+apparently a Roman (Saxon) official; his hand is very large, but there is
+a simple force about his drawing. The fourth figure in a mitre is
+doubtless meant for a Jewish priest, and he has a nasty, clamorous look.
+Pilate, unfortunately, has no pupils to his eyes, but his general
+appearance is as though he was expostulating with the priest.
+
+There is a carol, printed in 1820, which has a woodcut of the subject not
+less rude and not less of an anachronism than this: but what is curious,
+as illustrating the main theory of the present volume--the tenacity with
+which form is adhered to in unconscious art--is that the disposition of
+the figures is exactly the same in both pictures. Where the Saxon lord is
+seated, imagine a bearded magistrate, at a sort of Georgian
+quarter-sessions bench, with panelled front. For the simple Saxon, with
+vandyked shirt, suppose a Roman half-soldier, half-village-policeman. Then
+comes the figure of Christ, with the head much lower than those of the
+others because he is nearer. Lastly, there is an incomplete figure behind.
+
+In this case the perfect correspondence may be mere coincidence; it is
+difficult to explain otherwise. The design, however, is the same, only the
+Anglo-Norman filled in his detail from his observation of a manorial
+court, the Moorfield engraver from his knowledge of Bow Street
+police-court.
+
+To conclude, although these paintings are ludicrous in the extreme, the
+artists, who had no easy task, were absolutely serious, and their works,
+divested of the comic aspect conferred by haste and manipulative
+incompetence, are marked by bold impressiveness.
+
+The initial to this chapter is from one of a series of similar ornaments
+on the parapet of the south side of the nave of Beverley Minster; it
+illustrates the toilsome nature of the later portion of Adam's life.
+
+
+
+
+Masks and Faces.
+
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, THE CHOIR, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The merriest, oddest, most ill-assorted company in the world meet together
+in the masks and faces of Gothic ornament. Space could always be found for
+a head, and skill to execute it. Yet though the variety is immense, the
+faces of Gothic art will be found to classify themselves very definitely.
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+Perhaps the most prevalent type is the classic mask with leaves issuing
+from the mouth. This may be an idea of the mask which every player in the
+ancient drama wore, displayed as an ornament with laurel, bay, oak, ivy,
+or what not, inserted in the mouth, because it was pierced for speaking
+through, and the only aperture in which the decorative branches could be
+inserted. Or seeds might germinate in sculptured masks and so have
+suggested the idea. Masks were hung in vineyards, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, ST. MARY'S MINSTER, ISLE OF THANET.]
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+A mask above the internal tower-doorway in the Lady Chapel of Dorchester
+Abbey has a close resemblance to the classic mask in the protruding lips,
+which, for the conveying of the voice for the great distance necessary in
+the arrangement of the ancient theatres, were often shaped like a shallow
+speaking-trumpet. The leaves appear to be the vine, and so the head,
+perhaps, that of Bacchus. Between the eyebrows will be noticed an angular
+projection. This is probably explained by a mask in a misericorde in St.
+Mary's Minster, in which some object, perhaps the nasal of a helmet, comes
+down the middle of the forehead. The leaves in this case appear to be oak,
+which is, indeed, the prevailing tree used for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN MASK, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+[Illustration: LATE ITALIAN FOLIATE MASK, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+Occasionally a mask with leaves has the tongue protruding.
+
+Perhaps one of the most remarkable masks in Gothic is on another
+misericorde in the same town, but in St. Mary's Church; in which the
+features, the head-dress, the treatment of the ears, are all Indian, while
+the leaves are those of the palm. This is, perhaps, unique as an instance
+of Gothic work so nearly purely Indian in its form.
+
+[Illustration: RIPON, _late Fifteenth Century_.]
+
+Sometimes the leaves are much elaborated as in one of the late
+misericordes of Westminster Abbey; in a few cases the original simplicity
+is quite lost, and we have, as at Ripon, the mask idea run mad, inverted,
+and the leaves become a graceful composition of foliage, flower, and
+fruit.
+
+A rosette from the tomb of Bishop de La Wich, Chichester, has four animal
+faces in an excellent design.
+
+[Illustration: ROSETTE ON TOMB OF BISHOP DE LA WICH, CHICHESTER.]
+
+Often masks are of the simple description known as the Notch-head; these
+are of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They are generally found
+in exposed situations at some elevation, as among the series of corbels
+(_corbula_ a small basket) or brackets called the corbel-table,
+supporting a stone course or cornice. The likeness to the human face
+caused by the shadows of the T varies in different examples. That below,
+by curving back at the base, suggests the idea of a mouth. Occasionally,
+as at Finedon, Northamptonshire, the notch-head has its likeness to a face
+increased by the addition of ears.
+
+[Illustration: MASK, BUCKLE, OR NOTCH HEAD, CULHAM, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+Norman masks are interesting, as they explain some odd appearances in
+later work. In many churches are faces scored with lines across the
+cheeks, regardless of the ordinary lines of expression, in a manner
+closely resembling the tattoo incisions of the New Zealand warrior. This
+appearance, however, is simply the too faithful copying of crude Norman
+masks, in which the lines are meant to be the semi-circles round eyes and
+mouth. Moreover, the Norman heads are most often the heads of animals
+grinning to shew the teeth, although their general effect is that of
+grotesque human heads. Iffley west doorway furnishes the best example.
+Here we have the well-known "beak head" ornament. The semicircle and upper
+portion of the jambs have single heads, not two of which are exactly
+alike, though all closely resemble each other. They are heads of the eagle
+or gryphon order, with a forehead ornament very Assyrian in character. The
+heads of the jambs are compound, being the head of a grinning beast,
+probably a lion, from the mouth of which emerges a gryphon head of small
+size. These are sometimes called "Cat-heads," and the gryphon head is
+sometimes considered (and perhaps occasionally shewn as such) a tongue. A
+fine doorway of beak-heads is at St. Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford, which
+church was probably executed by the workmen who were responsible for
+Iffley.
+
+[Illustration: BEAK HEADS, IFFLEY.]
+
+It is probable that the symbolism of this is the swallowing up of night by
+day or _vice versâ_. The outer arch of the Iffley doorway consists of
+zodiacal signs, and at the south doorway are other designs elsewhere
+mentioned in this volume, far removed from Christian intent.
+
+[Illustration: NORMAN MASK, ROCHESTER.]
+
+The grotesqueness of Norman work is almost entirely unconscious. The
+workers were full of Byzantine ideas, and the severe and awful was their
+object rather than the comic. They frequently attempted pretty detail in
+their symbolic designs, but in all the forms which have come from their
+chisels it is easy to see how incomplete an embodiment they gave to their
+conceptions, or rather to the conceptions of their traditional school.
+Norman work, beyond the Gothic, irrespective of the architectural
+peculiarities, has traces of its eastern origin in the classic connection
+of its designs. Adel Church, near Leeds, is peculiar in having co-mingled
+with its eastern designs more than ordinarily tangible references to
+ancient Keltic worship, but nearly all Norman ideographic detail concerns
+itself with old-world myths.
+
+[Illustration: GORGONIC MASK, EWELME.]
+
+An excellent conception, well carried out, is in a mask which is one of a
+series of late carvings alternating with the gargoyles of Ewelme. In this,
+instead of leaves issuing from the mouth of the mask, there are two
+dragons. If those with leaves are deities, this surely must be one of the
+Furies. It is on the north side of the nave; on the exterior of the
+aisle, at the same side, other sculptures form a kind of irregular
+corbel-table, and special attention may be drawn to them as affording an
+indication of the derivation of such ornaments from the "antefixes" or
+decorated tiles occupying a nearly corresponding position in classic
+architecture.
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, EWELME.]
+
+One of those on the aisle offers a further explanation of the mark before
+mentioned as being on the foreheads of some masks. In this case the
+prominences of the eyebrows branch off into foliage. This appears also to
+be the intention in a capital carving in Lincoln Chapter House.
+
+Roslyn Chapel has some very realistic heads, notably of apes or gorillas
+near the south doorway, of which one is drawn (opposite).
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, LINCOLN.]
+
+Norman work has frequently some very grotesque heads in corbel tables and
+tower corners, to the odd appearance of which the decay by weather has no
+doubt much contributed. Two examples from Sutton Courtney, Oxfordshire,
+illustrate this weather-worn whimsicality.
+
+[Illustration: GORILLA, ROSLYN CHAPEL.]
+
+Then comes a crowd of faces which have no particular significance, being
+simply the outcome of the unrestrainable fun of the carver. Some are
+merely oddities, while others are full of life-like character.
+
+[Illustration: GARGOYLE, SUTTON COURTNEY.]
+
+[Illustration: WEATHER-WORN NORMAN, SUTTON COURTNEY, BERKSHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: HUMOUR, YORK.]
+
+[Illustration: MASK WITH SAUSAGE, STRATFORD-UPON-AVON.]
+
+[Illustration: A JEALOUS EYE, YORK.]
+
+The knight with the twisted beard, from Swine, may be a portrait, and the
+Gargantuan-faced dominus from St. Mary's Minster certainly is. An old
+barbarian head from a croche or elbow-rest at Bakewell is rude and worn,
+but yet bold and fine.
+
+[Illustration: A BEARD WITH A TWIST, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: A QUIZZICAL VISAGE, BAKEWELL.]
+
+[Illustration: GRIMACE MAKER, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: FOOL'S HEADS, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Some of these are better than the joculators and mimes' faces in which the
+artist seriously set himself a humorous task, as in the three heads
+(page 130) from Beverley Minster, though the latter are in some respects
+more grotesque.
+
+[Illustration: A PORTRAIT, ST. MARY'S MINSTER. ISLE OF THANET.]
+
+[Illustration: A ROUGH CHARACTER, BAKEWELL.]
+
+Another curious instance of a grimace and posture maker, assisting his
+countenance's contortions by the use of his fingers, is at Dorchester
+Abbey. In this the artist has not been master of the facial anatomy, and
+shows a double pair of lips, one pair in repose, the other pulled back at
+the corners.
+
+[Illustration: GRIMACE MAKER, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+Often a grotesque face will be found added to a beautiful design of
+foliage, either as the conventional mask, as in the design in Lincoln
+Chapter House, or a realistic head, as the following grim, dour visage
+between graceful curves on a misericord at King's College, Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: GRACE AND THE GRACELESS, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.]
+
+
+
+
+The Domestic and Popular.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE WEAKER VESSEL, SHERBORNE.]
+
+Domestic and popular incidents are plentiful among the carvings, of which
+they form, indeed, a distinct class; and they afford a considerable amount
+of material with which might be built up, in a truly Hogarthian and
+exaggerated spirit, an elaborate account of mediæval manners in general.
+In the majority of cases the incidents have a familiar, if not an
+endearing suggestiveness.
+
+[Illustration: DOMESTIC DISCIPLINE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The records of mankind are not wanting in stormy incidents in which the
+gentle female spirit has chafed under some presumed foolishness or
+wickedness of the head of the house, and at length breaking bounds,
+inflicted on him personal reminders that patience endureth but for a
+season. An example of this is given above, which shews the possibility of
+such a thing as far back as 1520, the date of the Beverley Minster
+misericordes. While the lady is devoting her attention to the flagellation
+of her unfortunate and perhaps entirely blameless spouse, a dog avails
+himself of the opportunity to rifle the caldron.
+
+[Illustration: AN UNKIND FARE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The picture in the initial, taken from a carving in the choir of Sherborne
+Minster, shews another domestic incident in which the lady administers
+castigation. Though in itself no more than a vulgar satire, it is probable
+that this carving was copied from some representation of St. Lucy, who is
+sometimes shewn with a staff in her hand, and behind her the devil
+prostrate.
+
+It is not easy to say what is the meaning of another carving in Beverley
+Minster, or whether it has any connection with that just noted. The
+probability is that it has not. This may be a shrewish wife being wheeled
+in the tumbril to the waterside, there to undergo for the better ruling of
+her tongue, a punishment the authority for which was custom older than
+law. But I am inclined to think that another reading will be nearer the
+truth. The vehicle is not the tumbril but a wheelbarrow, and the man
+propelling it is younger than the lady, who is pulling his hair. I imagine
+the man is apprentice or husband, and is not very cheerfully trundling his
+companion home. A similar, but more definite misericorde is in Ripon
+Cathedral.
+
+In this barrow, the old woman, wearing a cap with hat on the top, as yet
+occasionally seen in country places, is seated in a mistress-like way. She
+is not committing any violence, but apparently is offering the man (call
+him the bridegroom) his choice of either a bag of money with dutiful
+obedience, or a huge cudgel, which she wields with muscular power, with
+dereliction. The gem of the carving is the man's face. He smiles a quiet,
+amused, satirical smile, as of one who would say, "'Tis no harm to humour
+these foolish old bodies, and must be done, I trow."
+
+[Illustration: THE CHARIOT, RIPON.]
+
+But the object called a bag of money is as likely to be a bottle, and the
+whole subject may be something quite different. She may be going to the
+doctor, or offering the man a drink; or it may be Noah wheeling his
+wife into the Ark, which, it was one of the jokes in a Mystery play to
+suppose she was very unwilling to enter.
+
+[Illustration: PILGRIMAGE IN COMFORT, CANTERBURY.]
+
+[Illustration: MARTINMAS. CHRISTMAS. HOLY TRINITY, HULL.]
+
+The block from the capital of a column in the crypt of Canterbury
+Cathedral, tells us little of its history. It is given as an example of a
+cheerful grace and ease not common in early work.
+
+The hunting of the boar is a frequent subject of the Gothic carver, being
+generally considered the sport of September, though Sir Edward Coke says
+the season for the boar was from Christmas to Candlemas. It is uncommon to
+find the boar's head shewn treated as in the accompanying block, struck
+off, and with the lemon in his mouth, ready for the table. These
+quatrefoils are the only two with a special design upon them, out of
+twelve on the font of Holy Trinity Church, Hull, the others having
+rosettes. There is no rule in this, but there are other examples in which
+small portions of fonts are picked out for significant decoration, and
+possibly on the side originally intended to be turned towards the door of
+the church, or the altar.
+
+[Illustration: HUNTSMAN AND DEER, YORK.]
+
+Hunting scenes frequently occur. A boss in York Minster shews a huntsman
+"breaking" a deer as it hangs from a tree.
+
+The wild sweetness of one stringed and one wind instrument--not uncommonly
+met as harp and piccolo near London "saloon bars"--was a usual duet of
+the middle ages. In Stoeffler's _Calendarum Romanorum Magnum_ (of 1518) in
+a series of woodcuts illustrating the months, and which are otherwise
+reasonable, he gives one of these duets performed in a field as a proper
+occupation of the month of April with the following highly appropriate
+distich--
+
+  "Aprilis patule nucis sub umbra
+  post convivia dormio libenter."
+
+[Illustration: A CURIOUS DUET, CHICHESTER.]
+
+In this carving, however, the musicians appear to be within doors and to
+be giving a set duet. To the interest of the ear they add a curious
+spectacle for the eye, for they are seated in chairs which have no
+fore-legs, and their balance is kept by the flageoletist taking hold of
+the harp as the players sit facing, so that while leaning back they form a
+counter-poise to each other. The chairs are a curious study in mediæval
+furniture.
+
+It is not unlikely that the sculptor in the case of the annexed block had
+in his mind something similar to the saying--
+
+  "When a man's single he lives at his ease."
+
+[Illustration: BACHELOR QUARTERS, WORCESTER.]
+
+A man come in from, we may presume, frost and snow, has taken off his
+boots, and warms his feet as, seated on his fald-stool by the fire, he
+stirs the pot with lively anticipation of the meal preparing inside. He is
+probably a shepherd or swine-herd; on one side is seated his dog, at the
+other are hung two fat gammons of bacon.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Shepherds and shepherding furnish frequent subjects to the carver.
+
+In a Coventry Corpus Christi play of 1534 one of the three shepherds
+presents his gloves to the infant Saviour in these words--
+
+  "Have here my myttens, to pytt en thi hondis,
+  Other treysure have I none to present thee with."
+
+This carving has been called the Good Shepherd. If the artist really meant
+Christ by this shepherd with a hood over his head and hat over that, with
+great gloves and shoes, with a round beardless face, with his arms round
+the necks of two sheep, holding their feet in his hands, it is the finest
+piece of religious burlesque extant. But it is not to be supposed that the
+idea even occurred to the sculptor.
+
+The Feast of Fools was a kind of religious farce, a "mystery" run riot.
+Cedranus, a Byzantine historian, who wrote in the eleventh century,
+records that it was introduced into the Greek Church A.D. 990, by
+Theophylact, patriarch of Constantinople. We can partly understand that
+the popular craving for the wild liberties of the Saturnalia might be met,
+and perhaps modified, by a brief removal of the solemn constraint of the
+Christian priest-rule. But licentiousness in church worship was no new
+thing, and, long before the time of Theophylact, the Church of the West,
+and probably the Greek Church also, had been rendered scandalous by the
+laxity with which the church services were conducted. At the Council of
+Orleans, in A.D. 533, it was found necessary to rule that no person in a
+church shall sing, drink, or do anything unbecoming; at another in
+Châlons, in A.D. 650, women were forbidden to sing indecent songs in
+church. There is in fact every evidence, including the sculptures of our
+subject, that religion was not, popularly, a thing solemn in itself.
+Cedranus mentions the "diabolic dances" among the enormities practised at
+the Feast of Fools, which was generally held about Christmas, though not
+confined to that festival.
+
+In the twelfth century, the abuse increased; songs of the most indecent
+and offensive character were sung in the midst of the mock services;
+puddings were eaten, and dice rattled on the altar, and old shoes burnt as
+incense.
+
+[Illustration: DANCING FOOLS, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+This observance, so evidently an expedient parody of the old-time
+festivals, is traceable in England, and said to have been abolished about
+the end of the fourteenth century. The carvings in Beverley Minster, here
+presented, are supposed to refer to the Feast, and at any rate give us a
+good idea of the mediæval fool. There were innumerable classic dances.
+The Greeks send down the names of two hundred kinds. A dance with arms was
+the Pyrrhic dance, which was similar in some of its varieties to the
+military dance known as the Morris. The Morris was introduced into Spain
+by the Moors, and brought into England by John of Gaunt in 1332. It was,
+however, little used until the reign of Henry VII. There were other
+vivacious dances, called Bayle, of Moorish origin, which, as well as
+various kinds of the stately Court dance, were used by the Spaniards. It
+is difficult, from general sources, to ascertain the dances in vogue in
+old England. A drawing in the Cotton MSS. shews a Saxon dancing a reel.
+The general inference is, however, that the Morris (of the Moors or
+Moriscoes) was the chief dance of the English, and perhaps it is that in
+which the saltatory fools of the carving are engaged.
+
+[Illustration: AN ABJECT OBJECT. WINCHESTER COLLEGE CHAPEL.]
+
+Probably the extraordinary monstrosity shewn in the annexed block had an
+actual existence. There are fairly numerous accounts of such malformities
+in mediæval times, and it was a function of mediæval humour to make
+capital out of unfortunate deformity. This poor man has distorted hands
+instead of feet, and he moves about on pattens or wooden clogs strapped to
+his hands and legs. There is little meaning in the side carvings. The
+fool-ape, making an uncouth gesture, is perhaps to shew the character of
+those who mock misfortune. The man with the scimitar may represent the
+alarm of one who might suddenly come upon the sight of the abortion, and
+fearing some mystery or trap, draw his blade. In a sense this is a
+humourous carving--yet there is a quality for which it is much more
+remarkable, and that is its element of forcible and realistic pathos.
+
+[Illustration: A MYTHOLOGICAL EPISODE, YORK.]
+
+Two reliefs from York Minster are presumably scenes from classic
+mythology, from, in regard to the costumes, a Saxon point of view. One may
+be supposed to be the rape of Ganymede. Oak leaves are an attribute of
+Jupiter, as is also the eagle which bore Ganymede to Olympus.
+
+The other may be Vulcan giving Venus "a piece of his mind."
+
+[Illustration: MARITAL VIOLENCE, YORK.]
+
+If these readings are correct these two carvings are among the very few
+instances of representations of circumstantial detail of the Olympian
+mythology. Most of the church references to mythology have more connection
+with the earlier symbolic meanings than with the later narrative histories
+into which the cults degenerated. Other examples are in the references to
+Hercules in the sixteenth century stalls of Henry VII.'s Chapel,
+Westminster.
+
+There is in mediæval art several examples remaining of what may be called
+topsy-turveyism, in which two figures mutually lent their parts to each
+other in such a way that four figures may be found.
+
+An excellent example of this is at New College, Oxford, in which, though
+the four figures are so apparent when once seen, the two (taken as upper
+and lower), are in a natural and ingenious acrobatic position. The
+grotesque head at the base is put in to balance the composition, and
+perhaps to prevent the trick being discerned at once.
+
+[Illustration: A CONTINUOUS GROUP OF FOUR FIGURES, OXFORD.]
+
+The grace of the free if somewhat meagre Corinthian acanthus as used in
+Early English work is often rendered more marked by the introduction of
+an extraneous subject. Thus at Wells the foliate design is relieved by the
+ungainly figure of a melancholy individual, who, before retiring to rest,
+pursues an examination into his pedal callosities, or extracts the
+poignant thorn. Or can it be that we have here a reminder of the Egyptian
+monarch, Sómarája, mentioned in the Hindoo accounts of the Egyptian
+mythology, who was dissolute and outcast, and who, to shew his repentance
+and patience, stood twelve days upon one leg?
+
+[Illustration: A PILGRIM'S PAINS, WELLS.]
+
+This discursive chapter would not be complete without a reference to the
+alleged impropriety of church grotesques. Though it is not to be denied
+that in the wide range of subjects a considerable number of indecent
+subjects have crept in, yet their proportion is small. Examination would
+lead to the belief that upon the whole the art of the churches is much
+purer than the literature or the popular taste of the respective periods.
+Though there may be sometimes met examples of grossness of humour and a
+frank want of reserve, such as in the annexed drawing from the chapel of
+All Souls, Oxford, yet these are rarely of the most gross or least
+reserved character.
+
+[Illustration: A POSTURIST, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+It may be well to note, in this connection that the literature from which
+we draw the bulk of our ideas as to mediæval life, are foreign, and that,
+although English manners would not be remotely different in essentials,
+yet there would be as many absolute differences as there are yet remaining
+to our eyes in architecture and in art generally.
+
+
+
+
+The Pig and other Animal Musicians.
+
+
+[Illustration: APE AS PIPER, BEVERLEY.]
+
+One might count in the churches animal musicians, perhaps, by thousands,
+and the reason of their presence is doubtless the same as that which
+explains the frequency of the serious carvings of musicians which adorn
+the arches of nave and choir throughout the country--namely the prevalent
+use of various kinds of instrumental music in the service of the church.
+The animal musicians are the burlesques of the human, and the fact that
+the pig is the most frequent performer may perhaps suggest that the
+ability of the musician had overwhelmed the consideration of other
+qualities which might be expected, but were not found, in the
+harmony-producing choristers. Clever as musicians, they may have become
+merely functionaries as regards interest in the church, as we see to-day
+in the case of our bell-ringers, who for the most part issue from the
+churches as worshippers enter them.
+
+It may also be that the frequency of suilline musicians may have derisive
+reference to the ancient veneration in which the pig was held in the
+mythologies. It was a symbol of the sun, and, derivatively, of fecundity.
+Perhaps the strongest trace of this is in Scandinavian mythology. The
+northern races sacrificed a boar to Freyr, the patron deity of Sweden and
+of Iceland, the god of fertility; he was fabled to ride upon a boar named
+Gullinbrusti, or Golden Bristle. Freyr's festival was at Yule-tide. Yule
+is _jul_ or _heol_, the sun, and Gehul is the Saxon "Sunfeast." The gods
+of Scandinavia were said to nightly feast upon the great boar Sæhrimnir,
+which eaten up, was every morning found whole again. This seems somewhat
+akin to the Hindoo story of Crórásura, a demon with the face of a boar,
+who continually read the Vedas and was so devout that Vishnu (the sun god)
+gave him a boon. He asked that no creature existing in the three worlds
+might have power to slay him, which was granted.
+
+[Illustration: SOW AND FIDDLE, WINCHESTER.]
+
+The special sacrifice of the pig was not peculiar to Scandinavia, for the
+Druids and the Greeks also offered up a boar at the winter solstice. The
+sacrifice of a pig was a constant preliminary of the Athenian assemblies.
+As a corn destroyer the same animal was sacrificed to Ceres.
+
+The above explains the recurrence of the pig rather than the pig musician.
+A pregnant sow was, however, yearly sacrificed to Mercury, the inventor of
+the harp, and a sow playing the harp is among the rich set of choir
+carvings in Beverley Minster.
+
+The chase of the boar was the sport of September, the ordinary killing
+season, the swine being then in condition after their autumn feed of
+_bucon_, or beechmast (hence _bacon_), "His Martinmas has come" passed
+into a proverb. The prevalence of the pig as a food animal had undoubtedly
+its share in the frequency of art reference.
+
+[Illustration: SOW AS HARPIST, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+In the Christian adoption of pagan attributes, the pig was apportioned to
+St. Anthony, it is said, variously, because he had been a swine-herd, or
+lived in woods. The smallest or weakling pig in a litter, called in the
+north "piggy-widdy" (small white pig), and in the south midlands the
+"dillin" (perhaps equivalent to _delayed_), and is elsewhere styled the
+Anthony pig, as specially needing the protection of his patron.
+
+[Illustration: MUSIC AT DINNER, WINCHESTER.]
+
+A common representation of the pig musician is a sow who plays to her
+brood. At Winchester, the feast of the little ones is enlivened by the
+strains of the double flute. At Durham Castle, in a carving formerly in
+Aucland Castle Chapel, the sow plays the bagpipes while the young pigs
+dance. At Ripon, a vigorous carving has the same subject, and another at
+Beverley, in which a realistic trough forms the foreground.
+
+[Illustration: SOW AND BAGPIPES, DURHAM CASTLE.]
+
+[Illustration: PIGS AND PIPES, RIPON.]
+
+The "Pig and Whistle" forms an old tavern sign. Dr. Brewer explains this
+as the pot, bowl, or cup (the _pig_), and the wassail it contained. The
+earthenware vessel used to warm the feet in bed is in Scotland yet called
+"the pig," and to southern strangers the use of the word has caused a
+temporary embarrassment. If this explanation is not coincident with some
+other not at present to hand, the carving of the pig and whistle in the
+sixteenth century carving in Henry VII.'s chapel shows that the corruption
+of the "pig and wassail" was accepted in ignorance as far back as that
+period.
+
+[Illustration: PIG AND WHISTLE, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+But too much stress is not to be laid upon the pig as a musician, for at
+Westminster the bear plays the bagpipes, just as at Winchester the ape
+performs on the harp. In the Beverley Minster choir an ape converts a cat
+into an almost automatic instrument by biting its tail.
+
+[Illustration: APE AS HARPIST, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+
+
+
+Compound Forms.
+
+
+[Illustration: ATHOR, CHICHESTER.]
+
+In nearly every church compound forms are met which in a high degree merit
+the designation of grotesque. Few religions have been without these
+symbolic representations of complex characters. If the Egyptian had its
+cat-headed and hawk-headed men, the Assyrian its human-headed bull, the
+Mexican its serpent-armed tiger-men, so also the Scandinavian mythology
+had its horse-headed and vulture-headed giants, and its human-headed
+eagle. Horace, who doubtless knew the figurative meaning of what he
+satirizes, viewed the representations of such compounds in his days, and
+asks--
+
+  "If in a picture you should see
+  A handsome woman with a fishes tail,
+  Or a man's head upon a horse's neck,
+  Or limbs of beasts of the most diff'rent kind,
+  Cover'd with feathers of all sorts of birds
+  Would you not laugh?"[6]
+
+It is, perhaps, a little remote from our subject to inquire whether the
+poet or the priest came the first in bringing about these archaic
+combinations; yet a word or two may be devoted to suggesting the inquiry.
+It is probable that the religious ideas and artistic forms met in ancient
+worships first solely existed in poetic expressions of the qualities of
+the sun--of the other members of the solar system--of the gods. Thus the
+swiftness of the sun in his course and in his light induced the mention of
+wings. Hence the wings of an eagle added to a circular form arose as the
+symbol in one place; in another arose the God Mercury; while Jove the
+great sun-god is shewn accompanied by an eagle. The fertility of the earth
+became as to corn Ceres, as to vines Bacchus, as to flowers Flora, and so
+forth. The human personification, in cases where a combination of
+qualities or functions was sought to be indicated, resulted in more or
+less abstruse literary fables; on the other hand the artist or symbol
+seeker found it easier to select a lower plane of thought for his
+embodiments. Thus, while swiftness suggested the eagle, strength was
+figured by the lion: so when a symbol of swiftness and strength was
+required arose the compound eagle-lion, the gryphon.
+
+The gryphon, however, though constantly met in Gothic, is rarely grotesque
+in itself. Another form which also, to a certain extent, is incorruptible,
+is that of the sphinx. This is a figure symbolic of the sun from the
+Egyptian point of view, in which the Nile was all-important. Nilus, or
+Ammon, the Egyptian Jove, was the sun-god, an equivalent to Osiris, and
+the sphinx was similar in estimation, being, it is reasonably conjectured,
+a compound of Leo and Virgo, at whose conjunction the Nile has yearly
+risen. According to Dr. Birch, the sphinx is to be read as being the
+symbol of Harmachis or "the sun on the horizon." It may be that the Child
+rising from the Shell is sunrise over the sea, and the Sphinx sunrise over
+the land. It has been conjectured that the cherubim of the tabernacle were
+sphinx-form. The cherubim on the Mosaic Ark are among the subjects of the
+earliest mention of composite symbols. Ezekiel says they were composed of
+parts of the figures of a man (wisdom, intellect), a lion (dominion), a
+bull (strength), and an eagle (sharp-sightedness, swiftness.) The Persians
+and Hindoos had similar figures. A man with buffalo horns is painted in
+the Synhedria of the American Indians in conjunction with that of a
+panther or puma-like beast, and these are supposed to be a contraction of
+the cherubimical figures of the man, the bull, and the lion; these,
+renewed yearly, are near the carved figures of eagles common in the Indian
+sun-worship.
+
+[Illustration: SPHINX AND BUCKLER, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: SPHINX FIGURE, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+A carving in the arm-rest of one of the stalls of Beverley Minster,
+suggested in the block on page 159, shews a sphinx with a shield; there
+are in the same church several fine examples seated in the orthodox
+manner.
+
+On a capital in the sedilia of Dorchester Abbey is a curious compound
+which may be classed as a sphinx. One of the hands (or paws) is held over
+the eyes of a dog, which suggests the manner in which animals were
+anciently sacrificed. Another sphinx in the same sedilia is of the winged
+variety. It has the head cowled; many of the mediæval combinatory forms
+are mantled.
+
+In Worcester Cathedral is a compound of man, ox, and lion, very different
+from the sphinx or cherubim shapes, being a grotesque deprived of all the
+original poetry of the conception.
+
+[Illustration: COWLED SPHINX, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+Virgil describes Scylla (the Punic _Scol_, destruction) as a beautiful
+figure upwards, half her body being a beautiful virgin; downwards, a
+horrible fish with a wolf's belly (utero). Homer similarly.
+
+The mermaid is a frequent subject, but more monotonous in its form and
+action than any other creature, and is generally found executed with a
+respectful simplicity that scarcely ever savours of grotesqueness. The
+mermaid, "the sea wolf of the abyss," and the "mighty sea-woman" of
+Boewulf, has an early origin as a deity of fascinating but malignant
+tendencies.
+
+The centaur, perhaps, ranks next to the sphinx in artistic merit. To the
+early Christians the centaur was merely a symbol of unbridled passions,
+and all mediæval reference classes it as evil. Virgil mentions it as being
+met in numbers near the gates of Hades, and the Parthenon sculptures shew
+it as the enemy of men.
+
+[Illustration: GROTESQUE CHERUBIM, WORCESTER.]
+
+The story of the encyclopedias regarding centaurs is that they were
+Thessalonian horsemen, whom the Greeks, ignorant of horsemanship, took to
+be half-men, half-animals. They were called, it is said, centaurs, from
+their skill in killing the wild bulls of the Pelion mountains, and, later,
+hippo-centaurs. This explanation may, in the presence of other
+combinatory forms, be considered doubtful, as it is more probable that
+this, like those, arose out of a poetic appreciation of the qualities
+underlying beauty of form, that is, out of an intelligent symbolism. The
+horse, where known, was always a favourite animal among men. Innumerable
+coinages attest this fact. Early Corinthian coins have the figure of
+Pegasus. In most the horse is shewn alone. In the next proportion he is
+attached to a chariot. In few is he shewn being ridden, as it is his
+qualities that were intended to be expressed, and not those of the being
+who has subjected him. One of the old Greek gold staters has a man driving
+a chariot in which the horse has a human head; while the man is urging the
+horse with the sacred three-branched rod, each branch of which terminates
+in a trefoil. The centaur has a yet unallotted place in the symbolism of
+the sun-myth. Classic mythology says Chiron the centaur was the teacher of
+Apollo in music, medicine, and hunting, and centaurs are mostly sagittarii
+or archers, whose arrows, like those of Apollo, are the sunbeams. The
+centaur met in Gothic ornament is the Zodiacal Sagittarius, and true to
+this original derivation, the centaur is generally found with his bow and
+arrow.
+
+It is said that the Irish saints, Ciaran and Nessan, are the same with the
+centaurs Chiron and Nessus.
+
+[Illustration: MATERNAL CARES OF THE CENTAUR, IFFLEY.]
+
+A capital of the south doorway, Iffley, has a unique composition of
+centaurs. A female centaur, armed with bow (broken) and arrow, is suckling
+a child centaur after the human manner. The equine portions of the figures
+are in exceptionally good drawing, though the tremendous elongation of
+the human trunks, and the ill-rendered position, render the group very
+grotesque. Both the mother and child wear the classic cestus or girdle.
+The bow carried by the mother is held apparently in readiness in the left
+hand, while it is probable that the right breast was meant to be shown
+removed, as was stated of the Amazons. The mother looks off, and there is
+an air of alertness about the two, which is explained by the sculpture on
+the return of the capital, where the father-centaur is seen slaying a
+wolf, lion, or other beast.
+
+[Illustration: CENTAUR AS DRAGON SLAYER, EXETER.]
+
+On a centaur at Exeter of the thirteenth century, the mythical idea is
+somewhat retained; the centaur has shot an arrow into the throat of a
+dragon, which is part of the ornament. This is a very rude but suggestive
+carving. Is the centaur but a symbol of Apollo himself?
+
+The next block (at Ely) is also of the centaur order, though not
+suggestive of aggression. The figure is female, and she is playing the
+zither. This is of the fourteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: MUSICAL CENTAUR, ELY.]
+
+[Illustration: HARPY, WINCHESTER.]
+
+Another classic conception which has been perpetuated in Gothic is the
+harpy, though in most cases without any apparent recognition of the harpy
+character. Exceptions are such instances as that of the harpy drawn in the
+chapter "Satires without Satan." In one at Winchester a fine mediæval
+effect is produced by putting a hood on the human head.
+
+[Illustration: IBIS-HEADED FIGURE FROM AN UNKNOWN CHURCH.]
+
+Another curious bird combination is in a carving in the Architectural
+Museum, Tufton Street, London, from an unknown church. This is a
+semi-human figure, whose upper part is skilfully draped. The head, bent
+towards the ground, is that of a bird of the ibis species, and it is
+probable that we have here a relic of the Egyptian Mercury Thoth, who was
+incarnated as an ibis. Thoth is called the God of the Heart (the
+conscience), and the ibis was said to be sacred to him because when
+sleeping it assumes the shape of a heart.
+
+[Illustration: THE SWAN SISTER, ST. GEORGE'S CHAPEL, WINDSOR.]
+
+An unusual compound is that of a swan with the agreeable head of a young
+woman, in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. This may be one of the
+swan-sisters in the old story of the "Knight of the Swan."
+
+The initial letter of this section is a fine grotesque rendering of the
+Egyptian goddess Athor, Athyr, or Het-her (meaning the dwelling of God.)
+She was the daughter of the sun, and bore in images the sun's disc.
+Probably through a lapse into ignorance on the part of the
+priest-painters, she became of less consideration, and the signification
+even of her image was forgotten. She had always had as one of her
+representations, a bird with a human head horned and bearing the disc; but
+the disc began to be shewn as a tambourine, and she herself was styled
+"the mistress of dance and jest." As in the cosmogony of one of the
+Egyptian Trinities she was the Third Person, as Supreme Love, the Greeks
+held her to be the same as Aphrodite. The name of the sun-disc was Aten,
+and its worship was kindred to that of Ra, the mid-day sun. The Hebrew
+Adonai and the Syriac Adonis have been considered to be derived from this
+word Aten.
+
+Several examples of bird-compounds are in the Exeter series of
+misericordes of the thirteenth century. They are renderings in wood of the
+older Anglo-Saxon style of design, and are ludicrously grotesque.
+
+It is scarcely to be considered that the compound figures were influenced
+by the prevalence of mumming in the periods of the various carvings. In
+this, as in many other respects, the traditions of the carvers' art
+protected it from being coloured by the aspect of the times, except in a
+limited degree, shewn in distinctly isolated examples.
+
+[Illustration: BIRD-COMPOUND, EXETER.]
+
+
+
+
+Non-descripts.
+
+
+[Illustration: A BEARDED BIPED, ST. KATHERINE'S.]
+
+There is a large number of bizarre works which defy natural
+classification, and though in many cases they are a branch of the compound
+order of figures, yet they are frequently well defined as non-descripts.
+These, though in one respect the most grotesque of the grotesques, do not
+claim lengthy description. Where they are not traceable compounds, they
+are often apparently the creatures of fancy, without meaning and without
+history. It may be, however, that could we trace it, we should find for
+each a pedigree as interesting, if not as old, as that of any of the
+sun-myths. Among the absurd figures which scarcely call for explanation
+are such as that shown in the initial, from the Hospital and Collegiate
+Church of St. Katherine by the Tower (now removed to a substituted
+hospital in Regent's Park).
+
+[Illustration: A CLOAKED SIN, TUFTON STREET.]
+
+In the Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, London, is a carving from an
+unknown church, in which appear two figures which were not an uncommon
+subject for artists of the odd. These are human heads, to which are
+attached legs without intermediary bodies, and with tails depending from
+the back of the heads.
+
+[Illustration: THE WORM OF CONSCIENCE. (_From an unknown Church._)]
+
+In the "Pilgremage of the Sowle," printed by Caxton in 1483, translated
+from a French manuscript of 1435 or earlier, is a description of a man's
+conscience, which, there is little doubt, furnished the idealic material
+for these carvings. A "sowle" being "snarlyed in the trappe" of Satan, is
+being, by a travesty on the forms of a court of law, claimed by both the
+"horrible Sathanas" and its own Warden or Guardian Angel. The Devil calls
+for his chief witness by the name of Synderesys, but the witness calls
+himself the Worm of Conscience. The following is the soul's
+description:--"Then came forth by me an old one, that long time had hid
+himself nigh me, which before that time I had not perceived. He was
+wonderfully hideous and of cruel countenance; and he began to grin, and
+shewed me his jaws and gums, for teeth he had none, they all being broken
+and worn away. He had no body, but under his head he had only a tail,
+which seemed the tail of a worm of exceeding length and greatness." This
+strange accuser tells the Soul that he had often warned it, and so often
+bitten it that all his teeth were wasted and broken, his function being
+"to bite and wounde them that wrong themselves."[7]
+
+The above examples are scarcely unique. In Ripon Cathedral, on a
+misericorde of 1489, representing the bearing of the grapes of Eschol on a
+staff, are two somewhat similar figures, likewise mere "nobodies," though
+without tails. These are a covert allusion to the wonderful stories of the
+spies, which, it is thus hinted, are akin to the travellers' tales of
+mediæval times, as well as a pun on the report that they had seen nobody.
+
+[Illustration: NOBODIES, RIPON.]
+
+It is evident that the idea of men without bodies came from the East, and
+also that it had credence as an actual fact. In the _Cosmographiæ
+Universalis_, printed in 1550, they are alluded to in the following
+terms:--"Sunt qui cervicibus carent et in humeris habet oculos; De India
+ultra Gangem fluvium sita."
+
+[Illustration: NON-DESCRIPT, CHRIST CHURCH, HANTS.]
+
+There are many carvings which are more or less of the same character, and
+probably intended to embody the idea of conscience or sins.
+
+The two rather indecorous figures shewn in the following block from Great
+Malvern are varieties doubtless typifying sins.
+
+[Illustration: SINS IN SYMBOL, GREAT MALVERN.]
+
+
+
+
+Rebuses.
+
+
+[Illustration: BOLT-TON.]
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM WHITE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Rebuses are often met among Gothic sculptures, but not in such frequency,
+or with an amount of humour to claim any great attention here. They are
+almost entirely, as in the case of the canting heraldry of seals, of late
+date, being mostly of the 15th and 16th centuries. They are often met as
+the punning memorial of the name of a founder, builder, or architect, as
+the bolt-ton of Bishop Bolton in St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, the
+many-times-repeated cock of Bishop Alcock in Henry VII's. Chapel, the eye
+and the slip of a tree, and the man slipping from a tree, for Bishop
+Islip, Westminster; and others well known. In the series of misericordes
+in Beverley Minster, there are _arma palantes_ of the dignitaries of the
+Church in 1520. William White, the Chancellor, has no less than seven
+different renderings of the pun upon his name, all being representations
+of weights, apparently of four-stone ponderosity. Thomas Donnington, the
+Precentor, whose name would doubtless often be written Do'ington, has a
+doe upon a ton or barrel. John Sperke, the Clerk of the Fabric, has a dog
+with a bone, and a vigilant cock; this, however, is not a name-rebus so
+much as an allusion to the exigencies of his office. The Church of St.
+Nicholas, Lynn, had misericordes (some of which are now in the
+Architectural Museum) which have several monograms and rebuses.
+Unfortunately, they are somewhat involved, and there is at present no key
+by which to read them. The least doubtful is that given below.
+
+[Illustration: WEIGHT, REBUS FOR WHITE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+It has a "ton" rebus which will admit, however, of perhaps three different
+renderings. It is most likely Thorn-ton, less so Bar-ton, and still less
+Hop-ton, all Lincolnshire names.
+
+[Illustration: MERCHANT MARK, COGNIZANCE AND REBUS, ST. NICHOLAS'S,
+LYNN.]
+
+
+
+
+Trinities.
+
+
+[Illustration: LARVA-LIKE DRAGON, ST. PAUL'S, BEDFORD.]
+
+Repeatedly has the statement been made that the various mythologies are
+only so many corruptions of the Mosaic system. Manifestly if this could be
+admitted there would be little interest in enquiring further into their
+details. But there are three arguments against the statement, any one of
+which is effective. Although it is perhaps totally unnecessary to
+contradict that which can be accepted by the unreflective only, it is
+sufficiently near the purpose of this volume to slightly touch upon the
+matter, as pointing strong distinctions among ancient worships.
+
+First, there is the simple fact recorded in the Mosaic account itself,
+that there existed at that time, and had done previously, various
+religious systems, the rooting out of which was an important function of
+the liberated Hebrews. The only reply to this is that, by a slight shift
+of ground, the mythologies were corruptions of the patriarchal religion,
+not the Mosaic system. Yet paganism surrounded the patriarchs.
+
+The second point is that most of the mythologies had crystallized into
+taking the sun as the main symbol of worship, and into taking the
+equinoxes and other points of the constellation path as other symbols and
+reminders of periodic worship; whereas in the Mosaic system the whole
+structure of the solar year is ignored, all the calculations being lunar.
+If it be objected that Numbers ix. 6-13, and II. Chronicles xxx. 2, refer
+indirectly to an intercalary month, that, if admitted, could only for
+expediency's sake, and has no bearing upon the general silence as to the
+solar periods. This second point is an important testimony to what may be
+termed Mosaic originality.
+
+The third point is that in most of the mythologies there is the distinct
+mention of a Trinity; in the Mosaic system, the system of the Old
+Testament, none. With the question as to whether the New Testament
+supports the notion of a Trinity, we need not concern ourselves here; it
+is enough that it has been adopted as an item of the Christian belief.
+
+The mythological Trinities are vague and, of course, difficult or
+impossible to understand. Most of them appear to be attempts of great
+minds of archaic times to reconcile the manifest contradictions ever
+observable in the universe. This is done in various ways. Some omit one
+consideration, some another; but they generally agree that to have a
+three-fold character in one deity is necessary in explaining the
+phenomenon of existence. Some of the Trinities may be recited.
+
+PERSIAN.
+
+    OROMASDES, Goodness, the deviser of Creation.
+
+    MITHRAS, Eternal Intellect, the architect and ruler of the world,
+    literally "the Friend."
+
+    ARIMANES, the mundane soul (Psyche).
+
+GRECIAN.
+
+    ZEUS.
+
+    PALLAS.
+
+    HERA.
+
+ROMAN.
+
+    JUPITER, Power.
+
+    MINERVA, Wisdom, Eternal Intellect.
+
+    JUNO, Love.
+
+SCANDINAVIAN.
+
+    ODIN, Giver of Life.
+
+    HÆNIR, Giver of motion and sense.
+
+    LODUR, Giver of speech and the senses.
+
+AMERICAN INDIAN.
+
+    OTKON.
+
+    MESSOU.
+
+    ATAHUATA.
+
+EGYPTIAN.
+
+    CNEPH, the Creator, Goodness.
+
+    PTA (Opas), the active principle of Creation (= Vulcan).
+
+    EICTON.
+
+The Egyptians had other Trinities than the above, each chief city having
+its own form; in these, however, the third personality appears to be
+supposed to proceed from the other two, which scarcely seems to have been
+intended in the instances already given. Some of the city Trinities were
+as follow:--
+
+THEBES.
+
+    AMUN-RA (= Jupiter), (RA = the Mid-day Sun.)
+
+    MANT or MENTU (= "the mother," Juno.)
+
+    CHONSO (= Hercules.)
+
+PHILAE & ABYDOS.
+
+    OSIRIS (= Pluto).
+
+    ISIS (= Prosperine).
+
+    HORUS, the Saviour, the Shepherd (the Rising Sun).
+
+ABOO-SIMBEL.
+
+    PTA or PHTHAH.
+
+    AMUM-RA.
+
+    ATHOR, Love (the wife of HORUS).
+
+So that it is no coincidence that both Hercules and Horus are met in
+Gothic carvings as deliverers from dragons.
+
+ELEPHANTINE.
+
+    KHUM or CHNOUMIS.
+
+    ANUKA.
+
+    HAK.
+
+MEMPHIS.
+
+    PTAH.
+
+    MERENPHTAH.
+
+    NEFER-ATUM.
+
+HELIOPOLIS.
+
+    TUM (Setting Sun.)
+
+    NEBHETP.
+
+    HORUS.
+
+Another Egyptian triad, styled "Trimorphous God!" was:--
+
+    BAIT.
+
+    ATHOR.
+
+    AKORI.
+
+Another:--
+
+    TELEPHORUS.
+
+    ESCULAPIUS.
+
+    SALUS.
+
+VEDIC HINDOO.
+
+    AGNI, Fire, governing the Earth.
+
+    INDRA, The Firmament, governing Space or Mid Air.
+
+    SURYA, The Sun, governing the Heavens.
+
+BRAHMINIC HINDOO.
+
+    BRAHMA, the Creator.
+
+    VISHNU, the Preserver.
+
+    SIVA, the Destroyer (the Transformer) (= Fire).
+
+The Platonic and other philosophic Trinities need not detain us; it has
+been asserted that by their means the doctrine of the pagan Trinity was
+grafted on to Christianity.
+
+Right down through the ages the number three has always been regarded as
+of mystic force. Wherever perfection or efficiency was sought its means
+were tripled; thus Jove's thunderbolt had three forks of lightning,
+Neptune's lance was a trident, and Pluto's dog had three heads. The
+Graces, the Fates, and the Furies were each three. The trefoil was held
+sacred by the Greeks as well as other triad forms. In the East three was
+almost equally regarded. Three stars are frequently met upon Asiatic
+seals. The Scarabæus was esteemed as having thirty joints.
+
+Mediæval thought, in accepting the idea of the Christian Trinity, lavishly
+threw its symbolism everywhere; writers and symbolists, architects and
+heralds, multiplied ideas of three-fold qualities.
+
+Heraldry is permeated with three-fold repetitions, a proportion of at
+least one-third of the generality of heraldic coats having a trinity of
+one sort or another. In all probability the stars and bars of America rose
+from the coat-armour of an English family in which the stars were three,
+the bars three.
+
+St. Nicholas had as his attributes three purses, three bulls of gold,
+three children.
+
+Sacred marks were three dots, sometimes alone, sometimes in a triangle,
+sometimes in a double triangle; three balls attached, making a trefoil;
+three bones in a triangle crossing at the corners; a fleur-de-lys in
+various designs of three conjoined; three lines crossed by three lines;
+and many other forms.
+
+God, the symbolists said, was symbolized by a hexagon, whose sides were
+Glory, Power, Majesty, Wisdom, Blessing, and Honor. The three steps to
+heaven were Oratio, Amor, Imitatio. The three steps to the altar, the
+three spires of the cathedral, the three lancets of an Early English
+window, were all supposed to refer to the Trinity.
+
+Having seen that the idea of the Trinity is a part of most of the ancient
+religious systems, it remains to point to one or two instances where, in
+common with other ideas from that source, the Trinity has a place among
+church grotesques.
+
+There is a triune head in St. Mary's Church, Faversham, Kent, which was
+doubtless executed as indicative of the Trinity. The _Beehive of the
+Romishe Church_, in 1579, says: "They in their churches and Masse Bookes
+doe paint the Trinitie with three faces; for our mother the holie Church
+did learn that at Rome, where they were wont to paint or carve Janus with
+two faces." In the Salisbury Missal of 1534 is a woodcut of the Trinity
+triangle surmounted by a three-faced head similar to the above. Hone
+reproduces it in his _Ancient Mysteries Described_, and asks, "May not the
+triune head have been originally suggested by the three-headed Saxon deity
+named "Trigla"?" The Faversham tria, it will be noticed, has the curled
+and formal beards of the Greek mask.
+
+[Illustration: A TRINITY, ST. MARY'S, FAVERSHAM.]
+
+Another instance of a three-fold head similar to the Faversham carving is
+at Cartmel.
+
+A still more remarkable form of the same thing occurs as a rosette on the
+tomb of Bishop de la Wich, in Chichester Cathedral, in which the trinity
+of faces is doubled and placed in a circle in an exceedingly ingenious and
+symmetrical manner. This has oak leaves issuing from the mouths, which we
+have seen as a frequent adjunct of the classic mask as indicating Jupiter.
+
+[Illustration: DOUBLE TRINITY OF FOLIATE MASKS, CHICHESTER.]
+
+In carvings three will often be found to be a favourite number without a
+direct reference to the Trinity. The form of the misericorde is almost
+invariably a three-part design, and, being purely arbitrary, its universal
+adoption is one of the evidences of the organization of the craft gild.
+
+As with the misericorde, so with its subjects. At Exeter we have seen
+(page 4) the tail of the harpy made into a trefoil ornament, while she
+grasps a trefoil-headed rod (just as among Assyrian carvings we should
+have met a figure bearing the sacred three-headed poppy). At Gayton (page
+87) we have the three-toothed flesh-hook; at Maidstone is another.
+Chichester Cathedral and Chichester Hospital have each three groups.
+Beverley Minster has three fish interlaced, and three hares running round
+inside a circle. In Worcester Cathedral there are three misericordes, in
+each of which there are three figures, in which groups the number is
+evidently intentional. Three till the ground, three reap corn with
+sickles, three mow with scythes.
+
+[Illustration: TRINITY OF MOWERS, WORCESTER.]
+
+From them as being unusual in treatment, even in this stiff Flemish set,
+is selected the trinity of mowers. Groups of three in mowing scenes is a
+frequent number. Doubtless this carving is indicative of July, that being
+the "Hey-Monath" of early times. One of the side supporters or pendant
+carvings of this is a hare riding upon the back of a leoparded lion,
+perhaps some reference to Leo, the sign governing July.
+
+The three mowers do not make a pleasing carving, owing to the repetition
+and want of curve.
+
+Other instances of triplication in Gothic design might be given,
+particularly in the choice of floral forms in which nature has set the
+pattern. This section, however, is chiefly important as a convenient means
+of incorporating a record of something further of the fundamental beliefs
+of the world's youth, connected with and extending the question of the
+remote origin of the ideas at the root of so many grotesques in church
+art.
+
+
+
+
+The Fox in Church Art.
+
+
+[Illustration: PREACHING FOX, CHRISTCHURCH, HAMPSHIRE.]
+
+The Fox, apostrophized as follows:
+
+  "O gentle one among the beasts of prey
+  O eloquent and comely-faced animal!"
+
+as an important subject in mediæval art, has two distinct places.
+
+There is a general impression that there was a great popular literary
+composition, running through many editions and through many centuries,
+having its own direct artistic illustration, and a wide indirect
+illustration which, later, by its ability to stand alone, had broken away
+from close connection with the epic, yet possessed a derivative identity
+with it.
+
+Closer examination, however, proves that there is indeed the Fox in its
+particular literature with its avowed illustrations, but also that there
+is the Fox in mediæval art, illustrative of ideas partly found in
+literature, but illustrative of no particular work, and yet awaiting a
+key. Each is a separate and distinct thing.
+
+Among the grotesques of our churches there are some references to the
+literary "Reynard the Fox," but they are few and far between; while
+numerous most likely and prominent incidents of Reynard's career, as
+narrated in the poem, have no place among the carvings.
+
+The subjects of the carvings are mostly so many variations of the idea of
+the Fox turned ecclesiastic and preying upon his care and congregation;
+and in this he is assisted by the ape, who also takes sides with him in
+carvings of other proceedings; but in none of these scenes is there
+evidence of reference to the epic. A great point of difference, too, lies
+in the conclusion of the epic, and the conclusion of Reynard's life as
+shewn in the carvings. In the epic, the King makes Reynard the Lord
+Chancellor and favourite.
+
+The end of the Fox of church art, however, is far different; several
+sculptures agree in shewing him hanged by a body of geese.
+
+In the epic, Reynard's victims are many. The deaths of the Hare and the
+Ram afford good circumstantial pictures, yet in the carvings there is
+neither of these; and it is scarcely Reynard who plots, and sins, and
+conceals, but a more vulgar fox who concerns himself, chiefly about geese,
+in an open, verminous way, while many of the sculptures are little more
+than natural history illustrations, in which we see _vulpes_, but not the
+Fox.
+
+To enable, however, a fair comparison to be made between literature and
+art in this byway, it will be as well to glance at the history of the
+poem, and lay down a brief analysis of its episodes; and, next, to present
+sketches of some typical examples from the carvings.
+
+Much of ancient satire owes its origin to that description of fable which
+bestows the attributes and capacities of the human race upon the lower
+animals, which are made to reason and to speak. Their mental processes and
+their actions are entirely human, although their respective animal
+characteristics are often used to accentuate their human character. In
+every animal Edward Carpenter sees varying sparks of the actual mental
+life we call human, in, it may be added, arrested or perverted
+development, in which, in each instance, one characteristic has
+immeasurably prevailed. For the animal qualities, whether human or not in
+kind, man has ever had a sympathetic recognition, which has made both
+symbol and fable easily acceptable. Perhaps symbolism, which for so many
+ages has taken the various animals as figures to intelligibly express
+abstract qualities, gave rise to fable. If so, fable may be considered the
+grotesque of symbolism. The same ideas--of certain qualities--are taken
+from their original serious import, and used to amuse, and, while amusing,
+to strike.
+
+On the other hand, Grimm asserts that animal-fable arose in the
+Netherlands, North France, and West Germany, extending neither to the
+Romance countries, nor to the Keltic; whereas we find animal symbolism
+everywhere. Grimm's statement may be taken to speak, perhaps, of a certain
+class of fable, and the countries he names are certainly where we should
+expect to find the free-est handling of superstitions. His arguments are
+based on the Germanic form of the names given to the beasts, but his
+localities seem to follow the course of the editions. Perhaps special
+causes, and not the influence of race, decided the localities. The
+earliest trace of a connected animal-fable is of that which is also the
+most wide-spread and popular--the history of the Fox.
+
+This early production is a poem, called _Isengrinus_, in Latin hexameters,
+by a cleric of South Flanders, whose name has not survived. It was written
+in the first half of the twelfth century, and first printed, it is said,
+so late as 1834.
+
+In this, the narrative is briefly as follows:--The Lion is sick, and calls
+a court to choose his successor. Reynard is the only animal that does not
+appear. The Wolf, Isengrinus, to ruin Reynard's adherents, the Goat and
+the Ram, prescribes as a remedy for the Lion's disorder a medicine of Goat
+and Ram livers. They defend the absent Reynard, and pronounce him a great
+doctor, and, to save their livers, drive the Wolf by force from before the
+throne. Reynard is summoned. He comes with herbs, which, he says, will
+only be efficacious if the patient is wrapped in the skin of a wolf four
+years old. The Wolf is skinned, the Lion is cured, and Fox made
+Chancellor.
+
+In this story is neatly dovetailed another, narrating how the Wolf had
+been prevented from devouring a party of weak pilgrim animals by the
+judicious display of a wolf's head. This head was cut off a wolf found
+hanging in a tree, and, at Reynard's instigation, the party, on the
+strength of possessing it, led the Wolf to believe them to be a company of
+professional wolf-slayers.
+
+After this poem followed another at the end of the same century with
+numerous additions and alterations, by a monk of Ghent. Next came a high
+German poem, also of the twelfth century, expanded, but without great
+addition. After this came the French version, Roman de Renart, which, with
+supplementary compositions, enlarged the matter to no less than 41,748
+verses. There is another French version, called Renart le Contrefet, of
+nearly the same horrible length.
+
+A Flemish version, written in the middle of the thirteenth century, and
+continued in the fourteenth, became the great father of editions.
+
+All these were in verse, but on the invention of printing the Flemish form
+was re-cast into prose, and printed at Gouda in 1479, and at Delft in
+1485; abridged and mutilated it was often re-printed in Holland.
+
+Caxton printed a translation in 1481, and another a few years later. The
+English quarto, like the Dutch, also gave rise in time to a call for a
+cheap abridgment, and it appeared in 1639, as "The Most delectable history
+of Reynard the Fox."
+
+Meanwhile a Low Saxon form had appeared, "Reinche Bos," first printed at
+Lubeck in 1498, and next at Rostock in 1517, a translation, with
+alterations, from the Flemish publication. Various other editions in
+German followed, with cuts by Amman.
+
+In all these and their successors the incidents were varied. Having seen
+that, within at least certain limits, the story must have been exceedingly
+well-known and popular, we will run through the incidents narrated in the
+most popular of the German Reynard poems, chiefly taken from Goethe's
+rendering.
+
+Nouvel, the Lion, calls a parliament, and the Fox does not appear, and is
+accused of various crimes. The Wolf accuses him of sullying the honour of
+his wife, and blinding his three children. A little Dog accuses him of
+stealing a pudding end (this the Cat denies, stating that the pudding was
+one of her own stealing). The Leopard accuses him of murder, having only
+the day before rescued the Hare from his clutch as he was throttling him,
+under pretence of severity in teaching the Creed.
+
+The Badger, Grimbart, now comes forward in defence.
+
+  "An ancient proverb says, quoth he,
+  Justice in an enemy
+  Is seldom to be found."
+
+He accuses the Wolf in his turn of violating the bonds of partnership. The
+Fox and the Wolf had arranged to rob a fish-cart. The Fox lay for dead on
+the road, and the carter, taking him up, threw him on the top of the load
+of fish, turning to his horse again. Reynard then threw the fish on to the
+road, and jumping down to join in the feast found left for him but fin and
+scales. The Badger explains away also the story of Reynard's guilt as to
+Dame Isengrin, and, with regard to the Hare, asks if a teacher shall not
+chastise his scholars. In short, since the King proclaimed a peace,
+Reynard was thoroughly reformed, and but for being absorbed in penance
+would no doubt have been present to defend himself from any false
+reports.
+
+Unfortunately for this justification, at the very moment of its conclusion
+a funeral procession passes;
+
+  "On sable bier
+  The relics of a Hen appear,"
+
+while Henning, the Cock, makes a piteous complaint of Reynard's misdeeds.
+He said how the Fox had
+
+  "Assured him he'd become a friar,
+  And brought a letter from his prior;
+  Show'd him his hood and shirt of hair,
+  His rosary and scapulaire;
+  Took leave of him with pious grace,
+  That he might hasten to his place
+  To read the nona and the sept,
+  And vesper too before he slept;
+  And as he slowly took his way,
+  Read in his pocket breviary."
+
+all of which ended in the devout penitent eating nineteen of Henning's
+brood.
+
+The Lion invites his council's advice. It is decided to send an envoy to
+Reynard, and Bruno, the Bear, is selected to summon him to court.
+
+Bruno finds him at his castle of Malepart, and thunders a summons.
+Reynard, by plausible speech and a story of honey, disarms some of his
+hostility, and entices him off to a carpenter's yard, where an oak trunk,
+half split, yet has the wedge in. Reynard declaring the honey is in the
+cleft, Bruno puts his head and paws in. Reynard draws out the wedge. The
+Bear howls till the whole village is aroused, and Bruno, to save his life,
+draws himself out minus skin from head and paws. In the confusion the
+parson's cook falls into the stream, and the parson offers two butts of
+beer to the man who saves her. While this is being done, the Bear escapes,
+and the Fox taunts him.
+
+The Bear displaying his condition at court, the King swears to hang
+Reynard, this time sending Hinge, the Cat, to summon Reynard to trial.
+Hinge is lured to the parson's house in hopes of mice, and caught in a
+noose fixed for Reynard. The household wake, and beat the Cat, who dashes
+underneath the priest's robe, revenging himself in a cruel and unseemly
+way. The Cat is finally left apparently dead, but reviving, gnaws the
+cord, and crawls back to court.
+
+  "The King was wroth, as wroth could be."
+
+The Badger now offers to go, three times being the necessary number for
+summoning a peer of the realm. He puts the case plainly before Reynard,
+who agrees to come, and they set out together. On the way Reynard has a
+fit of remorse, and confesses his sins. Grimbart plucks a twig, makes the
+Fox beat himself, leap over it three times, kiss it; and then declares him
+free from his sins. All the time Reynard casts a greedy eye on some
+chickens, and makes a dash at one shortly after. Accused by Grimbart, he
+declares he had only looked aside to murmur a prayer for those who die in
+"yonder cloister."
+
+  "And also I would say
+  A prayer for the endless peace
+  Of many long-departed geese,
+  Which, when in a state of sin,
+  I stole from the nuns who dwell therein."
+
+The Fox arrives at court with a proud step and a bold eye. He is accused,
+but
+
+  "Tried every shift and vain pretence
+  To baffle truth and common sense,
+  And shield his crimes with eloquence."
+
+In vain. He is condemned to die. His friend Martin the Ape, Grimbart the
+Badger, and others withdraw in resentment, and the King is troubled.
+
+At the gallows Reynard professes to deliver a dying confession, and
+introduces a story of seven waggon-loads of gold and jewels which had been
+a secret hoard of his father, stolen for the purpose of bribing chiefs to
+depose the Lion and place the Bear on the throne.
+
+Reynard is pardoned on condition of pointing out the treasure. He declares
+it to be in Husterlo, but excuses himself from accompanying the King on
+his way there, as he, Reynard, is excommunicated for once assisting the
+Wolf to escape from a monastery, and must, therefore, go to Rome to get
+absolution.
+
+The King announces his pardon to the court. The Bear and Wolf are thrown
+into prison, and Reynard has a scrip made of a piece of the Bear's hide,
+and shoes of the skin of the feet of the Wolf and his wife. Blessed by
+Bellin the Ram, who is the King's chaplain, and accompanied a short
+distance by the whole court, he sets out for Rome. The chaplain Ram and
+Lampe the Hare, accompany him home to bid his wife farewell. He inveigles
+the Hare inside, and the family eat him. He puts the Hare's head in the
+bear-skin wallet, and taking it to the impatient Bellin outside, asks him
+to take it to the King, as it contains letters of state policy.
+
+The satchel is opened in full court, and Reynard once more proclaimed a
+traitor, accursed and banned, the Bear and Wolf restored, and the Ram and
+all his race given to them for atonement. A twelve-day tourney is held. On
+the eighth day the Coney and the Crow present complaint against Reynard;
+he had wounded the Coney, and eaten the Crow's wife. It is resolved, in
+spite of the Lioness's second intercession, to besiege Malepart and hang
+Reynard.
+
+Grimbart secretly runs off to warn Reynard, who decides to return to court
+once more and plead his cause. They set out together, and Reynard again
+confesses his sins. This introduces a story of how he once fooled the
+Wolf. Isengrin coveted to eat a foal, and sent the Fox to inquire the
+price from the mare. She replied the price was written on her hinder hoof.
+The Fox, seeing the trick, returned to the Wolf saying he could not
+understand the inscription. The Wolf boasts of his learning, having long
+ago taken his degrees as Doctor of Both Faculties. The Wolf bends down to
+examine the newly-shod hoof, and the rest may be supposed.
+
+On their way to court, Reynard and Grimbart meet Martin the Ape, who is
+bound for Rome, and promises his gold shall buy Reynard's absolution.
+Arrived at court, Reynard boldly explains away the stories of the Coney
+and the Crow, and demands the trial by battle. The Coney and Crow, having
+no witnesses, and being averse to battle, withdraw. Reynard accuses the
+dead Bellin of killing the Hare Lampe and secreting rare jewels he sent
+to the King. His story is half believed in the hope that the jewels, which
+he described at great length, may be found. Reynard's former services to
+the state are remembered, and he is about to depart triumphant, when the
+Wolf, unable to restrain his rage, accuses him afresh. In the end, as each
+accusation is smoothly foiled, he accepts the wager of battle. They
+withdraw to prepare for the lists. Reynard is shorn and shaven, all but
+his tail, by his relatives the Apes. He is well oiled. He is also enjoined
+to drink plentifully overnight.
+
+They meet in the lists. Reynard kicks up the dust to blind the Wolf, draws
+his wet tail across his eyes, and at length tears an eye out. He is,
+however, seized by the Wolf's strong jaw, and is about to be finished off
+when he takes advantage of a word of parley to seize the wolf in a tender
+part with his hand, and the fight recommences, ending in the total
+overthrow of Isengrin. The King orders the fray to be stayed and the
+Wolf's life spared. The Wolf is carried off. All fly to congratulate the
+victor,
+
+  "All gazed in his face with fawning eyes,
+  And loaded him with flatteries."
+
+The King makes him the Lord Chancellor and takes him to his close esteem.
+
+The tale winds up:
+
+  "To wisdom now let each one turn,
+  Avoid the base and virtue learn;
+  This is the end of Reynard's story,
+  May God assist us to His glory."
+
+[Illustration: THE FOX RETURNING FROM HUNTING, MANCHESTER.]
+
+The above is the gist of the matter dealing with the Fox in letters; from
+these lively images we will turn to the more wooden achievements of the
+carvers. The general fact that the Fox is a marauder specially fond of the
+flesh of that bird of long descent, the goose, but also partial to that of
+other birds, is frequently illustrated by church carvings. In the churches
+at the following places he is carved as having seized his prey:--Beverley
+(Minster), Boston, Fairford, Faversham, Gloucester, Hereford, Norwich,
+Oxford (Magdalen), Peterborough, Ripon, Wellingborough, Winchester, and
+Windsor (St. George's Chapel). At the last-named he is also shewn as
+preying upon a hen. At Beverley (Minster) Ely, Manchester, and Thanet (St.
+Mary's Minster) the picture of the abduction of the goose is heightened in
+interest by his pursuit by a woman armed with a distaff. Doubtless there
+are others; the object throughout is to give examples, not an exhaustive
+list.
+
+A somewhat unusual subject is one in Manchester Cathedral, in which the
+Fox is returning from hunting. A carving where the Fox is used to point a
+moral is another, in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, in which three monks,
+conveyed in a wheel-barrow into Hell's Mouth, are accompanied by a Fox
+with a goose in his mouth. Probably the idea here broadly expressed is
+intended to be quietly suggested by some of the above.
+
+Next in frequency is the more definite satire of the Fox preaching to
+Geese. We find it at Beverley (both the Minster and St. Mary's), Boston,
+Bristol, Cartmel, Ely, Etchingham, Nantwich, Ripon, Stowlangcroft, and
+Windsor (St. George's Chapel). In the last he has a goose in his cowl.
+
+All those need for their completion the supposition that the text of the
+Fox's sermon is the same as was given at length in a representation of a
+preaching scene on an ancient stained-glass window in the church of St.
+Martin, Leicester, which was unhappily destroyed in the last century. In
+this, from the Fox's mouth proceeded the words "Testis est mihi Deus, quam
+cupiam vos omnes visceribus meus" (God is my witness how I desire you all
+in my bowels.--Philippians, i., 8). In Wolfius, A.D. 1300, is a
+description of another such representation, in a MS. of Æsop's Fables. It
+may accord quite well with the theory of the transmission of designs by
+the continuity of the artificers' gild system to suppose that some
+proportion of the material found its way into their repertoire through
+the medium of manuscripts (not necessarily original in them), especially
+for such subjects as were essentially mediæval. We have seen how the
+carvings of Jonah and of Samson, at Ripon, were taken from the Poor Man's
+Bible; here we have the Preaching Fox mentioned in a book of 1300 as being
+in an earlier work. A Fox bearing two Cocks by the neck on a staff is the
+initial T in a MS. considered by Montflaucon to be of the ninth century.
+Fredegarius, the Frankish historian, in the middle of the seventh century,
+has a fable of a Fox at the court of the Lion, repeated by others in the
+tenth and eleventh. Paulin Paris and Thomas Wright agreed in thinking the
+whole fable of French origin, and first in the Latin tongue. So that we
+may reasonably suppose that the countless tons of books and MSS. (though
+it is useless to grope now among the mere memories of ashes), burnt at the
+Reformation, would contain much that would have made clearer our
+understanding of this subject of Gothic grotesques. It is clear, however,
+that the Fox was used as a means of satirical comment before the writing
+of the Isengrine Fable, and that most of the church carvings refer to what
+we may call pre-Fable or co-Fable conceptions.
+
+There may be other material lying hidden in our great libraries, but
+search for early Reynard drawings produces almost nothing.
+
+At Ripon the Fox is shewn without vestments, in a neat Gothic pulpit
+adorned with carvings of the trefoil.[8] His hands, and what they may
+have held, are gone. His congregation is to his right a goose, to his left
+a cock, who appear to be uttering responses, while his face is significant
+of conscious slyness.
+
+[Illustration: THE PREACHING FOX, RIPON.]
+
+In Beverley Minster the Preaching Fox is in a square panelled pulpit on
+four legs; before him are seven geese, one of whom slumbers peacefully. He
+wears a gown and cowl, has a rosary in his right hand, and appears to be
+performing his part with some animation. Behind the pulpit stands an ape
+with a goose hung on a stick, while another fox--to give point to the
+lesson--is slinking off with a goose slung over his back. At St. Mary's,
+Beverley, the various carvings have a decidedly manuscript appearance. The
+one of the Preaching Fox has labels, upon which, in some unknown original,
+may have been inscribed texts or other matter. Here the Fox wears only his
+"scapulaire," and has his right hand raised in correct exhortative manner;
+his pulpit is of stone, and is early. Behind stand two persons, perhaps
+male and female, whose religious dress would lead us to suppose them to
+represent the class to whose teaching a fox-like character is to be
+attributed. At the front are seated two apes, also in scapularies, or
+hoods, who, as well as the Fox, may be here to shew the real character of
+the supposed sanctified.
+
+[Illustration: THE RULE AND THE ROAST CONTRASTED, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+It will have been noticed how frequently the carvings evade explanation;
+all these satires on the clergy may mean either that the system was bad,
+or that there was much abuse of it. A remarkable instance of this is in
+another misericorde in St. Mary's, Beverley. Here we have the Benedictine
+with mild and serene countenance, without a sign of sin, and bearing the
+scroll of truth and simplicity of life--call it the rule of his order. Yet
+how do many of his followers act? With greed for the temporalities, they
+aspire to the pastoral crook, and devour their flocks with such rapacity
+as to threaten the up-rooting of the whole order.
+
+[Illustration: THE PREACHING FOX, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+Such might be one rendering; yet the placid cleric may be simply
+introduced to shew the outward appearance of the ravening ones.
+
+It has been a favourite explanation of these anti-cleric carvings to say
+that they were due to the jealousy which existed between the regular
+orders and the preaching friars. But carvings such as this last are
+sufficient to prove the explanation erroneous; preaching friars carried no
+croziers.
+
+Yet another instance from St. Mary's shews us two foxes in scapularies
+reading from a book placed on an eagle-lectern.
+
+[Illustration: FOXES AT THE LECTERN, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+The bird--lectern or not--has round its head a kind of aureola or glory;
+it is probably an eagle, but who shall say it is not a dove? The
+religiously-garbed foxes are alone unmistakable.
+
+At Boston we have a mitred Fox, enthroned in the episcopal seat in full
+canonicals, clutching at a cock which stands near, while another bird is
+at the side. Close by the throne, another fox, in a cowl only, is reading
+from a book.
+
+At Christchurch, Hampshire, we see the Fox on a seat-elbow, in a pulpit of
+good design, and near him, on a stool, the Cock; it appears in the
+initial of this article.
+
+At Worcester, a scapularied Fox is kneeling before a small table or altar,
+laying his hand with an affectation of reverence upon--a sheep's head.
+This is one of the side carvings to the misericorde of the three mowers,
+considered under the head of "Trinities."
+
+[Illustration: EPISCOPAL HYPOCRISY, BOSTON.]
+
+The Fox seizing the Hen, at Windsor, reminds of the Fable, yet in so many
+other instances it is the Cock who is the prey. Still further removing the
+carvings out of the sphere of the Fable is a carving at Chicester of the
+Fox playing the harp to a goose, while an ape dances; and another at St.
+George's, Windsor, in which it is an ape who wears the stole, and is
+engaged in the laying on of hands. In the Fable the Fox teaches the Hare
+the Creed, yet in a carving at Manchester it is his two young cubs whom
+he is teaching from a book.
+
+The Fox in the Shell of Salvation, artfully discoursing on the merits of a
+bottle of holy water, as drawn on page 58, may be considered a Preaching
+Fox.
+
+There is at Nantwich a carving which, unlike any of those already noticed,
+is closely illustrative of an incident of the epic. It represents the
+story told to Nouvel's court by the widower Crow. He and his wife, in
+travelling through the country, came across what they thought was the dead
+body of Reynard on the heath. He was stiff, his tongue protruded, his eyes
+were inverted. They lamented his unhappy fate, and "course so early run."
+The lady approached his chin, not, indeed, with any idea of commencing a
+meal; far from that, it was to ascertain if perchance any signs of life
+remained, when--snap! Her head was off! The Crow himself had the
+melancholy luck to fly to a tree, there to sit and watch his wife eaten
+up. In the carving we have the crows first coming upon the sight of the
+counterfeit carrion as it lies near a rabbit warren. To shew how perfect
+is Reynard's semblance of death, the rear portions of two rabbits are to
+be seen as they hurry into their holes on the approach of the crows, the
+proximity of the Fox not having previously alarmed them.
+
+The side figures have no simultaneous connection with the central
+composition, being merely representations of Reynard, once more as a
+larder regarder. The pilgrim's hat, borne by one of the figures, is a
+further reminder of the Fable, and the monkish garb is of course in
+keeping. These two are somewhat singular in being fox-headed men. At
+Chester, also, is a Fox feigning death.
+
+[Illustration: THE FOX FEIGNING DEATH, NANTWICH.]
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPTATION. THE PUNISHMENT. THE WAKE KNOT. BEVERLEY
+MINSTER.]
+
+Thus far the examples have been of Reynard's crimes; we will now survey
+his punishment. In the fable he was to be hanged, but was not, the Wolf
+and the Bear, whom he always outwitted, being the disappointed
+executioners. In the carvings he is really hanged, and the hangsmen are
+the geese of his despoliation. Beverley Minster has among its fine
+carvings an admirable rendering of this subject. Reynard is hanged on a
+square gallows, a number of birds, geese, taking a beak at the rope. To
+the left of the gallows stand two official geese, with mace and
+battle-axe. The left supplementary carving gives a note of the crime;
+Reynard is creeping upon two sleeping geese. The right hand supporting
+carving gives us the Fox after being cut down. His friend, the Ape, is
+untying the rope from his neck. Observe the twist of the rope at the end;
+it declares that Reynard is dead, for it is a Wake Knot!
+
+Also at Boston, Bristol, Nantwich, and Sherborne are carvings of the
+hanging by geese. The gallows of the Sherborne execution is square, and
+made of rough trees. The general action is less logical than in the
+Beverley scene, but the geese are full of vivacity, evidently enjoying the
+thoroughness with which they are carrying out their intentions.
+
+[Illustration: EXECUTION OF REYNARD, SHERBORNE.]
+
+In the hanging scenes there is no suggestion of the religious dress.
+Reynard has lost his Benefit of Clergy. Besides the carving of the Ape
+laying out the dead Fox, at Beverley there are also others where the Ape
+is riding on the Fox's back, and again where he is tending him in bed. The
+Ape succouring the Fox is also instanced at Windsor.
+
+However, after the two broad classes of carvings are exhausted--the Fox
+deluding or eating birds, and the Fox hanged by birds, there is little
+left to tell of him.
+
+It may be added that his hanging by his one-time victims has suggested to
+the carver another subject of the same kind--the hanging of the cat by
+mice, or, more probably, rats, mentioned on page 43. It is there stated to
+be at Sherborne, in error, the place being Great Malvern.
+
+[Illustration: EXECUTION OF THE CAT, GREAT MALVERN.]
+
+The following curious scene from the Fox-fruitful church of St. Mary's,
+Beverley, is perplexing, and gives the Fox receiving his quietus under
+unique circumstances. He is, with anxiety, awaiting the diagnosis of an
+ape-doctor, who is critically examining urinary deposits; his health has
+been evidently not all he could wish. When, lo, an arrow, from the bow of
+an archer in quilted leather, pierces him through the heart! What more
+this carving means is a mystery.
+
+[Illustration: REYNARD IN DANGER, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+Carvings of the ordinary fables in which the Fox is concerned are not
+unknown. At Faversham, Kent, is one of the Fox and the Grapes; at Chester
+is the Fox and the Stork. The latter is, again, on a remarkable slab,
+probably a coffin lid, in the Priory Church of Bridlington, East
+Yorkshire, the strange combination of designs on which may be described.
+At the head appear two curious dragon forms opposed over an elaborate
+embattled temple, suggestive of Saxon and Byzantine derivation, with a
+central pointed arch. This may be a rendering of the sun-myth, noted on
+page 37. At the foot is a reversed lion, the curls and twists of whose
+mane and tail closely resembles those of the white porcelain lions used by
+the Chinese as incense-burners. Between the temple and the lion is incised
+an illustration of the fable of the Fox and the Stork. The slab, of which
+a rough sketch is annexed, is of black basaltic marble, similar to that
+of the font of the church, which is of the type generally considered to be
+Norman, and to have been imported ready made from Flanders, and on which
+dragons are sometimes the ornament. The Fox on this slab is the earliest
+sculptured figure of the animal known in England.
+
+[Illustration: COFFIN LID, BRIDLINGTON, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+There are also hunting scenes in which the fox is shot with bow and arrow,
+as in Beverley Minster; or chased with hounds in a way more commending
+itself to modern sporting ideas, as at Ripon.
+
+In conclusion, the satirical intent of the fox inventions, as we find them
+in the library or in the church, may be summed up, for here indeed lies
+the whole secret of their prevalence and popularity. The section of
+society satirized by the epic is large, but is principally covered by the
+feudal institution. The notes struck are its greed of wealth and its greed
+of the table, its injustice under the pretext of laws, its expedient
+lying, the immunity from punishment afforded by riches, the absolute yet
+revolution-fearing power of the sovereign, the helplessness of nobles
+single-handed, and the general influence of religion thrown over
+everything, while for its own sake being allowed to really influence
+nothing.
+
+The chief point of the epic is generally considered to be that power in
+the hands of the feudal barons was accompanied by a trivial amount of
+intelligence, which was easily deceived by the more astute element of
+society. The carvings give no note of this. A further object, however, may
+be seen. The whole story of the Fox is meant not only to shew that
+
+  "It is not strength that always wins,
+  For wit doth strength excel,"
+
+by playing on the passions and weaknesses of mankind, but in particular to
+hold up to scorn the immunity procured by professional religion, though it
+is fair to note that the Fox does not adopt a religious life because
+suited to his treacherous and deceitful character, but to conceal it. Thus
+so far as they elucidate the general "foxiness" of religious hypocrisy,
+the carvings and the epic illustrate the same theme, but it is evident
+that they embodied and developed already-existing popular recognition of
+the evil, each in its own way, and without special reference one to the
+other.
+
+
+
+
+Situations of the Grotesque Ornament in Church Art.
+
+
+The places chosen for the execution of the work which, by reason of its
+intention or its want of conformity with what we now consider a true taste
+in art, may be styled Grotesque, do not seem to be in any marked degree
+different from the situations selected for other ornamental work. It may,
+however, be permitted to glance at those situations, and enquire as to
+such comparisons as they afford, though the conclusions to be arrived at
+must necessarily be loose and general.
+
+In Norman work the chief iconographical interest is to be found in the
+capitals of pilasters and pillars, for here is often told a story of some
+completeness. Other places are the arches, chiefly of doorways; bosses of
+groining, and the horizontal corners of pillar plinths; exteriorly, the
+gargoyles are most full of meaning, seconded by the corbels of the
+corbel-table. We may expect in Norman grotesque some reference to ancient
+mystics; the forms are bold and rugged, such appearance of delicacy as
+exists being attained by interlacing lines in conventional patterns, with,
+also, the effect of distance upon repeating ornament.
+
+Transitional Norman retained all the characteristic ornament of the purer
+style, but with the development of Early English the grotesque for a time
+somewhat passed out of vogue, slight but eminently graceful modifications
+of the Corinthian acanthus supplying most of the places where strange
+beasts had formerly presented their bewildering shapes. It might not be
+impossible to connect this partial purification of ornament with a phase
+of church history.
+
+[Illustration: APE CORBEL, CARRYING ROOF TIMBER, EWELME.]
+
+But in some portions of structure, as the gargoyles, and in the woodwork
+of the choirs, the grotesque still held its own. As Early English grew
+distinctly into the Decorated, every available spot was enriched with
+carving. The collections (called "portfolios" elsewhere) of the old
+carvers would seem to have been ransacked and exhausted, all that had gone
+before receiving fresh rendering in wood and stone, while life and nature
+were now often called upon to furnish new material. The pointed arch
+remained, however, an undecorated sweep of mouldings, and the plinth
+corners were rarely touched; in fact there was here scarcely now the same
+squareness of space which before had asked for ornament. All the other
+places ornamented in Norman work were filled up in Decorated with the new
+designs of old subjects. The resting-places of ornament were multiplied;
+the dripstones of every kind of arch, and the capitals of every kind of
+pillar, whether in the arcading of the walls, the heaped-up richness of
+the reredos, or the single subject of the piscina, became nests of the
+grotesque. In a single group of sedilia all the architecture of a great
+cathedral may be seen in miniature, in arch, column, groined roof, boss,
+window-tracery, pinnacle, and finial, each part with its share of
+ornament, of grotesque. In the choirs the carvers had busied themselves
+with summoning odd forms from out the hard oak, till the croches or
+elbow-rests, the bench ends, the stall canopies, and below all, and above
+all, the misericordes, swarmed with all the ideas of Asia and Europe past
+and present. Musicians are everywhere, but most persistently on the
+intersections of the choir arches, and somewhat less so on those of the
+nave.
+
+[Illustration: MISERICORDE--LION COMPOSITION, WELLINGBOROUGH.]
+
+A favourite place for humourous figures was on the stone brackets or
+corbels which bear up timber roofs; examples are in the ape corbel in this
+article, and the responsible yet happy-looking saint at the end of the
+list of Contents.
+
+When the Perpendicular style came with other arts from Italy, and the
+lavish spread of the Decorated was chastened and over-chastened into
+regularity, there came for the second or third time the same ideas from
+the never-dying mythologies, their concrete embodiments sometimes with
+eloquence rendered, nearly always with vigour. They came to the old
+places, but in most fulness to that most full place, the dark recess where
+lurks the misericorde.
+
+Upon the whole it would appear that the grotesque, be it in the relics of
+a long-forgotten symbolism, in crude attempts at realism, or in the
+fantastic whimseys of irresponsibility, is chiefly met in the portions of
+the church where would occur, in the development of architecture, the
+problems and difficulties. They occur, so to speak, at the joints of
+construction. It may be that the pluteresques (grotesque and other
+ornaments made of metal) employed in many Spanish churches are to be
+accounted for in this way on the score of the facility of attachment.
+Where it may be questioned that the ornament was to conceal juncture, it
+is often to be acknowledged that it was to give external apparent
+lightness to masses which are in themselves joints or centres of weight.
+To conclude--to whatever extent we may carry our inquiries into the
+meaning of the grotesques in church art, we have in them undoubtedly
+objects whose associations are among the most ancient of the human race;
+whatever our opinion of their fitness for a place in the temple, it is
+plain that practically they could be nowhere else.
+
+[Illustration: MUSICIAN ON THE INTERSECTION OF NAVE ARCHES, ST. HELEN'S,
+ABINGDON, BERKSHIRE.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+
+
+Index.
+
+
+  Abdominal Mask, 91
+
+  Abingdon, 18, 72, 218, and Preface
+
+  Aboo-Simbel Trinity, 177
+
+  Abydos Trinity, 177
+
+  Acanthus, 149-50, 214
+
+  Adam, 61, 62, 74;
+    and Eve, 112, 120
+
+  Adam Clarke, 74
+
+  Adel, Yorkshire, 127
+
+  Adonai, 168
+
+  Adonis, 168
+
+  Adoration, the, 113-5
+
+  Ælian, 50
+
+  Æsculapius, 42
+
+  _Æsop's Fables_, 196
+
+  Africa, 66
+
+  Agni, 178
+
+  Aix-la-Chapelle, 46
+
+  Akori, 178
+
+  Alcock, Bishop, 10, 92, 173
+
+  Ale and the Alewife, 99-105
+
+  Alewife, 97
+
+  Alehouses, 99
+
+  Ale-taster, 100
+
+  Alexander, 71
+
+  Alexandria, 34
+
+  All Souls, Oxford, 71, 76, 104-5, 150-1
+
+  Alraun images, 28
+
+  Altar of the Sun, 37-39
+
+  Ambarvalia, 48
+
+  American Arms, 179
+
+  American-Indian mythology, 159
+
+  American-Indian Trinity, 177
+
+  Amman, Justus, 188
+
+  Ammon, 42, 72, 158
+
+  Amun-Ra, 177
+
+  _Ancient Mysteries described_, 180
+
+  Ancient Worships, 27-59, 64-77, 152-3, 157-168, 175-183
+
+  Angel Choir, Lincoln, 3, 9
+
+  Angel (coin), 47
+
+  Angels, 63
+
+  Animal Musicians, 152-6
+
+  Animal symbolism, 35
+
+  Anthony pig, the, 154
+
+  Anuka, 178
+
+  Archers, 205, 209-10
+
+  Ape, the, 59, 28-9, 145, 152, 156, 192-4, 198, 201, 203, 207-10, 214
+
+  Aphrodite, 168
+
+  Apocryphal New Testament, the, 60, 112
+
+  Apollo, 21, 46, 162, 165
+
+  April, 141
+
+  Apuleius, 41
+
+  Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, the, 12, 167, 169, 174
+
+  Arimanes, 176
+
+  Arles, the Council of, 29
+
+  Arma palantes, 173
+
+  Arthur, King, 69
+
+  Artistic quality of Church grotesques, 19-23, 61
+
+  _Art Journal, the_, 66
+
+  Asir, 45
+
+  Assyrian myth, 34, 157, 181
+
+  Assyrians, no record of their humour, 6
+
+  Astronomical symbols a source of Gothic design, 4, 27-8, 37-59, 73,
+      157-68, 177
+
+  Atahuata, 177
+
+  Aten, 168
+
+  Athor, 111, 157, 167, 177-8
+
+  Athyr, 167
+
+  Attic figurines, 28
+
+  Auckland Castle, 155
+
+  Augsburgh, (?) Council of, 30
+
+  "Auld Clootie," 70
+
+  "Auld Hornie," 70
+
+  Aurva, 53
+
+  Avarice, 87, 91-95
+
+  Averus (Horus), 50
+
+
+  Baalim, 28
+
+  Babylonian myth, 34
+
+  Bacon, 142, 154
+
+  Bacchus, 69, 73, 158
+
+  Backbiter, 82-84
+
+  Badger Grimbart, 189, 191-3
+
+  Bagpipes, 103, 152, 155
+
+  Ba-it, 178
+
+  Baker, 105
+
+  Bakewell, Derbyshire, 130-1
+
+  Baldini and Boticelli, 84
+
+  Baptism of John, the, 117-8
+
+  Barton, Lincs., 174
+
+  Basketsful of Children, 63
+
+  Bayle, a kind of dance, 147
+
+  Beakheads, 125-6
+
+  Bear Bruno, 190-3
+
+  Bear, the, 152-156
+
+  Beard, the, 72
+
+  Bedford, 175
+
+  _Beehive of the Romishe Church_, 180
+
+  Bellin the Ram, 192
+
+  Berkshire, 18, 72, 125, 129, 218
+
+  Bestiaries, the, 73
+
+  Beverley, Percy Shrine at, 3;
+    Carvings at, 13, 39, 40, 54, 57, 63, 87, 112, 120-3, 130, 133-6, 144,
+        152, 154-5, 159, 173, 182, 195-6, 198-9, 201-2, 208-11
+
+  Bhu, 42
+
+  Bible (as Old and New Testaments), 176
+
+  Biblia Pauperum, 113
+
+  Birch, Dr., 158
+
+  Birds, 4, 9, 22, 38, 39
+
+  Bishop Foxes, 199, 203
+
+  Bishops Stortford, 109
+
+  Blashill, Mr. Thomas, 106
+
+  Bo, Bo-tree. Bod, Bog, Boggart, Boivani, Bolay, Boo, Bouders, Boudons,
+      Boroon, Bormania, Borr, Borvo, Bouljanus, Brog, Bug, Bugbear,
+      Buggaboo, Buka, 66, 69
+
+  Boar, 139-40, 152
+
+  Boar's Head, 69, 139
+
+  Bodleian Library, 16, 63
+
+  Bolton, Bishop, 173
+
+  Boston, Lincolnshire, 195, 196, 202, 208
+
+  Boutell, Rev. C., 25
+
+  Bow and arrow, 162-5
+
+  Boy (Bog), 69
+
+  Brahma, 178
+
+  Brahminic Trinity, 178
+
+  Breast, removal of, 165
+
+  Bridge, Kent, 75
+
+  Bridlington Priory Church, Yorks, 15, 210-1
+
+  Bristol, 196, 208
+
+  British Museum, 62
+
+  Bruno the Bear, 190-3
+
+  Buckle Mask, 125
+
+  Bull, the, 41-2, 72-3, 85, 88-9, 91, 159
+
+  Bur, 45
+
+  Byzantine ideas, 127
+
+  Byzantium, 35
+
+
+  Caimis, 50
+
+  _Calendarum Romanorum Magnum_, 141
+
+  Calf, 73
+
+  Cama, 50
+
+  Cambridge, 10, 92, 133
+
+  Cambridgeshire, 74
+
+  Candlemas, 42, 140
+
+  Canterbury, 139
+
+  Canting heraldry, 173
+
+  Caricature in part explained, 3
+
+  Carpenter, Mr. Edward, 186
+
+  Cartmel, 180, 196
+
+  Carvers, 9-18
+
+  Cat, the, 156, 189, 191, 209
+
+  Cat and Fiddle, the, 39-43
+
+  Cat-heads, 126
+
+  Caxton, 170, 188
+
+  Cedranus, 143-4
+
+  Centaur, 161-6
+
+  Cerealia, 48
+
+  Ceres, 72, 153, 158
+
+  Cestus, 165
+
+  Chairs, 141
+
+  Châlons, Council of, 143
+
+  Chandra, Chandri, 43
+
+  Cherubim, 73, 159, 161
+
+  Chester, 60, 77, 103, 207, 210
+
+  Chichester, 72, 75, 124, 141, 157, 181, 182, 203
+
+  Chiron the Centaur, 162
+
+  Chnoumis, 178
+
+  Chonso, 177
+
+  Christ, 30, 48, 60-62, 104, 114-20
+
+  Christchurch (Hants), 21, 33, 172, 184, 202
+
+  Christmas, 139-40, 144
+
+  _Chronicles, the Book of_, 176
+
+  Church symbolism, expediency, etc., 31
+
+  Ciaran (St.), 162
+
+  Clergy, the, 97, 111
+
+  Cneph, 177
+
+  Cock, the, 184, 197-8, 202-3
+
+  Compound Forms, 37, 111, 157-168
+
+  Coney, the, 193, 204-5
+
+  Conscience, 170-1
+
+  Constantinople, Council of, 30;
+    Byzantium, 35
+
+  Continuous group, 149
+
+  Conventional form a matter of development, 3
+
+  Corinthian Acanthus, 149-50, 214
+
+  Corpus Christi Play, 142-3
+
+  _Cosmographiæ Universalis_, 172
+
+  Cotton MSS., 82, 147
+
+  Councils, Arles, 29;
+    Augsburgh (?), 30;
+    Constantinople, 30;
+    Frankfurt, 30, 99;
+    Narbonne, 30;
+    Nicea, 30;
+    Orleans, 29;
+    Tours, 30;
+    Nice, 36;
+    Milan, 36
+
+  Coventry, 60, 142
+
+  Cow, the, 41
+
+  Creators, Mythological, 176-8
+
+  Crescent, the, 41, 42
+
+  Cripple, 145, 147
+
+  Crocodile, 44-5
+
+  Crórásura, 153
+
+  Cross, the, 43
+
+  Crow and his wife, the, 193, 204-5
+
+  Croziers, 198, 202
+
+  Crusaders, 47
+
+  Culham, Berkshire, 125
+
+  Cupid, 50, 51, 53-55
+
+
+  Dance, 40, 43, 144, 147
+
+  David, King, 62
+
+  Decorated Carvings, 214-217
+
+  Deer, 140
+
+  Definitions of the Grotesque, 5-8
+
+  De la Wich, Bishop, 181
+
+  Delft, 188
+
+  Derbyshire, 130-1
+
+  Design, Continuity of Gothic, 4
+
+  Detractors, 82-3
+
+  Devil and the Vices, the, 78-98
+
+  Devil, the, 47, 69, 70, 77, 103-5
+
+  Devils, 63, 119
+
+  Diana, 32, 40-43, 73
+
+  Diapason, the, 41
+
+  Dillin pig, the, 154
+
+  Disc of the Sun, 167-8
+
+  Distaff, 195
+
+  Dog, 5, 19, 21, 40, 42, 142, 159-60, 189
+
+  Domestic and Popular, the, 134-151
+
+  Donnington, Thomas (1520), 174
+
+  Dorchester Abbey, Oxon., 60, 64-5, 121-2, 133, 159-60
+
+  Dragons, 26, 37, 44-57, 60, 64-66, 84, 127, 165, 177, 211
+
+  Drake (dragon), 47
+
+  Druidical Tau, 43-4
+
+  Drum (Tabor), 97
+
+  Durer, Albert, 61
+
+  Durham, 155
+
+
+  Eagle, the, 22, 37, 148, 158-9, 202
+
+  Early English Carvings, 214
+
+  Eastern ideas, 9-10, 34-5
+
+  Eden, 73, 76
+
+  Edgeware, 102
+
+  Edward the Confessor, 9
+
+  Edward III., 17
+
+  Edward IV., 49
+
+  Egypt, 34, 43-45
+
+  Egyptians, little record of their humour, 6
+
+  Egyptian myth, etc., 34, 41-5, 47-8, 50-6, 157-8, 177-8
+
+  Egyptian Trinities, 177-8
+
+  Eicton, 177
+
+  Elephantine Trinity, 178
+
+  Ely, 74, 80-1, 84, 105, 166, 195-6
+
+  Equinoxes, the, 175
+
+  Eschol, 171
+
+  Esculapius, 178
+
+  Etchingham, 196
+
+  Evans, Mr. E. P., 35, 85
+
+  Evil, Images of, 1, 26, 33
+
+  Eve, 62, 74
+
+  Ewelme, Oxon., Carvings at, 1, 65, 67
+    (not Dorchester), 76, 127-8, 214
+
+  Exeter, 4, 39, 165, 168, 181
+
+  Ezekiel, 159
+
+
+  Fable, 186
+
+  Fafnir the Dragon, 46
+
+  Fairford, 195
+
+  Fairies, 66
+
+  Falx, the, 57
+
+  Farnsham, 65
+
+  Fates, the, 178
+
+  Fauns, 69
+
+  Faversham, Kent, 180, 195, 210
+
+  Feast of Fools, the, 143-7
+
+  Feathered Angels, 75-7
+
+  Fecundity, Goddess of, 66, 72
+
+  Fiddle, 40, 41, 153
+
+  Figurines as _lares_, 28
+
+  Finedon, Northamptonshire, 125
+
+  Fire, 178
+
+  Fish, 182
+
+  Flagellation, 134
+
+  Flanders, a church workshop, 9, 15
+
+  Flesh hook, 63, 87, 182
+
+  Fleur-de-lys, 39, 179
+
+  Flora, 158
+
+  Fools, 130
+
+  Fools, the Feast of, 143-7
+
+  Foreign carvers, 9-18
+
+  Fox, the, 58-9, 184-212
+
+  Fox and Grapes, the, 210
+
+  Fox and Stork, the, 210-1
+
+  France, 48
+
+  Frankfort, Council of, 30, 99
+
+  Fredegarius, 197
+
+  Freemasonry, 16, 17
+
+  French work for Saxons, 9
+
+  Frigga, 53
+
+  Freyr, 153
+
+  Furies, the, 178
+
+
+  Gallows, the, 207-9
+
+  Ganges, the, 172
+
+  Gargonilles, 46, 129
+
+  Gaul, 66
+
+  Gaul, Bishops of, 30
+
+  Gauri, 43
+
+  Gautier de Coinsi, 36
+
+  Gayton, Northants, 81, 86, 87
+
+  Geese, Reynard's theft of, etc., 191, 195, 198, 203
+
+  Gehul, 153
+
+  George IV., 17
+
+  German "teraphim," 28;
+    paganism, 30
+
+  Germany, Bishops of, 30
+
+  Ghent, 188
+
+  Gild, continuity the explanation of continuity of design, 4, 35, 196
+      (_see_ Freemasonry)
+
+  Gilds, 70
+
+  Glasgow, 65, 66, 77
+
+  Gloucester, 195
+
+  Gluttony, 88
+
+  Goat, the, 69, 71-3, 187
+
+  Goethe, 189
+
+  Golden Bristle, 153
+
+  Gorgon, 127
+
+  Gothic ornament, uses of, etc., 2, 3;
+    some characteristics of, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 19-23, 24-26, 35-39,
+        49, 54;
+    not didactic, 24-26;
+    situations of, 213, 218
+
+  Gouda, 188
+
+  Graces, the, 178
+
+  Gravio, Count, 30
+
+  Great Malvern, 172, 209
+
+  Grecian Trinity, 177
+
+  Greek wit, 6;
+    star-worship, 28;
+    myth, 34, 41, 177-8;
+    art, 36-37;
+    symbolism 74;
+    dances, 147
+
+  Grimace-makers, 130, 133
+
+  Grimbart, the Badger, 189, 191-3
+
+  Grimm, 186
+
+  Gryphon, 125, 158
+
+  Guildford, Surrey, 117-8
+
+  Gullinbrusti, 153
+
+
+  Hades, 42, 161
+
+  Hænir, 177
+
+  Hak, 178
+
+  Hampshire, 21, 33, 172
+
+  Hanging of the Cat, 209
+
+  Hanging of the Fox, 207-8
+
+  Hare, the, 106-7, 182, 189, 192, 194, 203
+
+  Harleian MSS., 104
+
+  Harmachis, 158
+
+  Harp, the, 140-1, 153, 154, 155
+
+  Harpy, the, 4, 111, 166, 181
+
+  Hebrew Teraphim, 28
+
+  Hecate, 41, 42
+
+  Heliopolis, Trinity of, 178
+
+  Hell, 48, 84, 104
+
+  Hell's Mouth, 60-63, 103, 196
+
+  Hen, the, 195, 203
+
+  Henning the Cock, 190
+
+  Henry VI., 16, 62
+
+  Henry VII.'s Chapel, 10, 91, 95, 148, 156, 173
+
+  Henry VIII., 16, 49
+
+  Hera, 177
+
+  Heraldry, canting, 173
+
+  Heraldry and three-fold repetitions, 179
+
+  Hercules, 148, 177
+
+  Hereford, 195
+
+  Herodotus, 28, 50
+
+  Hertfordshire, 109
+
+  Het-her, 167
+
+  Hexagon, symbolic, 179
+
+  Hezekiah, 74
+
+  Hindoo myth, 28, 42-45, 50, 53, 153, 178
+
+  Hinge the Cat, 191
+
+  Hippocampus, Lincoln, 26
+
+  Hippo-centaurs, 161
+
+  Hobgoblins, 66
+
+  Hogarth, 20, 21
+
+  Holy Cross, Stratford-on-Avon, 60
+
+  Holy Trinity, Hull, 139-40
+
+  Holderness, 106
+
+  Homer, 160
+
+  Hone, 180
+
+  Hopton, 174
+
+  Horace, 157
+
+  Horns, 70;
+    Horn, 73
+
+  Horse, the, 162, 139
+
+  Horse-leech, 110-1
+
+  Horus, 45, 48, 50-56, 57, 72, 177, 178
+
+  Hull, 10, 100, 139-40
+
+  Humour, of nations, 6, 7;
+    defined, 20
+
+  Hunting, 140
+
+  Huntsman, 139
+
+  Husterlo, 192
+
+  Hypocrisy, 98
+
+
+  Ibis, 167
+
+  Iceland, 153
+
+  Idun, 76
+
+  Iffley, 49, 126, 162, 163
+
+  Imagery in Architecture and Language compared, 1-3
+
+  Impudence, 109
+
+  Indecency in church, 143-7, 150-1
+
+  India, 172
+
+  Indian mask, 123-4
+
+  Indian mythology, East, 66, 69, 178
+
+  Indian Trinity, American, 177
+
+  Indra, 178
+
+  Irenæus, 73
+
+  Irreverence in art explained in part, 8
+
+  _Isaiah_, 74
+
+  _Isengrinus_, 187
+
+  Isis, 41, 42, 45, 50, 177
+
+  Islip, Bishop, 173
+
+  Italian workers in England, 9, 10, 13
+
+  Italy, 41
+
+  Italy, Bishops of, 30
+
+
+  Janus, 180
+
+  Japanese (crocodile), 45
+
+  Jesus College, Cambridge, 92
+
+  Joke, the, 6
+
+  Jonah, 112-3, 197
+
+  Jörmungard, 45
+
+  Jove (Jupiter), 11
+
+  July, 183
+
+  Juno, 177
+
+  Jupiter, 21, 57, 148, 158, 177, 178, 181
+
+  Jurassic reptiles, 145
+
+
+  Keltic dragons, 49
+
+  Kent, 75, 180, 182
+
+  Khum, 178
+
+  King Arthur, 69
+
+  King Edward the Confessor, 9
+
+  King Edward III., 17
+
+  King Edward IV., 49
+
+  King George IV., 17
+
+  King Henry VI., 16, 62
+
+  King Henry VII., 147
+
+  King Henry VII. Chapel, 10, 173
+
+  King Henry VIII., 16, 49
+
+  King's College, Cambridge, 10, 133
+
+
+  Lampe the Hare, 192, 194
+
+  Lares, 43
+
+  Laughter of nations, 6-7;
+    defined, 20
+
+  Lectern, 202
+
+  Leicester, 196
+
+  Leland, John, 16
+
+  Lemon, 139-40
+
+  Leo, 158
+
+  Leopard, The, 189
+
+  Lincoln Cathedral, 3, 9, 38, 51, 54, 63, 128, 133
+
+  Lincolnshire, 11, 174
+
+  Lind-drake, 47
+
+  Linden worm, 47
+
+  Linden tree, 47
+
+  Line of Beauty, 20
+
+  Lion, 5, 158, 183, 187, 189-90, 210-1, 215
+
+  Lioness, The, 193
+
+  Little-trust, Lettice, 101
+
+  Lodur, 177
+
+  Loki, 76, 77
+
+  Love, 53
+
+  Lubeck, 188
+
+  Lucifer, 53, 76
+
+  Ludlow, 99, 102, 103
+
+  Luna, 41, 43
+
+  Lunar calculations of Mosaic system, 176
+
+  Lunus, 43
+
+  Lydda, 47
+
+  Lynn, 11, 174
+
+
+  Macrobius, 32
+
+  Magdalen College, Oxford, 195
+
+  Magi, Adoration of the, 113-5
+
+  Maidstone, 182
+
+  Maimonides, the Rabbi, 27
+
+  Malepart, 190, 193
+
+  Malvern, Great, 172, 209
+
+  Manchester, 54, 55, 203-4, 195, 196
+
+  Mandragora images, 28
+
+  Mann, Mr. Robert, 66
+
+  Mant, 177
+
+  Mare and foal, the story of, 193
+
+  Mars, 21
+
+  Marks, sculptors', ignored; an example is on p. 103
+
+  Martinmas, 139, 154
+
+  Martin the Ape, 192-3
+
+  Mary, the Virgin, 34, 42, 82, 83
+
+  Masks and Faces, 121-133
+
+  Meaux Abbey, Yorkshire, 10
+
+  Memphis, Trinity of, 178
+
+  Mendes, 72
+
+  Mentu, 177
+
+  Merchant mark, 174
+
+  Mercury, 21, 49, 78, 153, 158, 167
+
+  Merenphtah, 178
+
+  Mermaid, 160
+
+  Messon, 177
+
+  Mexican myth, 157
+
+  Mice, 40, 43, 209
+
+  Michael Angelo, 10, 13
+
+  Midsummer Watch, 77
+
+  Milan, Council of, 36
+
+  Minerva, 21, 74, 177
+
+  Miracle Plays, 70
+
+  _Mirror of Human Salvation, the_, 113
+
+  Misericordes, 24-5, 181, 215, 217
+
+  Mithras, 176
+
+  Monstrosity, 147
+
+  Montflaucon, 197
+
+  Moon worship, 32, 40, 43
+
+  Morris Dance, 144, 147
+
+  Mosaic system, 31;
+    Ark, 159, 175;
+    not the original of pagan myth, 175-6
+
+  Moses, 62, 74, 175
+
+  Mouth of Hell, 60, 63
+
+  Mowers, 182
+
+  Mumming, 70, 168
+
+  Music, 140, 152
+
+  Monograms, 12
+
+  Mystery Plays, 32, 48, 70, 82, 103, 112, 142-3
+
+  Mythic origin of Church carvings, 34-59
+
+
+  Nachasch, 73
+
+  Nantwich, Cheshire, 196, 204-5, 208
+
+  Narbonne, the Council of, 30
+
+  Nebhetp, 178
+
+  Nefer-Atum, 178
+
+  Neptune, 21, 178
+
+  Nerites, 50
+
+  Nessus the Centaur, 162
+
+  New College, Oxford, 58-9, 81, 84-5, 98, 106, 149
+
+  Nice, 36
+
+  Nicea, the Council of, 30
+
+  _Nicodemus, the Gospel of_, 60
+
+  Nile, the River, 45, 71, 158
+
+  Nilus, 45, 158;
+    St. Nilus, _see_ Saints
+
+  Nobodies, 171
+
+  Non-descripts, 169-172
+
+  Norfolk, 48, 75, 195
+
+  Norman carvings, 49, 125, 127, 129, 163, 211, 213;
+    fonts 15
+
+  North Stoke, 119
+
+  Northamptonshire, 14, 22, 81, 84, 86-7, 101, 125
+
+  Norwich, 48, 75, 195
+
+  Notch-heads, 124-5
+
+  Nouvel the Lion, 189
+
+  _Numbers, the Book of_, 176
+
+  Nuns, 106-7
+
+  Nursery Rhymes, 39
+
+
+  Oak, the, 148, 181
+
+  Odin, 45, 53, 69, 177
+
+  Opas, 177
+
+  Orleans, the Council of, 143
+
+  Ornament, the use of Gothic, 2
+
+  Oromasdes, 176
+
+  Orus (_see_ Horus), 50, 72
+
+  Osiris, 41, 45, 50, 57, 158, 177
+
+  Otkon, 177
+
+  Ox, 71, 73, 160
+
+  Oxford, 58, 59, 71, 76, 81, 84, 85, 97, 104-6, 149, 151, 195
+
+  Oxfordshire, 49, 60, 64-5, 67, 105, 121-2, 133, 159
+
+
+  Paganism, ingrained among nations, 27
+
+  Pallas, 177
+
+  Palmer Fox, 58
+
+  Pan, 21, 72-3, 105
+
+  Pantheism, 32
+
+  Panther, the, 159
+
+  Paris, Paulin, 197
+
+  Parody, a characteristic of Greek wit, 7
+
+  Pátála, 42
+
+  Pastoral staves, 49
+
+  Pausanius, 44
+
+  Pegasus, 162
+
+  Pepin, 30
+
+  Percy Shrine, 3
+
+  Perpendicular Ornament, 217
+
+  Persephone, 41
+
+  Perseus, 46, 57
+
+  Persian Trinity, 176
+
+  Peterborough, 195
+
+  Philæan Trinity, 176
+
+  _Philippians, the Epistle to the_, 196
+
+  Phipson, Miss, 14, 109, and preface
+
+  Phyrric Dance, the, 147
+
+  _Picture Bible, the_, 113, 197
+
+  Pig and Whistle, 155, 156
+
+  Pig, and other Animal Musicians, the, 110, 152-6
+
+  Piggy-widdy, 154
+
+  _Pilgremage of the Sowle, the_, 170
+
+  Pipes, Double, 155
+
+  Planet symbols, 28
+
+  Plato, 28
+
+  Plutarch, 41
+
+  Pluteresques, 218
+
+  Pluto, 42, 177-8
+
+  _Poor Man's Bible, the_, 113, 197
+
+  Poppy, Assyrian, 182
+
+  Pottery, 35
+
+  Preaching Fox, the, 184, 196-204
+
+  Priapus, 73
+
+  Prideaux, Bishop, 30
+
+  Priest sleeping, 106, 110-1
+
+  Prosperine, 32, 41-2, 177
+
+  Protevan, 82
+
+  Psyche, 176
+
+  Pta, 177-8
+
+  Pulpits, 184, 197-8, 201
+
+  Puránas, 43
+
+  Python, the, 46
+
+
+  Ra, 168, 177
+
+  Rabbi Maimonides, 27
+
+  Ráhu, 44
+
+  Ram, the, 72, 187, 192
+
+  Ram Bellin, 192-3
+
+  Ram's Head, 19
+
+  Ram, the Hindoo deity, 28
+
+  Rebuses, 12, 173-4
+
+  Recording Imps, 78-9, 81, 84-5, 103
+
+  Red Sea, the, 50
+
+  _Reinche Bos_, 188
+
+  _Renart le Contrefet_, 188
+
+  _Reynard the Fox_, 184
+
+  _Reynard the Fox, the most delectable history of_, 188
+
+  Ripon, 5, 112-3, 124, 136-7, 155, 171, 195-8, 211
+
+  Rochester, 127
+
+  Rogation, 48
+
+  _Roman de Renart_, 188
+
+  Roman Trinity, 177
+
+  Roman, Wit bitter and low, 6-7;
+    myth, 42-3
+
+  Roman work for Saxons, 9
+
+  Roscommon, the Poet, 157
+
+  Roslyn Chapel, 128-9
+
+  Rostock, 188
+
+  Rothwell, Northants, 84
+
+
+  Sabean Idolatry, 28
+
+  Sackville the Poet, 63
+
+  Sacred Marks, 103 (block), 179
+
+  Sæhrimnir, 153
+
+  Sagittarius, 162-5
+
+  Saints--Adrian, 99
+    Anthony, 154
+    Augustine, 31
+    Bartholomew's, Smithfield, 173
+    Bernard of Clairvaux, 23, 27, 36-7
+    Britius, 81
+    Ciaran, 162
+    Cross, Hospital of, Winchester, 100
+    George, 47-8, 57
+    George's Chapel, Windsor, 10, 167, 195-6, 203
+    Gertrude, 43
+    Helen's, Abingdon, 218
+    John, 49, 118
+    Katherine's, Regent's Park, 78, 81, 83, 86, 169
+    Keyne, 46
+    Lucy, 134-5
+    Luke, 73
+    Martha, 46
+    Michael, 47, 76
+    Martin's, Leicester, 196
+    Martin, 81
+    Mary's, Beverley, 123 (_see_ Beverley)
+    Mary's, Faversham, 180
+    Mary's Minster, Thanet, 97, 122-3, 130-1, 195
+    Nessan, 162
+    Nicholas's, Lynn, 11-2, 174
+    Nicholas, 179
+    Nilus, 36
+    Paul's, Bedford, 175
+    Paul's, London, 32, 109
+    Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford, 126
+    Romain, 46
+
+
+  Salus, 178
+
+  Sambar, 50
+
+  Samson, 198
+
+  Sani, 53
+
+  Satan, 48, 62, 70, 104-6, 170
+
+  Satanic Representations, 64-77, 78-105
+
+  Sathanus, 170
+
+  Satire, 185
+
+  Satires without Satan, 106-11
+
+  Satyrs, 69
+
+  Saturn, 21, 57
+
+  Saturnalia, 143
+
+  Saxon work, 9
+
+  Scandinavian mythology, 45, 76, 153, 157;
+    Trinity, 177
+
+  Scarabæus, 178
+
+  Scriptural Illustrations, 112-120
+
+  Scylla, 160
+
+  Scythes, 182
+
+  Sea-horse (hippocampus), 26
+
+  Seals, 8, and end of Index
+
+  September, 140, 154
+
+  Seraphim, 74
+
+  Serapis, 42
+
+  Serpent, the, 44-5, 60-1, 73-5, 77
+
+  Sex of the Moon, 43
+
+  Sheep, 72, 142
+
+  Shell, 50-1, 54-5, 57-9, 159
+
+  Shell Child, the, 50-9, 159
+
+  Shepherd, 72, 142
+
+  Sherborne, 134-5, 208
+
+  Shiva, 66
+
+  Sigurd, 46
+
+  Sin series of carvings, 78-111
+
+  Sirius, 42
+
+  Sismondi, 31
+
+  Sistrum, 41, 43
+
+  Situations of Church Grotesques, 213-8
+
+  Siva, 178
+
+  Slanderers, 82
+
+  Sledges, 63
+
+  Smu, 50
+
+  Snail, 57-8
+
+  Solomon, King, 62
+
+  Sources of material for Gothic grotesques, General, 4
+
+  Southleigh, 63
+
+  _Speculum Humanæ Salvationis_, 113
+
+  Sperke, John (1520), 174
+
+  Spinx, the, 158-9
+
+  Springs, 66
+
+  SS., the letter, and Collar of, 57
+
+  Stanford, Berkshire, 18
+
+  Star Worship, 27-8
+
+  Stars and Stripes, 179
+
+  Statute of Labourers, 17
+
+  Stoeffler, 141
+
+  Stowlangcroft, 196
+
+  Stratford-on-Avon, 60, 129
+
+  Suffolk, Duchess of (ob. 1475), 76
+
+  Sun, 167
+
+  Sun Feast, 153
+
+  Sun Worship, 32, 37, 42, 44-59, 71, 153, 158, 162, 175, 210-1
+
+  Superstition, Horn, 73
+
+  Supreme Intellect, the, 74
+
+  Surya, 53, 178
+
+  Sutton Courtney, 128-9
+
+  _Sutton-in-Holderness_, 106
+
+  Swan, 167
+
+  Swar, 42
+
+  Swathing of Infants, 114
+
+  Swarhánu, 53
+
+  Sweden, 153
+
+  Swine, Yorkshire, 106-7, 109, 129-30
+
+  Symbolism and Fable, 186
+
+  Symbols of worship a general source of Gothic ornament, 4, 27
+
+  Syderesys, 170
+
+  Syria, 47
+
+
+  Tabor (drum), 97
+
+  Tarasque, 46
+
+  Tau Cross, the, 34, 43-4
+
+  Taurus, 73
+
+  Telephorus, 178
+
+  Teraphim, 28
+
+  Teutonic appreciation of humour, 7
+
+  Thanet, Isle of, 97, 122, 130-1, 195
+
+  Theban Trinity, 177
+
+  Theophylact, 143
+
+  Thirlwall, 33
+
+  Thoth, 78, 167
+
+  Three, the number, 162 (_see_ Trinities)
+
+  Three branched rod, 103 (block), 162, 181-2
+
+  Time, Father, 57
+
+  Titian, 42
+
+  Topsey-turveyism, 149
+
+  Torregiano, 10
+
+  Tree of Knowledge, the, 74
+
+  Trefoil, the, 162, 178-9
+
+  _Trial of Mary and Joseph_, 82
+
+  Trigla, 180
+
+  Trinities, 168, 175-183
+
+  Tufton Street Architectural Museum, 12
+
+  Tum, the Setting Sun, 178
+
+  Typhon, 44-57, 64-5
+
+
+  Unseen Witness, the, 79, 85, 86, 87
+
+
+  Vali, 114
+
+  Vanity, 97
+
+  Vedie Trinity, 178
+
+  Venus, 21, 53, 111, 148
+
+  Veximiel, 62
+
+  Virgil, the, 160-1
+
+  Virgin Mary, the, 30, 42, 82-3
+
+  Virgo, 158
+
+  Vishnu, 53, 153, 178
+
+  Vulcan, 148, 177
+
+
+  Wall paintings compared with carvings, 114-117, 119-20
+
+  Wake Knot, 207-8
+
+  Wellingborough, 14, 15, 22, 34, 101, 195, 215
+
+  Wells, 65, 77, 150
+
+  Westminster Abbey, 9, 10, 91-95, 97, 109-110, 123-4, 156, 173
+
+  Wheelbarrows, 135-7, 196
+
+  Whistling Maid, the, 104-5
+
+  Whistling while drawing ale, 105
+
+  White, Wm. (1520), 173-4
+
+  Wich, Bishop de la, 124, 181
+
+  Winchester, 64, 100, 111, 145, 154, 166, 195
+
+  Windsor, 10, 167, 195, 203, 208
+
+  Winking Nun, the, 106-7
+
+  Wolf, the, 187, 189, 192;
+    story of the wolf's head, 187
+
+  Wolfius, 196
+
+  Worcester, 113-5, 142, 160, 161, 182-3, 203
+
+  Worm of conscience, the, 170
+
+  Wright, Thomas, 197
+
+  Wyvern, the, 47
+
+
+  York, 63, 65, 77, 129-30, 140, 148
+
+  Yorkshire, 10, 63, 65, 77, 106-7, 109, 127 (_see_ Beverley)
+
+  Yule, 153
+
+
+  Zeus, 177
+
+  Zither, 166
+
+  Zodiac, 45, 53
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Early in the thirteenth century unruly converts of the Abbey of Meaux,
+Yorkshire, were, to humble their pride, made stonemasons, etc.
+
+[2] Of Christ, the Virgin, and saints only. It is here quoted as evidence
+of a tendency. It is plain that the council protected itself, for the
+following distich is attributed to it, which sums up the original intent
+of all images--
+
+  "Id Deus est, quod Imago docet, sed non deus ipse;
+  Hanc Videas, sed mente colas; quod cemis in ipse."
+
+which Prideaux, Bishop of Worcester, translates (1681):
+
+  "A God the Image represents,
+    But is no God in kind;
+  That's the eye's object, what it shews
+    The object of the mind."
+
+[3] Yet the Hindoo signification of Typhon is "the power of destruction by
+heat." In this we have another piece of evidence that both the good and
+the bad of the fable are referrable to the sun as his varying attributes,
+and probably describe his particular effects at various portions of the
+zodiacal year. The true, or rather the close, meaning of the various
+accounts is obscured and confused; firstly, by imperfect knowledge as to
+the geographical situations where the idea of the zodiac was conceived and
+developed; secondly, by the gradual precession of the Equinoxes during the
+ages which have elapsed since such conception.
+
+[4] Mr. Robert Mann.
+
+[5] "Sutton-in-Holderness."
+
+[6] Roscommon.
+
+[7] Hone.
+
+[8] The Church Treasury, by William Andrews, 1898, p. 193.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+The original text includes Greek characters. For this text version these
+letters have been replaced with transliterations.
+
+The original text contains a hieroglyph. This is noted in this text as
+[symbol].
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Grotesque in Church Art, by 
+T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART ***
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+      The Grotesque in Church Art, by T. Tindall Wildridge&mdash;A Project Gutenberg eBook
+    </title>
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+Title: The Grotesque in Church Art
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+Author: T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2012 [EBook #39264]
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART ***
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+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1><small>THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART.</small></h1>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">Only 400 copies of this Book published<br />
+for Sale, and this is No. 315</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 600px; height: 384px;"><img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE STORY OF JONAH, RIPON.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">The Grotesque<br />
+in Church Art</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">By <span class="large">T. Tindall Wildridge</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/title.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">LONDON:<br />
+WILLIAM ANDREWS &amp; CO., 5, FARRINGDON AVENUE, E.C.<br />
+1899.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/printer.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Preface.</h2>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img001.jpg" alt="T" /></span>he designs of which this book treats have vast fields outside the English
+church works to which it has been thought good to limit it. Books and
+buildings undoubtedly mutually interchanged some forms of their ornaments,
+yet the temple was the earlier repository of man&#8217;s ideas expressed in art,
+and the proper home of the religious symbolism which forms so large a
+proportion of my subject. In view also of the ground I have ventured to
+hint may be taken up as to the derivation, of a larger number than is
+generally supposed, of church designs from heathen prototypes by the hands
+of apprenticed masons, it is fitting that the evidences should be from
+their chisels. The only exceptions are a few wall-paintings, which serve
+to point a difference in style and origin.</p>
+
+<p>In every case the examples are from churches in our own land. The
+conclusions do not nearly approach a complete study of the questions, the
+research to the present, great as it is, chiefly shewing how much has yet
+to be learned in order to accurately compare the extant with the
+long-forgotten.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> The endeavour has been to present sufficient to enable
+general inferences to be drawn in the right direction.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous works consulted in the course of this essay, the most
+useful has been &#8220;Choir Stalls and their Carvings,&#8221; sketched by Miss Emma
+Phipson. While tendering my acknowledgments for much assistance obtained
+from that lady&#8217;s book, I would add that the &#8216;second series&#8217; suggested
+cannot but equal the first as a service to the cause of comparative
+mythology and folk-lore.</p>
+
+<p>This place may be taken to dispose of two kinds of grotesques in church
+art which belong to my title, though not to my intention.</p>
+
+<p>The memorial erections put into so many churches after the middle of the
+sixteenth century are to be placed in the same category as the less often
+ludicrous effigies of earlier times, and may be dismissed as &#8220;ugly
+monumental vanities, miscalled sculpture.&#8221; The grotesqueness of some of
+these sepulchral excrescences may in future centuries be still more
+apparent, though to many even time cannot supply interest. Not all are
+like the imposing monument to a doctor in Southwark Cathedral, on which,
+by the way, the epitaph is mainly devoted to laudation of his <i>pills</i>.
+Yet, though the grotesque is not entirely wanting in even these monuments,
+it is chiefly through errors of taste. The worst of them are more pathetic
+than anything else. The grotesque proper implies a proportion of levity,
+whereas the earnestness evinced by these effigies are more in keeping with
+the solemnity of the church&#8217;s purpose than the infinitely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> more artistic
+and unobtrusive ornament of the fabric. The other class of grotesque is
+the modern imitation of medi&aelig;val carving, with original design. Luckily,
+it is somewhat rare to find the spirit of the old sculptors animating a
+modern chisel. One of the best series of modern antiques of this kind is a
+set of gargoyles at St. Nicholas&#8217;s, Abingdon, executed about 1881, of
+which I think it worth while to append a warning sample.</p>
+
+<p>These two classes are left out of account in the following pages.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img002.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">MODERN GARGOYLE, ABINGDON, 1881.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<p class="title">Contents.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Definitions of the Grotesque</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Carvers</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Artistic Qualities of Church Grotesques</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Gothic Ornament not Didactic</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ingrained Paganism</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Mythic Origin</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Hell&#8217;s Mouth</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Satanic Representations</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Devil and the Vices</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ale and the Alewife</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Satires without Satan</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Scriptural Illustrations</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Masks and Faces</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Domestic and Popular</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Pig and other Animal Musicians</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Compound Forms</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Nondescripts</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Rebuses</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Trinities</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Fox in Church Art</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Situations of Grotesque Ornament in Church Art</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+    <td align="right"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img003.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A ROOF SUPPORTER, EWELME, OXON.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">The Grotesque in Church Art.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>Introduction.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img004.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>GORGONIC MASK, EWELME.</small></div>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> more lofty the earlier manifestations of man&#8217;s intellect, the more
+complete and immediate seems to have been their advancement. That is to
+say, where the products of genius depend mainly upon the recognition of
+great principles and deliberate adherence to them, they are more
+satisfying than when success depends upon dexterous manipulation of
+material. What I have in view in this respect in connection with
+architecture has its co-relative in language. The subtlety and poetic
+force of Ayran roots shew a refined application of principle&mdash;that of
+imagery&mdash;in far advance of the languages rising from them. The successive
+growths of the detail of language, for use or ornament,&mdash;and the useful of
+one age would seem to become the ornamental of another&mdash;necessarily often
+forsake the high purity of the primeval<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> standard, and give rise, not only
+to the commonplace, but, by misconception or wantonness, to perversion of
+taste. So in architecture. Temples were noble before their ornaments. The
+grotesque is the slang of architecture. Nowhere so much as in Gothic
+architecture has the grotesque been fostered and developed, for, except
+for a blind adherence to ancient designs, due to something like gild
+continuity, the whole detail was introduced apropos of nothing. The
+assisting circumstance would appear to have been the indifference of the
+architects to the precise significance of the detail ornaments of their
+buildings. Gothic, or in fact any architecture admitting ornament, calls
+for crisp sub-regular projections, which shall, by their prominence and
+broken surface, attract the eye, but by the vagueness of their general
+form attract it so slightly as to lose individuality in a general view.
+These encrusting ornaments, by their opposition to the light of what the
+carvers call a &#8220;busy&#8221; surface, increase and accentuate rather than detract
+from the effect of the sweep of arches or dying vistas of recurring
+pillars. They afford a sort of punctuation, or measurers of the rhythm of
+the composition. Led from point to point, the eye gathers an impression of
+rich elaboration that does not interfere with its appreciation of the
+orderliness of the main design.</p>
+
+<p>These objects gained, the architects did not, apparently, enquire what the
+lesser minds, who carved the boss or dripstone, considered appropriate
+ornament. Hence we have a thousand fancies, often beautifully worked out,
+but often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> utterly incongruous with the intent of the edifice they are
+intended to adorn, and unworthy of the architecture of which they are a
+part.</p>
+
+<p>As in language the grotesque is sometimes produced by inadvertency and
+misconception, so in ornament not all the grotesque is of set purpose, and
+here the consideration of the less development of the less idea has its
+chief example. As original meaning became lost, the real merit of
+earnestness decreased, and the grotesque became an art.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the execution of Gothic ornament is excellent in proportion to
+its artistic easiness. Thus the foliate and florate designs are better
+carved than the animal forms, and both better than the human. With the
+exception of little else besides the Angel Choir at Lincoln, and portions
+of the Percy Shrine at Beverley, there is nothing in Gothic representation
+of sentient form really worthy of the perfect conceptions of architecture
+afforded by scores of English churches. It may, of course, be considered
+that anything but conventional form is out of place as architectural
+ornament; on the other hand, it must not be ignored that conventionality
+is a growth. It is only to be expected, therefore, that where the artist
+found character beyond his reach he fell readily into caricature, though
+it is a matter for surprise to find such a high standard of ability in
+that, and in the carved work generally. We find no instances of carving so
+low in absolute merit as are the best of the wall-paintings of the same
+periods.</p>
+
+<p>The sources from which the artists obtained their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> material are as wide as
+the air. A chief aim of this volume is to indicate those sources, and this
+is done in some cases rather minutely, though not in any exhaustively. The
+point of view from which the subject is surveyed is that the original
+detail of the temples entirely consisted of symbols of worship and
+attributes, founded chiefly upon astronomical phenomena: that owing to the
+gild organization of the masons, the same forms were mechanically
+perpetuated long after the worship of the heavenly bodies had given way to
+Christianity, often with the thinnest veil of Christian symbolism thrown
+over them. To this material, descended from remote antiquity, came
+gradually to be added a multitude of designs from nature and from fancy.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img005.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">HARPY, EXETER.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img006.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">RAGE AND TERROR, RIPON.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>Definitions of the Grotesque.</h2>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> term &#8220;Grotesque,&#8221; which conveys to us an idea of humourous distortion
+or exaggeration, is simply <i>grotto-esque</i>, being literally the style of
+art found in the grottos or baths of the ancients. The term rose towards
+the end of the fifteenth century, when exhumation brought to light the
+fantastic decorations of the more private apartments of the licentious
+Romans. The use at that period of a similar style for not unsimilar
+purposes gave the word common currency, and it has spread to everything
+which, combined with wit or not, provokes a smile by a real or pretended
+violation of the laws of Nature and Beauty. In its later, and not in its
+original, meaning is the word applied to the extraordinary productions of
+church art. We may usefully inquire as to the causes of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> remarkable
+characteristics of Gothic art which have caused the word Grotesque to
+fittingly describe so much of its detail.</p>
+
+<p>The joke has a different meaning for every age. The capacity for
+simultaneously recognizing likeness and contrast between things the most
+incongruous and wide-sundered, which is at the root of our appreciation of
+wit, humour, or the grotesque, is a quality of slow growth among nations.
+No doubt early man enjoyed his laugh, but it was a different thing from
+the laughter of our day. Many races have left no suspicion of their ever
+having smiled; even where there are ample pictorial remains, humour is
+generally unrepresented. The Assyrians have left us the smallest possible
+grounds for crediting them with its possession. Instances have been
+adduced of Egyptian humour, but some are doubtful, and in any case the
+proportion of fun per acre of picture is infinitesimally small. The
+Greeks, perhaps, came the nearest to what we consider the comic, but with
+both Greek and Roman the humour has something of bitterness and sterility;
+even in what was professedly comic we cannot always see any real fun.
+Where it strikes out unexpectedly in brief flashes it is with a cold light
+that leaves no impression of warmth behind. The mechanical character of
+their languages, with a multitude of fixed formul&aelig;, is perhaps an index to
+their mental development. The subtleties of wit ran in the direction of
+gratifying established tastes and prejudices by satirical references, but
+rarely condescending to amuse for mere humour&#8217;s sake.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> Where is found the
+nearest approach to merriness is in what now-a-days we regard as the least
+interesting and meritorious grade of humour, the formal parody. The Greeks
+had, outside their fun, let it be noted, something better than jococity,
+and that was joyousness. The later Romans became humourous in a low way
+which has had a permanent influence upon literature and art.</p>
+
+<p>Sense of humour grew with the centuries, and by the time that the Gothic
+style of architecture arose, appreciation of the ludicrous-in-general
+(<i>i.e.</i> that which is without special reference to an established phase of
+thought) is traceable as a characteristic of, at least, the Teuton
+nations. It must be admitted that the popular verbal fun of the middle
+ages is not always easy to grasp, but it cannot be denied that where
+understood, or where its outlet is found in the graphic or glyphic arts,
+there is allied to the innocent coarseness and unscrupulousness, a
+richness of conceit, a wealth of humour, and a delicate and accurate sense
+of the laughable far beyond Greek wit or Roman jocularity.</p>
+
+<p>It is to the embodiments of the spirit of humour as found in our medi&aelig;val
+churches that our present study is directed.</p>
+
+<p>It may be as well to first say a little upon those comicalities which may
+be styled &#8216;grotesques by misadventure.&#8217; This is a branch of the subject to
+be approached with some diffidence, for it is in many cases difficult to
+discriminate between that which was intended to be grotesque, and that
+which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> executed with serious or often devout feelings, but for one of
+several causes often presenting to us an irresistibly comic effect.</p>
+
+<p>The causes may be five. First, the varying mechanical and constructive
+incompetency of the artists to embody their ideas. Second, the copying of
+an earlier work with executive ability, with strong perception of its
+unintentional and latent humour, but without respect to, or without
+knowledge of, its serious meaning. Third, the use of symbolic
+representation, in which the greater the skill, often the greater the
+ludicrous effect. Fourth, the change of fashion, manners, and customs.
+Fifth, a bias of mind which impelled to whimsical treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Consideration of the causes thus roughly analysed will explain away a
+large proportion of the irreverence of the irreverent paintings and
+carvings which excite such surprise, and sometimes disgust, in the minds
+of many modern observers of ecclesiological detail.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the placing of carvings in any one of these five
+classes, or in the category of intentional grotesques, must, in many
+cases, be a mere matter of opinion. For the present purpose it will not be
+necessary to separate them, except so far as the plan of the work does it
+automatically. Many ecclesiastical and other seals afford familiar
+instances of the &#8216;comic without intention,&#8217; parallel to what is said above
+as to carvings.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<h2>The Carvers.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img007.jpg" alt="T" /><br /><span style="margin-left: -.5em;"><small>LINCOLN, <i>14th cent.</i></small></span></span>eemingly
+probability and evidence go hand in hand to shew that a great
+bulk of the church mason work of this country was the work of foreigners.
+Saxon churches were probably first built by Roman workmen, whose erections
+would teach sufficient to enable Saxons to afterward build for themselves.
+Imported talent, however, is likely to have been constantly employed.
+Edward the Confessor brought back with him from France new French designs
+for the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey, and doubtless he brought French
+masons also. Anglo-Norman is strongly Byzantine in character, and though
+the channels through which it passed may be various, there is little doubt
+that its origin was the great Empire of the East. Again, the great
+workshop of Europe, where Eastern ideas were gathered together and
+digested, and which supplied cathedrals and cathedral builders at command,
+was Flanders; and there is little doubt that during some five centuries
+after the Norman Conquest, Flemings were employed, in a greater or less
+degree, on English work. Italians were largely employed. The Angel Choir
+of Lincoln is one distinct witness to that. The workmen who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> executed the
+finely-carved woodwork of St. George&#8217;s Chapel, Windsor, King&#8217;s College,
+Cambridge, and Westminster Abbey, in the sixteenth century, were chiefly
+Italians, under the superintendence of Torregiano, a Florentine artist. He
+was a fellow-pupil of Michael Angelo, and is best known by the dastardly
+blow he dealt him with a mallet, disfiguring him for life. The resentment
+of Lorenzo de Medici at this caused Torregiano to leave Florence. He came
+to England in 1503.</p>
+
+<p>The architect, however, of King Henry VII.&#8217;s Chapel was Bishop Alcock, an
+Englishman, born at Hull, the already existing Grammar School of which
+place he endowed, and, perhaps, rebuilt. Many other architects of English
+buildings were Englishmen, probably the majority, and doubtless a large
+proportion of the workmen also,<a name='fna_1' id='fna_1' href='#f_1'><small>[1]</small></a> but it would be idle to deny that
+imported art speaks loudly from work of all the styles.</p>
+
+<p>The carved detail may be relied upon to tell us something, and it speaks
+of an original reliance upon the East, which was never outgrown. The
+carvings found in England are not marked by anything at all approaching a
+national spirit, even in the limited degree that was possible. Except for
+a few carvings of armorial designs, and still fewer with slight local
+reference, there are none in wood or stone which would not be equally in
+place in any Romance country in Europe. The carvings, also, in the
+Continental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> churches present familiar aspects to the student of English
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p>But if we have yet to wait some fortunate discovery of rolls of workmen&#8217;s
+names, with their rate of wages, we are not without such interesting
+information concerning the old carvers as is contained in portraits they
+have left of themselves. Just as authors sometimes recognize how
+satisfactory it is to have their &#8220;effigies&#8221; done at the fronts of their
+books, so have the carvers of old sometimes attached to their works
+portraits of themselves or their fellows, in their habits as they lived,
+in their attitudes as they laboured.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img008.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">AN INDUSTRIOUS CARVER, LYNN.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Our first carver hails from Lincolnshire. In 1852, when the Church of St.
+Nicholas, Lynn, was restored, the misericordes were taken out and not
+replaced, but passed as articles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> of commerce eventually to the
+Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, London. Among these is a view of a
+carver&#8217;s studio, shewing the industrious master seated, tapping carefully
+away at a design upon the bench before him. There are three apprentices in
+the background working at benches; there are at the back some incised
+panels, and a piece of open screen-work. Perhaps we may suppose the
+weather to be cold, for the carver has on an exceedingly comfortable cloak
+or surcoat. At his feet reposes his dog.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img009.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">CARVER&#8217;S INITIALS, ST. NICHOLAS&#8217;S, LYNN.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There is an interesting peculiarity about these Lynn carvings; the sides
+of the misericordes are designs in the fashion of monograms, or rebuses.
+The sides supporting the carver are his initials, pierced with his carving
+tools, a saw and a chisel. The difficulty is the same in all of the set;
+the meaning of the monograms is not to be lightly determined. In this case
+it may be U.V., or perhaps U is twice repeated.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img010.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">COMMUNICATING A STRIKING IDEA, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The next carvers belong to the following century. Here also we see the
+principal figures in the midst of work. In this case, however, there has
+arrived an interruption. Either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> one of the workers is about to commit
+mock assault and battery upon another with a mallet, or a brilliant idea
+for a grotesque has just struck him, and he hastens to impart it. From the
+expression of the faces, and the attitudes for which two other workmen
+have stood as models, at the sides, the latter may be the more likely. It
+is not impossible that the carver of the fine set of sixty-eight
+misericordes in Beverley Minster had in mind the incident of the blow
+given to Michael Angelo, and it would be interesting to know if any of
+Torregiano&#8217;s Italians worked at Beverley. This aproned, noisy, jocular
+crew are very different from the dignified artist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> we have just left, but
+doubtless they turned out good work of the humorous class.</p>
+
+<p>The two &#8220;sidesmen&#8221; are occupied in the two ways of shewing intelligence
+and contempt known as &#8220;taking a sight,&#8221; etc.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img011.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">MUTUAL CONTEMPT, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The next carver is a figure at Wellingborough, Northamptonshire. This is
+locally known as the Wellingborough shoemaker, but nearly all local
+designations of such things are wrong, and this is no exception. Elsewhere
+in speaking of this sedate figure, I have conjectured he may be cutting
+something out of leather, and not making shoes. However, I have since
+arrived at Miss Phipson&#8217;s conclusion: the figure can only be that of a
+carver. He is fashioning not a leather rosette, but a Tudor rose in oak,
+to be afterwards pinned with an oak pin in some spandrel. He is rather a
+reserved-looking individual, but a master of his craft, if we may suppose
+he has &#8220;turned out&#8221; the two eagles at his right and left.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>No doubt there were several ways of building churches, or supplying them
+with their art decorations. Some masons would be attached to a cathedral,
+and be lent or sent here and there by arrangement. Others would be ever
+wandering, seeking church work. Others might come from abroad for
+particular work, and return with the harvest of English money when the
+work was done. For special objects there were dep&ocirc;ts. It is an
+acknowledged fact that the black basalt fonts of Norman times were
+imported from Flanders. There are occasionally met other things of this
+material with the same class of design, evidently from the same source,
+such as the sculptured coffin-lid at Bridlington Priory, given on a
+following page. I have not seen it noted, but I think it will be
+established that &#8220;brasses,&#8221; so much alike all over the country, were
+mostly ready-made articles also from Flanders. From the stereotyped
+conventionality of the altar-tomb effigies, they also may be judged to be
+the productions of workshops doing little but this work, and probably
+foreign.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img012.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A PIECE OF FINE WORK, WELLINGBOROUGH.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>What is required to determine the general facts on these points is a
+return from various fabric accounts. We shall probably find both English
+and foreign carvers. There is little or no doubt that the carvers of our
+grotesques were members of the mysterious society which has developed into
+the modern body of Freemasons. It would be interesting&mdash;if it were not so
+apparently impossible&mdash;to trace in the records of early Freemasonry, not
+only the names and nationalities of the masons and carvers, but the
+details of that fine organization which enabled them to develope ideas and
+improvements simultaneously throughout Europe; and which would tell us,
+moreover, something of the master minds which conceived and directed the
+changes of style. But the masonic history of our carvers is much enveloped
+in error to the outside world. Thus we are told that in the minority of
+Henry VI. the masons were suppressed by statute, but that on his assuming
+the control of affairs he repealed the Act, and himself became a mason;
+moreover, we are told he wrote out &#8220;Certayne Questyons with Awnsweres to
+the same concerning the Mystery of Maconrye&#8221; which was afterwards &#8220;copyed
+by me Johan Leylande Antiquarius,&#8221; at the command of Henry VIII.; the MS.
+being gravely stated to be in the Bodleian Library. No such MS. exists at
+the Bodleian Library. If it did, its diction and spelling (which is all on
+pretended record in certain books probably repudiated by the masonic body
+proper) would instantly condemn it as a forgery. Certainly an Act was
+passed, 3 Henry VI., which is in itself a historical monument to the
+importance of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>Freemasonry. It is a brief enactment that the yearly
+meetings of the masons, being contrary to the Statute of Labourers (of 25
+Edward III., 1351) fixing the rates of labour, which the masons varied and
+apparently increased, were no longer to be held; offenders to be judged
+guilty of felony. The Commons did not quite know what to style the
+meetings, using in this short Act the following terms for them: Chapters,
+Assemblies, Congregations, and Confederacies.</p>
+
+<p>But important though this proves the masons to have been, there is no
+account of the statute being repealed until the 5 Elizabeth, when another
+took its place equally intolerant to the spirit of Freemasonry, and
+Freemasonry really only became legal by the Act of 6 George IV.</p>
+
+<p>But the prohibition of 1424 was not abolition. If the masons were debarred
+from being allowed to exercise their advanced notions of remuneration, or
+to have any legal recognition whatever, it scarcely seems to have affected
+their action. For if they had refrained from exercising their freedom, and
+submitted to being put down by statute, it is probable we should have met
+them in the form of more ordinary gilds as instituted by other craftsmen.
+But we do not meet them thus, and the inference is that they went on in
+their own way, at their own time, and at their own price. It may be
+presumed that the more or less migratory habits of the masons made the Act
+impossible to be rigidly enforced.</p>
+
+<p>Coming down towards the end of Gothic times, we find, at any rate, there
+was one place where images might be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> ordered. In the Stanford
+churchwardens&#8217; accounts for 1556 there occur the following entries:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="right">&#8220;It.</td>
+    <td>In expences to Abyndon to speke for ymages</td>
+    <td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="right">vijd. &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">It.</td>
+    <td>for iij ymages, the Rode, Mare, and John</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>xxijs. iiijd.&#8221;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It will have been noticed that the portraits of the carvers are Late. It
+is a great merit, on antiquarian grounds, that Gothic work, prior to the
+revival in art, was too much unconscious to admit anything so
+self-personal as a thought of the workers themselves, though frequently
+their &#8216;marks&#8217; are unobtrusively set upon their works. By the sixteenth
+century, the sculptor&#8217;s art developed with the rest of mental effort, and
+the artists drank fresh draughts from the springs coming by way of Rome,
+springs whose waters had been concerned in the existence of nearly all the
+art that had been in Europe for ten centuries.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img013.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">DOG AND BONE, BRECHIN.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>The Artistic Quality of Church Grotesques.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> grotesque has been pronounced a false taste, and not desirable to be
+perpetuated. Reflection upon the causes and meanings of Gothic grotesque
+will shew that perpetuation is to be regretted for other than artistic
+reasons. If the taste be false yet the work is valuable on historic
+grounds, for what it teaches of its own time and much more for what it
+hints of earlier periods of which there is meagre record anywhere.
+Therefore it would be well not to confuse the student of the future with
+our clever variations of imperfectly understood ideas. Practically the
+grotesque and emblematic period ended at the Reformation; and it was well.</p>
+
+<p>But while leaving the falseness of the taste for grotesques an open
+question, there is something to be said for them without straining fact.
+For it is certain that there is underlying Gothic grotesque ornament a
+unique and, if not understood, an uncopiable beauty, be the subject never
+so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> ugly. The fascinating element appear to be, first, the completeness of
+the genius which was exercised upon it. It not only conveys the
+travestying idea, but also sufficiently conveys the original thought
+travestied.</p>
+
+<p>What is it at which we laugh? It shall be a figure which is of a kind
+generally dignified, now with no dignity; generally to be respected, but
+now commanding no respect; capable of being feared, but now inspiring no
+fear; usually lovable, but now provoking no love. It shall be a figure of
+which the preconceived idea was either worthy or dreadful&mdash;which suddenly
+we have presented to us shorn of its superior attributes. Ideals are
+unconsciously enshrined in the mind, and when images proclaiming
+themselves the same ideals appear in sharp degraded contrast&mdash;we laugh.
+Thus we affirm the correctness of the original judgments both as to the
+great and the contemptible imitating it, for laughter is the effect of
+appreciation of incongruity. Custom overrides nearly all, and blunts
+contrast of ideas, yet wit, darting here and there among men, ever finds
+fresh contrasts and fresh laughter.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img014.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">DOG AND BONE, CHRISTCHURCH, HAMPSHIRE.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Further counts for something the excellence of the artistic management,
+which in the treatment of the most unpromising subjects filled the
+composition with beautiful lines. It was left to Hogarth&#8217;s genius to
+insist on the reality of &#8220;the line of beauty&#8221; as governing all loveliness,
+and he suggests that a perceptive recognition of this existed on the part
+of the classic sculptors. This applies to their work in general, but he
+also mentions their frequent addition of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> curved object connected
+with the subject, as though it were a kind of key to the artistic
+composition. Whether consciously or not, the ancients used many such
+adjunctive curved lines, and Hogarth&#8217;s conclusions cannot be styled
+fanciful. The helmet, plume, and serpent-edged &aelig;gis of Minerva, the
+double-bowed bolt and serpents of Jupiter, the ornaments of the trident,
+the aplustre and the twisted rope of Neptune, the bow and serpent of
+Apollo, the plume of Mars, the caduceus of Mercury, the ship-prow of
+Saturn, the gubernum or rudder of Venus, the drinking horn of Pan,
+together with many another form to be observed in particular works of the
+ancients, is each a definite and perfect example of the faultless line.
+Now, to repeat, many&mdash;an infinite number&mdash;of the ornaments of Gothic
+architecture, and not less the grotesque than any other description, are
+likewise composed of the most beautiful lines conceivable, either
+entirely, or combined with lines of abrupt and ungraceful turn that seem
+to deliberately provoke one&#8217;s artistic protest; and yet the whole
+composition shall, by its curious mixture of beauty and bizarre, its
+contrast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> of elegance with awkwardness, leave a real and unique sense of
+pleasure in the mind. Doubtless the root of this pleasure is the
+gratification of the mind at having secretly detected itself responding to
+the call of art to exercise itself in appreciative discrimination. This
+may be unconsciously done; and in a great measure the qualities which give
+the pleasure would be bestowed upon the work in similar happy
+unconsciousness of the exact why and wherefore. Often, as in the ancient
+statues, a small curved form is introduced as an appendage to a medi&aelig;val
+grotesque.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img015.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">HAWKS OR EAGLES? WELLINGBOROUGH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Thus we see that there are combinations of two kinds of contrast which
+make Gothic grotesques agreeable, the artistic contrasts among the mere
+lines of the carvings, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> significatory contrasts evolved by the
+meanings of the carvings.</p>
+
+<p>As far back as the twelfth century, a critic of church grotesques
+recognized their combination of contrasts. This was St. Bernard of
+Clairvaux, who, speaking of the ecclesiastical decoration of his time,
+paid the grotesques of church art the exact tribute they so often merit;
+probably the greater portion of what he saw has given place to succeeding
+carvings, though of precisely the same characteristics. He calls them &#8220;a
+wonderful sort of hideous beauty and beautiful deformity.&#8221; He, moreover,
+put a question, many times since repeated by hundreds who never heard of
+him, asking the use of placing ridiculous monstrosities in the cloisters
+before the eyes of the brethren when occupied with their studies.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible to explain the &#8220;use&#8221; of perpetuating the barbarous
+symbols of a long-forgotten past; but it will be interesting to shew that
+there were actual causes accounting for their continued existence and
+their continued production, unknown ages after their own epoch.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Gothic Ornaments not Didactic.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Reflection</span> will not lead us to believe carvings to have been placed in
+churches with direct intent to teach or preach. Many writers have
+coincided in producing a general opinion that the churches, as containing
+these carvings, were practically the picture (or sculpture) galleries and
+illustrated papers for the illiterate of the past. This supposition will
+not bear examination. It would mean that in the days when humble men
+rarely travelled from home, and then mostly by compulsion, to fight for
+lord or king, or against him, the inhabitant of a village or town had for
+the (say) forty years sojourn in his spot of Merrie England, a small
+collection of composite animals, monsters, mermaids, impossible flowers,
+etc.&mdash;with perhaps one doubtful domestic scene of a lady breaking a vessel
+over the head of a gentleman who is inquisitive as to boots&mdash;with which to
+improve his mind. Sometimes his church would contain not half-a-dozen
+forms, and mostly not one he could understand or cared to interpret.</p>
+
+<p>Misericordes, the secondary seats or shelves allowed as a relaxation
+during the ancient long standing services, are invariably carved, and
+episode is more likely to be found there than anywhere else in the church.
+Hence, misericordes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> have been specially selected for this erroneous
+consideration of ornament to be the story-book of the Middle Ages. This is
+unfortunate for the theory, for they were placed only in churches having
+connection with a monastic or collegiate establishment. They are in the
+chancels, where the feet of laymen rarely trod, and, moreover, there would
+be few hours out of the twenty-four when the stalls would not be occupied
+by the performers of the daily offices or celebrations.</p>
+
+<p>The fact appears to be that the carvings were the outcome of causes far
+different from an intention to produce genre pictures. It is patent that
+anything which kept within its proper mechanical and architectural
+outline, was admitted. What was offered depended upon a multitude of
+considerations, but chiefly upon the traditions of mason-craft. The Rev.
+Charles Boutell has an apt description touching upon the origin of the
+carvings: calling them &#8220;chronicles,&#8221; he says they were &#8220;written by men who
+were altogether unconscious of being chroniclers at all.... They worked
+under the impulse of motives altogether devoid of the historical element.
+They were influenced by the traditions of their art, by their own
+feelings, and were directed by their own knowledge, experience, and
+observation, and also by the associations of their every-day lives.&#8221; This
+appears to explain in general terms the sources of iconography. In brief,
+the sculptor had a stock-in-trade of designs, which he varied or
+supplemented, according to his ability and originality.</p>
+
+<p>That the stock-in-trade, or traditions of the art, handed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> down from
+master to apprentice, generation after generation, persistently retained
+an immense amount of intellectualia thus derived from a remote antiquity,
+is but an item of this subject, but the most important of which this work
+has cognizance.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img016.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">SEA-HORSE DRAGONZED,<br />LINCOLN, <i>14th cent.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Ingrained Paganism.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">We</span> at this day may be excused for not participating in the good St.
+Bernard&#8217;s dislike to the &#8220;hideous beauties&#8221; of the grotesque, and for not
+deploring, as he does, the money expended on their production. For many of
+them are the embodiments of ideas which the masons had perpetuated from a
+period centuries before his time, and which could in no other way have
+been handed down to us. There are many reasons why books were unlikely
+media for early times; for later, the serious import of the origin of the
+designs would be likely to be doubted; and for the most part the special
+function of the designs has been the adornment of edifices of religion.
+They were, in fact, religious symbols which in various ages of the world
+have been used with varying degrees of purity. One of the Rabbis,
+Maimonides, has an instructive passage on the rise of symbolic images.
+Speaking of men&#8217;s first falling away from a presumed early pure religion
+he says:&mdash;&#8220;They began to build temples to the stars, ... and this was the
+root of idolatry ... and the false prophet showed them the image that he
+had feigned out of his own heart, and said it was the image of that star
+which was made known to him by prophecy; and they began after this manner
+to make images in temples and under trees ... and this thing was spread
+throughout the world&mdash;to serve<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> images with services different one from
+another and to sacrifice unto, and worship them. So in process of time the
+glorious and fearful name was forgotten out of the mouth of all living ...
+and there was found on earth no people that knew aught save images of wood
+and stone, and temples of stone which they built.&#8221; The ancient Hindoo
+fables also indicate how imagery arose; they speak of the god Ram, &#8220;who,
+having no shape, is described by a similitude.&#8221; The worship of the &#8220;Host
+of Heaven&#8221; was star-worship, or &#8220;Baalim.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Sabean idolatry was the worship of the stars, to which belongs much of
+the earlier image carving, for the household gods of the ancient Hebrews,
+the Teraphim (as the images of Laban stolen by Rachel), were probably in
+the human form as representing planets, even in varying astronomical
+aspects of the same planet. They are said to have been of metal. The
+ancient Germans had similar household gods of wood, carved out of the root
+of the mandragora plant, or alraun as they called it, from the
+superstition kindred to that of the East, that the images would answer
+questions (from <i>raunen</i> to whisper in the ear). Examination of many
+ancient Attic figurines appears to shew that they had a not unsimilar
+origin, reminding us that both Herodotus and Plato state the original
+religion of the Greeks to have been star-worship, and hence is derived the
+&#920;&#949;&#8056;&#962; god, from &#920;&#949;&#8150;&#957; to run. Thus in other than the
+poet&#8217;s sense are the stars &#8220;elder scripture.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A large number of the forms met in architectural ornament, it may be
+fittingly reiterated, have a more or less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> close connection with the
+worships which existed in times long prior to Christianity. A portion of
+them was continuously used simply because the masons were accustomed to
+them, or in later Gothic on account of the universal practice of copying
+existing works; unless we can take it for granted in place of that
+practice, that there existed down to Reformation days &#8220;portfolios&#8221; of
+carver&#8217;s designs which were to the last handed down from master to
+apprentice, as must have undoubtedly been the case in earlier times. Other
+portions of the ancient worship designs are found in Christian art because
+they were received and grafted upon the symbolic system of the Church&#8217;s
+teaching. The retention of these fragments of superseded paganism does not
+always appear to have been of deliberate or willing intention. The early
+days of the Church even after its firm establishment, were much occupied
+in combating every form of paganism. The converts were constantly lapsing
+into their old beliefs, and the thunders of the early ecclesiastical
+councils were as constantly being directed against the ancient
+superstitions. Sufficient remains on record to shew how hard the gods
+died.</p>
+
+<p>To near the end of the fourth century the chief intelligence of Rome
+publicly professed the Olympic faith. With the next century, however,
+commenced a more or less determined programme of persecutory repression.
+Thus, councils held at Arles about 452 ruled that a bishop was guilty of
+sacrilege who neglected to extirpate the custom of adoring fountains,
+trees, and stones. At that of Orleans in 533 Catholics were to be
+excommunicated who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> returned to the worship of idols or ate flesh offered
+to idols. At Tours in 567 several pagan superstitions were forbidden, and
+at Narborne in 590; freemen who transgressed were to have penance, but
+slaves to be beaten. At Nicea in 681 image worship was allowed of
+Christ.<a name='fna_2' id='fna_2' href='#f_2'><small>[2]</small></a> At Augsburgh (?) in 742 the Count Gravio was associated with
+the Bishop to watch against popular lapses into paganism. In 743 Pepin
+held a council in which he ruled, as his father had done before, that he
+who practised any pagan rites be fined 15 sous (<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>15</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">22</span> of a livre). To the
+orders was attached the renunciation, in German, of the worship of Odin by
+the Saxons, and a list of the pagan superstitions of the Germans. The
+Council of Frankfort in 794 ordered the sacred woods to be destroyed.
+Constantinople had apparently already not only become a channel for the
+conveyance of oriental paganism in astro-symbolic images, but was also
+evidently nearer to the lower idolatry of heathenism than the Church of
+the West. Thus we find the bishops of Gaul, Germany, and Italy in council
+at Frankfort, rejecting with anathema, and as idolatrous, the doctrines of
+the Council of Constantinople upon the worship of images.</p>
+
+<p>While all this repression was going on, the Church was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> making itself
+acceptable, just as the Mosaic system had done in its day, by assimilating
+the symbols of the forbidden faiths. Itself instituted without formularies
+or ceremonial, both were needed when it became a step-ladder of ambition
+and the expedient displacer of the corrupt idolatries into which
+sun-worship had disintegrated. Hence among the means of organization,
+observance and symbol took the place of original simplicity, and it is
+small wonder that ideas were adopted which were already in men&#8217;s minds.
+Elements of heathenism which, after the lapse of centuries, still clung to
+the Church&#8217;s robes, became an interwoven part of her dearest symbolism. If
+men did not burn what they had adored, they in effect adored that which
+they had burned.</p>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of edicts and adoptions, paganism has never been
+entirely rooted out; what Sismondi calls the &#8220;rights of long possession,
+the sacredness of time-hallowed opinion, and the potency of habit,&#8221; are
+not yet entirely overcome in the midst of the most enlightened peoples.
+The carvings which point back to forgotten myths have their parallels in
+curious superstitions and odd customs which are not less venerable.</p>
+
+<p>There were many compromises made on account of the ineradicable attachment
+of the people to religious customs into which they were born. Christian
+festivals were erected on the dates of heathen observances. In the sixth
+century, Pope Gregory sent word to Augustine, then in England, that the
+idolatrous temples of the English need not be destroyed, though the idols
+should, and that the cattle sacrificed to the heathen deities should be
+killed on the anniversary of dedication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> or on the nativities of the
+saints whose relics were within the church.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that it was, later, usual to bring a fat buck into St. Paul&#8217;s,
+London, with the hunters&#8217; horns blowing, in the midst of divine service,
+for the cathedral was built on or near the site of a former temple of
+Diana. This custom was made the condition of a feudal tenure. The story of
+Prosperine, another form of Diana, was the subject of heathen plays, and
+down to the sixteenth century the character appears in religious mystery
+plays as the recipient of much abuse.</p>
+
+<p>Ancient mythology points in one chief direction. &#8220;Omnes Deos referri ad
+solem,&#8221; says Macrobius, &#8220;All Gods refer to the sun,&#8221; and in the light of
+that saying a thousand complicated fables of antiquity melt into
+simplicity. The ancient poets called the sun (at one time symbolically of
+a First Great Cause, at another absolutely) the Leader, the Moderator, the
+Depository of Light, the Ordainer of human things; each of his virtues was
+styled a different god, and given its distinct name. The moon also, and
+the stars were made the symbols of deities. These symbols put before the
+people as vehicles for abstract ideas, were quickly adopted as gods, the
+symbolism being disregarded, and the end was practically the same as that
+narrated by the ancient rabbi just quoted. But it may be doubted whether
+the pantheism of the classic nations was ever entirely gross. The great
+festivals of the gods were accompanied by the initiation of carefully
+selected persons into certain mysteries of which no description is
+extant.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> Thirlwall hazards the conjecture &#8220;that they were the remains of a
+worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic mythology ... grounded on
+a view of nature less fanciful, more earnest and better fitted to awaken
+both philosophical thought and religious feeling.&#8221; Whether a purer system
+was unfolded to the initiated on these occasions or not, there is little
+doubt that it had existed and was at the root of the symbol rites.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img017.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">AN IMP ON CUSHIONS, CHRISTCHURCH, HANTS., <i>early 16th cent.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Mythic Origin of Church Carvings.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img018.jpg" alt="T" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">TAU CROSS,</span><br />WELLINGBOROUGH.</small></span>he
+discoveries in Egypt in recent years undoubtedly press upon us the
+fact that there was in Europe an early indigenous civilization, and that
+the exchange of ideas between East and West was at least equal. For the
+purpose of this study, however, the theory of independence is not accepted
+absolutely; it is premised that though there were in numerous parts of the
+old world early native systems of worship of much similarity, yet that
+such relics of them as are met in architecture came from the East.</p>
+
+<p>The mythic ideas at the root of Gothic decoration were probably early
+disseminated through Europe in vague and varying ways, whose chief impress
+is in folk-lore; but the concrete forms themselves appear to have been
+introduced later, after being brought, as it were, to a focus, being
+selected and assimilated at some great mental centre. Alexandria was the
+place where Eastern and Western culture impinged on each other, and
+resulted in a conglomerate of ideas. These ideas, however, were not
+essentially different in their nature, though each school, Assyrian,
+Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, and Hebrew, had diverged widely if they came
+from an unknown common source. But if Alexandria was the furnace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> in which
+the material was fused, Byzantium appears to have been the great workshop
+where the results were utilized, and from whence they were issued to
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Sculptured ornament is not alone in the fact of its being a direct legacy
+from remotely ancient forms, though, on comparing that with any of the
+other arts hitherto recognized as of Eastern origin, it will be found that
+none bears such distinct marks of its parentage, or shews such continuity
+of form. Thus examination of European glazed pottery, which comes perhaps
+the nearest to our subject, shews that the ornamenting devices
+occasionally betray an acquaintance with the old symbolic patterns, but
+there is less recognition of meaning, scarcely any intention to perpetuate
+idea, and no continuity of design. It was not in the nature of the
+potter&#8217;s purpose that there should be any of these, the difference being
+that for the mason&#8217;s and the sculptor&#8217;s art there was a very close
+association with the gild system. The first Christian sculptors would be
+masons brought up in pagan gilds, and the gild instincts and traditions
+had undoubtedly as strong an effect upon their work, on the whole, as any
+religious beliefs they might possess.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism of the animals of the church in the late points of view of
+the Bestiaries and of the expository writers of the Middle Ages, is not
+here to be made the subject of special attention. That is a department
+well treated in other works, particularly in the volume, &#8220;Animal Symbolism
+in Ecclesiastical Architecture,&#8221; by Mr. E. P. Evans, which yet remains to
+be equalled. It is to be noted, however, that the early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> Christians,
+seeing the animals and their compounds so integral a portion of pagan
+imagery, endeavoured to twist every meaning to one sufficiently Christian:
+but what is chiefly worthy of note is the unconscious resistance of the
+sculptors to the treatment. Although a multitude of figures can be traced
+as used symbolically in accordance with the Christian dicta, there are at
+least as many which shew stronger affinity to pagan myth. There is
+evidence that this was early recognized by the propogandists. The Council
+of Nice in 787, in enjoining upon the faithful the due regard of images,
+ordered that the works of art were not to be drawn from the imagination of
+the painters, but to be only such as were approved by the rules and
+traditions of the Catholic Church. So also ordained the Council of Milan
+in 1565.</p>
+
+<p>The Artists, however, did not invent the images so much as use old
+material, and, the injunctions of the Council notwithstanding, the ancient
+symbols apparently held their ground. The protests of St. Nilus, in the
+fifth century, against animal figures in the sanctuary, were echoed by the
+repudiations of St. Bernard in the twelfth and Gautier de Coinsi in the
+thirteenth, a final condemnation being made at the Council of Milan in
+1565, all equally in vain. Though the force of the myth symbols has passed
+away, they have left another legacy than the grotesques of church art. The
+art works of the Greeks arose from the same materials, the glorious
+statues and epics being the highest embodiment of the symbolic, so loftily
+overtopping all other forms by the force of supreme physical beauty as to
+almost justify and certainly purify the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> religion of which they were the
+outcome; so, later, the same ideas clothed with the moral beauty of
+supreme unselfishness enabled Christianity to take hold of the nations.</p>
+
+<p>By the diatribes of Bernard we can see what materials were extant in the
+twelfth century for a study of worship-symbols and of the grotesque,
+though he ignores any possible meaning they may have. He says, &#8220;Sometimes
+you may see many bodies under one head; at other times, many heads to one
+body; here is seen the tail of a serpent attached to the body of a
+quadruped; there the head of a quadruped on the body of a fish. In another
+place appears an animal, the fore half of which represents a horse, and
+the hinder portion a goat. Elsewhere you have a horned animal with the
+hinder parts of a horse; indeed there appears everywhere so multifarious
+and so wonderful a variety of diverse forms that one is more apt to con
+over the sculptures than to study the scriptures, to occupy the whole day
+in wondering at these than in meditating upon God&#8217;s law.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It has now to be observed how far the symbolic fancies of ancient beliefs
+have left their impress on the grotesque art of our churches.</p>
+
+<p>A common representation of the great sun-myth was that of two eagles, or
+dragons, watching one at each side of an altar. These were the powers of
+darkness, one at each limit of the day, waiting to destroy the light. This
+poetic idea has come down to us in many forms. Greek art was unconsciously
+frequent in its use of the form, and medi&aelig;val sculptors, being often quite
+ignorant of the significance of the design, use it in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> a variety of ways,
+in many of which the likeness to the original is entirely lost, the
+composition ending in but a semi-natural representation of birds pecking
+at fruit. In the above block from Lincoln Minster, the altar is well
+preserved. In the next block, which is from a carving connected with the
+preceding one, the idea is more distantly hinted at.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img019.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE ALTAR OF LIGHT AND THE BIRDS OF DARKNESS, LINCOLN.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img020.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">SYMBOLS OF DARKNESS, LINCOLN.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>At Exeter, an ingenious grotesque composition of two duck-footed harpies,
+one on either side of a <i>fleur-de-lis</i>, is evidently from the same source.
+Examples of this could be multiplied very readily.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img021.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE ALTAR OF LIGHT AND THE BIRDS OF DARKNESS, EXETER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The Cat and the Fiddle are subjects of carvings at Beverley and at Wells.</p>
+
+<p>Man has an almost universal passion for the oral transmission of the
+fruits of his mental activity. In the particular instances of many lingual
+compositions this passion has become an inveterate race habit, and the
+rhymes or reasons have been transmitted verbally to posterity long after
+their original meaning has been lost or obscured. It is no new thing that
+a nursery rhyme has been found to be the relic of an archaic poem long
+misunderstood or perverted. The lines as to &#8220;the cat and the fiddle&#8221; are
+an excellent instance of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> aptitude to continue the use of metrical
+composition the sense of which has departed. The full verse is, as it
+stands, a curious jumble of disconnected sentences.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img022.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE WEEKS DANCING TO THE MUSIC OF THE MONTH,<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>&#8220;Hey, diddle, diddle, the cat and the fiddle,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The cow jumped over the moon,</span><br />
+The little dog laughed to see such sport,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">While the dish run away with the spoon.&#8221;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img023.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">HEY, DIDDLE, DIDDLE, THE CAT AND THE FIDDLE, WELLS.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>I am not aware that any attempt has yet been made to explain this
+extraordinary verse. Examination seemingly shews that it was originally a
+satire in derision of the worship of Diana. The moon-goddess had a
+three-fold existence. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> the earth she was Diana. Among the Egyptians we
+find her as Isis, and her chief symbol was the cat. Apuleius calls her the
+mother of the gods. In the worship of Isis was used a musical instrument,
+the sistrum, which had four metal bars loosely inserted in a frame so as
+to be shaken; on the apex of this frame, which was shaped not unlike a
+horse-shoe, was carved the figure of a cat, as emblematic of the moon. The
+four bars are said by Plutarch to represent the elements, but it is more
+likely they were certain notes of the diapason. The worship of Isis passed
+to Italy, though the Greeks had previously connected the cat with the
+moon. The fiddle, as an instrument played with a bow, was not known to
+classic times, but the word for fiddle&mdash;<i>fides</i>&mdash;was applied to a lyre. It
+is equivalent to a Greek word for gut-string. In the light of what
+follows, I suggest that &#8220;the Cat and the Fiddle&#8221; is a mocking allusion to
+the worship of Diana upon earth.</p>
+
+<p>In the heavens the moon-goddess had the name of Luna, and her chief symbol
+was the crescent, which is sometimes met figured as a pair of cow&#8217;s horns.
+Images of Isis were crowned with crescent horns; she was believed to be
+personified in the cow, as Osiris was in the bull, and her symbol, a
+crescent moon, is met in sculpture over the back of the animal. This
+apparently suggested the second line.</p>
+
+<p>The third personality of the goddess was Hecate, which was the name by
+which she was known in the infernal regions,&mdash;which means of course, in
+nature, when she was below the horizon. Now another name by which she was
+known was Prosperine (Roman), and Persephone (Greek),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> and her carrying
+down into Hades by Pluto (Roman), or Dis (Greek), was the fable wrought
+out of the simple phenomenon of moon-set. I suggest that the last line of
+the verse is a grotesque rendering of the statement that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Dis ran away with Persephone.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Dis is equivalent to Serapis the Bull, otherwise Ammon, &AElig;sculapius, Nilus,
+etc., that is, the Sun. Why the little dog laughed to see such sport is
+not easy to explain. It may be an allusion to one of the heads of Hecate,
+that of a dog, to indicate the watchfulness of the moon. There is another
+Hecate (a bad, as the above-mentioned was considered a beneficient deity),
+but which was originally no doubt the same, whose attributes were two
+black dogs, <i>i.e.</i>, the darkness preceding and following the moonlight in
+short lunar appearances. Or it may be an allusion to the fact that the dog
+was associated with Dis, being considered the impersonation of Sirius the
+Dog-star. In various representations of the rape of Prosperine, Dis is
+accompanied by a dog, <i>e.g.</i>, the grinning hound in Titian&#8217;s picture.</p>
+
+<p>Prosperine&#8217;s symbol of a crescent moon was adopted as one of those of the
+Virgin Mary, and Candlemas Day, 2nd February, takes the place of the Roman
+festival, the candles used to illustrate the text, &#8220;a light to lighten the
+Gentiles,&#8221; being the representatives of the torches carried in the
+processions which affected to search for the lost Prosperine.</p>
+
+<p>Hindoo mythology has also a three-fold Isis, or moon-goddess; namely, Bhu
+on earth, Swar in heaven, P&aacute;t&aacute;la, below the earth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>The moon-deity has not come down to us as in every case a female
+personation. This is, however, explained by an early fable [in the
+Pur&aacute;nas] of the Hindoos, in which it is narrated that Chandra, or Lunus,
+lost his sex in the forest of Gauri, and became Chandri, or Luna. The
+origin of this has yet to be discovered; it may be nothing more than the
+account of an etymological change, produced by a transcript of dialect.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the Beverley artist knew that the cat was a moon-symbol may be
+doubted. The fiddle has four strings, as the sistrum had four bars. As
+well as the elements and the four seasons of the year, the four may mean
+the four weeks. It will be observed that as the Hours are said to dance by
+the side of the chariot of the sun, so here four weeks dance to the music
+of the moon-sphere; the word moon means the measurer, and the cat is
+playing a dance measure!</p>
+
+<p>The cat is not a very frequent subject. At Sherborne she is shewn hanged
+by mice, one of the retributive pieces which point to a confidence in the
+existence of something called justice, not always self-evident in the
+olden-time. Rats and mice are the emblem of St. Gertrude. The dog had a
+higher place in ancient estimation than his mention in literature would
+warrant; the fact that among the Romans he was the emblem of the Lares,
+the household gods, is a weighty testimonial to that effect, while the
+Egyptians had a city named after and devoted to the dog.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pre-existing symbols seized by the Christians, the Egyptian
+Cross and Druidical Tau must not be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>overlooked. It is found on the
+capitals of pillars at Canterbury and other places; the example given in
+the initial on <a href="#Page_34">page 34</a> is perhaps the latest example in English Gothic.
+Its admission as a grotesque is due to its, perhaps merely accidental, use
+as a mask as noted in the chapter on &#8220;Masks and Faces.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The sinuous course of the sun among the constellations is mentioned in
+literature as far back as Euripides as an explanation of the presence of
+the dragon in archaic systems of mythology. This may have been the origin
+of the figure. Yet in addition to that there always seems to have been the
+recognition of an evil principle, of which by a change of meaning, the
+dragonic or serpentine star-path of the sun was made the personification
+or symbol. According to Pausanius the &#8220;dragon&#8221; of the Greeks was only a
+large snake.</p>
+
+<p>It might not be impossible to collect several hundreds of names by which
+the deistic character of the sun has been expressed by various peoples;
+and the same applies, though in a less degree, to the Darkness, Storm,
+Cold, and Wet, which are taken as his antithesis. One of the oldest of
+these Dragon-names is Typhon, which is met in Egyptian mythology. Typhon
+is said to be the Chinese <i>Tai-fun</i>, the hot wind, and, if this be so,
+doubtless the adverse principle was taken to be the spirit of the desert
+which ever seeks to embrace Egypt in its arid arms. The symbol of Typhon
+was the crocodile, and doubtless the dragon form thus largely rose. R&aacute;hu,
+an evil deity in Hindoo mythology, though generally called a dragon, is
+sometimes met represented as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> crocodile, and his numerous progeny are
+styled crocodiles. The constellation called by the Japanese the crocodile
+is that known to us as the dragon. Can it be that in the universal dragon
+we have a chronicle of our race&#8217;s dim recollection of some survival of the
+terrible Jurassic reptiles, and hence of their period?</p>
+
+<p>But the myth has ever one ending; the power of the evil one is destroyed
+for a time by the coming of the sun-god, though eventually the evil
+triumphs, that is dearth recurs.</p>
+
+<p>In the Scandinavian myth, Odin the son of Bur, broke for a season the
+strength of the great serpent J&ouml;rmungard, who, however, eventually
+swallowed the hero. Thus was Odin the sun; and his companions, the other
+Asir, were more or less sun attributes. In the case of Egypt the god is
+Horus (the sun-light), the youthful son of Osiris and Isis, who drives
+back Typhon to the deserts; for that country the rising of the Nile is the
+happy crisis. Horus is sometimes called Nilus. Whether the above
+derivation of the word Typhon be correct or not, which may be doubtful,<a name='fna_3' id='fna_3' href='#f_3'><small>[3]</small></a>
+that of Horus from the root <i>Hur</i> light, connected with the Sanscrit <i>Ush</i>
+to burn (whence also Aurora, etc.,) is certain. When the great myth became
+translated to different climates, the evil principle took on different
+forms of dread. Water, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> rainy season in some countries, the darkness
+and cold of winter in others, were the Dragon which the Hero-god, the Sun,
+had to overcome&mdash;out of which conflict arose myths innumerable, yet one
+and the same in essence. Apollo slew the Python, the sunbeams drying up
+the waters being his arrows; Perseus slew the Dragon, by turning him to
+stone, which perhaps means that the spring sun dried up the mud of the
+particular locality where the fable rose. Later, Sigurd slew the Dragon
+Fafnir. When the Christians found themselves by expediency committed to
+adopt the form, and to a certain degree the spirit, of heathen beliefs,
+the Sun <i>versus</i> Darkness, or the Spring <i>versus</i> Winter myth was a
+difficulty in very many places. At first the idea was kept up of a
+material victory over the adverse forces of nature, and we find honourable
+mention of various bishops and saints, who&mdash;by means of which there is
+little detail, but which may be supposed to be that great monastic
+beneficence, intelligent drainage&mdash;conquered the dragons of flood and fen.
+It is somewhat odd that the Psalmist attributes to the Deity the victory
+of breaking the heads of the &#8220;dragons in the waters.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Thus St. Romain of Rouen slew there the Dragon Gargouille, which is but
+the name of a draining-gutter after all, and hence the grotesque
+waterspouts of our churches are mostly dragons.</p>
+
+<p>St. Martha slew the Dragon Tarasque at Aix-la-chapelle, but that name is
+derived from <i>tarir</i>, to drain. St. Keyne slew the Cornish Dragon, and, to
+be brief, at least twelve other worthies slew dragons, and doubtless for
+their respective<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> districts supplied the place of the older myth. Among
+these, St. George is noteworthy. He is said to have been born at Lydda, in
+Syria, where his legend awaited the Crusaders, who took him as their
+patron, bringing him to the west, as the last Christian adoption of a
+sun-myth idea, to become the patron saint of England. A figure of St.
+George was a private badge of English kings till the time of the Stuarts.
+On the old English angel the combat is between St. Michael and the Dragon,
+and though St. George is generally shewn mounted, as was also sometimes
+Horus, the Egyptian deity, he is sometimes represented on foot, like St.
+Michael. The Dragon is generally the same in the two cases, being the
+Wyvern or two-legged variety.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of dragon is drake. Certain forms of cannon were called both
+dragons and drakes. Sometimes the dragon is found termed the Linden-worm,
+or Lind-drake, in places as widely sundered as Scotland and Germany. It is
+said this is on account of the dragon dwelling under the linden, a sacred
+tree, but this is probably only, as yet, half explained.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps through all time the sun-myth was accompanied by a constant
+feeling that good and evil were symbolised by the alternation of season.
+It is to be expected that the feeling would increase and solidify upon the
+advent of Christianity, for the periodic dragon of heathendom was become
+the permanent enemy of man, the Devil. The frequent combats between men
+(and other animals) and the dragons, met among church grotesques, though
+their models, far remote in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>antiquity, were representations of sun-myths,
+would be carved and read as the ever-continuing fight between good and
+evil. That, however, it is reasonable to see in these Dragon sculptures
+direct representatives of the ancient cult, we know from a fact of date.
+The festival of Horus, the Egyptian deity, was the 23rd of April. That is
+the date of St. George&#8217;s Day.</p>
+
+<p>Less than the foregoing would scarcely be sufficient to explain the
+frequency and significance of the Dragon forms which crowd our subject.</p>
+
+<p>During the three Rogation days, which took the place of the Roman
+processional festivals of the Ambarvalia and Cerealia, the Dragon was
+carried as a symbol both in England and on the continent. When the Mystery
+pageantry of Norwich was swept away, an exception was made in favour of
+the Dragon, who, it was ordained, &#8220;should come forth and shew himself as
+of old.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Rogation Dragon in France was borne, during the first two days of the
+three, before the cross, with a great tail stuffed with chaff, but on the
+third day it was carried behind the cross, with the tail emptied of its
+contents. This signified, it is said, the undisturbed dominion of Satan
+over the world during the two days that Christ was in Hell, and his
+complete humiliation on the third day.</p>
+
+<p>In some countries the figure of the Dragon, or another of the Devil, after
+the procession, was placed on the altar, then drawn up to the roof, and
+being allowed to fall was broken into pieces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>Early Keltic and other pastoral staves end in two Dragons&#8217; heads,
+recalling the caduceus of Mercury and rod of Moses; the Dragon was a
+Keltic military or tribal ensign. Henry VII. assumed a red dragon as one
+of the supporters of the royal arms, on account of his Welsh descent;
+Edward IV. had as one of his numerous badges a black dragon. A dragon
+issuing from a chalice is the symbol of St. John the Evangelist, an
+allusion to the dragon of the Apocalypse.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img024.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE SLAYER OF THE DRAGON, IFFLEY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The Dragon combat here presented is from the south doorway of Iffley
+Church, near Oxford. In this example of Norman sculpture, the humour
+intent is more marked than usual. The hero is seated astride the dragon&#8217;s
+back, and, grasping its upper and lower jaws, is tearing them asunder. The
+dragon is rudely enough executed, but the man&#8217;s face and extremities have
+good drawing. The cloak flying behind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> him shew that he has leaped into
+the quoin of vantage, and recalls the classic. The calm exultation with
+which the hero seizes his enemy is only equalled by the good-natured
+amusement which the creature evinces at its own undoing.</p>
+
+<p>We now arrive at a form of the sun-myth which appears to have come down
+without much interference. The god Horus is alluded to as a child, and in
+a curious series of carvings the being attacked by a Dragon is a child. It
+is attempted, and with considerable success, to be represented as of great
+beauty. The point to explain is the position of the child, rising as it
+does from a shell. This leads us further into the various contingent
+mythologies dealing with the Typhon story. Horus (also called Averis, or
+Orus), was in Egyptian lore also styled Caimis, and is equivalent to Cama,
+the Cupid of the Hindoos. Typhon (also known as Smu, and as Sambar) is
+stated to have killed him, and left him in the waters, where Isis restored
+him to life. That is the account of Herodotus, but &AElig;lian says that Osiris
+threw Cupid into the ocean, and gave him a shell for his abode. After
+which he at length killed Typhon.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the shell in the myth-carvings to be found to-day in medi&aelig;val
+Christian churches.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks represented Cupid, and also Nerites, as living in shells, and,
+strangely enough, located them on the Red Sea coast, adjacent to the home
+of the Typhon myth. It is probable that the word <i>sancha</i>, a sea-shell,
+used in this connection, is from <i>suca</i>, a cave, a tent; and we may
+conjecture that there is an allusion to certain dwellers in tents, who,
+coming westward, worked, after a struggle, a political and dynastic
+revolution, carrying with it great changes in agriculture. This is a
+conjecture we may, however, readily withdraw in favour of another, that
+the shell itself is merely a symbol of the ocean, and that Cupid emerging
+is a figure of the sun rising from the sea at some particular zodiacal
+period.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 600px; height: 247px;"><img src="images/img025.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE CHILD AND DRAGON, LINCOLN.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>Another story kindred to that of Typhon and Horus is that of Sani and
+Aurva, met in Hindoo literature. They were the sons of Surya, regent of
+the Sun (Vishnu); Sani was appointed ruler, but becoming a tyrant was
+deposed, and Aurva reigned in his place. This recalls that one of the
+names given to Typhon in India was Swarbh&aacute;nu, &#8220;light of heaven,&#8221; from
+which it is evident that he is Lucifer, the fallen angel; so that
+accepting the figurative meaning of all the narratives, we can see even a
+propriety in the Gothic transmission of these symbolic representations.</p>
+
+<p>It may be added to this that the early conception of Cupid was as the god
+of Love in a far wider and higher sense than indicated in the later
+poetical and popular idea. He was not originally considered the son of
+Venus, whom he preceded in birth. It is scarcely too much to say that he
+personified the love of a Supreme Unknown for creation; and hence the
+assumption by Love of the character of a deliverer.</p>
+
+<p>There are other shell deities in mythology. Venus had her shell, and her
+Northern co-type, Frigga, the wife of the Northern sun-god, Odin, rode in
+a shell chariot.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest of our examples is the most serious and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> precise. The Dragon
+is a very bilious and repulsive reptile, while the child form, thrice
+repeated in the same carving, has grace and originality. This is from
+Lincoln Minster.</p>
+
+<p>The next is also on a misericorde, and is in Manchester Cathedral. Here
+the shell is different in position, being upright. The Child in this has
+long hair.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img026.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">DRAGON AND CHILD, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The third example is from a misericorde at Beverley Minster, the series at
+which place shews strong evidence of having been executed from the same
+set of designs as those of Manchester Cathedral, and were carved some
+twelve years later. Many of the subjects are identically the same, but in
+this case it will be seen how a meaning may be lost by a carver&#8217;s
+misapprehension. The shell would not be recognizable without comparison
+with the other instances, and the Dragon has become two. The head of the
+Child in this carving appears to be in a close hood, or Puritan infantile
+cap, which, as the &#8220;foundling cap,&#8221; survived into this century. In all the
+three carvings, the Dragons are of the two-legged kind, which St.
+George is usually shewn slaying. It is a little remarkable that the
+Child&#8217;s weapon in all three cases is broken away. The object borne
+sceptre-wise by the left hand child in the Lincoln carving, is apparently
+similar to the Egyptian hieroglyphic &#9115;, the Greek &#950;,
+European s. It may be worth while to suggest that the greatly-discussed
+collar of ss, worn by the lords chief justices, and others in authority,
+may have its origin in this hieroglyphic as a symbol of sovereignty,
+rather than in any of the arbitrary ascriptions of a medi&aelig;val initial.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 550px; height: 334px;"><img src="images/img027.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE CHILD AND DRAGON, MANCHESTER.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img028.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE SLAYING OF THE SNAIL,<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The weapon is evidently a form of the falx, or falcula, for it was with
+such a one (and here we see further distribution of the myth) that Jupiter
+wounded Typhon, and such was the instrument with which Perseus slew the
+sea-dragon: the falx, the pruning-hook, sickle or scythe, is an emblem of
+Saturn, and the oldest representation of it in that connection shew it in
+simple curved form. Saturn&#8217;s sickle became a scythe, and the planet deity
+thus armed became, on account of the length of his periodical revolution,
+our familiar figure of Father Time. Osiris, the father of Horus, is styled
+&#8220;the cause of Time.&#8221; An Egyptian regal coin bears a man cutting corn with
+a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> sickle of semi-circular blade. In many parts of England, the sickle is
+spoken of simply as &#8220;a hook.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Apparently the carver of the Beverley misericorde was conscious he had
+rendered the shell very badly, for in the side supporter of the carving he
+had placed, by way of reminder as to an attack upon the occupant of a
+shell, a man in a fashionable dress, piercing a snail as it approaches
+him. In medi&aelig;val carvings, as in many of their explanations, it is
+scarcely a step from the sublime to the ridiculous.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img029.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">GROTESQUE OF HORUS IN THE SHELL.<br />THE PALMER FOX EXHIBITING HOLY WATER.<br />NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>One other carving which seems to point to the foregoing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> is at New
+College, Oxford. It is a genuine grotesque, and may be a satire upon the
+more serious works. It represents, seated in the same univalve kind of
+shell as the others, a fox or ape in a religious habit, displaying a
+bottle containing, perhaps, water from the Holy Land, the Virgin&#8217;s Milk,
+or other wondrous liquid. One of the side carvings is an ape in a hood
+bringing a bottle.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Hell&#8217;s Mouth.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img030.jpg" alt="H" /><br /><small><small><span style="margin-left: 2em;">HELL&#8217;S MOUTH,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">HOLY CROSS,</span><br />STRATFORD-ON-AVON.</small></small></span>ell&#8217;s
+Mouth was one of the most popular conceptions of medi&aelig;val times.
+Except so far as concerns the dragon form of the head whose mouth was
+supposed to be the gates of Hell, the idea appears to be entirely
+Christian. &#8220;Christ&#8217;s descent into Hell&#8221; was a favourite subject of Mystery
+plays. In the Coventry pageant the &#8220;book of words&#8221; contained but six
+verses, in which Hell is styled the &#8220;cindery cell.&#8221; The Chester play is
+much longer, and is drawn from the Apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus. This
+gospel, which has a version in Anglo-Saxon of <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> 950, is no doubt the
+source from which is derived a prevalent form of Hell&#8217;s Mouth in which
+Christ is represented holding the hand of one of the persons engulped in
+the infernal jaws. This is seen in a carving on the east window of
+Dorchester Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>The Mouth is here scarcely that of a dragon, but that of an exceedingly
+well-studied serpent; for intent and powerful malignity the expression of
+this fine stone carving would be difficult to surpass. The Descent into
+Hell is one of a series, on the same window, of incidents in the life of
+Christ; all are exceedingly quaint, but their distance from the ground<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+improves them in a more than ordinary degree, and their earnest intention
+prevails over their accidental grotesqueness. The beautiful curves in this
+viperous head are well worthy of notice in connection with the remarks
+upon the artistic qualities of Gothic grotesques.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img031.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">HELL&#8217;S MOUTH, DORCHESTER, OXON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The verse of the Gospel (xix., 12), explains who the person is. &#8220;And [the
+Lord] taking hold of Adam by his right hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> he ascended from hell and all
+the saints of God followed him.&#8221; The female figure is of course Eve, who
+is shewn with Adam in engravings of the subject by Albert Durer (1512,
+etc.,) and others. The vision of Piers Ploughman (<i>circa</i> 1362), has
+particular mention of Adam and Eve among Satan&#8217;s captive colony. Satan, on
+hearing the order of a voice to open the gates of Hell, exclaims:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Yf he reve me of my ryght he robbeth me by mastrie,<br />
+For by ryght and reson the reukes [rooks] that be on here<br />
+Body and soul beth myne both good and ille<br />
+For he hyms-self hit seide that Syre is of Helle,<br />
+That Adam and Eve and al hus issue<br />
+Sholden deye with deol [should die with grief] and here dwell evere<br />
+Yf thei touchede a tree othr toke ther of an appel.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A MS. volume in the British Museum, of poems written in the thirty-fourth
+year of the reign of Henry VI., has &#8220;Our Lady&#8217;s Song of the Chyld that
+soked hyr brest,&#8221; in which other persons than Adam and Eve are stated to
+have been taken out of hell on the same occasion:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Adam and Eve wyth hym he take,<br />
+Kyng David, Moyses and Salamon<br />
+And haryed hell every noke,<br />
+Wythyn hyt left he soulys non.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The belief in the descent in Hell can be traced back to the second
+century. The form of Hell as a mouth is much later.</p>
+
+<p>There is mention of a certain &#8220;Mouth of Hell,&#8221; which in 1437 was used in a
+Passion play in the plain of Veximiel; this Mouth was reported as very
+well done, for it opened and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> shut when the devils required to pass in or
+out, and it had two large eyes of steel.</p>
+
+<p>The great east window of York Cathedral, the west front and south doorway
+of Lincoln, and the east side of the altar-screen, Beverley Minster, have
+representations of the Mouth of Hell. The chancel arch of Southleigh has a
+large early fresco of the subject, in which two angels, a good and a bad
+(white and black), are gathering the people out of their graves; the black
+spirit is plucking up certain bodies (or souls) with a flesh-hook, and his
+companions are conveying them to the adjacent Mouth. In a Flemish Book of
+Hours of the fifteenth century (in the Bodleian Library) there is a
+representation with very minute details of all the usual adjuncts of the
+Mouth, and, in addition, several basketsful of children (presumably the
+unbaptized) brought in on the backs of wolf-like fiends, and on sledges, a
+common medi&aelig;val method of conveyance.</p>
+
+<p>Sackvil mentions Hell as &#8220;an hideous hole&#8221; that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;With ougly mouth and griesly jawes doth gape.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Further instances of Hell&#8217;s Mouth are in the block of the Ludlow ale-wife
+on a following page.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Satanic Representations.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img032.jpg" alt="Q" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">WINCHESTER
+COLLEGE,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>14th century</i>.</span></small></span>uaint
+as are the grotesques derived from the great symbolic Dragon, there
+is another series of delineations of Evil, which are still more curious.
+These are the representations of Evil which are to be regarded not so much
+symbolic as personal. The constant presence of Satan and his satellites on
+capital and corbel, arcade and misericorde, is to be explained by the
+exceedingly strong belief in their active participation in mundane affairs
+in robust physical shapes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img033.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SATAN AND A SOUL, DORCHESTER, OXON.</small></div>
+
+<p>It would, perhaps, not seem improper to refer the class of carving
+instanced by the three cuts, next following, to the Typhon myth. I think,
+however, a distinction may be drawn between such carvings as represent
+combat, and such as represent victimization; the former I would attribute
+to the myth, the latter to the Christian idea of the torments consequent
+on sin. At the same time, the victim-carving, generally easily disposed of
+by styling it &#8220;Satan and a Soul,&#8221; is undoubtedly largely influenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> by
+the myth-idea of Typhon (by whatever name known) as a <i>seizer</i>, as
+indicated definitely in one of his general names, Gr&aacute;ha. The figure was
+naturally one according well with the medi&aelig;val understanding of spiritual
+punishment, and its varieties in carving are numerous enough to furnish an
+adequate inferno. The Dorchester example is a small boss in the groined
+ceiling of the sedilia of celebrants; that at Ewelme is a weather-worn
+parapet-ornament on the south of the choir; the carving at Farnsham is on
+a misericorde.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img034.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SATAN AND A SOUL, EWELME, OXON.</small></div>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img035.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>REMORSE, YORK.</small></div>
+
+<p>Not entirely, though in some degree, the two next illustrations support
+the theory, of punishment rather than conflict, for the others.</p>
+
+<p>The carving in York Cathedral is of a graceful type; there is one closely
+resembling it at Wells. The Glasgow sketch is from the drawing of a
+fragment of the cathedral; it is more vivid and ludicrous than the other.
+A comparison of these two affords a good idea of the excellent in Gothic
+ornament. The Glasgow carving lacks everything but vigor; the York
+production, though no exceptional example, has vigor, poetry, and grace.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>We will now revert to the more personal and &#8220;human&#8221; aspect of Satan.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img036.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>REMORSE, GLASGOW.</small></div>
+
+<p>A writer<a name='fna_4' id='fna_4' href='#f_4'><small>[4]</small></a> in the <i>Art Journal</i> some years ago offered excellent general
+observations upon the ideas of the Evil One found at various periods. He
+pointed out that the frolicsome character of the medi&aelig;val demon was
+imparted by Christianity, with its forbidden Satan coming into contact
+with the popular belief in hobgoblins and fairies which were common in the
+old heathen belief of this island, and so the sterner teaching was tinged
+by more popular fancies.</p>
+
+<p>There is much truth in this, except that for the hobgoblins and fairies we
+may very well read ancient deities, for the ultimate effect of
+Christianity upon Pagan reverence was to turn it into contempt and
+abhorrence for good and bad deities alike. We can read this in the slender
+records of ancient worships whose traces are left in language. Thus <i>Bo</i>
+is apparently one of the ancient root-words implying divinity; <i>Bod</i>, the
+goddess of fecundity; <i>Boivani</i>, goddess of destruction; <i>Bolay</i>, the
+giant who overcame heaven, earth and hell; <i>Bouders</i>, or <i>Boudons</i>, the
+genii guarding Shiva, and <i>Boroon</i>, a sea-god, are in Indian mythology.
+<i>Bossum</i> is a good deity of Africa. <i>Borvo</i> and <i>Bormania</i> were guardians
+of hot springs, and with <i>Bouljanus</i> were gods of old Gaul. <i>Borr</i> was
+the father of Odin, and <i>Bure</i> was Borr&#8217;s sister. The <i>Bo</i>-tree of
+India is the sacred tree of wisdom. In Sumatra <i>boo</i> is a root-word
+meaning good (as in <i>booroo</i>). <i>Bog</i> is the Slavonic for god. These are
+given to shew a probable connection among wide-spread worships.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 550px; height: 344px;"><img src="images/img037.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SATAN AND A SOUL, DORCHESTER.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>We are now chiefly concerned with the last instance. The Slavonic <i>Bog</i>, a
+god, is met in Saxon as a goblin, for the &#8220;boy&#8221; who came into the court of
+King Arthur and laid his wand upon a boar&#8217;s head was clearly a &#8220;bog&#8221; (the
+Saxon <i>g</i> being exchanged erroneously for <i>y</i>, as in <i>dag&#8217;s aeg</i>, day&#8217;s
+eye, etc). In Welsh, similarly, <i>Brog</i> is a goblin, and we have the evil
+idea in <i>bug</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Warwick was a bug that feared us all.&#8221;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">&mdash;<i>Shakespeare. Henry IV., v., 2.</i></span></p>
+
+<p>That is &#8220;Warwick was a goblin that made us all afraid.&#8221; The Boggart is a
+fairy still believed in by Staffordshire peasants. We have yet <i>bugbear</i>,
+as the Russians have <i>Buka</i>, and the Italians <i>Buggaboo</i>, of similar
+meaning.</p>
+
+<p>As with the barbaric gods, so with the classic deities, who equally
+supplied material of which to make foul fiends. Bacchus, with the legs and
+sprouting horns of a goat, that haunter of vine-yards, then his fauns
+constructed on the same symbolic principle, gave rise to the satyrs.
+These, offering in their form disreputable points for reprobation, were
+found to be a sufficiently appropriate symbol of the Devil. The reasons of
+variety in the satyr figure are not far to seek, beyond the constant
+tendency of the medi&aelig;val artist to vary form while preserving essence.
+Every artist had his idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> the devil, either drawn from the rich depths
+of a Gothic imagination, from the descriptions accumulated by popular
+credulity, and most of all from that result of both&mdash;the Devil of the
+Mystery or Miracle Plays.</p>
+
+<p>The plays were performed by trade gilds. Every town had many of these
+gilds, though several would sometimes join at the plays; and even very
+small villages had both gild and plays. There are yet existing some slight
+traces of the reputation which obscure villages had in their own vicinity
+for their plays, of which Christmas mumming contains the last tattered
+relic. So that, the Devil being a favourite character in the pieces so
+widely performed, it is not surprising to find him equally at home among
+the works of the carvers, who, according to the nature of artists of all
+time, would doubtless holiday it with the best, and look with more or less
+appreciation upon such drama as was set before them.</p>
+
+<p>Where we see Satan as the satyr, he is the rollicking fiend of the Mystery
+stage, tempting with sly good-humour, tormenting with a grim and ferocious
+joy, or often merely posturing and capering in a much to be envied height
+of the wildest animal spirits. There is in popular art no trace, so far as
+the writer&#8217;s observation extends, of that lofty sorrow at man&#8217;s
+unworthiness, which has occasionally been attributed to Satan.</p>
+
+<p>The general feeling is that indicated by the semi-contemptuous epithets
+applied to the satyr-idea of &#8220;Auld Clootie&#8221; (cloven-footed), and &#8220;Auld
+Hornie,&#8221; of our Northern brethren.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img038.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A MAN-GOAT, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Horns were among all ancient nations symbolic of power and dignity.
+Ancient coinages shew the heads of kings and deities thus adorned. The
+Goths wore horns. Alexander frequently wore an actual horn to indicate his
+presumption of divine descent. The head dress of priests was horned on
+this account. This may point to a pre-historic period when the horned
+animals were not so much of a prey as we find them in later days; thus the
+aurochs of Western Europe appears to have been more dreaded by the wild
+men of its time, than has been, say, the now fast-disappearing bison by
+the North American Indians. On the other hand, the marvellous continuity
+of nature&#8217;s designs lead us to recognize that the carnivorous animals must
+always have had the right to be the symbols of physical power. Therefore,
+the idea of power, originally conveyed by the horns, is that carried by
+the possession of riches in the shape of flocks and herds. The pecunia
+were the means of power, and their horns the symbol of it. With the
+Egyptians, the ox signified agriculture and subsistence. Pharaoh saw the
+kine coming out of the Nile because the fertility of Egypt depends upon
+that river. So that it is easy to see how the ox became the figure of the
+sun,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> and of life. Similar significance attached to the sheep, the goat,
+and the ram. Horus is met as &#8220;Orus, the Shepherd.&#8221; Ammon wore the horns of
+a ram. Mendes was worshipped as a goat.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img039.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A CHERISHED BEARD, CHICHESTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The goat characteristics are well carved on a seat in All Souls. A goat
+figure of the thirteenth century at Chichester has the head of a man with
+a curious twisted or tied beard, clutched by one of the hands in which the
+fore feet terminate. The clutching of the beard is not uncommon among
+Gothic figures, and has doubtless some original on a coin, or other
+ancient standard design. At St. Helen&#8217;s, Abingdon, Berkshire, in different
+parts of the church, three heads, one being a king, another a bishop, are
+shewn grasping or stroking each his own beard. It is to be remembered that
+the stroking of the beard is a well-known Eastern habit.</p>
+
+<p>Of close kindred to the goat form is the bull form. Just as Ceres
+symbolized the fecundity of the earth in the matter of cereals, so Pan was
+the emblem by which was figured its productiveness of animal life. Thus
+Priapus was rendered in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> goat form, as the ready type of animal sexual
+vigor; but not less familiar in this connection was the bull, and that
+animal also symbolizes Pan, who became, when superstition grew out of
+imagery, the protector of cattle in general. An old English superstition
+was that a piece of horn, hung to the stable or cowhouse key, would
+protect the animals from night-fright and other ills. When the pagan Gods
+were skilfully turned into Christian devils, we find the bull equally with
+the goat as a Satanic form, and several examples will be seen in the
+drawings.</p>
+
+<p>The ox, as the symbol of St. Luke, is stated to refer, on account of its
+cud-chewing, to the eclectic character of this evangelist&#8217;s gospel.
+Iren&aelig;us, speaking of the second cherubim of the Revelation, which is the
+same animal, says the calf signifies the sacerdotal office of Christ; but
+the fanciful symbolisms of the fathers and of the Bestiaries are often
+indifferent guides to original meaning. It may be that in the ox forms we
+have astronomical allusions to Taurus, Bacchus, to Diana, or to Pan. A
+note on the emblems of the Evangelists follows in the remarks on the
+combinatory forms met in grotesque art.</p>
+
+<p>Before passing on to consider particular examples of satyr or bull-form
+fiends, a few words may be said as to another form which, though allied to
+the dragon-shape embodiments, has the personal character. This is the
+Serpent. The origin of this appears to be the translation of the word
+<i>Nachasch</i> for serpent in the Biblical account of the momentous Eden
+episode, a rendering which, without philological certainty, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+countenanced by the general presence of the serpent in one form or another
+in every system of theology in the world. Jewish tradition states that the
+serpent, with beauty of form and power of flight, had no speech, until in
+the presence of Eve he ate of the fruit of the Tree, and so acquired
+speech, immediately using the gift to tempt Eve. Other traditions say that
+Nachasch was a camel, and became a serpent by the curse. Adam Clarke
+maintained that Nachasch was a monkey. The traditional and mystic form of
+the angels was that of a serpent. <i>Seraph</i> means a fiery serpent. In
+Isaiah&#8217;s vision, the seraphim are human-headed serpents. One of the most
+remarkable items in the history of worship is the account of the symbolic
+serpent erected by Moses, and the subsequent use of it as an idol until
+the time of Hezekiah. In the first satire of Perseus, he says, &#8220;paint two
+snakes, the place is sacred!&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img040.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE SERPENT, ELY.</small></div>
+
+<p>The use of the serpent as the Church symbol of regeneration and revival of
+health or life is not common in carvings. In these senses it was used by
+the Greeks, though chiefly as the symbol of the Supreme Intellect, being
+the special attribute and co-type of Minerva. The personal apparition
+which confronted Eve is not so infrequent, though without much variety.</p>
+
+<p>In a representation of the temptation of Adam and Eve among the
+misericordes of Ely, the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is shewn
+of a very peculiar shape. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> serpent, whose coils are difficult to
+distinguish from the foliage of the tree, has the head of a saturnine
+Asiatic, who is taking the least possible notice of &#8220;our first parents,&#8221;
+as they stand eating apples and being ashamed, one on each side of the
+composition.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img041.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE OLD SERPENT, CHICHESTER.<br /><i>13th century.</i></small></div>
+
+<p>A carving in the choir of Chichester Cathedral shews in a double
+repetition, one half of which is here shewn, the evil head with an attempt
+at the legendary comeliness, mingled with debased traits, that is
+artistically very creditable to the sculptor. As though dissatisfied with
+the amount of beauty he had succeeded in imparting to the heads on the
+serpents, he adds, on the side-pieces of the carving, two other heads of
+females in eastern head-dresses, to which he has imparted a demure Dutch
+beauty, due perhaps to his own nationality. Human-headed serpents are in
+carvings at Norwich and at Bridge, Kent.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img042.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>DEMURENESS MEDITATING MISCHIEF.<br />DEUTCHO-EGYPTIAN MASK,<br />CHICHESTER.</small></div>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img043.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>ANGEL, EWELME.</small></div>
+
+<p>With regard to Satan&#8217;s status as an angel, a considerable number of
+representations of him are to be found, in which he conforms to a
+prevalent medi&aelig;val idea as to the plumage of the spirit race. Angels are
+found clothed entirely with feathers, as repeated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> some scores of times in
+the memorial chapel, at Ewelme, of Alice, Duchess of Suffolk,
+grand-daughter of Chaucer, who died in 1475. The annexed block shews a
+small archangel which surmounts the font canopy, and is of the same
+character as the chapel angels. At All Souls, Oxford, is a carving of a
+warrior-visaged person wearing a morion, and armed with a falchion and
+buckler. He is clad in feathers only, appearing to be flying downward, and
+is either a representation of St. Michael or Lucifer.</p>
+
+<p>Satan is often similarly treated. Loki, the tempter of the Scandinavian
+Eden, who was ordered to seek the lost Idun he had deceived, had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> to go
+forth clad in borrowed garments of falcon&#8217;s feathers with wings. When the
+pageant at the Setting of the Midsummer Watch at Chester was forbidden by
+the Mayor, in 1599, one of the prohibited figures was &#8220;the Devil and his
+Feathers.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There may be a connection between the final punishment of Loki and the
+idea embodied in the carvings mentioned above as being at, among other
+places, Wells, York, and Glasgow, and which have been considered as
+conceptions of Remorse. Loki was condemned to be fastened to a rock to
+helplessly endure the eternal dropping upon his brow of poison from the
+jaws of a serpent; only that there is neither in these carvings, nor any
+others noted to the present, any indication of the presence of the
+ministering woman-spirit who for even the fiend Loki stood by to catch the
+death-drops in a cup of mercy.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img044.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">ST. MICHAEL, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+<h2>The Devil and the Vices.</h2>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img045.jpg" alt="H" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: 2em;">RECORDING IMP.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.75em;">ST. KATHERINE&#8217;S,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">REGENT&#8217;S PARK.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>Initial added</i>).</span></small></span>aving examined the various lower forms given by man to his great enemy,
+and now noting that to such forms may be added the human figure in whole
+or part, we will next take in review a few of the sins which bring erring
+humanity into the clutches of Satan; for we find some of the most
+grotesque of antique carvings devoted to representation of what may be
+called the finale of the Sinner&#8217;s Progress. These are probably largely
+derived from the Mystery Plays; for the moral teaching has the same direct
+soundness. The ideas are often jocosely put, but the principle is one of
+mere retribution. The Devil cannot hurt the Saint and he pays out to the
+Wicked the exact price of his wrong-doing. Thus in nearly all of what may
+be termed the Sin series there is a Recording Imp who bears a tablet or
+scroll, on which we are to suppose the evil commissions and omissions of
+the sinner are duly entered, entitling the fiend to take possession. This
+reminds of the Egyptian Mercury, Thoth, who recorded upon his tablets the
+actions of men, in order that at the Judgment there might be proper
+evidence.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 600px; height: 229px;"><img src="images/img046.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<small><span class="smcap">The Unseen Witness, Ely.</span><br />The Account Presented. Satan Satisfied. The Record of Sin.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>There is a series of carvings, examplified at Ely, New College, Oxford,
+St. Katherine&#8217;s (removed from near the Tower to the Regent&#8217;s Park) and
+Gayton, which have Satan encouraging or embracing two figures apparently
+engaged in conversation. I have placed these among the Sins, for though no
+very particular explanation is forthcoming as to the meaning of the group,
+it is clear that the two human beings are engaged in some occupation
+highly agreeable to the fiend. This evidently has a connection with the
+monkish story told of St. Britius. One day, while St. Martin was saying
+mass, Britius, who was officiating as deacon, saw the devil behind the
+altar, writing on a slip of parchment &#8220;as long as a proctor&#8217;s bill&#8221; the
+sins which the congregation were then and there committing. The people,
+both men and women, appear to have been doing many other things besides
+listening to St. Martin, for the devil soon filled his scroll on both
+sides. Thus far our carvings.</p>
+
+<p>The story goes further, and states that the devil, having further sins to
+record, but no further space on which to write them, attempted to stretch
+the parchment with teeth and claws, which, however, broke the record, the
+devil falling back against a wall. The story then betrays itself. Britius
+laughed loudly, whereat St. Martin, highly displeased, demanded the
+reason, when Britius told him what he had seen, which relation the other
+saint accepted as being true.</p>
+
+<p>This story is one of a class common among medi&aelig;val pulpit anecdotes. It
+cannot well be considered that the carvings arose from the story, nor the
+story from the carvings.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> Probably both arose from something else,
+accounting for the number of sinners being uniformly two, and for the
+attitude of the fiend in each case being so similar. With regard to the
+latter I must leave the matter as it is.</p>
+
+<p>I venture, as to the signification of the two figures, to make a
+suggestion to stand good until a better be found. In the Mystery Play
+entitled the &#8220;Trial of Mary and Joseph&#8221; (Cotton MS., Pageant xiv.,
+amplified out of the Apocryphal New Testament, <i>Protevan</i>, xi.), the story
+runs that Mary and Joseph, particularly the former, are defamed by two
+Slanderers. The Bishop sends his Summoner for the two accused persons, and
+orders that they drink the water of vengeance &#8220;which is for trial,&#8221; a kind
+of miraculous ordeal by poison. Joseph drinks and is unhurt; Mary likewise
+and is declared a pure maid in spite of facts. One of the Slanderers
+declares that the drink has been changed because the Virgin was of the
+High Priest&#8217;s kindred, upon which the Slanderer is himself ordered to
+drink what is left in the cup. Doing so he instantly becomes frantic. All
+ask pardon of Mary for their suspicions, and, that being granted, the play
+is ended.</p>
+
+<p>Now the play commences with the meeting of the Two Slanderers. A brief
+extract or two will shew their method.</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="smcap">1st Detractor.</span>&mdash;To reyse blawthyr is al my lay,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 9em;">Bakbyter is my brother of blood</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Dede he ought come hethyr in al this day</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 9em;">Now wolde God that he were here,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">And, by my trewth, I dare well say</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">That if we tweyn to gethyr apere</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Mor slawndyr we t[w]o schal a rere</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">With in an howre thorwe outh this town,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Than evyr ther was this thouwsand yer,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Now, be my trewth, I have a sight</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Evyn of my brother ... Welcome ...</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">2nd Detractor.</span>&mdash;I am ful glad we met this day.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">1st Detractor.</span>&mdash;Telle all these pepyl [the audience] what is yo<sup>r</sup> name&mdash;<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">2nd Detractor.</span>&mdash;I am Bakbyter, that spyllyth all game,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Both hyd and known in many a place.</span></p>
+
+<p>Then they fall to, and in terms of some wit and much freedom describe the
+physical condition of she who was &#8220;calde mayd Mary.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Two Slanderers in this play are undoubtedly men, for each styles the
+other &#8220;brother.&#8221; Yet there are words in their dialogue, not suited to
+these pages, which could properly only be used by women. As in at least
+one of the carvings the sinners are women, if my hypothesis has any
+correctness there must be some other form of the story in which the
+detractors are female. It is to be noted, also, that the play from which I
+have quoted has no mention of the devil.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img047.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>A BACKBITER,<br />ST. KATHERINE&#8217;S.</small></div>
+
+<p>Years before I met with the play of the trial of Joseph and Mary, I
+considered that the sin of the Two might be scandal, and put down a
+curious carving adjoining the St. Katherine group as a reference to it,
+and suggested it might be a humorous rendering of a Backbiter. This is
+shewn in the accompanying block. It was therefore agreeable to find one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+of the Mystery detractors actually named Backbiter. Against that it may be
+mentioned that the composite figure with a head at the rear is not unique.
+At Rothwell, Northamptonshire, is a dragon attempt, rude though probably
+of late fifteenth century work, with a similar head in the same anatomical
+direction; this is not connected with anything that can be considered
+bearing upon the subject of the Mystery, unless the heads on the same
+misericorde are meant to be those of Jews.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img048.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>A BACKBITER,<br />ROTHWELL, NORTHANTS.</small></div>
+
+<p>The example at Ely shews the fiend closely embracing the two sinners who
+are evidently in the height of an impressive conversation. One figure has
+a book on its knee, the other is telling the beads of a rosary. At the
+sides are two imps of a somewhat Robin Goodfellow-like character, each
+bearing a scroll with the account of the misdeeds of the sinners, and
+which we may presume are the warrants by which Satan is entitled to seize
+his prey. He is the picture of jovial good-nature.</p>
+
+<p>New College, Oxford, has a misericorde of the subject in which the
+figures, female in appearance, are seated in a sort of box. This reminds
+us of Baldini and Boticelli&#8217;s picture of Hell, which is divided into
+various ovens for different vices. That may be the idea here, or perhaps
+the object is a coffin and is used to emphasize what the wages of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> sin
+are. They, like the two sinners of Ely, are in animated conversation.
+Satan here is of a bull-headed form with wings rather like those of a
+butterfly. These are of the end of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>There are foreign carvings described by Mr. Evans as being of the devil
+taking notes of the idle words of two women during mass. This is, perhaps,
+the simple meaning of all this series, and an evidence of the resentment
+of ecclesiastics against the irreverent. There is considerable evidence
+that religious service was scarcely a solemn thing in medi&aelig;val times. If
+this is the signification the box<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> arrangement described above may be some
+sort of early pew.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img049.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE UNSEEN WITNESS, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The next example, from St. Katherine&#8217;s (lately) by the Tower, has the
+fiend in a fashionable slashed suit. The ladies here are only in bust, and
+though of demurely interested expression they have not that rapport and
+animation which distinguish the two previously noticed. Satan does not
+embrace them, but stands behind with legs outstretched and hands, or
+rather claws, on knees, ready to clutch them at the proper moment.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img050.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE UNSEEN WITNESS, ST. KATHERINE&#8217;S.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>At Gayton, Northants, is a further curious instance of this group. The two
+Sinners are in this case unquestionably males, and, but for the
+coincidence with the preceding examples, the men might have been supposed
+to have been engaged in some game of chance. It will be observed that the
+one to the right has a rosary as in the first-named carving.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> Satan here
+is well clothed in feathers, and in his left wing is the head of what is
+probably one of the instruments of torture awaiting the very much
+overshadowed victims. It is a kind of rake or flesh-hook, with three
+sharp, hooked teeth; perhaps a figure of the tongue of a slanderer,
+materialized for his own subsequent scarification; it may be added as a
+kind of satanic badge. Satan bears on his right arm a leaf-shaped shield.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img051.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE UNSEEN WITNESS, GAYTON, NORTHANTS.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The vice next to be regarded is Avarice. In a misericorde at Beverley
+Minster we have three scenes from the history of the Devil. One gives us
+the avaricious man bending before his coffers. He has taken out a coin; if
+we read aright his contemplative and affectionate look, it is gold.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+Hidden behind the chest behold Satan, one of whose bullock horns is
+visible as he lurks out of the miser&#8217;s sight, grinning to think how surely
+the victim is his.</p>
+
+<p>At the opposite end of the carving is the other extreme, Gluttony. A man
+is drinking out of a huge flask, which he holds in his right hand, while
+in the other he grasps a ham (or is it not impossible that this is a
+second bottle). In this the devil is likewise present; he is apparently
+desperately anxious the victim should have enough.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img052.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE DEVIL AND THE MISER, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img053.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">SATAN AND A SOUL, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>Between these two reliefs appears Satan seizing a naked soul. In the
+original all that remains of the Devil&#8217;s head is the outline and one
+horn; of the soul&#8217;s head there remains only the outline; the two faces I
+have ventured to supply, also the fore-arm of the Devil. The fiend is here
+again presented with the attributes of a bullock, rather than a goat.
+Satan has had placed on his abdomen a mask or face, a somewhat common
+method of adding to the startling effect of his boisterous personality.
+The fine rush which the fiend is making upon the soul, and the shrinking
+horror of the latter, are exceedingly well rendered. The moral is, we may
+suppose, that the sinners on either side will come to the same bad end.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img054.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE DEVIL AND THE GLUTTON, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Among the seat-carvings of Henry VII&#8217;s. Chapel, Westminster Abbey, we have
+the vice of Avarice more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> fully treated, there being two carvings devoted
+to the subject. In the first we see a monk suddenly seized by a quaint and
+curious devil (to whom I have supplied his right fore-arm). The monk,
+horror-stricken, yet angry, has dropped his bag of sovereigns, or nobles,
+and the coins fall out. He would escape if he could, but the claws of the
+fiend have him fast.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img055.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>DISMAY, WESTMINSTER.</small></div>
+
+<p>In the companion carving we have the incident&mdash;and the monk&mdash;carried a
+little further. The devil has picked him up, thrown him down along his
+conveniently horizontal back, and strides on with him through a wild place
+of rocks and trees, holding what appears to be a flaming torch, which he
+also uses as a staff. The monk has managed to gather up his dearly-loved
+bag of money, and is frantically clutching at the rocks as he is swiftly
+borne along. Satan in the first carving has rather a benevolent human
+face, in the second a debased beast face, unknown to natural history.
+There is no explanation of how Sathanus has disposed in the second scene
+of the graceful dragon wings he wears in the first. It is probable that
+two of the Italians who carved this set each took the same subject, and we
+have here their respective renderings. I mention with diffidence that if
+the mild and timorous face of Bishop Alcock (which may be seen at Jesus
+College, Cambridge), the architect of this part of the abbey, could be
+supposed to have unfortunately borne at any time the expressions upon
+either of these two representations of the monk, the likeness would, in my
+opinion, be rather striking.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 600px; height: 323px;"><img src="images/img056.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE OVERTAKING OF AVARICE, WESTMINSTER.</small></div>
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 600px; height: 325px;"><img src="images/img057.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE TAKING OF THE AVARICIOUS, WESTMINSTER.</small></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img058.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>DEMONIACAL DRUMMER,<br />WESTMINSTER.</small></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>On the side carving of the carrying-away scene is shewn a woman, dismayed
+at the sight. On the opposite side a fiend is welcoming the monk with beat
+of drum, just as we shall see the ale-wife saluted with the drone of the
+bagpipes.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img059.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>VANITY, ST. MARY&#8217;S MINSTER.</small></div>
+
+<p>A carving at St. Mary&#8217;s Minster, Isle of Thanet, has the devil looking out
+with a vexed frown from between the horns of a lofty head-dress, which is
+on a lady&#8217;s head. Whether this be a rendering of the dishonest ale-wife,
+or a separate warning against the vice of Vanity, cannot well be decided.</p>
+
+<p>There was a popular opinion at one time that the bulk of church carvings
+were jokes at the expense of clergy, probably largely because every hood
+was thought to be a cowl. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> is, however, no doubt as to the carving
+here presented. It may represent the consecration of a bishop. The
+presence of Satan dominating both the individuals, and pulling forward the
+cowl of the seated figure, appears to declare that this is to illustrate
+the vice of Hypocrisy. It is at New College, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img060.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">HYPOCRISY, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Ale and the Ale-wife.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img061.jpg" alt="A" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">THE JOLLY TAPSTER,</span>
+<br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">LUDLOW.</span></small></span>le,
+good old ale, has formed the burden of more songs and satires ancient
+and modern, than will ever be brought together. Ale was the staple
+beverage for morning, noon, and evening meals. It is probable that swollen
+as is the beer portion of the Budget, the consumption of ale, man for man,
+is much less than that of any medi&aelig;val time. The records of all the
+authoritative bodies who dealt with the liquor traffic of the olden time
+are crowded with rules and regulations that plainly demonstrate not only
+the universal prevalence of beer drinking in a proper and domestic degree,
+but also the constant growing abuse of the sale of the liquor. In the
+reign of Elizabeth the evils of the tavern had become so notorious, that
+in some places women were forbidden to keep ale-houses.</p>
+
+<p>As far back as <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> 794, ale-houses had become an institution, for we find
+the orders passed at the Council of Frankfort in that year included one by
+which ecclesiastics and monks were forbidden to drink in an ale-house. St.
+Adrian was the patron of brewers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>In some boroughs (Hull may be given as an instance) in the fifteenth
+century, the Mayor was not allowed to keep a tavern in his year of office.
+Brewers and tavern keepers, with many nice distinctions of grade among
+them, were duly licensed and supervised, various penalties meeting
+attempts at illicit trade. The quality of ale was also an object of
+solicitude, and an official, called the ale-taster, was in nearly every
+centre of population made responsible for the due strength and purity of
+the national beverage. It was customary in some places in the fifteenth
+century for the ale-taster to be remunerated by a payment of 4d. a year
+from each brewer.</p>
+
+<p>It has to be remembered ale was drunk at the meals at which we now use
+tea, coffee, and cocoa; it will be interesting to glance at an instance of
+the rate at which it was consumed. At the Hospital of St. Cross, founded
+in 1132, at Winchester, thirteen &#8220;impotent&#8221; men had each a daily allowance
+of a gallon and a half of good small beer, with more on holidays; this was
+afterwards reduced to three quarts with some two quarts extra for
+holidays. The porter at the gate had only three quarts to give away to
+beggars. There was great idea of continuity at this establishment; even in
+1836 there was spent &pound;133 5s. for malt and hops for the year&#8217;s brewing.
+The happy thirteen had each yet three quarts every day as well as a jack
+(say four gallons) extra among them on holidays, with 4s. for beer money.
+Two gallons of beer were also daily dispensed at the gate at the rate of a
+horn of not quite half a pint to each applicant.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img062.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">LETTICE LITTLETRUST AND A SIMPLE SIMON.<br />WELLINGBOROUGH, <i>14th century</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Ale, no more than other things, could be kept out of church. A carving at
+Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, shews us an interview between a would-be
+customer on the one part and an ale-wife on the other part. There is, in a
+list of imaginary names in an epilogue or &#8220;gagging&#8221; summons to a miracle
+play, mention of one Letyce Lytyltrust, whom surely we see above.
+Evidently the man is better known than trusted, and while a generous
+supply of the desired refreshment is &#8220;on reserve&#8221; in a dear old jug, some
+intimation has been made that cash is required; he, like one Simon on a
+similar occasion, has not a penny, and with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> one hand dipped into his
+empty pocket, he scratches his head with the other. His good-natured
+perplexity contrasts well with the indifferent tradeswoman-like air of the
+ale-wife, who while she rests the jug upon a bench, does not relinquish
+the handle. He is saying to himself, &#8220;Nay, marry, an I wanted a cup o&#8217; ale
+aforetime I was ever served. A thirsty morn is this. I know not what to
+say to t&#8217; jade;&#8221; while she is muttering, &#8220;An he wipe off the chalk ahint
+the door even, he might drink and welcome, sorry rogue tho&#8217; he be. But no
+use to cry pay when t&#8217; barrel be empty.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>At Edgeware in 1558, an innkeeper, was fined for selling a pint and a half
+of ale at an exorbitant price, namely, one penny. A quart was everywhere
+the proper quantity, and that of the strongest; small ale sold at one
+penny for two quarts. With regard to the then higher value of money,
+however, the prices may be considered to be about the same as at present,
+and the same may be said of many commodities which appear in records at
+low figures.</p>
+
+<p>Of an earlier date is the tapster of the initial block, from Ludlow, who
+furnishes a comfortable idea of a congenial, and to judge from his pouch,
+a profitable occupation. It is to be presumed the smallness of the barrel
+as compared with that of the jug&mdash;probably of copper, and dazzlingly
+bright&mdash;was the artist&#8217;s means of getting its full outline within the
+picture, and not an indication of the relations of supply and demand.</p>
+
+<p>Alas for the final fate of the dishonest woman who could cheat men in the
+important matter of ale! At Ludlow we are shewn such a one, stripped of
+all but the head dress and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>necklace of her vanity, and carried
+ignominiously and indecorously to Hell&#8217;s Mouth on the shoulders of a
+stalwart demon (whose head is supplied in the block). In her hand, and
+partaking of her own reverse, she bears the hooped tankard with which she
+defrauded her customers. It is the measure of her woe. The demon thus
+loaded with mischief is met by another, armed with the bagpipes. With
+hilarious air and fiendish grin he welcomes the latest addition to the
+collection of evil-doers within. To the right are the usual gaping jaws of
+Hell&#8217;s Mouth, into which are disappearing two nude females, who, we may
+suppose, are other ale-wifes not more meritorious than the lady of the
+horned head dress. To the left is the Recording Imp.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img063.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE END OF THE ALE-WIFE, LUDLOW.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img064.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE FEMALE DRAWER, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There is allusion in a copy of the Chester Mystery of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> Christ&#8217;s Descent
+into Hell, among the Harleian MSS., to an ale-wife of Chester, which
+doubtless suggested this carving. This lady, a little-trust and a cheater
+in her day, laments having to dwell among the fiends; she endeavours to
+propitiate one of them by addressing him as &#8220;My Sweet Master Sir
+Sattanas,&#8221; who returns the compliment by calling her his &#8220;dear darling.&#8221;
+She announces that:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Some tyme I was a tavernere,<br />
+A gentill gossipe and a tapstere,<br />
+Of wyne and ale a trustie brewer,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Which wo hath me wroughte.</span><br />
+Of cannes I kepte no trewe measuer<br />
+My cuppes I soulde at my pleasuer,<br />
+Deceaving manye a creature,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tho&#8217; my ale were naughte.&#8221;</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>The Devil then delivers a short speech, which is one of the earliest
+temperance addresses on record. He says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Welckome, dere ladye, I shall thee wedd,<br />
+For many a heavye and droncken head<br />
+Cause of thy ale were broughte to bed<br />
+Farre worse than anye beaste.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img065.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>A HORN OF ALE, ELY.</small></div>
+
+<p>There is an old saying &#8220;pull Devil, pull Baker&#8221; connected with the
+representation of a baker who sold his bread short of weight, and was
+carried to the lower regions in his own basket; the ale-wife, of our
+carving, however, does not appear to have retained any power of
+resistance, however slight or ineffectual.</p>
+
+<p>At All Souls, Oxford, there is a good carving of a woman drawing ale. It
+is not, apparently, the ale-wife herself, but the maid sent down into the
+cellar. The maid, perhaps after a good draught of the brew, seems to be
+blowing a whistle to convey, to the probably listening ears of her
+mistress upstairs, the impression that the jug has not received any
+improper attention from her. The artful expression of the ale-loving maid
+lends countenance to the conjecture that the precaution has not been
+entirely efficacious. It is to this day a jocular expression in
+Oxfordshire, and perhaps elsewhere, &#8220;You had better whistle while you are
+drawing that beer.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A carving at Ely represents Pan as an appreciative imbiber from a
+veritable horn of ale.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Satires without Satan.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img066.jpg" alt="T" /><br /><small>THE SLUMBERING PRIEST,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">NEW COLLEGE,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">OXFORD.</span></small></span>here
+are numbers of grotesques which are satires evidently aimed at sins,
+but which have not the visible attendance of the evil one himself.</p>
+
+<p>Among these must be included a curious carving from Swine, in Holderness.
+The priory of Swine was a Cistercian nunnery of fifteen sisters and a
+prioress. Mr. Thomas Blashill states, &#8220;There were, however, two canons at
+least, to assist in the offices of religion, who did not refrain from
+meddling in secular affairs.&#8221;<a name='fna_5' id='fna_5' href='#f_5'><small>[5]</small></a> There was also a small community of
+lay-brethren.</p>
+
+<p>The female in the centre of the carving is a nun; her hood is drawn partly
+over her face, so that only one eye is fully visible, but with the other
+eye she is executing a well-known movement of but momentary duration. The
+two ugly animals between which she peers are intended for hares, a symbol
+of libidinousness, as well as of timidity.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 600px; height: 348px;"><img src="images/img067.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE WINKING NUN, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>Another carving in the same chancel may be in derision of some official of
+the papal court, which, in the thirteenth century, on an occasion of the
+contumacy of the nuns in refusing to pay certain tithes, caused the church, with that
+adjoining, of the lay brethren, to be closed. The nuns defied
+all authority, broke open the chapels, and in general during
+the long contest acted in a curiously ungovernable, irresponsible manner.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img067b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A PAPAL MONSTER, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img067c.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>IMPUDENCE, BISHOP&#8217;S STORTFORD,<br />HERTFORDSHIRE.</small></div>
+
+<p>At Bishop&#8217;s Stortford, Hertfordshire, are some misericordes, which, says Miss
+Phipson, are stated to have originally belonged to Old St. Paul&#8217;s. Among them is
+the annexed subject. The wicked expression of the face, and the general incorrectness
+of the composition, are a historical evidence of indecorum akin to the gestures of the Beverley carvers.</p>
+
+<p>From the fine choir carvings of Westminster Abbey yet another example is given. It is one in which the spirit of the
+old <i>Comptes a Plaisance</i> is well illustrated. A well-clad man,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>suggesting Falstaff in his prime, is seated
+with a lady among luxurious foliage. His arm is right round his
+companion&#8217;s waist, while his left hand dips into his capacious and
+apparently well-lined pouch, or gipciere. He has been styled a merchant.
+He is manifestly making a bargain. The lady is evidently a daughter of the
+hireling (<i>hirudo!</i>), and is crying, &#8220;Give, give.&#8221; In spite of this being
+the work of an Italian artist, the artistic feeling about it would seem to
+recall slightly the lines of Holbein.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img068.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A QUESTION OF PRICE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The small carving to the right of the above is a highly-elate pig, playing
+the pipe. This is shewn in a short chapter hereafter given on Animal
+Musicians. The initial at the head of this chapter is illustrated with the
+&#8220;slumbering priest,&#8221; the carving of whom is at the right of that of the
+&#8216;Unseen <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>Witness,&#8217; drawn on <a href="#Page_85">page 85</a>. This doubtless implies that some
+portion of the sin of the people was to be attributed to the indifference
+of the clergy. Balancing this, there is in the original carving an aged
+person kneeling, and, supported by a crutch, counting her beads.</p>
+
+<p>In a subsequent chapter (on Compound Forms in Gothic) the harpy is
+mentioned, and shewn to be a not uncommon subject of church art, either as
+from the malignant classic form which symbolized fierce bad weather, or as
+the more beneficient though not unsimilar figure which was the symbol of
+Athor, the Egyptian Venus. A Winchester example which might seem in place
+among the remarks on the Compounds, is included here, as it is evidently
+intended to embody a sin. It serves to show that a modern use of the word
+harpy was well understood in medi&aelig;val times. The design is simple, the
+vulture wings being made to take the position of the hair of the woman
+head. She lies in wait spider-wise, her great claws in readiness for the
+prey; and is evidently a character-sketch of a coarse, insatiable daughter
+of the horse-leech.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img069.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE HARPY IN WAIT, WINCHESTER.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Scriptural Illustrations.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img070.jpg" alt="M" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ADAM AND EVE,</span>
+<br /><span style="margin-left: .5em;">BEVERLEY MINSTER.</span></small></span>ystery
+Plays, we have seen, drew upon the Apocryphal New Testament for
+subjects, but it has simply happened that the examples of vice carvings
+illustrate those writings, for Mystery Plays were in general founded upon
+the canonical scriptures. There are many carvings which have Biblical
+incidents for their subject, but it is often impossible to say whether the
+text were the sole material of the designer, or whether his ideas were
+formed by representations he had seen on the Mystery stage. It may be
+presumed that the effect would not be greatly different in one case from
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Jonah furnishes a subject for two misericordes in Ripon
+Cathedral. One is in the frontispiece of this volume. In the first the
+prophet is being pushed by three men unceremoniously over the side of the
+vessel which has the usual medi&aelig;val characteristics, and, in which,
+plainly, there is no room for a fourth person. The ship is riding easily
+on by no means tumultuous waves, out of which protrudes the head of the
+great fish. The fish and Jonah appear to regard the situation with equal
+complacency.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 600px; height: 313px;"><img src="images/img071.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE STORY OF JONAH. THE CASTING OUT.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>In the sequel carving Jonah is shewn being cast out by the fish, of
+which, as in the other, the head only is visible. The monster of the deep
+has altered its appearance slightly during the period of Jonah&#8217;s
+incarceration, its square upper teeth having become pointed. The prophet
+is represented kneeling among the teeth, apparently offering up thanks for
+his deliverance. The sea is bounded by a rocky shore on which stand trees
+of the well-known grotesque type in which they are excellent fir-cones.</p>
+
+<p>These two carvings are of somewhat special interest, as their precise
+origin is known. They are both exceedingly close copies of engravings in
+the Biblia Pauperum, or Poor Man&#8217;s Bible, otherwise called &#8220;Speculum
+Human&aelig; Salvationis,&#8221; or the Mirror of Human Salvation. Other Biblical
+subjects in the Ripon Series of Misericordes are from the same source. Did
+the Sculptor or Sculptors of the series fall short of subjects, or were
+their eyes caught by the definite outlines of the prints in the &#8220;Picture
+Bible&#8221; as it lay chained in the Minster?</p>
+
+<p>The Adoration, in a carving in the choir of Worcester, comes under the
+head of unintentional grotesques. It is a proof that though the
+manipulative skill of the artist may be great, that may only accentuate
+his failure to grasp the true spirit of a subject; and render what might
+have been only a piece of simplicity, into an elaborate grotesque. The
+common-place, ugly features&mdash;where not broken away&mdash;the repeated attitudes
+and the symmetric arrangement join to defeat the artist&#8217;s aim. Add to
+those the anachronisms, the ancient Eastern rulers in Edward III. crowns
+and gowns,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> seated beneath late Gothic Decorated Arches offering gifts,
+and the absurdity is nearly complete. It is difficult to quite understand
+the presence of the lady with gnarled features, on the left, bearing the
+swathed infant (headless) which seems to demonstrate that this was carved
+by a foreigner, or was from a foreign source; for though swathing was
+practised to some extent in England, I can only find that in Holland,
+Germany, etc., and more especially in Italy, the children were swathed to
+this extent, in the complete mummy fashion styled &#8220;bambino.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the reason of the two figures right and left was that the artist
+went with the artistic tide in representing the recently-born infant as a
+strapping boy of four or five; yet his common-sense telling him that was a
+violation of fact he put the other figure in with the strapped infant to
+show what&mdash;in his own private opinion&mdash;the child would really be like at
+the time.</p>
+
+<p>We might have supposed it to be St. John, but he was older and not younger
+than the Divine Child. In the Scandinavian mythology, Vali, the New Year,
+is represented as a child in swaddling clothes.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img072.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">ADORATION OF THE MAGI, WORCHESTER.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>The Scriptural subjects in carved work may be compared with the wall
+paintings which in a few instances have survived the reforming zeal of
+bygone white-washing churchwardens. The comparison is infinitely to the
+advantage of the carvings. These paintings are in distemper and were the
+humble inartistic precursors of noble frescoes in the continental fanes,
+but which had in England no development. To what extent there was merit in
+the mural decoration of the English cathedrals cannot well be stated.
+Such examples, as in a few churches are left to us, are simply
+curiosities. Though changing with the styles they are more crude than the
+sculptures, and the modern eye in search of the grotesque, finds here
+compositions infinitely more excruciatingly imbecile than in any other
+department of art-work of pretension.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img073.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">BAPTISMAL SCENE, GUILDFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>At the same time when they are considered in conjunction with the most
+perfect of the paintings of their period they are by no means so low in
+the scale of merit as at the first thought might be supposed.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the present purpose of looking at them as unintentional grotesques
+they are very valuable specimens of the English art of painting of dates
+which have, except in illuminations, no other examples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>Those of St. Mary&#8217;s, Guildford, are very quaint. The first selected from
+the series is a representation of Christ attending the ministration of St.
+John the Baptist. St. John has apparently taken down to the river bank a
+classic font, in which is seated a convert. The Baptist himself, wearing a
+Phrygian cap (probably Saxon), is turning away from the figures of Christ
+and the man in the font, and is apparently addressing a company which does
+not appear in the picture. Just as the font was put in to make the idea of
+baptism easily understood, so, we may suppose, the curious buttons on
+thongs, or whatever they are, were shewn attached to St. John&#8217;s wrist, to
+indicate that he is speaking of the &#8220;shoe-latchets.&#8221; The waters and bank
+of the Jordan are indicated in a few lines.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img074.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">CASTING OUT OF DEVILS, GUILDFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>The other selection is still more bizarre. It evidently portrays Christ
+casting out devils. The chief point of interest in this painting is the
+original conception of the devils. Anything more vicious, degraded, and
+abhorrent, it would be difficult to produce in so few lines. Roughly
+speaking, they are a compound of the hawk, the hog, and the monkey; this
+curious illustration is an excellent pendant to the marks made upon early
+Satanic depictions on a previous page. The faces are Saxon, except in the
+case of the man with the sword, who is a distinct attempt at a Roman. The
+artist had evidently in his mind one who was set in authority.</p>
+
+<p>The churches of the Midlands are rich in wall-paintings.</p>
+
+<p>A fine example is in North Stoke Church, Oxfordshire, which has two
+Scriptural subjects, a series of angelic figures, and several other
+figures, etc., only fragmentally visible. They were all found accidentally
+under thick coats of whitewash. It may be doubted whether they were ever
+finished. The two Biblical subjects are &#8220;Christ betrayed in the Garden,&#8221;
+and &#8220;Christ before Pilate.&#8221; Christ is a small apparently blind-folded
+figure, of which only the head and one shoulder remains. Pilot is the
+Saxon lord, posing as the seated figure of legal authority, poising a
+hiltless sword in his right hand. The figure addressing Pilate is
+apparently a Roman (Saxon) official; his hand is very large, but there is
+a simple force about his drawing. The fourth figure in a mitre is
+doubtless meant for a Jewish priest, and he has a nasty, clamorous look.
+Pilate, unfortunately, has no pupils<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> to his eyes, but his general
+appearance is as though he was expostulating with the priest.</p>
+
+<p>There is a carol, printed in 1820, which has a woodcut of the subject not
+less rude and not less of an anachronism than this: but what is curious,
+as illustrating the main theory of the present volume&mdash;the tenacity with
+which form is adhered to in unconscious art&mdash;is that the disposition of
+the figures is exactly the same in both pictures. Where the Saxon lord is
+seated, imagine a bearded magistrate, at a sort of Georgian
+quarter-sessions bench, with panelled front. For the simple Saxon, with
+vandyked shirt, suppose a Roman half-soldier, half-village-policeman. Then
+comes the figure of Christ, with the head much lower than those of the
+others because he is nearer. Lastly, there is an incomplete figure behind.</p>
+
+<p>In this case the perfect correspondence may be mere coincidence; it is
+difficult to explain otherwise. The design, however, is the same, only the
+Anglo-Norman filled in his detail from his observation of a manorial
+court, the Moorfield engraver from his knowledge of Bow Street
+police-court.</p>
+
+<p>To conclude, although these paintings are ludicrous in the extreme, the
+artists, who had no easy task, were absolutely serious, and their works,
+divested of the comic aspect conferred by haste and manipulative
+incompetence, are marked by bold impressiveness.</p>
+
+<p>The initial to this chapter is from one of a series of similar ornaments
+on the parapet of the south side of the nave of Beverley Minster; it
+illustrates the toilsome nature of the later portion of Adam&#8217;s life.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Masks and Faces.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img075.jpg" alt="T" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: 2em;">FOLIATE MASK,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">THE CHOIR,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">BEVERLEY MINSTER.</span></small></span>he
+merriest, oddest, most ill-assorted company in the world meet together
+in the masks and faces of Gothic ornament. Space could always be found for
+a head, and skill to execute it. Yet though the variety is immense, the
+faces of Gothic art will be found to classify themselves very definitely.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most prevalent type is the classic mask with leaves issuing
+from the mouth. This may be an idea of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> mask which every player in the
+ancient drama wore, displayed as an ornament with laurel, bay, oak, ivy,
+or what not, inserted in the mouth, because it was pierced for speaking
+through, and the only aperture in which the decorative branches could be
+inserted. Or seeds might germinate in sculptured masks and so have
+suggested the idea. Masks were hung in vineyards, etc.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img076.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FOLIATE MASK, DORCHESTER, OXON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img077.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FOLIATE MASK, ST. MARY&#8217;S MINSTER, ISLE OF THANET.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>A mask above the internal tower-doorway in the Lady Chapel of Dorchester
+Abbey has a close resemblance to the classic mask in the protruding lips,
+which, for the conveying of the voice for the great distance necessary in
+the arrangement of the ancient theatres, were often shaped like a shallow
+speaking-trumpet. The leaves appear to be the vine, and so the head,
+perhaps, that of Bacchus. Between the eyebrows will be noticed an angular
+projection. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> is probably explained by a mask in a misericorde in St.
+Mary&#8217;s Minster, in which some object, perhaps the nasal of a helmet, comes
+down the middle of the forehead. The leaves in this case appear to be oak,
+which is, indeed, the prevailing tree used for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img078.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FOLIATE MASK, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img079.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">INDIAN MASK, ST. MARY&#8217;S, BEVERLEY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally a mask with leaves has the tongue protruding.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img080.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">LATE ITALIAN FOLIATE MASK, WESTMINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps one of the most remarkable masks in Gothic is on another
+misericorde in the same town, but in St. Mary&#8217;s Church; in which the
+features, the head-dress, the treatment of the ears, are all Indian, while
+the leaves are those of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> palm. This is, perhaps, unique as an instance
+of Gothic work so nearly purely Indian in its form.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img081.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">RIPON, <i>late Fifteenth Century</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the leaves are much elaborated as in one of the late
+misericordes of Westminster Abbey; in a few cases the original simplicity
+is quite lost, and we have, as at Ripon, the mask idea run mad, inverted,
+and the leaves become a graceful composition of foliage, flower, and
+fruit.</p>
+
+<p>A rosette from the tomb of Bishop de La Wich, Chichester, has four animal
+faces in an excellent design.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img082.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>ROSETTE ON TOMB OF<br />BISHOP DE LA WICH,<br />CHICHESTER.</small></div>
+
+<p>Often masks are of the simple description known as the Notch-head; these
+are of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They are generally found
+in exposed situations at some elevation, as among the series of corbels
+(<i>corbula</i> a small basket) or brackets called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> the corbel-table,
+supporting a stone course or cornice. The likeness to the human face
+caused by the shadows of the T varies in different examples. That below,
+by curving back at the base, suggests the idea of a mouth. Occasionally,
+as at Finedon, Northamptonshire, the notch-head has its likeness to a face
+increased by the addition of ears.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img083.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>MASK, BUCKLE,<br />OR NOTCH HEAD,<br />CULHAM,<br />YORKSHIRE.</small></div>
+
+<p>Norman masks are interesting, as they explain some odd appearances in
+later work. In many churches are faces scored with lines across the
+cheeks, regardless of the ordinary lines of expression, in a manner
+closely resembling the tattoo incisions of the New Zealand warrior. This
+appearance, however, is simply the too faithful copying of crude Norman
+masks, in which the lines are meant to be the semi-circles round eyes and
+mouth. Moreover, the Norman heads are most often the heads of animals
+grinning to shew the teeth, although their general effect is that of
+grotesque human heads. Iffley west doorway furnishes the best example.
+Here we have the well-known &#8220;beak head&#8221; ornament. The semicircle and upper
+portion of the jambs have single heads, not two of which are exactly
+alike, though all closely resemble each other. They are heads of the eagle
+or gryphon order, with a forehead ornament very Assyrian in character. The
+heads of the jambs are compound, being the head of a grinning beast,
+probably a lion, from the mouth of which emerges a gryphon head of small
+size. These are sometimes called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> &#8220;Cat-heads,&#8221; and the gryphon head is
+sometimes considered (and perhaps occasionally shewn as such) a tongue. A
+fine doorway of beak-heads is at St. Peter&#8217;s-in-the-East, Oxford, which
+church was probably executed by the workmen who were responsible for
+Iffley.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img084.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">BEAK HEADS, IFFLEY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img085.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>NORMAN MASK,<br />ROCHESTER.</small><br /><br />
+<img src="images/img087.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>FOLIATE MASK, EWELME.</small><br /><br />
+<img src="images/img089.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>GORILLA,<br />ROSLYN CHAPEL.</small></div>
+
+<p>It is probable that the symbolism of this is the swallowing up of night by
+day or <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>. The outer arch of the Iffley doorway consists of
+zodiacal signs, and at the south doorway are other designs elsewhere
+mentioned in this volume, far removed from Christian intent.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img086.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>GORGONIC MASK,<br />EWELME.</small><br /><br />
+<img src="images/img088.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>FOLIATE MASK,<br />LINCOLN.</small></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>The grotesqueness of Norman work is almost entirely unconscious. The
+workers were full of Byzantine ideas, and the severe and awful was their
+object rather than the comic. They frequently attempted pretty detail in
+their symbolic designs, but in all the forms which have come from their
+chisels it is easy to see how incomplete an embodiment they gave to their
+conceptions, or rather to the conceptions of their traditional school.
+Norman work, beyond the Gothic, irrespective of the architectural
+peculiarities, has traces of its eastern origin in the classic connection
+of its designs. Adel Church, near Leeds, is peculiar in having co-mingled
+with its eastern designs more than ordinarily tangible references to
+ancient Keltic worship, but nearly all Norman ideographic detail concerns
+itself with old-world myths.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent conception, well carried out, is in a mask which is one of a
+series of late carvings alternating with the gargoyles of Ewelme. In this,
+instead of leaves issuing from the mouth of the mask, there are two
+dragons. If those with leaves are deities, this surely must be one of the
+Furies. It is on the north side of the nave; on the exterior of the
+aisle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> at the same side, other sculptures form a kind of irregular
+corbel-table, and special attention may be drawn to them as affording an
+indication of the derivation of such ornaments from the &#8220;antefixes&#8221; or
+decorated tiles occupying a nearly corresponding position in classic
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p>One of those on the aisle offers a further explanation of the mark before
+mentioned as being on the foreheads of some masks. In this case the
+prominences of the eyebrows branch off into foliage. This appears also to
+be the intention in a capital carving in Lincoln Chapter House.</p>
+
+<p>Roslyn Chapel has some very realistic heads, notably of apes or gorillas
+near the south doorway, of which one is drawn (opposite).</p>
+
+<p>Norman work has frequently some very grotesque heads in corbel tables and
+tower corners, to the odd appearance of which the decay by weather has no
+doubt much contributed. Two examples from Sutton<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> Courtney, Oxfordshire,
+illustrate this weather-worn whimsicality.</p>
+
+<p>Then comes a crowd of faces which have no particular significance, being
+simply the outcome of the unrestrainable fun of the carver. Some are
+merely oddities, while others are full of life-like character.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/img090.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/img091.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><small>GARGOYLE,<br />SUTTON COURTNEY.</small></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><small>WEATHER-WORN NORMAN,<br />SUTTON COURTNEY,<br />BERKSHIRE.</small></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/img092.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/img093.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/img094.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><small>HUMOUR, YORK.</small></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" valign="top"><small>MASK WITH SAUSAGE,<br />STRATFORD-UPON-AVON.</small></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" valign="top"><small>A JEALOUS EYE,<br />YORK.</small></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The knight with the twisted beard, from Swine, may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> be a portrait, and the
+Gargantuan-faced dominus from St. Mary&#8217;s Minster certainly is. An old
+barbarian head from a croche or elbow-rest at Bakewell is rude and worn,
+but yet bold and fine.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/img095.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/img096.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><small>A BEARD WITH A TWIST,<br />SWINE, YORKSHIRE.</small></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" valign="top"><small>A QUIZZICAL VISAGE,<br />BAKEWELL.</small></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/img097.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/img098.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" valign="top"><small>GRIMACE MAKER,<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</small></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" valign="top"><small>FOOL&#8217;S HEADS,<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</small></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Some of these are better than the joculators and mimes&#8217; faces in which the
+artist seriously set himself a humorous task, as in the three heads
+(<a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>) from Beverley Minster, though the latter are in some respects
+more grotesque.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 300px; height: 650px;"><img src="images/img099.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<small>A PORTRAIT, ST. MARY&#8217;S MINSTER.<br />ISLE OF THANET.</small><br /><br />
+<img src="images/img099b.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<small>A ROUGH CHARACTER, BAKEWELL.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>Another curious instance of a grimace and posture maker, assisting his
+countenance&#8217;s contortions by the use of his fingers, is at Dorchester
+Abbey. In this the artist has not been master of the facial anatomy, and
+shows a double pair of lips, one pair in repose, the other pulled back at
+the corners.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img100.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">GRIMACE MAKER, DORCHESTER, OXON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Often a grotesque face will be found added to a beautiful design of
+foliage, either as the conventional mask, as in the design in Lincoln
+Chapter House, or a realistic head, as the following grim, dour visage
+between graceful curves on a misericord at King&#8217;s College, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img101.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">GRACE AND THE GRACELESS, KING&#8217;S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+<h2>The Domestic and Popular.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img102.jpg" alt="D" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: .5em;">THE WEAKER VESSEL,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">SHERBORNE.</span></small></span>omestic
+and popular incidents are plentiful among the carvings, of which
+they form, indeed, a distinct class; and they afford a considerable amount
+of material with which might be built up, in a truly Hogarthian and
+exaggerated spirit, an elaborate account of medi&aelig;val manners in general.
+In the majority of cases the incidents have a familiar, if not an
+endearing suggestiveness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>The records of mankind are not wanting in stormy incidents in which the
+gentle female spirit has chafed under some presumed foolishness or
+wickedness of the head of the house, and at length breaking bounds,
+inflicted on him personal reminders that patience endureth but for a
+season. An example of this is given above, which shews the possibility of
+such a thing as far back as 1520, the date of the Beverley Minster
+misericordes. While the lady is devoting her attention to the flagellation
+of her unfortunate and perhaps entirely blameless spouse, a dog avails
+himself of the opportunity to rifle the caldron.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img103.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">DOMESTIC DISCIPLINE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The picture in the initial, taken from a carving in the choir of Sherborne
+Minster, shews another domestic incident in which the lady administers
+castigation. Though in itself no more than a vulgar satire, it is probable
+that this carving was copied from some representation of St. Lucy, who is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+sometimes shewn with a staff in her hand, and behind her the devil
+prostrate.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img104.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">AN UNKIND FARE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to say what is the meaning of another carving in Beverley
+Minster, or whether it has any connection with that just noted. The
+probability is that it has not. This may be a shrewish wife being wheeled
+in the tumbril to the waterside, there to undergo for the better ruling of
+her tongue, a punishment the authority for which was custom older than
+law. But I am inclined to think that another reading will be nearer the
+truth. The vehicle is not the tumbril but a wheelbarrow, and the man
+propelling it is younger than the lady, who is pulling his hair. I imagine
+the man is apprentice or husband, and is not very cheerfully trundling his
+companion home. A similar, but more definite misericorde is in Ripon
+Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>In this barrow, the old woman, wearing a cap with hat on the top, as yet
+occasionally seen in country places, is seated in a mistress-like way. She
+is not committing any violence, but apparently is offering the man (call
+him the bridegroom) his choice of either a bag of money with dutiful
+obedience, or a huge cudgel, which she wields with muscular power, with
+dereliction. The gem of the carving is the man&#8217;s face. He smiles a quiet,
+amused, satirical smile, as of one who would say, &#8220;&#8217;Tis no harm to humour
+these foolish old bodies, and must be done, I trow.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 600px; height: 322px;"><img src="images/img105.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE CHARIOT, RIPON.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>But the object called a bag of money is as likely to be a bottle, and the
+whole subject may be something quite different. She may be going to the
+doctor, or offering the man a drink; or it may be Noah wheeling his
+wife into the Ark, which, it was one of the jokes in a Mystery play to
+suppose she was very unwilling to enter.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img106.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">PILGRIMAGE IN COMFORT, CANTERBURY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img107.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">MARTINMAS. CHRISTMAS. HOLY TRINITY, HULL.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img108.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>HUNTSMAN AND DEER, YORK.</small></div>
+
+<p>The block from the capital of a column in the crypt of Canterbury
+Cathedral, tells us little of its history. It is given<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> as an example of a
+cheerful grace and ease not common in early work.</p>
+
+<p>The hunting of the boar is a frequent subject of the Gothic carver, being
+generally considered the sport of September, though Sir Edward Coke says
+the season for the boar was from Christmas to Candlemas. It is uncommon to
+find the boar&#8217;s head shewn treated as in the accompanying block, struck
+off, and with the lemon in his mouth, ready for the table. These
+quatrefoils are the only two with a special design upon them, out of
+twelve on the font of Holy Trinity Church, Hull, the others having
+rosettes. There is no rule in this, but there are other examples in which
+small portions of fonts are picked out for significant decoration, and
+possibly on the side originally intended to be turned towards the door of
+the church, or the altar.</p>
+
+<p>Hunting scenes frequently occur. A boss in York Minster shews a huntsman
+&#8220;breaking&#8221; a deer as it hangs from a tree.</p>
+
+<p>The wild sweetness of one stringed and one wind instrument&mdash;not uncommonly
+met as harp and piccolo near<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> London &#8220;saloon bars&#8221;&mdash;was a usual duet of
+the middle ages. In Stoeffler&#8217;s <i>Calendarum Romanorum Magnum</i> (of 1518) in
+a series of woodcuts illustrating the months, and which are otherwise
+reasonable, he gives one of these duets performed in a field as a proper
+occupation of the month of April with the following highly appropriate
+distich&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Aprilis patule nucis sub umbra<br />
+post convivia dormio libenter.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img109.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A CURIOUS DUET, CHICHESTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In this carving, however, the musicians appear to be within doors and to
+be giving a set duet. To the interest of the ear they add a curious
+spectacle for the eye, for they are seated in chairs which have no
+fore-legs, and their balance is kept by the flageoletist taking hold of
+the harp as the players sit facing, so that while leaning back they form a
+counter-poise to each other. The chairs are a curious study in medi&aelig;val
+furniture.</p>
+
+<p>It is not unlikely that the sculptor in the case of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> annexed block had
+in his mind something similar to the saying&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;When a man&#8217;s single he lives at his ease.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img110.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">BACHELOR QUARTERS, WORCESTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>A man come in from, we may presume, frost and snow, has taken off his
+boots, and warms his feet as, seated on his fald-stool by the fire, he
+stirs the pot with lively anticipation of the meal preparing inside. He is
+probably a shepherd or swine-herd; on one side is seated his dog, at the
+other are hung two fat gammons of bacon.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img111.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Shepherds and shepherding furnish frequent subjects to the carver.</p>
+
+<p>In a Coventry Corpus Christi play of 1534 one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> three shepherds
+presents his gloves to the infant Saviour in these words&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Have here my myttens, to pytt en thi hondis,<br />
+Other treysure have I none to present thee with.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This carving has been called the Good Shepherd. If the artist really meant
+Christ by this shepherd with a hood over his head and hat over that, with
+great gloves and shoes, with a round beardless face, with his arms round
+the necks of two sheep, holding their feet in his hands, it is the finest
+piece of religious burlesque extant. But it is not to be supposed that the
+idea even occurred to the sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>The Feast of Fools was a kind of religious farce, a &#8220;mystery&#8221; run riot.
+Cedranus, a Byzantine historian, who wrote in the eleventh century,
+records that it was introduced into the Greek Church <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> 990, by
+Theophylact, patriarch of Constantinople. We can partly understand that
+the popular craving for the wild liberties of the Saturnalia might be met,
+and perhaps modified, by a brief removal of the solemn constraint of the
+Christian priest-rule. But licentiousness in church worship was no new
+thing, and, long before the time of Theophylact, the Church of the West,
+and probably the Greek Church also, had been rendered scandalous by the
+laxity with which the church services were conducted. At the Council of
+Orleans, in <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> 533, it was found necessary to rule that no person in a
+church shall sing, drink, or do anything unbecoming; at another in
+Ch&acirc;lons, in <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> 650, women were forbidden to sing indecent songs in
+church.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> There is in fact every evidence, including the sculptures of our
+subject, that religion was not, popularly, a thing solemn in itself.
+Cedranus mentions the &#8220;diabolic dances&#8221; among the enormities practised at
+the Feast of Fools, which was generally held about Christmas, though not
+confined to that festival.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century, the abuse increased; songs of the most indecent
+and offensive character were sung in the midst of the mock services;
+puddings were eaten, and dice rattled on the altar, and old shoes burnt as
+incense.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img112.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">DANCING FOOLS, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img113.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">AN ABJECT OBJECT. WINCHESTER COLLEGE CHAPEL.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>This observance, so evidently an expedient parody of the old-time
+festivals, is traceable in England, and said to have been abolished about
+the end of the fourteenth century. The carvings in Beverley Minster, here
+presented, are supposed to refer to the Feast, and at any rate give us a
+good idea of the medi&aelig;val fool. There were innumerable classic dances.
+The Greeks send down the names of two hundred kinds. A dance with arms was
+the Pyrrhic dance, which was similar in some of its varieties to the
+military dance known as the Morris. The Morris was introduced into Spain
+by the Moors, and brought into England by John of Gaunt in 1332. It was,
+however, little used until the reign of Henry VII. There were other
+vivacious dances, called Bayle, of Moorish origin, which, as well as
+various kinds of the stately Court dance, were used by the Spaniards. It
+is difficult, from general sources, to ascertain the dances in vogue in
+old England. A drawing in the Cotton MSS. shews a Saxon dancing a reel.
+The general inference is, however, that the Morris (of the Moors or
+Moriscoes) was the chief dance of the English, and perhaps it is that in
+which the saltatory fools of the carving are engaged.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the extraordinary monstrosity shewn in the annexed block had an
+actual existence. There are fairly numerous accounts of such malformities
+in medi&aelig;val times, and it was a function of medi&aelig;val humour to make
+capital out of unfortunate deformity. This poor man has distorted hands
+instead of feet, and he moves about on pattens or wooden clogs strapped to
+his hands and legs. There is little meaning in the side carvings. The
+fool-ape, making an uncouth gesture, is perhaps to shew the character of
+those who mock misfortune. The man with the scimitar may represent the
+alarm of one who might suddenly come upon the sight of the abortion, and
+fearing some mystery or trap, draw his blade. In a sense this is a
+humourous carving&mdash;yet there is a quality<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> for which it is much more
+remarkable, and that is its element of forcible and realistic pathos.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img114.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>A MYTHOLOGICAL<br />EPISODE, YORK.</small></div>
+
+<p>Two reliefs from York Minster are presumably scenes from classic
+mythology, from, in regard to the costumes, a Saxon point of view. One may
+be supposed to be the rape of Ganymede. Oak leaves are an attribute of
+Jupiter, as is also the eagle which bore Ganymede to Olympus.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img115.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>MARITAL VIOLENCE,<br />YORK.</small></div>
+
+<p>The other may be Vulcan giving Venus &#8220;a piece of his mind.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>If these readings are correct these two carvings are among the very few
+instances of representations of circumstantial detail of the Olympian
+mythology. Most of the church references to mythology have more connection
+with the earlier symbolic meanings than with the later narrative histories
+into which the cults degenerated. Other examples are in the references to
+Hercules in the sixteenth century stalls of Henry VII.&#8217;s Chapel,
+Westminster.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>There is in medi&aelig;val art several examples remaining of what may be called
+topsy-turveyism, in which two figures mutually lent their parts to each
+other in such a way that four figures may be found.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent example of this is at New College, Oxford, in which, though
+the four figures are so apparent when once seen, the two (taken as upper
+and lower), are in a natural and ingenious acrobatic position. The
+grotesque head at the base is put in to balance the composition, and
+perhaps to prevent the trick being discerned at once.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img116.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A CONTINUOUS GROUP OF FOUR FIGURES, OXFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The grace of the free if somewhat meagre Corinthian acanthus as used in
+Early English work is often rendered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> more marked by the introduction of
+an extraneous subject. Thus at Wells the foliate design is relieved by the
+ungainly figure of a melancholy individual, who, before retiring to rest,
+pursues an examination into his pedal callosities, or extracts the
+poignant thorn. Or can it be that we have here a reminder of the Egyptian
+monarch, S&oacute;mar&aacute;ja, mentioned in the Hindoo accounts of the Egyptian
+mythology, who was dissolute and outcast, and who, to shew his repentance
+and patience, stood twelve days upon one leg?</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img117.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A PILGRIM&#8217;S PAINS, WELLS.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>This discursive chapter would not be complete without a reference to the
+alleged impropriety of church grotesques. Though it is not to be denied
+that in the wide range of subjects a considerable number of indecent
+subjects have crept in, yet their proportion is small. Examination would
+lead to the belief that upon the whole the art of the churches is much
+purer than the literature or the popular taste of the respective periods.
+Though there may be sometimes met examples of grossness of humour and a
+frank want of reserve, such as in the annexed drawing from the chapel of
+All Souls,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> Oxford, yet these are rarely of the most gross or least
+reserved character.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img118.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A POSTURIST, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to note, in this connection that the literature from which
+we draw the bulk of our ideas as to medi&aelig;val life, are foreign, and that,
+although English manners would not be remotely different in essentials,
+yet there would be as many absolute differences as there are yet remaining
+to our eyes in architecture and in art generally.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+<h2>The Pig and other Animal Musicians.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img119.jpg" alt="O" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">APE AS PIPER,</span>
+<br /><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">BEVERLEY.</span></small></span>ne might
+count in the churches animal musicians, perhaps, by thousands,
+and the reason of their presence is doubtless the same as that which
+explains the frequency of the serious carvings of musicians which adorn
+the arches of nave and choir throughout the country&mdash;namely the prevalent
+use of various kinds of instrumental music in the service of the church.
+The animal musicians are the burlesques of the human, and the fact that
+the pig is the most frequent performer may perhaps suggest that the
+ability of the musician had overwhelmed the consideration of other
+qualities which might be expected, but were not found, in the
+harmony-producing choristers. Clever as musicians, they may have become
+merely functionaries as regards interest in the church, as we see to-day
+in the case of our bell-ringers, who for the most part issue from the
+churches as worshippers enter them.</p>
+
+<p>It may also be that the frequency of suilline musicians may have derisive
+reference to the ancient veneration in which the pig was held in the
+mythologies. It was a symbol of the sun, and, derivatively, of fecundity.
+Perhaps the strongest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> trace of this is in Scandinavian mythology. The
+northern races sacrificed a boar to Freyr, the patron deity of Sweden and
+of Iceland, the god of fertility; he was fabled to ride upon a boar named
+Gullinbrusti, or Golden Bristle. Freyr&#8217;s festival was at Yule-tide. Yule
+is <i>jul</i> or <i>heol</i>, the sun, and Gehul is the Saxon &#8220;Sunfeast.&#8221; The gods
+of Scandinavia were said to nightly feast upon the great boar S&aelig;hrimnir,
+which eaten up, was every morning found whole again. This seems somewhat
+akin to the Hindoo story of Cr&oacute;r&aacute;sura, a demon with the face of a boar,
+who continually read the Vedas and was so devout that Vishnu (the sun god)
+gave him a boon. He asked that no creature existing in the three worlds
+might have power to slay him, which was granted.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img120.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SOW AND FIDDLE,<br />WINCHESTER.</small><br /><br />
+<img src="images/img122.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>MUSIC AT DINNER,<br />WINCHESTER.</small></div>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img121.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SOW AS HARPIST,<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</small><br /><br />
+<img src="images/img123.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SOW AND BAGPIPES,<br />DURHAM CASTLE.</small></div>
+
+<p>The special sacrifice of the pig was not peculiar to Scandinavia, for the
+Druids and the Greeks also offered up a boar at the winter solstice. The
+sacrifice of a pig was a constant preliminary of the Athenian assemblies.
+As a corn destroyer the same animal was sacrificed to Ceres.</p>
+
+<p>The above explains the recurrence of the pig rather than the pig musician.
+A pregnant sow was, however, yearly sacrificed to Mercury, the inventor of
+the harp, and a sow playing the harp is among the rich set of choir
+carvings in Beverley Minster.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>The chase of the boar was the sport of September, the ordinary killing
+season, the swine being then in condition after their autumn feed of
+<i>bucon</i>, or beechmast (hence <i>bacon</i>), &#8220;His Martinmas has come&#8221; passed
+into a proverb. The prevalence of the pig as a food animal had undoubtedly
+its share in the frequency of art reference.</p>
+
+<p>In the Christian adoption of pagan attributes, the pig was apportioned to
+St. Anthony, it is said, variously, because he had been a swine-herd, or
+lived in woods. The smallest or weakling pig in a litter, called in the
+north &#8220;piggy-widdy&#8221; (small white pig), and in the south midlands the
+&#8220;dillin&#8221; (perhaps equivalent to <i>delayed</i>), and is elsewhere styled the
+Anthony pig, as specially needing the protection of his patron.</p>
+
+<p>A common representation of the pig musician is a sow who plays to her
+brood. At Winchester, the feast of the little ones is enlivened by the
+strains of the double flute. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> Durham Castle, in a carving formerly in
+Aucland Castle Chapel, the sow plays the bagpipes while the young pigs
+dance. At Ripon, a vigorous carving has the same subject, and another at
+Beverley, in which a realistic trough forms the foreground.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img124.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">PIGS AND PIPES, RIPON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The &#8220;Pig and Whistle&#8221; forms an old tavern sign. Dr. Brewer explains this
+as the pot, bowl, or cup (the <i>pig</i>), and the wassail it contained. The
+earthenware vessel used to warm the feet in bed is in Scotland yet called
+&#8220;the pig,&#8221; and to southern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> strangers the use of the word has caused a
+temporary embarrassment. If this explanation is not coincident with some
+other not at present to hand, the carving of the pig and whistle in the
+sixteenth century carving in Henry VII.&#8217;s chapel shows that the corruption
+of the &#8220;pig and wassail&#8221; was accepted in ignorance as far back as that
+period.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img125.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">PIG AND WHISTLE, WESTMINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>But too much stress is not to be laid upon the pig as a musician, for at
+Westminster the bear plays the bagpipes, just as at Winchester the ape
+performs on the harp. In the Beverley Minster choir an ape converts a cat
+into an almost automatic instrument by biting its tail.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img126.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">APE AS HARPIST, WESTMINSTER.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Compound Forms.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img127.jpg" alt="I" /><br /><small>ATHOR, CHICHESTER.</small></span>n nearly
+every church compound forms are met which in a high degree merit
+the designation of grotesque. Few religions have been without these
+symbolic representations of complex characters. If the Egyptian had its
+cat-headed and hawk-headed men, the Assyrian its human-headed bull, the
+Mexican its serpent-armed tiger-men, so also the Scandinavian mythology
+had its horse-headed and vulture-headed giants, and its human-headed
+eagle. Horace, who doubtless knew the figurative meaning of what he
+satirizes, viewed the representations of such compounds in his days, and
+asks&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;If in a picture you should see<br />
+A handsome woman with a fishes tail,<br />
+Or a man&#8217;s head upon a horse&#8217;s neck,<br />
+Or limbs of beasts of the most diff&#8217;rent kind,<br />
+Cover&#8217;d with feathers of all sorts of birds<br />
+Would you not laugh?&#8221;<a name='fna_6' id='fna_6' href='#f_6'><small>[6]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>It is, perhaps, a little remote from our subject to inquire whether the
+poet or the priest came the first in bringing about these archaic
+combinations; yet a word or two may be devoted to suggesting the inquiry.
+It is probable that the religious ideas and artistic forms met in ancient
+worships first solely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> existed in poetic expressions of the qualities of
+the sun&mdash;of the other members of the solar system&mdash;of the gods. Thus the
+swiftness of the sun in his course and in his light induced the mention of
+wings. Hence the wings of an eagle added to a circular form arose as the
+symbol in one place; in another arose the God Mercury; while Jove the
+great sun-god is shewn accompanied by an eagle. The fertility of the earth
+became as to corn Ceres, as to vines Bacchus, as to flowers Flora, and so
+forth. The human personification, in cases where a combination of
+qualities or functions was sought to be indicated, resulted in more or
+less abstruse literary fables; on the other hand the artist or symbol
+seeker found it easier to select a lower plane of thought for his
+embodiments. Thus, while swiftness suggested the eagle, strength was
+figured by the lion: so when a symbol of swiftness and strength was
+required arose the compound eagle-lion, the gryphon.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img128.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SPHINX AND BUCKLER,<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</small></div>
+
+<p>The gryphon, however, though constantly met in Gothic, is rarely grotesque
+in itself. Another form which also, to a certain extent, is incorruptible,
+is that of the sphinx. This is a figure symbolic of the sun from the
+Egyptian point of view, in which the Nile was all-important. Nilus, or
+Ammon, the Egyptian Jove, was the sun-god, an equivalent to Osiris, and
+the sphinx was similar in estimation, being, it is reasonably conjectured,
+a compound of Leo and Virgo, at whose conjunction the Nile has yearly
+risen. According to Dr. Birch, the sphinx is to be read as being the
+symbol of Harmachis or &#8220;the sun on the horizon.&#8221; It may be that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> Child
+rising from the Shell is sunrise over the sea, and the Sphinx sunrise over
+the land. It has been conjectured that the cherubim of the tabernacle were
+sphinx-form. The cherubim on the Mosaic Ark are among the subjects of the
+earliest mention of composite symbols. Ezekiel says they were composed of
+parts of the figures of a man (wisdom, intellect), a lion (dominion), a
+bull (strength), and an eagle (sharp-sightedness, swiftness.) The Persians
+and Hindoos had similar figures. A man with buffalo horns is painted in
+the Synhedria of the American Indians in conjunction with that of a
+panther or puma-like beast, and these are supposed to be a contraction of
+the cherubimical figures of the man, the bull, and the lion; these,
+renewed yearly, are near the carved figures of eagles common in the Indian
+sun-worship.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img129.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>SPHINX FIGURE,<br />DORCHESTER, OXON.</small></div>
+
+<p>A carving in the arm-rest of one of the stalls of Beverley<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> Minster,
+suggested in the block on <a href="#Page_159">page 159</a>, shews a sphinx with a shield; there
+are in the same church several fine examples seated in the orthodox
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>On a capital in the sedilia of Dorchester Abbey is a curious compound
+which may be classed as a sphinx. One of the hands (or paws) is held over
+the eyes of a dog, which suggests the manner in which animals were
+anciently sacrificed. Another sphinx in the same sedilia is of the winged
+variety. It has the head cowled; many of the medi&aelig;val combinatory forms
+are mantled.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img130.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>COWLED SPHINX,<br />DORCHESTER, OXON.</small></div>
+
+<p>In Worcester Cathedral is a compound of man, ox, and lion, very different
+from the sphinx or cherubim shapes, being a grotesque deprived of all the
+original poetry of the conception.</p>
+
+<p>Virgil describes Scylla (the Punic <i>Scol</i>, destruction) as a beautiful
+figure upwards, half her body being a beautiful virgin; downwards, a
+horrible fish with a wolf&#8217;s belly (utero). Homer similarly.</p>
+
+<p>The mermaid is a frequent subject, but more monotonous in its form and
+action than any other creature, and is generally found executed with a
+respectful simplicity that scarcely ever savours of grotesqueness. The
+mermaid, &#8220;the sea wolf of the abyss,&#8221; and the &#8220;mighty sea-woman&#8221; of
+Boewulf, has an early origin as a deity of fascinating but malignant
+tendencies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>The centaur, perhaps, ranks next to the sphinx in artistic merit. To the
+early Christians the centaur was merely a symbol of unbridled passions,
+and all medi&aelig;val reference classes it as evil. Virgil mentions it as being
+met in numbers near the gates of Hades, and the Parthenon sculptures shew
+it as the enemy of men.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img131.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">GROTESQUE CHERUBIM, WORCESTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The story of the encyclopedias regarding centaurs is that they were
+Thessalonian horsemen, whom the Greeks, ignorant of horsemanship, took to
+be half-men, half-animals. They were called, it is said, centaurs, from
+their skill in killing the wild bulls of the Pelion mountains, and, later,
+hippo-centaurs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> This explanation may, in the presence of other
+combinatory forms, be considered doubtful, as it is more probable that
+this, like those, arose out of a poetic appreciation of the qualities
+underlying beauty of form, that is, out of an intelligent symbolism. The
+horse, where known, was always a favourite animal among men. Innumerable
+coinages attest this fact. Early Corinthian coins have the figure of
+Pegasus. In most the horse is shewn alone. In the next proportion he is
+attached to a chariot. In few is he shewn being ridden, as it is his
+qualities that were intended to be expressed, and not those of the being
+who has subjected him. One of the old Greek gold staters has a man driving
+a chariot in which the horse has a human head; while the man is urging the
+horse with the sacred three-branched rod, each branch of which terminates
+in a trefoil. The centaur has a yet unallotted place in the symbolism of
+the sun-myth. Classic mythology says Chiron the centaur was the teacher of
+Apollo in music, medicine, and hunting, and centaurs are mostly sagittarii
+or archers, whose arrows, like those of Apollo, are the sunbeams. The
+centaur met in Gothic ornament is the Zodiacal Sagittarius, and true to
+this original derivation, the centaur is generally found with his bow and
+arrow.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the Irish saints, Ciaran and Nessan, are the same with the
+centaurs Chiron and Nessus.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 550px; height: 422px;"><img src="images/img132.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>MATERNAL CARES OF THE CENTAUR, IFFLEY.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>A capital of the south doorway, Iffley, has a unique composition of
+centaurs. A female centaur, armed with bow (broken) and arrow, is suckling
+a child centaur after the human manner. The equine portions of the figures
+are in exceptionally good drawing, though the tremendous elongation of
+the human trunks, and the ill-rendered position, render the group very
+grotesque. Both the mother and child wear the classic cestus or girdle.
+The bow carried by the mother is held apparently in readiness in the left
+hand, while it is probable that the right breast was meant to be shown
+removed, as was stated of the Amazons. The mother looks off, and there is
+an air of alertness about the two, which is explained by the sculpture on
+the return of the capital, where the father-centaur is seen slaying a
+wolf, lion, or other beast.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img133.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">CENTAUR AS DRAGON SLAYER, EXETER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>On a centaur at Exeter of the thirteenth century, the mythical idea is
+somewhat retained; the centaur has shot an arrow into the throat of a
+dragon, which is part of the ornament. This is a very rude but suggestive
+carving. Is the centaur but a symbol of Apollo himself?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>The next block (at Ely) is also of the centaur order, though not
+suggestive of aggression. The figure is female, and she is playing the
+zither. This is of the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img134.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">MUSICAL CENTAUR, ELY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img135.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>HARPY, WINCHESTER.</small></div>
+
+<p>Another classic conception which has been perpetuated in Gothic is the
+harpy, though in most cases without any apparent recognition of the harpy
+character. Exceptions are such instances as that of the harpy drawn in the
+chapter &#8220;Satires without Satan.&#8221; In one at Winchester a fine medi&aelig;val
+effect is produced by putting a hood on the human head.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img136.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>IBIS-HEADED FIGURE<br />FROM AN UNKNOWN CHURCH.</small></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>Another curious bird combination is in a carving in the Architectural
+Museum, Tufton Street, London, from an unknown church. This is a
+semi-human figure, whose upper part is skilfully draped. The head, bent
+towards the ground, is that of a bird of the ibis species, and it is
+probable that we have here a relic of the Egyptian Mercury Thoth, who was
+incarnated as an ibis. Thoth is called the God of the Heart (the
+conscience), and the ibis was said to be sacred to him because when
+sleeping it assumes the shape of a heart.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img137.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>THE SWAN SISTER,<br />ST. GEORGE&#8217;S CHAPEL,<br />WINDSOR.</small></div>
+
+<p>An unusual compound is that of a swan with the agreeable head of a young
+woman, in St. George&#8217;s Chapel, Windsor. This may be one of the
+swan-sisters in the old story of the &#8220;Knight of the Swan.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The initial letter of this section is a fine grotesque rendering of the
+Egyptian goddess Athor, Athyr, or Het-her (meaning the dwelling of God.)
+She was the daughter of the sun, and bore in images the sun&#8217;s disc.
+Probably through a lapse into ignorance on the part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+priest-painters, she became of less consideration, and the signification
+even of her image was forgotten. She had always had as one of her
+representations, a bird with a human head horned and bearing the disc; but
+the disc began to be shewn as a tambourine, and she herself was styled
+&#8220;the mistress of dance and jest.&#8221; As in the cosmogony of one of the
+Egyptian Trinities she was the Third Person, as Supreme Love, the Greeks
+held her to be the same as Aphrodite. The name of the sun-disc was Aten,
+and its worship was kindred to that of Ra, the mid-day sun. The Hebrew
+Adonai and the Syriac Adonis have been considered to be derived from this
+word Aten.</p>
+
+<p>Several examples of bird-compounds are in the Exeter series of
+misericordes of the thirteenth century. They are renderings in wood of the
+older Anglo-Saxon style of design, and are ludicrously grotesque.</p>
+
+<p>It is scarcely to be considered that the compound figures were influenced
+by the prevalence of mumming in the periods of the various carvings. In
+this, as in many other respects, the traditions of the carvers&#8217; art
+protected it from being coloured by the aspect of the times, except in a
+limited degree, shewn in distinctly isolated examples.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img138.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">BIRD-COMPOUND, EXETER.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Non-descripts.</h2>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img139.jpg" alt="T" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: .5em;">A BEARDED BIPED,</span>
+<br /><span style="margin-left: .75em;">ST. KATHERINE&#8217;S.</span></small></span>here is
+a large number of bizarre works which defy natural classification, and though in many cases they are a branch of the compound
+order of figures, yet they are frequently well defined as non-descripts.
+These, though in one respect the most grotesque of the grotesques, do not
+claim lengthy description. Where they are not traceable compounds, they
+are often apparently the creatures of fancy, without meaning and without
+history. It may be, however, that could we trace it, we should find for
+each a pedigree as interesting, if not as old, as that of any of the
+sun-myths. Among the absurd figures which scarcely call for explanation
+are such as that shown in the initial, from the Hospital and Collegiate
+Church of St. Katherine by the Tower (now removed to a substituted
+hospital in Regent&#8217;s Park).</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img140.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>A CLOAKED SIN,<br />TUFTON STREET.</small></div>
+
+<p>In the Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, London,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> is a carving from an
+unknown church, in which appear two figures which were not an uncommon
+subject for artists of the odd. These are human heads, to which are
+attached legs without intermediary bodies, and with tails depending from
+the back of the heads.</p>
+
+<p>In the &#8220;Pilgremage of the Sowle,&#8221; printed by Caxton in 1483, translated
+from a French manuscript of 1435 or earlier, is a description of a man&#8217;s
+conscience, which, there is little doubt, furnished the idealic material
+for these carvings. A &#8220;sowle&#8221; being &#8220;snarlyed in the trappe&#8221; of Satan, is
+being, by a travesty on the forms of a court of law, claimed by both the
+&#8220;horrible Sathanas&#8221; and its own Warden or Guardian Angel. The Devil calls
+for his chief witness by the name of Synderesys, but the witness calls
+himself the Worm of Conscience. The following is the soul&#8217;s
+description:&mdash;&#8220;Then came forth by me an old one, that long time had hid
+himself nigh me, which before that time I had not perceived. He was
+wonderfully hideous and of cruel countenance; and he began to grin, and
+shewed me his jaws and gums, for teeth he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> had none, they all being broken
+and worn away. He had no body, but under his head he had only a tail,
+which seemed the tail of a worm of exceeding length and greatness.&#8221; This
+strange accuser tells the Soul that he had often warned it, and so often
+bitten it that all his teeth were wasted and broken, his function being
+&#8220;to bite and wounde them that wrong themselves.&#8221;<a name='fna_7' id='fna_7' href='#f_7'><small>[7]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img141.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE WORM OF CONSCIENCE. (<i>From an unknown Church.</i>)</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img142.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">NOBODIES, RIPON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img143.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>NON-DESCRIPT,<br />CHRIST CHURCH, HANTS.</small></div>
+
+<p>The above examples are scarcely unique. In Ripon Cathedral, on a
+misericorde of 1489, representing the bearing of the grapes of Eschol on a
+staff, are two somewhat similar figures, likewise mere &#8220;nobodies,&#8221; though
+without tails. These are a covert allusion to the wonderful stories of the
+spies, which, it is thus hinted, are akin to the travellers&#8217; tales of
+medi&aelig;val times, as well as a pun on the report that they had seen nobody.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the idea of men without bodies came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> from the East, and
+also that it had credence as an actual fact. In the <i>Cosmographi&aelig;
+Universalis</i>, printed in 1550, they are alluded to in the following
+terms:&mdash;&#8220;Sunt qui cervicibus carent et in humeris habet oculos; De India
+ultra Gangem fluvium sita.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There are many carvings which are more or less of the same character, and
+probably intended to embody the idea of conscience or sins.</p>
+
+<p>The two rather indecorous figures shewn in the following block from Great
+Malvern are varieties doubtless typifying sins.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img144.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">SINS IN SYMBOL, GREAT MALVERN.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Rebuses.</h2>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img145.jpg" alt="R" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: 2em;">BOLT-TON.</span></small></span>ebuses are
+often met among Gothic sculptures, but not in such frequency,
+or with an amount of humour to claim any great attention here. They are
+almost entirely, as in the case of the canting heraldry of seals, of late
+date, being mostly of the 15th and 16th centuries. They are often met as
+the punning memorial of the name of a founder, builder, or architect, as
+the bolt-ton of Bishop Bolton in St. Bartholomew&#8217;s, Smithfield, the
+many-times-repeated cock of Bishop Alcock in Henry VII&#8217;s. Chapel, the eye
+and the slip of a tree, and the man slipping from a tree, for Bishop
+Islip, Westminster; and others well known. In the series of misericordes
+in Beverley Minster, there are <i>arma palantes</i> of the dignitaries of the
+Church in 1520. William White, the Chancellor, has no less than seven
+different renderings of the pun upon his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> name, all being representations
+of weights, apparently of four-stone ponderosity. Thomas Donnington, the
+Precentor, whose name would doubtless often be written Do&#8217;ington, has a
+doe upon a ton or barrel. John Sperke, the Clerk of the Fabric, has a dog
+with a bone, and a vigilant cock; this, however, is not a name-rebus so
+much as an allusion to the exigencies of his office. The Church of St.
+Nicholas, Lynn, had misericordes (some of which are now in the
+Architectural Museum) which have several monograms and rebuses.
+Unfortunately, they are somewhat involved, and there is at present no key
+by which to read them. The least doubtful is that given below.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img146.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">WILLIAM<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>WHITE,<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img147.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">WEIGHT, REBUS FOR WHITE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>It has a &#8220;ton&#8221; rebus which will admit, however, of perhaps three different
+renderings. It is most likely Thorn-ton, less so Bar-ton, and still less
+Hop-ton, all Lincolnshire names.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img148.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">Illustration: MERCHANT MARK, COGNIZANCE AND REBUS, ST. NICHOLAS&#8217;S, LYNN.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Trinities.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img149.jpg" alt="R" /><br /><small><span style="margin-left: .75em;">LARVA-LIKE DRAGON,</span>
+<br /><span style="margin-left: .75em;">ST. PAUL&#8217;S, BEDFORD.</span></small></span>epeatedly
+has the statement been made that the various mythologies are
+only so many corruptions of the Mosaic system. Manifestly if this could be
+admitted there would be little interest in enquiring further into their
+details. But there are three arguments against the statement, any one of
+which is effective. Although it is perhaps totally unnecessary to
+contradict that which can be accepted by the unreflective only, it is
+sufficiently near the purpose of this volume to slightly touch upon the
+matter, as pointing strong distinctions among ancient worships.</p>
+
+<p>First, there is the simple fact recorded in the Mosaic account itself,
+that there existed at that time, and had done previously, various
+religious systems, the rooting out of which was an important function of
+the liberated Hebrews. The only reply to this is that, by a slight shift
+of ground, the mythologies were corruptions of the patriarchal religion,
+not the Mosaic system. Yet paganism surrounded the patriarchs.</p>
+
+<p>The second point is that most of the mythologies had crystallized into
+taking the sun as the main symbol of worship, and into taking the
+equinoxes and other points of the constellation path as other symbols and
+reminders of periodic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> worship; whereas in the Mosaic system the whole
+structure of the solar year is ignored, all the calculations being lunar.
+If it be objected that Numbers ix. 6-13, and II. Chronicles xxx. 2, refer
+indirectly to an intercalary month, that, if admitted, could only for
+expediency&#8217;s sake, and has no bearing upon the general silence as to the
+solar periods. This second point is an important testimony to what may be
+termed Mosaic originality.</p>
+
+<p>The third point is that in most of the mythologies there is the distinct
+mention of a Trinity; in the Mosaic system, the system of the Old
+Testament, none. With the question as to whether the New Testament
+supports the notion of a Trinity, we need not concern ourselves here; it
+is enough that it has been adopted as an item of the Christian belief.</p>
+
+<p>The mythological Trinities are vague and, of course, difficult or
+impossible to understand. Most of them appear to be attempts of great
+minds of archaic times to reconcile the manifest contradictions ever
+observable in the universe. This is done in various ways. Some omit one
+consideration, some another; but they generally agree that to have a
+three-fold character in one deity is necessary in explaining the
+phenomenon of existence. Some of the Trinities may be recited.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center">PERSIAN.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Oromasdes</span>, Goodness, the deviser of Creation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Mithras</span>, Eternal Intellect, the architect and ruler of the world, literally &#8220;the Friend.&#8221;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Arimanes</span>, the mundane soul (Psyche).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">GRECIAN.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Zeus.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Pallas.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Hera.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">ROMAN.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Jupiter</span>, Power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Minerva</span>, Wisdom, Eternal Intellect.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Juno</span>, Love.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">SCANDINAVIAN.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Odin</span>, Giver of Life.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">H&aelig;nir</span>, Giver of motion and sense.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Lodur</span>, Giver of speech and the senses.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">AMERICAN INDIAN.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Otkon.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Messou.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Atahuata.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">EGYPTIAN.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Cneph</span>, the Creator, Goodness.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Pta</span> (Opas), the active principle of Creation (= Vulcan).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Eicton.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Egyptians had other Trinities than the above, each chief city having
+its own form; in these, however, the third personality appears to be
+supposed to proceed from the other two, which scarcely seems to have been
+intended in the instances already given. Some of the city Trinities were
+as follow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center">THEBES.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Amun-Ra</span> (= Jupiter), (<span class="smcap">Ra</span> = the Mid-day Sun.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Mant</span> or <span class="smcap">Mentu</span> (= &#8220;the mother,&#8221; Juno.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Chonso</span> (= Hercules.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">PHILAE &amp; ABYDOS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Osiris</span> (= Pluto).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Isis</span> (= Prosperine).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Horus</span>, the Saviour, the Shepherd (the Rising Sun).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">ABOO-SIMBEL.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Pta</span> or <span class="smcap">Phthah</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Amum-Ra.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Athor</span>, Love (the wife of <span class="smcap">Horus</span>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>So that it is no coincidence that both Hercules and Horus are met in
+Gothic carvings as deliverers from dragons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center">ELEPHANTINE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Khum</span> or <span class="smcap">Chnoumis</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Anuka.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Hak.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">MEMPHIS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ptah.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Merenphtah.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Nefer-Atum.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">HELIOPOLIS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Tum</span> (Setting Sun.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Nebhetp.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Horus.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another Egyptian triad, styled &#8220;Trimorphous God!&#8221; was:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Bait.</span><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span><span class="smcap">Athor.</span>
+<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span><span class="smcap">Akori.</span></p>
+
+<p>Another:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Telephorus.</span><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span><span class="smcap">Esculapius.</span>
+<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span><span class="smcap">Salus.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center">VEDIC HINDOO.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Agni</span>, Fire, governing the Earth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Indra</span>, The Firmament, governing Space or Mid Air.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Surya</span>, The Sun, governing the Heavens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">BRAHMINIC HINDOO.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Brahma</span>, the Creator.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Vishnu</span>, the Preserver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Siva</span>, the Destroyer (the Transformer) (= Fire).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Platonic and other philosophic Trinities need not detain us; it has
+been asserted that by their means the doctrine of the pagan Trinity was
+grafted on to Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Right down through the ages the number three has always been regarded as
+of mystic force. Wherever perfection or efficiency was sought its means
+were tripled; thus Jove&#8217;s thunderbolt had three forks of lightning,
+Neptune&#8217;s lance was a trident, and Pluto&#8217;s dog had three heads. The
+Graces, the Fates, and the Furies were each three. The trefoil was held
+sacred by the Greeks as well as other triad forms. In the East three was
+almost equally regarded. Three stars are frequently met upon Asiatic
+seals. The Scarab&aelig;us was esteemed as having thirty joints.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>Medi&aelig;val thought, in accepting the idea of the Christian Trinity, lavishly
+threw its symbolism everywhere; writers and symbolists, architects and
+heralds, multiplied ideas of three-fold qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Heraldry is permeated with three-fold repetitions, a proportion of at
+least one-third of the generality of heraldic coats having a trinity of
+one sort or another. In all probability the stars and bars of America rose
+from the coat-armour of an English family in which the stars were three,
+the bars three.</p>
+
+<p>St. Nicholas had as his attributes three purses, three bulls of gold,
+three children.</p>
+
+<p>Sacred marks were three dots, sometimes alone, sometimes in a triangle,
+sometimes in a double triangle; three balls attached, making a trefoil;
+three bones in a triangle crossing at the corners; a fleur-de-lys in
+various designs of three conjoined; three lines crossed by three lines;
+and many other forms.</p>
+
+<p>God, the symbolists said, was symbolized by a hexagon, whose sides were
+Glory, Power, Majesty, Wisdom, Blessing, and Honor. The three steps to
+heaven were Oratio, Amor, Imitatio. The three steps to the altar, the
+three spires of the cathedral, the three lancets of an Early English
+window, were all supposed to refer to the Trinity.</p>
+
+<p>Having seen that the idea of the Trinity is a part of most of the ancient
+religious systems, it remains to point to one or two instances where, in
+common with other ideas from that source, the Trinity has a place among
+church grotesques.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>There is a triune head in St. Mary&#8217;s Church, Faversham, Kent, which was
+doubtless executed as indicative of the Trinity. The <i>Beehive of the
+Romishe Church</i>, in 1579, says: &#8220;They in their churches and Masse Bookes
+doe paint the Trinitie with three faces; for our mother the holie Church
+did learn that at Rome, where they were wont to paint or carve Janus with
+two faces.&#8221; In the Salisbury Missal of 1534 is a woodcut of the Trinity
+triangle surmounted by a three-faced head similar to the above. Hone
+reproduces it in his <i>Ancient Mysteries Described</i>, and asks, &#8220;May not the
+triune head have been originally suggested by the three-headed Saxon deity
+named &#8220;Trigla&#8221;?&#8221; The Faversham tria, it will be noticed, has the curled and
+formal beards of the Greek mask.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img150.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A TRINITY, ST. MARY&#8217;S, FAVERSHAM.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Another instance of a three-fold head similar to the Faversham carving is
+at Cartmel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>A still more remarkable form of the same thing occurs as a rosette on the
+tomb of Bishop de la Wich, in Chichester Cathedral, in which the trinity
+of faces is doubled and placed in a circle in an exceedingly ingenious and
+symmetrical manner. This has oak leaves issuing from the mouths, which we
+have seen as a frequent adjunct of the classic mask as indicating Jupiter.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img151.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">DOUBLE TRINITY OF FOLIATE MASKS, CHICHESTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In carvings three will often be found to be a favourite number without a
+direct reference to the Trinity. The form of the misericorde is almost
+invariably a three-part design, and, being purely arbitrary, its universal
+adoption is one of the evidences of the organization of the craft gild.</p>
+
+<p>As with the misericorde, so with its subjects. At Exeter we have seen
+(<a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>) the tail of the harpy made into a trefoil ornament, while she
+grasps a trefoil-headed rod (just as among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> Assyrian carvings we should
+have met a figure bearing the sacred three-headed poppy). At Gayton (<a href="#Page_87">page 87</a>)
+we have the three-toothed flesh-hook; at Maidstone is another.
+Chichester Cathedral and Chichester Hospital have each three groups.
+Beverley Minster has three fish interlaced, and three hares running round
+inside a circle. In Worcester Cathedral there are three misericordes, in
+each of which there are three figures, in which groups the number is
+evidently intentional. Three till the ground, three reap corn with
+sickles, three mow with scythes.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img152.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">TRINITY OF MOWERS, WORCESTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>From them as being unusual in treatment, even in this stiff Flemish set,
+is selected the trinity of mowers. Groups of three in mowing scenes is a
+frequent number. Doubtless this carving is indicative of July, that being
+the &#8220;Hey-Monath&#8221; of early times. One of the side supporters or pendant
+carvings of this is a hare riding upon the back of a leoparded lion,
+perhaps some reference to Leo, the sign governing July.</p>
+
+<p>The three mowers do not make a pleasing carving, owing to the repetition
+and want of curve.</p>
+
+<p>Other instances of triplication in Gothic design might be given,
+particularly in the choice of floral forms in which nature has set the
+pattern. This section, however, is chiefly important as a convenient means
+of incorporating a record of something further of the fundamental beliefs
+of the world&#8217;s youth, connected with and extending the question of the
+remote origin of the ideas at the root of so many grotesques in church
+art.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+<h2>The Fox in Church Art.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="dropfig"><img src="images/img153.jpg" alt="T" /><br /><small>PREACHING FOX,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .25em;">CHRISTCHURCH,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: .5em;">HAMPSHIRE.</span></small></span>he
+Fox, apostrophized as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;O gentle one among the beasts of prey<br />
+O eloquent and comely-faced animal!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>as an important subject in medi&aelig;val art, has two distinct places.</p>
+
+<p>There is a general impression that there was a great popular literary
+composition, running through many editions and through many centuries,
+having its own direct artistic illustration, and a wide indirect
+illustration which, later, by its ability to stand alone, had broken away
+from close connection with the epic, yet possessed a derivative identity
+with it.</p>
+
+<p>Closer examination, however, proves that there is indeed the Fox in its
+particular literature with its avowed illustrations, but also that there
+is the Fox in medi&aelig;val art, illustrative of ideas partly found in
+literature, but illustrative of no particular work, and yet awaiting a
+key. Each is a separate and distinct thing.</p>
+
+<p>Among the grotesques of our churches there are some references to the
+literary &#8220;Reynard the Fox,&#8221; but they are few and far between; while
+numerous most likely and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> prominent incidents of Reynard&#8217;s career, as
+narrated in the poem, have no place among the carvings.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects of the carvings are mostly so many variations of the idea of
+the Fox turned ecclesiastic and preying upon his care and congregation;
+and in this he is assisted by the ape, who also takes sides with him in
+carvings of other proceedings; but in none of these scenes is there
+evidence of reference to the epic. A great point of difference, too, lies
+in the conclusion of the epic, and the conclusion of Reynard&#8217;s life as
+shewn in the carvings. In the epic, the King makes Reynard the Lord
+Chancellor and favourite.</p>
+
+<p>The end of the Fox of church art, however, is far different; several
+sculptures agree in shewing him hanged by a body of geese.</p>
+
+<p>In the epic, Reynard&#8217;s victims are many. The deaths of the Hare and the
+Ram afford good circumstantial pictures, yet in the carvings there is
+neither of these; and it is scarcely Reynard who plots, and sins, and
+conceals, but a more vulgar fox who concerns himself, chiefly about geese,
+in an open, verminous way, while many of the sculptures are little more
+than natural history illustrations, in which we see <i>vulpes</i>, but not the
+Fox.</p>
+
+<p>To enable, however, a fair comparison to be made between literature and
+art in this byway, it will be as well to glance at the history of the
+poem, and lay down a brief analysis of its episodes; and, next, to present
+sketches of some typical examples from the carvings.</p>
+
+<p>Much of ancient satire owes its origin to that description<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> of fable which
+bestows the attributes and capacities of the human race upon the lower
+animals, which are made to reason and to speak. Their mental processes and
+their actions are entirely human, although their respective animal
+characteristics are often used to accentuate their human character. In
+every animal Edward Carpenter sees varying sparks of the actual mental
+life we call human, in, it may be added, arrested or perverted
+development, in which, in each instance, one characteristic has
+immeasurably prevailed. For the animal qualities, whether human or not in
+kind, man has ever had a sympathetic recognition, which has made both
+symbol and fable easily acceptable. Perhaps symbolism, which for so many
+ages has taken the various animals as figures to intelligibly express
+abstract qualities, gave rise to fable. If so, fable may be considered the
+grotesque of symbolism. The same ideas&mdash;of certain qualities&mdash;are taken
+from their original serious import, and used to amuse, and, while amusing,
+to strike.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Grimm asserts that animal-fable arose in the
+Netherlands, North France, and West Germany, extending neither to the
+Romance countries, nor to the Keltic; whereas we find animal symbolism
+everywhere. Grimm&#8217;s statement may be taken to speak, perhaps, of a certain
+class of fable, and the countries he names are certainly where we should
+expect to find the free-est handling of superstitions. His arguments are
+based on the Germanic form of the names given to the beasts, but his
+localities seem to follow the course of the editions. Perhaps special<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+causes, and not the influence of race, decided the localities. The
+earliest trace of a connected animal-fable is of that which is also the
+most wide-spread and popular&mdash;the history of the Fox.</p>
+
+<p>This early production is a poem, called <i>Isengrinus</i>, in Latin hexameters,
+by a cleric of South Flanders, whose name has not survived. It was written
+in the first half of the twelfth century, and first printed, it is said,
+so late as 1834.</p>
+
+<p>In this, the narrative is briefly as follows:&mdash;The Lion is sick, and calls
+a court to choose his successor. Reynard is the only animal that does not
+appear. The Wolf, Isengrinus, to ruin Reynard&#8217;s adherents, the Goat and
+the Ram, prescribes as a remedy for the Lion&#8217;s disorder a medicine of Goat
+and Ram livers. They defend the absent Reynard, and pronounce him a great
+doctor, and, to save their livers, drive the Wolf by force from before the
+throne. Reynard is summoned. He comes with herbs, which, he says, will
+only be efficacious if the patient is wrapped in the skin of a wolf four
+years old. The Wolf is skinned, the Lion is cured, and Fox made
+Chancellor.</p>
+
+<p>In this story is neatly dovetailed another, narrating how the Wolf had
+been prevented from devouring a party of weak pilgrim animals by the
+judicious display of a wolf&#8217;s head. This head was cut off a wolf found
+hanging in a tree, and, at Reynard&#8217;s instigation, the party, on the
+strength of possessing it, led the Wolf to believe them to be a company of
+professional wolf-slayers.</p>
+
+<p>After this poem followed another at the end of the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> century with
+numerous additions and alterations, by a monk of Ghent. Next came a high
+German poem, also of the twelfth century, expanded, but without great
+addition. After this came the French version, Roman de Renart, which, with
+supplementary compositions, enlarged the matter to no less than 41,748
+verses. There is another French version, called Renart le Contrefet, of
+nearly the same horrible length.</p>
+
+<p>A Flemish version, written in the middle of the thirteenth century, and
+continued in the fourteenth, became the great father of editions.</p>
+
+<p>All these were in verse, but on the invention of printing the Flemish form
+was re-cast into prose, and printed at Gouda in 1479, and at Delft in
+1485; abridged and mutilated it was often re-printed in Holland.</p>
+
+<p>Caxton printed a translation in 1481, and another a few years later. The
+English quarto, like the Dutch, also gave rise in time to a call for a
+cheap abridgment, and it appeared in 1639, as &#8220;The Most delectable history
+of Reynard the Fox.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a Low Saxon form had appeared, &#8220;Reinche Bos,&#8221; first printed at
+Lubeck in 1498, and next at Rostock in 1517, a translation, with
+alterations, from the Flemish publication. Various other editions in
+German followed, with cuts by Amman.</p>
+
+<p>In all these and their successors the incidents were varied. Having seen
+that, within at least certain limits, the story must have been exceedingly
+well-known and popular, we will run through the incidents narrated in the
+most popular of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> German Reynard poems, chiefly taken from Goethe&#8217;s
+rendering.</p>
+
+<p>Nouvel, the Lion, calls a parliament, and the Fox does not appear, and is
+accused of various crimes. The Wolf accuses him of sullying the honour of
+his wife, and blinding his three children. A little Dog accuses him of
+stealing a pudding end (this the Cat denies, stating that the pudding was
+one of her own stealing). The Leopard accuses him of murder, having only
+the day before rescued the Hare from his clutch as he was throttling him,
+under pretence of severity in teaching the Creed.</p>
+
+<p>The Badger, Grimbart, now comes forward in defence.</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;An ancient proverb says, quoth he,<br />
+Justice in an enemy<br />
+Is seldom to be found.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>He accuses the Wolf in his turn of violating the bonds of partnership. The
+Fox and the Wolf had arranged to rob a fish-cart. The Fox lay for dead on
+the road, and the carter, taking him up, threw him on the top of the load
+of fish, turning to his horse again. Reynard then threw the fish on to the
+road, and jumping down to join in the feast found left for him but fin and
+scales. The Badger explains away also the story of Reynard&#8217;s guilt as to
+Dame Isengrin, and, with regard to the Hare, asks if a teacher shall not
+chastise his scholars. In short, since the King proclaimed a peace,
+Reynard was thoroughly reformed, and but for being absorbed in penance
+would no doubt have been present to defend himself from any false
+reports.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>Unfortunately for this justification, at the very moment of its conclusion
+a funeral procession passes;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;On sable bier<br />
+The relics of a Hen appear,&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>while Henning, the Cock, makes a piteous complaint of Reynard&#8217;s misdeeds.
+He said how the Fox had</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Assured him he&#8217;d become a friar,<br />
+And brought a letter from his prior;<br />
+Show&#8217;d him his hood and shirt of hair,<br />
+His rosary and scapulaire;<br />
+Took leave of him with pious grace,<br />
+That he might hasten to his place<br />
+To read the nona and the sept,<br />
+And vesper too before he slept;<br />
+And as he slowly took his way,<br />
+Read in his pocket breviary.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>all of which ended in the devout penitent eating nineteen of Henning&#8217;s
+brood.</p>
+
+<p>The Lion invites his council&#8217;s advice. It is decided to send an envoy to
+Reynard, and Bruno, the Bear, is selected to summon him to court.</p>
+
+<p>Bruno finds him at his castle of Malepart, and thunders a summons.
+Reynard, by plausible speech and a story of honey, disarms some of his
+hostility, and entices him off to a carpenter&#8217;s yard, where an oak trunk,
+half split, yet has the wedge in. Reynard declaring the honey is in the
+cleft, Bruno puts his head and paws in. Reynard draws out the wedge. The
+Bear howls till the whole village is aroused, and Bruno, to save his life,
+draws himself out minus skin from head and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> paws. In the confusion the
+parson&#8217;s cook falls into the stream, and the parson offers two butts of
+beer to the man who saves her. While this is being done, the Bear escapes,
+and the Fox taunts him.</p>
+
+<p>The Bear displaying his condition at court, the King swears to hang
+Reynard, this time sending Hinge, the Cat, to summon Reynard to trial.
+Hinge is lured to the parson&#8217;s house in hopes of mice, and caught in a
+noose fixed for Reynard. The household wake, and beat the Cat, who dashes
+underneath the priest&#8217;s robe, revenging himself in a cruel and unseemly
+way. The Cat is finally left apparently dead, but reviving, gnaws the
+cord, and crawls back to court.</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;The King was wroth, as wroth could be.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Badger now offers to go, three times being the necessary number for
+summoning a peer of the realm. He puts the case plainly before Reynard,
+who agrees to come, and they set out together. On the way Reynard has a
+fit of remorse, and confesses his sins. Grimbart plucks a twig, makes the
+Fox beat himself, leap over it three times, kiss it; and then declares him
+free from his sins. All the time Reynard casts a greedy eye on some
+chickens, and makes a dash at one shortly after. Accused by Grimbart, he
+declares he had only looked aside to murmur a prayer for those who die in
+&#8220;yonder cloister.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;And also I would say<br />
+A prayer for the endless peace<br />
+Of many long-departed geese,<br />
+Which, when in a state of sin,<br />
+I stole from the nuns who dwell therein.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>The Fox arrives at court with a proud step and a bold eye. He is accused,
+but</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Tried every shift and vain pretence<br />
+To baffle truth and common sense,<br />
+And shield his crimes with eloquence.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In vain. He is condemned to die. His friend Martin the Ape, Grimbart the
+Badger, and others withdraw in resentment, and the King is troubled.</p>
+
+<p>At the gallows Reynard professes to deliver a dying confession, and
+introduces a story of seven waggon-loads of gold and jewels which had been
+a secret hoard of his father, stolen for the purpose of bribing chiefs to
+depose the Lion and place the Bear on the throne.</p>
+
+<p>Reynard is pardoned on condition of pointing out the treasure. He declares
+it to be in Husterlo, but excuses himself from accompanying the King on
+his way there, as he, Reynard, is excommunicated for once assisting the
+Wolf to escape from a monastery, and must, therefore, go to Rome to get
+absolution.</p>
+
+<p>The King announces his pardon to the court. The Bear and Wolf are thrown
+into prison, and Reynard has a scrip made of a piece of the Bear&#8217;s hide,
+and shoes of the skin of the feet of the Wolf and his wife. Blessed by
+Bellin the Ram, who is the King&#8217;s chaplain, and accompanied a short
+distance by the whole court, he sets out for Rome. The chaplain Ram and
+Lampe the Hare, accompany him home to bid his wife farewell. He inveigles
+the Hare inside, and the family eat him. He puts the Hare&#8217;s head in the
+bear-skin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> wallet, and taking it to the impatient Bellin outside, asks him
+to take it to the King, as it contains letters of state policy.</p>
+
+<p>The satchel is opened in full court, and Reynard once more proclaimed a
+traitor, accursed and banned, the Bear and Wolf restored, and the Ram and
+all his race given to them for atonement. A twelve-day tourney is held. On
+the eighth day the Coney and the Crow present complaint against Reynard;
+he had wounded the Coney, and eaten the Crow&#8217;s wife. It is resolved, in
+spite of the Lioness&#8217;s second intercession, to besiege Malepart and hang
+Reynard.</p>
+
+<p>Grimbart secretly runs off to warn Reynard, who decides to return to court
+once more and plead his cause. They set out together, and Reynard again
+confesses his sins. This introduces a story of how he once fooled the
+Wolf. Isengrin coveted to eat a foal, and sent the Fox to inquire the
+price from the mare. She replied the price was written on her hinder hoof.
+The Fox, seeing the trick, returned to the Wolf saying he could not
+understand the inscription. The Wolf boasts of his learning, having long
+ago taken his degrees as Doctor of Both Faculties. The Wolf bends down to
+examine the newly-shod hoof, and the rest may be supposed.</p>
+
+<p>On their way to court, Reynard and Grimbart meet Martin the Ape, who is
+bound for Rome, and promises his gold shall buy Reynard&#8217;s absolution.
+Arrived at court, Reynard boldly explains away the stories of the Coney
+and the Crow, and demands the trial by battle. The Coney and Crow, having
+no witnesses, and being averse to battle, withdraw. Reynard accuses the
+dead Bellin of killing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> Hare Lampe and secreting rare jewels he sent
+to the King. His story is half believed in the hope that the jewels, which
+he described at great length, may be found. Reynard&#8217;s former services to
+the state are remembered, and he is about to depart triumphant, when the
+Wolf, unable to restrain his rage, accuses him afresh. In the end, as each
+accusation is smoothly foiled, he accepts the wager of battle. They
+withdraw to prepare for the lists. Reynard is shorn and shaven, all but
+his tail, by his relatives the Apes. He is well oiled. He is also enjoined
+to drink plentifully overnight.</p>
+
+<p>They meet in the lists. Reynard kicks up the dust to blind the Wolf, draws
+his wet tail across his eyes, and at length tears an eye out. He is,
+however, seized by the Wolf&#8217;s strong jaw, and is about to be finished off
+when he takes advantage of a word of parley to seize the wolf in a tender
+part with his hand, and the fight recommences, ending in the total
+overthrow of Isengrin. The King orders the fray to be stayed and the
+Wolf&#8217;s life spared. The Wolf is carried off. All fly to congratulate the
+victor,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;All gazed in his face with fawning eyes,<br />
+And loaded him with flatteries.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The King makes him the Lord Chancellor and takes him to his close esteem.</p>
+
+<p>The tale winds up:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;To wisdom now let each one turn,<br />
+Avoid the base and virtue learn;<br />
+This is the end of Reynard&#8217;s story,<br />
+May God assist us to His glory.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>The above is the gist of the matter dealing with the Fox in letters; from
+these lively images we will turn to the more wooden achievements of the
+carvers. The general fact that the Fox is a marauder specially fond of the
+flesh of that bird of long descent, the goose, but also partial to that of
+other birds, is frequently illustrated by church carvings. In the churches
+at the following places he is carved as having seized his prey:&mdash;Beverley
+(Minster), Boston, Fairford, Faversham, Gloucester, Hereford, Norwich,
+Oxford (Magdalen), Peterborough, Ripon, Wellingborough, Winchester, and
+Windsor (St. George&#8217;s Chapel). At the last-named he is also shewn as
+preying upon a hen. At Beverley (Minster) Ely, Manchester, and Thanet (St.
+Mary&#8217;s Minster) the picture of the abduction of the goose is heightened in
+interest by his pursuit by a woman armed with a distaff. Doubtless there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+are others; the object throughout is to give examples, not an exhaustive
+list.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img154.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE FOX RETURNING FROM HUNTING, MANCHESTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat unusual subject is one in Manchester Cathedral, in which the
+Fox is returning from hunting. A carving where the Fox is used to point a
+moral is another, in St. George&#8217;s Chapel, Windsor, in which three monks,
+conveyed in a wheel-barrow into Hell&#8217;s Mouth, are accompanied by a Fox
+with a goose in his mouth. Probably the idea here broadly expressed is
+intended to be quietly suggested by some of the above.</p>
+
+<p>Next in frequency is the more definite satire of the Fox preaching to
+Geese. We find it at Beverley (both the Minster and St. Mary&#8217;s), Boston,
+Bristol, Cartmel, Ely, Etchingham, Nantwich, Ripon, Stowlangcroft, and
+Windsor (St. George&#8217;s Chapel). In the last he has a goose in his cowl.</p>
+
+<p>All those need for their completion the supposition that the text of the
+Fox&#8217;s sermon is the same as was given at length in a representation of a
+preaching scene on an ancient stained-glass window in the church of St.
+Martin, Leicester, which was unhappily destroyed in the last century. In
+this, from the Fox&#8217;s mouth proceeded the words &#8220;Testis est mihi Deus, quam
+cupiam vos omnes visceribus meus&#8221; (God is my witness how I desire you all
+in my bowels.&mdash;Philippians, i., 8). In Wolfius, <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> 1300, is a
+description of another such representation, in a MS. of &AElig;sop&#8217;s Fables. It
+may accord quite well with the theory of the transmission of designs by
+the continuity of the artificers&#8217; gild system to suppose that some
+proportion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> of the material found its way into their repertoire through
+the medium of manuscripts (not necessarily original in them), especially
+for such subjects as were essentially medi&aelig;val. We have seen how the
+carvings of Jonah and of Samson, at Ripon, were taken from the Poor Man&#8217;s
+Bible; here we have the Preaching Fox mentioned in a book of 1300 as being
+in an earlier work. A Fox bearing two Cocks by the neck on a staff is the
+initial T in a MS. considered by Montflaucon to be of the ninth century.
+Fredegarius, the Frankish historian, in the middle of the seventh century,
+has a fable of a Fox at the court of the Lion, repeated by others in the
+tenth and eleventh. Paulin Paris and Thomas Wright agreed in thinking the
+whole fable of French origin, and first in the Latin tongue. So that we
+may reasonably suppose that the countless tons of books and MSS. (though
+it is useless to grope now among the mere memories of ashes), burnt at the
+Reformation, would contain much that would have made clearer our
+understanding of this subject of Gothic grotesques. It is clear, however,
+that the Fox was used as a means of satirical comment before the writing
+of the Isengrine Fable, and that most of the church carvings refer to what
+we may call pre-Fable or co-Fable conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>There may be other material lying hidden in our great libraries, but
+search for early Reynard drawings produces almost nothing.</p>
+
+<p>At Ripon the Fox is shewn without vestments, in a neat Gothic pulpit
+adorned with carvings of the trefoil.<a name='fna_8' id='fna_8' href='#f_8'><small>[8]</small></a> His<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> hands, and what they may
+have held, are gone. His congregation is to his right a goose, to his left
+a cock, who appear to be uttering responses, while his face is significant
+of conscious slyness.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img155.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE PREACHING FOX, RIPON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In Beverley Minster the Preaching Fox is in a square panelled pulpit on
+four legs; before him are seven geese, one of whom slumbers peacefully. He
+wears a gown and cowl, has a rosary in his right hand, and appears to be
+performing his part with some animation. Behind the pulpit stands an ape
+with a goose hung on a stick, while another fox&mdash;to give point to the
+lesson&mdash;is slinking off with a goose slung over his back. At St. Mary&#8217;s,
+Beverley, the various carvings have a decidedly manuscript appearance. The
+one of the Preaching Fox has labels, upon which, in some unknown original,
+may have been inscribed texts or other matter. Here the Fox wears only his
+&#8220;scapulaire,&#8221; and has his right hand raised in correct exhortative manner;
+his pulpit is of stone, and is early. Behind stand two persons, perhaps
+male and female, whose religious dress would lead us to suppose them to
+represent the class to whose teaching a fox-like character is to be
+attributed. At the front are seated two apes, also in scapularies, or
+hoods, who, as well as the Fox, may be here to shew the real character of
+the supposed sanctified.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img156.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE RULE AND THE ROAST CONTRASTED, ST. MARY&#8217;S, BEVERLEY.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>It will have been noticed how frequently the carvings evade explanation;
+all these satires on the clergy may mean either that the system was bad,
+or that there was much abuse of it. A remarkable instance of this is in
+another misericorde in St. Mary&#8217;s, Beverley. Here we have the Benedictine
+with mild and serene countenance, without a sign of sin, and bearing the
+scroll of truth and simplicity of life&mdash;call it the rule of his order. Yet
+how do many of his followers act? With greed for the temporalities, they
+aspire to the pastoral crook, and devour their flocks with such rapacity
+as to threaten the up-rooting of the whole order.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img157.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE PREACHING FOX, ST. MARY&#8217;S, BEVERLEY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Such might be one rendering; yet the placid cleric may be simply
+introduced to shew the outward appearance of the ravening ones.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>It has been a favourite explanation of these anti-cleric carvings to say
+that they were due to the jealousy which existed between the regular
+orders and the preaching friars. But carvings such as this last are
+sufficient to prove the explanation erroneous; preaching friars carried no
+croziers.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another instance from St. Mary&#8217;s shews us two foxes in scapularies
+reading from a book placed on an eagle-lectern.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img158.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FOXES AT THE LECTERN, ST. MARY&#8217;S, BEVERLEY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The bird&mdash;lectern or not&mdash;has round its head a kind of aureola or glory;
+it is probably an eagle, but who shall say it is not a dove? The
+religiously-garbed foxes are alone unmistakable.</p>
+
+<p>At Boston we have a mitred Fox, enthroned in the episcopal seat in full
+canonicals, clutching at a cock which stands near, while another bird is
+at the side. Close by the throne, another fox, in a cowl only, is reading
+from a book.</p>
+
+<p>At Christchurch, Hampshire, we see the Fox on a seat-elbow, in a pulpit of
+good design, and near him, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> a stool, the Cock; it appears in the
+initial of this article.</p>
+
+<p>At Worcester, a scapularied Fox is kneeling before a small table or altar,
+laying his hand with an affectation of reverence upon&mdash;a sheep&#8217;s head.
+This is one of the side carvings to the misericorde of the three mowers,
+considered under the head of &#8220;Trinities.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img159.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">EPISCOPAL HYPOCRISY, BOSTON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The Fox seizing the Hen, at Windsor, reminds of the Fable, yet in so many
+other instances it is the Cock who is the prey. Still further removing the
+carvings out of the sphere of the Fable is a carving at Chicester of the
+Fox playing the harp to a goose, while an ape dances; and another at St.
+George&#8217;s, Windsor, in which it is an ape who wears the stole, and is
+engaged in the laying on of hands. In the Fable the Fox teaches the Hare
+the Creed, yet in a carving at <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>Manchester it is his two young cubs whom
+he is teaching from a book.</p>
+
+<p>The Fox in the Shell of Salvation, artfully discoursing on the merits of a
+bottle of holy water, as drawn on <a href="#Page_58">page 58</a>, may be considered a Preaching
+Fox.</p>
+
+<p>There is at Nantwich a carving which, unlike any of those already noticed,
+is closely illustrative of an incident of the epic. It represents the
+story told to Nouvel&#8217;s court by the widower Crow. He and his wife, in
+travelling through the country, came across what they thought was the dead
+body of Reynard on the heath. He was stiff, his tongue protruded, his eyes
+were inverted. They lamented his unhappy fate, and &#8220;course so early run.&#8221;
+The lady approached his chin, not, indeed, with any idea of commencing a
+meal; far from that, it was to ascertain if perchance any signs of life
+remained, when&mdash;snap! Her head was off! The Crow himself had the
+melancholy luck to fly to a tree, there to sit and watch his wife eaten
+up. In the carving we have the crows first coming upon the sight of the
+counterfeit carrion as it lies near a rabbit warren. To shew how perfect
+is Reynard&#8217;s semblance of death, the rear portions of two rabbits are to
+be seen as they hurry into their holes on the approach of the crows, the
+proximity of the Fox not having previously alarmed them.</p>
+
+<p>The side figures have no simultaneous connection with the central
+composition, being merely representations of Reynard, once more as a
+larder regarder. The pilgrim&#8217;s hat, borne by one of the figures, is a
+further reminder of the Fable, and the monkish garb is of course in
+keeping. These two are somewhat singular in being fox-headed men. At
+Chester, also, is a Fox feigning death.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img160.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE FOX FEIGNING DEATH, NANTWICH.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img161.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE TEMPTATION.<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>THE PUNISHMENT.<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>THE WAKE KNOT.<br />BEVERLEY MINSTER.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Thus far the examples have been of Reynard&#8217;s crimes; we will now survey
+his punishment. In the fable he was to be hanged, but was not, the Wolf
+and the Bear, whom he always outwitted, being the disappointed
+executioners. In the carvings he is really hanged, and the hangsmen are
+the geese of his despoliation. Beverley Minster has among its fine
+carvings an admirable rendering of this subject. Reynard is hanged on a
+square gallows, a number of birds, geese, taking a beak at the rope. To
+the left of the gallows stand two official geese, with mace and
+battle-axe. The left supplementary carving gives a note of the crime;
+Reynard is creeping upon two sleeping geese. The right hand supporting
+carving gives us the Fox after being cut down. His friend, the Ape,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> is
+untying the rope from his neck. Observe the twist of the rope at the end;
+it declares that Reynard is dead, for it is a Wake Knot!</p>
+
+<p>Also at Boston, Bristol, Nantwich, and Sherborne are carvings of the
+hanging by geese. The gallows of the Sherborne execution is square, and
+made of rough trees. The general action is less logical than in the
+Beverley scene, but the geese are full of vivacity, evidently enjoying the
+thoroughness with which they are carrying out their intentions.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img162.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">EXECUTION OF REYNARD, SHERBORNE.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In the hanging scenes there is no suggestion of the religious dress.
+Reynard has lost his Benefit of Clergy. Besides the carving of the Ape
+laying out the dead Fox, at Beverley there are also others where the Ape
+is riding on the Fox&#8217;s back, and again where he is tending him in bed. The
+Ape succouring the Fox is also instanced at Windsor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>However, after the two broad classes of carvings are exhausted&mdash;the Fox
+deluding or eating birds, and the Fox hanged by birds, there is little
+left to tell of him.</p>
+
+<p>It may be added that his hanging by his one-time victims has suggested to
+the carver another subject of the same kind&mdash;the hanging of the cat by
+mice, or, more probably, rats, mentioned on <a href="#Page_43">page 43</a>. It is there stated to
+be at Sherborne, in error, the place being Great Malvern.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img163.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">EXECUTION OF THE CAT, GREAT MALVERN.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The following curious scene from the Fox-fruitful church of St. Mary&#8217;s,
+Beverley, is perplexing, and gives the Fox receiving his quietus under
+unique circumstances. He is, with anxiety, awaiting the diagnosis of an
+ape-doctor, who is critically examining urinary deposits; his health has
+been evidently not all he could wish. When, lo, an arrow, from the bow of
+an archer in quilted leather, pierces him through the heart! What more
+this carving means is a mystery.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img164.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">REYNARD IN DANGER, ST. MARY&#8217;S, BEVERLEY.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img165.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>COFFIN LID,<br />BRIDLINGTON,<br />YORKSHIRE.</small></div>
+
+<p>Carvings of the ordinary fables in which the Fox is concerned are not
+unknown. At Faversham, Kent, is one of the Fox and the Grapes; at Chester
+is the Fox and the Stork. The latter is, again, on a remarkable slab,
+probably a coffin lid, in the Priory Church of Bridlington, East
+Yorkshire, the strange combination of designs on which may be described.
+At the head appear two curious dragon forms opposed over an elaborate
+embattled temple, suggestive of Saxon and Byzantine derivation, with a
+central pointed arch. This may be a rendering of the sun-myth, noted on
+<a href="#Page_37">page 37</a>. At the foot is a reversed lion, the curls and twists of whose
+mane and tail closely resembles those of the white porcelain lions used by
+the Chinese as incense-burners. Between the temple and the lion is incised
+an illustration of the fable of the Fox and the Stork. The slab, of which
+a rough sketch is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> annexed, is of black basaltic marble, similar to that
+of the font of the church, which is of the type generally considered to be
+Norman, and to have been imported ready made from Flanders, and on which
+dragons are sometimes the ornament. The Fox on this slab is the earliest
+sculptured figure of the animal known in England.</p>
+
+<p>There are also hunting scenes in which the fox is shot with bow and arrow,
+as in Beverley Minster; or chased with hounds in a way more commending
+itself to modern sporting ideas, as at Ripon.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the satirical intent of the fox inventions, as we find them
+in the library or in the church, may be summed up, for here indeed lies
+the whole secret of their prevalence and popularity. The section of
+society satirized by the epic is large, but is principally covered by the
+feudal institution. The notes struck are its greed of wealth and its greed
+of the table, its injustice under the pretext of laws, its expedient
+lying, the immunity from punishment afforded by riches, the absolute yet
+revolution-fearing power of the sovereign, the helplessness of nobles
+single-handed, and the general influence of religion thrown over
+everything,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> while for its own sake being allowed to really influence
+nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The chief point of the epic is generally considered to be that power in
+the hands of the feudal barons was accompanied by a trivial amount of
+intelligence, which was easily deceived by the more astute element of
+society. The carvings give no note of this. A further object, however, may
+be seen. The whole story of the Fox is meant not only to shew that</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;It is not strength that always wins,<br />
+For wit doth strength excel,&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>by playing on the passions and weaknesses of mankind, but in particular to
+hold up to scorn the immunity procured by professional religion, though it
+is fair to note that the Fox does not adopt a religious life because
+suited to his treacherous and deceitful character, but to conceal it. Thus
+so far as they elucidate the general &#8220;foxiness&#8221; of religious hypocrisy,
+the carvings and the epic illustrate the same theme, but it is evident
+that they embodied and developed already-existing popular recognition of
+the evil, each in its own way, and without special reference one to the
+other.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Situations of the Grotesque Ornament in Church Art.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> places chosen for the execution of the work which, by reason of its
+intention or its want of conformity with what we now consider a true taste
+in art, may be styled Grotesque, do not seem to be in any marked degree
+different from the situations selected for other ornamental work. It may,
+however, be permitted to glance at those situations, and enquire as to
+such comparisons as they afford, though the conclusions to be arrived at
+must necessarily be loose and general.</p>
+
+<p>In Norman work the chief iconographical interest is to be found in the
+capitals of pilasters and pillars, for here is often told a story of some
+completeness. Other places are the arches, chiefly of doorways; bosses of
+groining, and the horizontal corners of pillar plinths; exteriorly, the
+gargoyles are most full of meaning, seconded by the corbels of the
+corbel-table. We may expect in Norman grotesque some reference to ancient
+mystics; the forms are bold and rugged, such appearance of delicacy as
+exists being attained by interlacing lines in conventional patterns, with,
+also, the effect of distance upon repeating ornament.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/img166.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>APE CORBEL,<br />CARRYING ROOF TIMBER,<br />EWELME.</small></div>
+
+<p>Transitional Norman retained all the characteristic ornament of the purer
+style, but with the development of Early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> English the grotesque for a time
+somewhat passed out of vogue, slight but eminently graceful modifications
+of the Corinthian acanthus supplying most of the places where strange
+beasts had formerly presented their bewildering shapes. It might not be
+impossible to connect this partial purification of ornament with a phase
+of church history.</p>
+
+<p>But in some portions of structure, as the gargoyles, and in the woodwork
+of the choirs, the grotesque still held its own. As Early English grew
+distinctly into the Decorated, every available spot was enriched with
+carving. The collections (called &#8220;portfolios&#8221; elsewhere) of the old
+carvers would seem to have been ransacked and exhausted, all that had gone
+before receiving fresh rendering in wood and stone, while life and nature
+were now often called upon to furnish new material. The pointed arch
+remained, however, an undecorated sweep of mouldings, and the plinth
+corners were rarely touched; in fact there was here scarcely now the same
+squareness of space which before had asked for ornament. All the other
+places ornamented in Norman work were filled up in Decorated with the new
+designs of old subjects. The resting-places of ornament were multiplied;
+the dripstones of every kind of arch, and the capitals of every kind of
+pillar, whether in the arcading of the walls, the heaped-up richness of
+the reredos, or the single subject of the piscina, became nests of the
+grotesque. In a single group of sedilia all the architecture of a great
+cathedral may be seen in miniature, in arch, column, groined roof, boss,
+window-tracery, pinnacle, and finial, each part with its share of
+ornament, of grotesque. In the choirs the carvers had busied themselves
+with summoning odd forms from out the hard oak, till the croches or
+elbow-rests, the bench ends, the stall canopies, and below all, and above
+all, the misericordes, swarmed with all the ideas of Asia and Europe past
+and present. Musicians are everywhere, but most persistently on the
+intersections of the choir arches, and somewhat less so on those of the
+nave.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+<div class="border" style="width: 600px; height: 270px;"><img src="images/img167.jpg" alt="" /><br /><small>MISERICORDE&mdash;LION COMPOSITION, WELLINGBOROUGH.</small></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>A favourite place for humourous figures was on the stone brackets or
+corbels which bear up timber roofs; examples are in the ape corbel in this
+article, and the responsible yet happy-looking saint at the end of the
+list of Contents.</p>
+
+<p>When the Perpendicular style came with other arts from Italy, and the
+lavish spread of the Decorated was chastened and over-chastened into
+regularity, there came for the second or third time the same ideas from
+the never-dying mythologies, their concrete embodiments sometimes with
+eloquence rendered, nearly always with vigour. They came to the old
+places, but in most fulness to that most full place, the dark recess where
+lurks the misericorde.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole it would appear that the grotesque, be it in the relics of
+a long-forgotten symbolism, in crude attempts at realism, or in the
+fantastic whimseys of irresponsibility, is chiefly met in the portions of
+the church where would occur,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> in the development of architecture, the
+problems and difficulties. They occur, so to speak, at the joints of
+construction. It may be that the pluteresques (grotesque and other
+ornaments made of metal) employed in many Spanish churches are to be
+accounted for in this way on the score of the facility of attachment.
+Where it may be questioned that the ornament was to conceal juncture, it
+is often to be acknowledged that it was to give external apparent
+lightness to masses which are in themselves joints or centres of weight.
+To conclude&mdash;to whatever extent we may carry our inquiries into the
+meaning of the grotesques in church art, we have in them undoubtedly
+objects whose associations are among the most ancient of the human race;
+whatever our opinion of their fitness for a place in the temple, it is
+plain that practically they could be nowhere else.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img168.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">MUSICIAN ON THE INTERSECTION<br />OF NAVE ARCHES, ST. HELEN&#8217;S,<br />ABINGDON, BERKSHIRE.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img169.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p>
+<p class="title">Index.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index">
+Abdominal Mask, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+Abingdon, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, and <a href="#Page_v">Preface</a><br />
+<br />
+Aboo-Simbel Trinity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Abydos Trinity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Acanthus, <a href="#Page_149">149-50</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Adam, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Eve, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Adam Clarke, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Adel, Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Adonai, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Adonis, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Adoration, the, <a href="#Page_113">113-5</a><br />
+<br />
+&AElig;lian, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+&AElig;sculapius, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>&AElig;sop&#8217;s Fables</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Africa, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Agni, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Akori, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Alcock, Bishop, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Ale and the Alewife, <a href="#Page_99">99-105</a><br />
+<br />
+Alewife, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Alehouses, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Ale-taster, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Alexander, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Alexandria, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+All Souls, Oxford, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104-5</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Alraun images, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Altar of the Sun, <a href="#Page_37">37-39</a><br />
+<br />
+Ambarvalia, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+American Arms, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+American-Indian mythology, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+American-Indian Trinity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Amman, Justus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Ammon, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Amun-Ra, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Ancient Mysteries described</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+Ancient Worships, <a href="#Page_27">27-59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-77</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152-3</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157-168</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175-183</a><br />
+<br />
+Angel Choir, Lincoln, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Angel (coin), <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Angels, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Animal Musicians, <a href="#Page_152">152-6</a><br />
+<br />
+Animal symbolism, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Anthony pig, the, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Anuka, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Archers, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209-10</a><br />
+<br />
+Ape, the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28-9</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-4</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207-10</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Aphrodite, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Apocryphal New Testament, the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<br />
+Apollo, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<br />
+April, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Apuleius, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Arimanes, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Arles, the Council of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Arma palantes, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Arthur, King, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Artistic quality of Church grotesques, <a href="#Page_19">19-23</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Art Journal, the</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Asir, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Assyrian myth, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Assyrians, no record of their humour, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Astronomical symbols a source of Gothic design, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27-8</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-59</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157-68</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Atahuata, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Aten, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Athor, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Athyr, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Attic figurines, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Auckland Castle, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Augsburgh, (?) Council of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+&#8220;Auld Clootie,&#8221; <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+&#8220;Auld Hornie,&#8221; <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Aurva, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Avarice, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-95</a><br />
+<br />
+Averus (Horus), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Baalim, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Babylonian myth, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Bacon, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Bacchus, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Backbiter, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a><br />
+<br />
+Badger Grimbart, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Bagpipes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Ba-it, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Baker, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+Bakewell, Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_130">130-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Baldini and Boticelli, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+<br />
+Baptism of John, the, <a href="#Page_117">117-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Barton, Lincs., <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Basketsful of Children, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Bayle, a kind of dance, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+Beakheads, <a href="#Page_125">125-6</a><br />
+<br />
+Bear Bruno, <a href="#Page_190">190-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Bear, the, <a href="#Page_152">152-156</a><br />
+<br />
+Beard, the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>Bedford, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Beehive of the Romishe Church</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+Bellin the Ram, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Berkshire, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
+<br />
+Bestiaries, the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br /><a name="beverley" id="beverley"></a>
+Beverley, Percy Shrine at, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carvings at, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120-3</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133-6</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154-5</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195-6</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198-9</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201-2</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208-11</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bhu, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Bible (as Old and New Testaments), <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Biblia Pauperum, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Birch, Dr., <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Birds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<br />
+Bishop Foxes, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Bishops Stortford, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Blashill, Mr. Thomas, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Bo, Bo-tree. Bod, Bog, Boggart, Boivani, Bolay, Boo, Bouders, Boudons, Boroon, Bormania, Borr, Borvo, Bouljanus, Brog, Bug, Bugbear, Buggaboo, Buka, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Boar, <a href="#Page_139">139-40</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Boar&#8217;s Head, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Bodleian Library, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Bolton, Bishop, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Boston, Lincolnshire, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Boutell, Rev. C., <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Bow and arrow, <a href="#Page_162">162-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Boy (Bog), <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Brahma, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Brahminic Trinity, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Breast, removal of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<br />
+Bridge, Kent, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Bridlington Priory Church, Yorks, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Bristol, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+British Museum, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Bruno the Bear, <a href="#Page_190">190-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Buckle Mask, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Bull, the, <a href="#Page_41">41-2</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72-3</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88-9</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Bur, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Byzantine ideas, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Byzantium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Caimis, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Calendarum Romanorum Magnum</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Calf, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Cama, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Cambridge, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
+<br />
+Cambridgeshire, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Candlemas, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Canterbury, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Canting heraldry, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Caricature in part explained, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+Carpenter, Mr. Edward, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Cartmel, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Carvers, <a href="#Page_9">9-18</a><br />
+<br />
+Cat, the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Cat and Fiddle, the, <a href="#Page_39">39-43</a><br />
+<br />
+Cat-heads, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+Caxton, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Cedranus, <a href="#Page_143">143-4</a><br />
+<br />
+Centaur, <a href="#Page_161">161-6</a><br />
+<br />
+Cerealia, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Ceres, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Cestus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<br />
+Chairs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Ch&acirc;lons, Council of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Chandra, Chandri, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Cherubim, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+Chester, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+Chichester, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Chiron the Centaur, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<br />
+Chnoumis, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Chonso, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Christ, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-62</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114-20</a><br />
+<br />
+Christchurch (Hants), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Christmas, <a href="#Page_139">139-40</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Chronicles, the Book of</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Church symbolism, expediency, etc., <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+Ciaran (St.), <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<br />
+Clergy, the, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<br />
+Cneph, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Cock, the, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197-8</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Compound Forms, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157-168</a><br />
+<br />
+Coney, the, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Conscience, <a href="#Page_170">170-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Constantinople, Council of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Continuous group, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Conventional form a matter of development, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+Corinthian Acanthus, <a href="#Page_149">149-50</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Corpus Christi Play, <a href="#Page_142">142-3</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Cosmographi&aelig; Universalis</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Cotton MSS., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+Councils, Arles, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Augsburgh (?), <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Frankfurt, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Narbonne, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicea, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orleans, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tours, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nice, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milan, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Coventry, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Cow, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Creators, Mythological, <a href="#Page_176">176-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescent, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Cripple, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+Crocodile, <a href="#Page_44">44-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Cr&oacute;r&aacute;sura, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Cross, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Crow and his wife, the, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Croziers, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Crusaders, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Culham, Berkshire, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Cupid, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Dance, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+David, King, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Decorated Carvings, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a><br />
+<br />
+Deer, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Definitions of the Grotesque, <a href="#Page_5">5-8</a><br />
+<br />
+De la Wich, Bishop, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Delft, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_130">130-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Design, Continuity of Gothic, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<br />
+Detractors, <a href="#Page_82">82-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Devil and the Vices, the, <a href="#Page_78">78-98</a><br />
+<br />
+Devil, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Devils, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Diana, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40-43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Diapason, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Dillin pig, the, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Disc of the Sun, <a href="#Page_167">167-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Distaff, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Dog, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159-60</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+<br />
+Domestic and Popular, the, <a href="#Page_134">134-151</a><br />
+<br />
+Donnington, Thomas (1520), <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Dorchester Abbey, Oxon., <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-5</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121-2</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159-60</a><br />
+<br />
+Dragons, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-57</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-66</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+<br />
+Drake (dragon), <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Druidical Tau, <a href="#Page_43">43-4</a><br />
+<br />
+Drum (Tabor), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Durer, Albert, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Durham, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Eagle, the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158-9</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Early English Carvings, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Eastern ideas, <a href="#Page_9">9-10</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Eden, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Edgeware, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Edward the Confessor, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Edward III., <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+Edward IV., <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Egypt, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43-45</a><br />
+<br />
+Egyptians, little record of their humour, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Egyptian myth, etc., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41-5</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47-8</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-6</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157-8</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Egyptian Trinities, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Eicton, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Elephantine Trinity, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Ely, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80-1</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195-6</a><br />
+<br />
+Equinoxes, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Eschol, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Esculapius, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Etchingham, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Evans, Mr. E. P., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+Evil, Images of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Eve, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Ewelme, Oxon., Carvings at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(not Dorchester), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-8</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Exeter, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Ezekiel, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fable, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Fafnir the Dragon, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Fairford, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Fairies, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Falx, the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Farnsham, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+<br />
+Fates, the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Fauns, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Faversham, Kent, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+Feast of Fools, the, <a href="#Page_143">143-7</a><br />
+<br />
+Feathered Angels, <a href="#Page_75">75-7</a><br />
+<br />
+Fecundity, Goddess of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Fiddle, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Figurines as <i>lares</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Finedon, Northamptonshire, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Fire, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Fish, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Flagellation, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
+<br />
+Flanders, a church workshop, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br />
+Flesh hook, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Fleur-de-lys, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Flora, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Fools, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+<br />
+Fools, the Feast of, <a href="#Page_143">143-7</a><br />
+<br />
+Foreign carvers, <a href="#Page_9">9-18</a><br />
+<br />
+Fox, the, <a href="#Page_58">58-9</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184-212</a><br />
+<br />
+Fox and Grapes, the, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+Fox and Stork, the, <a href="#Page_210">210-1</a><br />
+<br />
+France, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Frankfort, Council of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Fredegarius, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br /><a name="freemasonry" id="freemasonry"></a>
+Freemasonry, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+French work for Saxons, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Frigga, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Freyr, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Furies, the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Gallows, the, <a href="#Page_207">207-9</a><br />
+<br />
+Ganges, the, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Gargonilles, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Gaul, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Gaul, Bishops of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Gauri, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Gautier de Coinsi, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Gayton, Northants, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Geese, Reynard&#8217;s theft of, etc., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Gehul, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+George IV., <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+German &#8220;teraphim,&#8221; <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paganism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Germany, Bishops of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Ghent, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Gild, continuity the explanation of continuity of design, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#freemasonry">Freemasonry</a>)<br />
+<br />
+Gilds, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Glasgow, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Gloucester, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Gluttony, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span><br />
+Goat, the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71-3</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
+<br />
+Goethe, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+<br />
+Golden Bristle, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Gorgon, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Gothic ornament, uses of, etc., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some characteristics of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19-23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24-26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35-39</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not didactic, <a href="#Page_24">24-26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">situations of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Gouda, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Graces, the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Gravio, Count, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Great Malvern, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Grecian Trinity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Greek wit, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">star-worship, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">myth, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">art, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symbolism <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dances, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Grimace-makers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
+<br />
+Grimbart, the Badger, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Grimm, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Gryphon, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Guildford, Surrey, <a href="#Page_117">117-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Gullinbrusti, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hades, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+H&aelig;nir, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Hak, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Hampshire, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Hanging of the Cat, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Hanging of the Fox, <a href="#Page_207">207-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Hare, the, <a href="#Page_106">106-7</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Harleian MSS., <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Harmachis, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Harp, the, <a href="#Page_140">140-1</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Harpy, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Hebrew Teraphim, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Hecate, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Heliopolis, Trinity of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Hell, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Hell&#8217;s Mouth, <a href="#Page_60">60-63</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Hen, the, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Henning the Cock, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+<br />
+Henry VI., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Henry VII.&#8217;s Chapel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Hera, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Heraldry, canting, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Heraldry and three-fold repetitions, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Hercules, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Hereford, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Herodotus, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Hertfordshire, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Het-her, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Hexagon, symbolic, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Hezekiah, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Hindoo myth, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42-45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Hinge the Cat, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Hippocampus, Lincoln, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Hippo-centaurs, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+Hobgoblins, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Hogarth, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Holy Cross, Stratford-on-Avon, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Holy Trinity, Hull, <a href="#Page_139">139-40</a><br />
+<br />
+Holderness, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Homer, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Hone, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+Hopton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Horace, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+Horns, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Horn, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Horse, the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Horse-leech, <a href="#Page_110">110-1</a><br />
+<br /><a name="horus" id="horus"></a>
+Horus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Hull, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139-40</a><br />
+<br />
+Humour, of nations, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hunting, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Huntsman, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Husterlo, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Hypocrisy, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ibis, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Iceland, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Idun, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Iffley, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+<br />
+Imagery in Architecture and Language compared, <a href="#Page_1">1-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Impudence, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Indecency in church, <a href="#Page_143">143-7</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150-1</a><br />
+<br />
+India, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Indian mask, <a href="#Page_123">123-4</a><br />
+<br />
+Indian mythology, East, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Indian Trinity, American, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Indra, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Iren&aelig;us, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Irreverence in art explained in part, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Isaiah</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Isengrinus</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
+<br />
+Isis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Islip, Bishop, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Italian workers in England, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Italy, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Italy, Bishops of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Janus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+Japanese (crocodile), <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Jesus College, Cambridge, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Joke, the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Jonah, <a href="#Page_112">112-3</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+J&ouml;rmungard, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Jove (Jupiter), <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+July, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+<br />
+Juno, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Jupiter, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Jurassic reptiles, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Keltic dragons, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Kent, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>Khum, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+King Arthur, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+King Edward the Confessor, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+King Edward III., <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+King Edward IV., <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+King George IV., <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+King Henry VI., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+King Henry VII., <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+King Henry VII. Chapel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+King Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+King&#8217;s College, Cambridge, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Lampe the Hare, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Lares, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Laughter of nations, <a href="#Page_6">6-7</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Lectern, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Leicester, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Leland, John, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Lemon, <a href="#Page_139">139-40</a><br />
+<br />
+Leo, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Leopard, The, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+<br />
+Lincoln Cathedral, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
+<br />
+Lincolnshire, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Lind-drake, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Linden worm, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Linden tree, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Line of Beauty, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Lion, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189-90</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-1</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<br />
+Lioness, The, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+<br />
+Little-trust, Lettice, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Lodur, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Loki, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Love, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Lubeck, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Lucifer, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Ludlow, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Luna, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Lunar calculations of Mosaic system, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Lunus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Lydda, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Lynn, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Macrobius, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Magdalen College, Oxford, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Magi, Adoration of the, <a href="#Page_113">113-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Maidstone, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Maimonides, the Rabbi, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Malepart, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+<br />
+Malvern, Great, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Manchester, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203-4</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Mandragora images, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Mann, Mr. Robert, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Mant, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Mare and foal, the story of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+<br />
+Mars, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Marks, sculptors&#8217;, ignored; an example is on p. <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Martinmas, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Martin the Ape, <a href="#Page_192">192-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Mary, the Virgin, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Masks and Faces, <a href="#Page_121">121-133</a><br />
+<br />
+Meaux Abbey, Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+Memphis, Trinity of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Mendes, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Mentu, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Merchant mark, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Mercury, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Merenphtah, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Mermaid, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Messon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Mexican myth, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+Mice, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Midsummer Watch, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Milan, Council of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Minerva, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Miracle Plays, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Mirror of Human Salvation, the</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Misericordes, <a href="#Page_24">24-5</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br />
+<br />
+Mithras, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Monstrosity, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+Montflaucon, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Moon worship, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Morris Dance, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+Mosaic system, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ark, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not the original of pagan myth, <a href="#Page_175">175-6</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Moses, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Mouth of Hell, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Mowers, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Mumming, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Music, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Monograms, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Mystery Plays, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Mythic origin of Church carvings, <a href="#Page_34">34-59</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Nachasch, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Nantwich, Cheshire, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204-5</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Narbonne, the Council of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Nebhetp, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Nefer-Atum, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Neptune, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Nerites, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Nessus the Centaur, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<br />
+New College, Oxford, <a href="#Page_58">58-9</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84-5</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Nice, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Nicea, the Council of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Nicodemus, the Gospel of</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Nile, the River, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Nilus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Nilus, <i>see</i> <a href="#saints">Saints</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Nobodies, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Non-descripts, <a href="#Page_169">169-172</a><br />
+<br />
+Norfolk, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Norman carvings, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fonts <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>North Stoke, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Northamptonshire, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86-7</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Norwich, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Notch-heads, <a href="#Page_124">124-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Nouvel the Lion, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Numbers, the Book of</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Nuns, <a href="#Page_106">106-7</a><br />
+<br />
+Nursery Rhymes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Oak, the, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Odin, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Opas, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Orleans, the Council of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Ornament, the use of Gothic, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+Oromasdes, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Orus (<i>see</i> <a href="#horus">Horus</a>), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Osiris, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Otkon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Ox, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Oxford, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104-6</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Oxfordshire, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-5</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121-2</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paganism, ingrained among nations, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Pallas, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Palmer Fox, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Pan, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72-3</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+Pantheism, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Panther, the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Paris, Paulin, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Parody, a characteristic of Greek wit, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+P&aacute;t&aacute;la, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Pastoral staves, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Pausanius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Pegasus, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<br />
+Pepin, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Percy Shrine, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+Perpendicular Ornament, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br />
+<br />
+Persephone, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Perseus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Persian Trinity, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Peterborough, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Phil&aelig;an Trinity, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Philippians, the Epistle to the</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Phipson, Miss, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, and <a href="#Page_v">preface</a><br />
+<br />
+Phyrric Dance, the, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Picture Bible, the</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Pig and Whistle, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+Pig, and other Animal Musicians, the, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152-6</a><br />
+<br />
+Piggy-widdy, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Pilgremage of the Sowle, the</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Pipes, Double, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Planet symbols, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Plato, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Plutarch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Pluteresques, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
+<br />
+Pluto, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Poor Man&#8217;s Bible, the</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Poppy, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Pottery, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Preaching Fox, the, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-204</a><br />
+<br />
+Priapus, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Prideaux, Bishop, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Priest sleeping, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Prosperine, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41-2</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Protevan, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Psyche, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Pta, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Pulpits, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197-8</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+<br />
+Pur&aacute;nas, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Python, the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ra, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Rabbi Maimonides, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+R&aacute;hu, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Ram, the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Ram Bellin, <a href="#Page_192">192-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Ram&#8217;s Head, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+<br />
+Ram, the Hindoo deity, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Rebuses, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173-4</a><br />
+<br />
+Recording Imps, <a href="#Page_78">78-9</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84-5</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Red Sea, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Reinche Bos</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Renart le Contrefet</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Reynard the Fox</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Reynard the Fox, the most delectable history of</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Ripon, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-3</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136-7</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195-8</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+<br />
+Rochester, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Rogation, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Roman de Renart</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Roman Trinity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Roman, Wit bitter and low, <a href="#Page_6">6-7</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">myth, <a href="#Page_42">42-3</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Roman work for Saxons, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Roscommon, the Poet, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+Roslyn Chapel, <a href="#Page_128">128-9</a><br />
+<br />
+Rostock, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br />
+<br />
+Rothwell, Northants, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Sabean Idolatry, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Sackville the Poet, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Sacred Marks, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> (block), <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+S&aelig;hrimnir, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Sagittarius, <a href="#Page_162">162-5</a><br />
+<br /><a name="saints" id="saints"></a>
+Saints&mdash;Adrian, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anthony, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Augustine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bartholomew&#8217;s, Smithfield, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bernard of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36-7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Britius, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ciaran, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cross, Hospital of, Winchester, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">George, <a href="#Page_47">47-8</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">George&#8217;s Chapel, Windsor, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195-6</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gertrude, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Helen&#8217;s, Abingdon, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Katherine&#8217;s, Regent&#8217;s Park, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keyne, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lucy, <a href="#Page_134">134-5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Luke, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martha, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Michael, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martin&#8217;s, Leicester, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martin, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mary&#8217;s, Beverley, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#beverley">Beverley</a>)</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mary&#8217;s, Faversham, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mary&#8217;s Minster, Thanet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122-3</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-1</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nessan, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicholas&#8217;s, Lynn, <a href="#Page_11">11-2</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicholas, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nilus, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul&#8217;s, Bedford, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul&#8217;s, London, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peter&#8217;s-in-the-East, Oxford, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romain, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Salus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Sambar, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Samson, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+<br />
+Sani, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Satan, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104-6</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Satanic Representations, <a href="#Page_64">64-77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78-105</a><br />
+<br />
+Sathanus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Satire, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+<br />
+Satires without Satan, <a href="#Page_106">106-11</a><br />
+<br />
+Satyrs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Saturn, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Saturnalia, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Saxon work, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Scandinavian mythology, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trinity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Scarab&aelig;us, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Scriptural Illustrations, <a href="#Page_112">112-120</a><br />
+<br />
+Scylla, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Scythes, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Sea-horse (hippocampus), <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Seals, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, and end of Index<br />
+<br />
+September, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Seraphim, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Serapis, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Serpent, the, <a href="#Page_44">44-5</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-1</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73-5</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Sex of the Moon, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sheep, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Shell, <a href="#Page_50">50-1</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54-5</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57-9</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Shell Child, the, <a href="#Page_50">50-9</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Shepherd, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Sherborne, <a href="#Page_134">134-5</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Shiva, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Sigurd, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Sin series of carvings, <a href="#Page_78">78-111</a><br />
+<br />
+Sirius, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Sismondi, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+Sistrum, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Situations of Church Grotesques, <a href="#Page_213">213-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Siva, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Slanderers, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Sledges, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Smu, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Snail, <a href="#Page_57">57-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Solomon, King, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Sources of material for Gothic grotesques, General, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<br />
+Southleigh, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Speculum Human&aelig; Salvationis</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Sperke, John (1520), <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Spinx, the, <a href="#Page_158">158-9</a><br />
+<br />
+Springs, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+SS., the letter, and Collar of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Stanford, Berkshire, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Star Worship, <a href="#Page_27">27-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Stars and Stripes, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Statute of Labourers, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+Stoeffler, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Stowlangcroft, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Stratford-on-Avon, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Suffolk, Duchess of (ob. 1475), <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Sun, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Sun Feast, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Sun Worship, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-59</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Superstition, Horn, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Supreme Intellect, the, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Surya, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Sutton Courtney, <a href="#Page_128">128-9</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Sutton-in-Holderness</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Swan, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Swar, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Swathing of Infants, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Swarh&aacute;nu, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Sweden, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Swine, Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_106">106-7</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129-30</a><br />
+<br />
+Symbolism and Fable, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Symbols of worship a general source of Gothic ornament, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Syderesys, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Syria, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Tabor (drum), <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Tarasque, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Tau Cross, the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43-4</a><br />
+<br />
+Taurus, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Telephorus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Teraphim, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Teutonic appreciation of humour, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Thanet, Isle of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-1</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>Theban Trinity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Theophylact, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Thirlwall, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Thoth, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Three, the number, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#trinities">Trinities</a>)<br />
+<br />
+Three branched rod, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> (block), <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181-2</a><br />
+<br />
+Time, Father, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Titian, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Topsey-turveyism, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Torregiano, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+Tree of Knowledge, the, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Trefoil, the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178-9</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Trial of Mary and Joseph</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Trigla, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br /><a name="trinities" id="trinities"></a>
+Trinities, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175-183</a><br />
+<br />
+Tufton Street Architectural Museum, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Tum, the Setting Sun, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Typhon, <a href="#Page_44">44-57</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-5</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Unseen Witness, the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Vali, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Vanity, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Vedie Trinity, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Venus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
+<br />
+Veximiel, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Virgil, the, <a href="#Page_160">160-1</a><br />
+<br />
+Virgin Mary, the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82-3</a><br />
+<br />
+Virgo, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Vishnu, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Vulcan, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Wall paintings compared with carvings, <a href="#Page_114">114-117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-20</a><br />
+<br />
+Wake Knot, <a href="#Page_207">207-8</a><br />
+<br />
+Wellingborough, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<br />
+Wells, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109-110</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123-4</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Wheelbarrows, <a href="#Page_135">135-7</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Whistling Maid, the, <a href="#Page_104">104-5</a><br />
+<br />
+Whistling while drawing ale, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+White, Wm. (1520), <a href="#Page_173">173-4</a><br />
+<br />
+Wich, Bishop de la, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Winchester, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Windsor, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Winking Nun, the, <a href="#Page_106">106-7</a><br />
+<br />
+Wolf, the, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">story of the wolf&#8217;s head, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Wolfius, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Worcester, <a href="#Page_113">113-5</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-3</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Worm of conscience, the, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Wright, Thomas, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Wyvern, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+York, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129-30</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
+<br />
+Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106-7</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#beverley">Beverley</a>)<br />
+<br />
+Yule, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Zeus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Zither, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+Zodiac, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p>
+
+<p><a name='f_1' id='f_1' href='#fna_1'>[1]</a> Early in the thirteenth century unruly converts of the Abbey of Meaux,
+Yorkshire, were, to humble their pride, made stonemasons, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_2' id='f_2' href='#fna_2'>[2]</a> Of Christ, the Virgin, and saints only. It is here quoted as evidence
+of a tendency. It is plain that the council protected itself, for the
+following distich is attributed to it, which sums up the original intent
+of all images&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Id Deus est, quod Imago docet, sed non deus ipse;<br />
+Hanc Videas, sed mente colas; quod cemis in ipse.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>which Prideaux, Bishop of Worcester, translates (1681):</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;A God the Image represents,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But is no God in kind;</span><br />
+That&#8217;s the eye&#8217;s object, what it shews<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The object of the mind.&#8221;</span></p>
+
+<p><a name='f_3' id='f_3' href='#fna_3'>[3]</a> Yet the Hindoo signification of Typhon is &#8220;the power of destruction by
+heat.&#8221; In this we have another piece of evidence that both the good and
+the bad of the fable are referrable to the sun as his varying attributes,
+and probably describe his particular effects at various portions of the
+zodiacal year. The true, or rather the close, meaning of the various
+accounts is obscured and confused; firstly, by imperfect knowledge as to
+the geographical situations where the idea of the zodiac was conceived and
+developed; secondly, by the gradual precession of the Equinoxes during the
+ages which have elapsed since such conception.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_4' id='f_4' href='#fna_4'>[4]</a> Mr. Robert Mann.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_5' id='f_5' href='#fna_5'>[5]</a> &#8220;Sutton-in-Holderness.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_6' id='f_6' href='#fna_6'>[6]</a> Roscommon.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_7' id='f_7' href='#fna_7'>[7]</a> Hone.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_8' id='f_8' href='#fna_8'>[8]</a> The Church Treasury, by William Andrews, 1898, p. 193.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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+Project Gutenberg's The Grotesque in Church Art, by T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: The Grotesque in Church Art
+
+Author: T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2012 [EBook #39264]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART.
+
+
+
+
+  Only 400 copies of this Book published
+  for Sale, and this is No. 315
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE STORY OF JONAH, RIPON.]
+
+
+
+
+  The Grotesque
+  in Church Art
+
+
+  By T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  WILLIAM ANDREWS & CO., 5, FARRINGDON AVENUE, E.C.
+  1899.
+
+
+
+
+Preface.
+
+
+The designs of which this book treats have vast fields outside the English
+church works to which it has been thought good to limit it. Books and
+buildings undoubtedly mutually interchanged some forms of their ornaments,
+yet the temple was the earlier repository of man's ideas expressed in art,
+and the proper home of the religious symbolism which forms so large a
+proportion of my subject. In view also of the ground I have ventured to
+hint may be taken up as to the derivation, of a larger number than is
+generally supposed, of church designs from heathen prototypes by the hands
+of apprenticed masons, it is fitting that the evidences should be from
+their chisels. The only exceptions are a few wall-paintings, which serve
+to point a difference in style and origin.
+
+In every case the examples are from churches in our own land. The
+conclusions do not nearly approach a complete study of the questions, the
+research to the present, great as it is, chiefly shewing how much has yet
+to be learned in order to accurately compare the extant with the
+long-forgotten. The endeavour has been to present sufficient to enable
+general inferences to be drawn in the right direction.
+
+Of the numerous works consulted in the course of this essay, the most
+useful has been "Choir Stalls and their Carvings," sketched by Miss Emma
+Phipson. While tendering my acknowledgments for much assistance obtained
+from that lady's book, I would add that the 'second series' suggested
+cannot but equal the first as a service to the cause of comparative
+mythology and folk-lore.
+
+This place may be taken to dispose of two kinds of grotesques in church
+art which belong to my title, though not to my intention.
+
+The memorial erections put into so many churches after the middle of the
+sixteenth century are to be placed in the same category as the less often
+ludicrous effigies of earlier times, and may be dismissed as "ugly
+monumental vanities, miscalled sculpture." The grotesqueness of some of
+these sepulchral excrescences may in future centuries be still more
+apparent, though to many even time cannot supply interest. Not all are
+like the imposing monument to a doctor in Southwark Cathedral, on which,
+by the way, the epitaph is mainly devoted to laudation of his _pills_.
+Yet, though the grotesque is not entirely wanting in even these monuments,
+it is chiefly through errors of taste. The worst of them are more pathetic
+than anything else. The grotesque proper implies a proportion of levity,
+whereas the earnestness evinced by these effigies are more in keeping with
+the solemnity of the church's purpose than the infinitely more artistic
+and unobtrusive ornament of the fabric. The other class of grotesque is
+the modern imitation of mediaeval carving, with original design. Luckily,
+it is somewhat rare to find the spirit of the old sculptors animating a
+modern chisel. One of the best series of modern antiques of this kind is a
+set of gargoyles at St. Nicholas's, Abingdon, executed about 1881, of
+which I think it worth while to append a warning sample.
+
+These two classes are left out of account in the following pages.
+
+[Illustration: MODERN GARGOYLE, ABINGDON, 1881.]
+
+
+
+
+Contents.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE
+
+  PREFACE                                                v
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                           1
+
+  DEFINITIONS OF THE GROTESQUE                           5
+
+  THE CARVERS                                            9
+
+  THE ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF CHURCH GROTESQUES           19
+
+  GOTHIC ORNAMENT NOT DIDACTIC                          24
+
+  INGRAINED PAGANISM                                    27
+
+  MYTHIC ORIGIN                                         34
+
+  HELL'S MOUTH                                          60
+
+  SATANIC REPRESENTATIONS                               64
+
+  THE DEVIL AND THE VICES                               78
+
+  ALE AND THE ALEWIFE                                   99
+
+  SATIRES WITHOUT SATAN                                106
+
+  SCRIPTURAL ILLUSTRATIONS                             112
+
+  MASKS AND FACES                                      121
+
+  THE DOMESTIC AND POPULAR                             134
+
+  THE PIG AND OTHER ANIMAL MUSICIANS                   152
+
+  COMPOUND FORMS                                       157
+
+  NONDESCRIPTS                                         169
+
+  REBUSES                                              173
+
+  TRINITIES                                            175
+
+  THE FOX IN CHURCH ART                                184
+
+  SITUATIONS OF GROTESQUE ORNAMENT IN CHURCH ART       213
+
+  INDEX                                                219
+
+[Illustration: A ROOF SUPPORTER, EWELME, OXON.]
+
+
+
+
+The Grotesque in Church Art.
+
+
+
+
+Introduction.
+
+
+[Illustration: GORGONIC MASK, EWELME.]
+
+The more lofty the earlier manifestations of man's intellect, the more
+complete and immediate seems to have been their advancement. That is to
+say, where the products of genius depend mainly upon the recognition of
+great principles and deliberate adherence to them, they are more
+satisfying than when success depends upon dexterous manipulation of
+material. What I have in view in this respect in connection with
+architecture has its co-relative in language. The subtlety and poetic
+force of Ayran roots shew a refined application of principle--that of
+imagery--in far advance of the languages rising from them. The successive
+growths of the detail of language, for use or ornament,--and the useful of
+one age would seem to become the ornamental of another--necessarily often
+forsake the high purity of the primeval standard, and give rise, not only
+to the commonplace, but, by misconception or wantonness, to perversion of
+taste. So in architecture. Temples were noble before their ornaments. The
+grotesque is the slang of architecture. Nowhere so much as in Gothic
+architecture has the grotesque been fostered and developed, for, except
+for a blind adherence to ancient designs, due to something like gild
+continuity, the whole detail was introduced apropos of nothing. The
+assisting circumstance would appear to have been the indifference of the
+architects to the precise significance of the detail ornaments of their
+buildings. Gothic, or in fact any architecture admitting ornament, calls
+for crisp sub-regular projections, which shall, by their prominence and
+broken surface, attract the eye, but by the vagueness of their general
+form attract it so slightly as to lose individuality in a general view.
+These encrusting ornaments, by their opposition to the light of what the
+carvers call a "busy" surface, increase and accentuate rather than detract
+from the effect of the sweep of arches or dying vistas of recurring
+pillars. They afford a sort of punctuation, or measurers of the rhythm of
+the composition. Led from point to point, the eye gathers an impression of
+rich elaboration that does not interfere with its appreciation of the
+orderliness of the main design.
+
+These objects gained, the architects did not, apparently, enquire what the
+lesser minds, who carved the boss or dripstone, considered appropriate
+ornament. Hence we have a thousand fancies, often beautifully worked out,
+but often utterly incongruous with the intent of the edifice they are
+intended to adorn, and unworthy of the architecture of which they are a
+part.
+
+As in language the grotesque is sometimes produced by inadvertency and
+misconception, so in ornament not all the grotesque is of set purpose, and
+here the consideration of the less development of the less idea has its
+chief example. As original meaning became lost, the real merit of
+earnestness decreased, and the grotesque became an art.
+
+Moreover, the execution of Gothic ornament is excellent in proportion to
+its artistic easiness. Thus the foliate and florate designs are better
+carved than the animal forms, and both better than the human. With the
+exception of little else besides the Angel Choir at Lincoln, and portions
+of the Percy Shrine at Beverley, there is nothing in Gothic representation
+of sentient form really worthy of the perfect conceptions of architecture
+afforded by scores of English churches. It may, of course, be considered
+that anything but conventional form is out of place as architectural
+ornament; on the other hand, it must not be ignored that conventionality
+is a growth. It is only to be expected, therefore, that where the artist
+found character beyond his reach he fell readily into caricature, though
+it is a matter for surprise to find such a high standard of ability in
+that, and in the carved work generally. We find no instances of carving so
+low in absolute merit as are the best of the wall-paintings of the same
+periods.
+
+The sources from which the artists obtained their material are as wide as
+the air. A chief aim of this volume is to indicate those sources, and this
+is done in some cases rather minutely, though not in any exhaustively. The
+point of view from which the subject is surveyed is that the original
+detail of the temples entirely consisted of symbols of worship and
+attributes, founded chiefly upon astronomical phenomena: that owing to the
+gild organization of the masons, the same forms were mechanically
+perpetuated long after the worship of the heavenly bodies had given way to
+Christianity, often with the thinnest veil of Christian symbolism thrown
+over them. To this material, descended from remote antiquity, came
+gradually to be added a multitude of designs from nature and from fancy.
+
+[Illustration: HARPY, EXETER.]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: RAGE AND TERROR, RIPON.]
+
+
+Definitions of the Grotesque.
+
+
+The term "Grotesque," which conveys to us an idea of humourous distortion
+or exaggeration, is simply _grotto-esque_, being literally the style of
+art found in the grottos or baths of the ancients. The term rose towards
+the end of the fifteenth century, when exhumation brought to light the
+fantastic decorations of the more private apartments of the licentious
+Romans. The use at that period of a similar style for not unsimilar
+purposes gave the word common currency, and it has spread to everything
+which, combined with wit or not, provokes a smile by a real or pretended
+violation of the laws of Nature and Beauty. In its later, and not in its
+original, meaning is the word applied to the extraordinary productions of
+church art. We may usefully inquire as to the causes of those remarkable
+characteristics of Gothic art which have caused the word Grotesque to
+fittingly describe so much of its detail.
+
+The joke has a different meaning for every age. The capacity for
+simultaneously recognizing likeness and contrast between things the most
+incongruous and wide-sundered, which is at the root of our appreciation of
+wit, humour, or the grotesque, is a quality of slow growth among nations.
+No doubt early man enjoyed his laugh, but it was a different thing from
+the laughter of our day. Many races have left no suspicion of their ever
+having smiled; even where there are ample pictorial remains, humour is
+generally unrepresented. The Assyrians have left us the smallest possible
+grounds for crediting them with its possession. Instances have been
+adduced of Egyptian humour, but some are doubtful, and in any case the
+proportion of fun per acre of picture is infinitesimally small. The
+Greeks, perhaps, came the nearest to what we consider the comic, but with
+both Greek and Roman the humour has something of bitterness and sterility;
+even in what was professedly comic we cannot always see any real fun.
+Where it strikes out unexpectedly in brief flashes it is with a cold light
+that leaves no impression of warmth behind. The mechanical character of
+their languages, with a multitude of fixed formulae, is perhaps an index to
+their mental development. The subtleties of wit ran in the direction of
+gratifying established tastes and prejudices by satirical references, but
+rarely condescending to amuse for mere humour's sake. Where is found the
+nearest approach to merriness is in what now-a-days we regard as the least
+interesting and meritorious grade of humour, the formal parody. The Greeks
+had, outside their fun, let it be noted, something better than jococity,
+and that was joyousness. The later Romans became humourous in a low way
+which has had a permanent influence upon literature and art.
+
+Sense of humour grew with the centuries, and by the time that the Gothic
+style of architecture arose, appreciation of the ludicrous-in-general
+(_i.e._ that which is without special reference to an established phase of
+thought) is traceable as a characteristic of, at least, the Teuton
+nations. It must be admitted that the popular verbal fun of the middle
+ages is not always easy to grasp, but it cannot be denied that where
+understood, or where its outlet is found in the graphic or glyphic arts,
+there is allied to the innocent coarseness and unscrupulousness, a
+richness of conceit, a wealth of humour, and a delicate and accurate sense
+of the laughable far beyond Greek wit or Roman jocularity.
+
+It is to the embodiments of the spirit of humour as found in our mediaeval
+churches that our present study is directed.
+
+It may be as well to first say a little upon those comicalities which may
+be styled 'grotesques by misadventure.' This is a branch of the subject to
+be approached with some diffidence, for it is in many cases difficult to
+discriminate between that which was intended to be grotesque, and that
+which was executed with serious or often devout feelings, but for one of
+several causes often presenting to us an irresistibly comic effect.
+
+The causes may be five. First, the varying mechanical and constructive
+incompetency of the artists to embody their ideas. Second, the copying of
+an earlier work with executive ability, with strong perception of its
+unintentional and latent humour, but without respect to, or without
+knowledge of, its serious meaning. Third, the use of symbolic
+representation, in which the greater the skill, often the greater the
+ludicrous effect. Fourth, the change of fashion, manners, and customs.
+Fifth, a bias of mind which impelled to whimsical treatment.
+
+Consideration of the causes thus roughly analysed will explain away a
+large proportion of the irreverence of the irreverent paintings and
+carvings which excite such surprise, and sometimes disgust, in the minds
+of many modern observers of ecclesiological detail.
+
+It will be seen that the placing of carvings in any one of these five
+classes, or in the category of intentional grotesques, must, in many
+cases, be a mere matter of opinion. For the present purpose it will not be
+necessary to separate them, except so far as the plan of the work does it
+automatically. Many ecclesiastical and other seals afford familiar
+instances of the 'comic without intention,' parallel to what is said above
+as to carvings.
+
+
+
+
+The Carvers.
+
+
+[Illustration: LINCOLN, _14th cent._]
+
+Seemingly probability and evidence go hand in hand to shew that a great
+bulk of the church mason work of this country was the work of foreigners.
+Saxon churches were probably first built by Roman workmen, whose erections
+would teach sufficient to enable Saxons to afterward build for themselves.
+Imported talent, however, is likely to have been constantly employed.
+Edward the Confessor brought back with him from France new French designs
+for the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey, and doubtless he brought French
+masons also. Anglo-Norman is strongly Byzantine in character, and though
+the channels through which it passed may be various, there is little doubt
+that its origin was the great Empire of the East. Again, the great
+workshop of Europe, where Eastern ideas were gathered together and
+digested, and which supplied cathedrals and cathedral builders at command,
+was Flanders; and there is little doubt that during some five centuries
+after the Norman Conquest, Flemings were employed, in a greater or less
+degree, on English work. Italians were largely employed. The Angel Choir
+of Lincoln is one distinct witness to that. The workmen who executed the
+finely-carved woodwork of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, King's College,
+Cambridge, and Westminster Abbey, in the sixteenth century, were chiefly
+Italians, under the superintendence of Torregiano, a Florentine artist. He
+was a fellow-pupil of Michael Angelo, and is best known by the dastardly
+blow he dealt him with a mallet, disfiguring him for life. The resentment
+of Lorenzo de Medici at this caused Torregiano to leave Florence. He came
+to England in 1503.
+
+The architect, however, of King Henry VII.'s Chapel was Bishop Alcock, an
+Englishman, born at Hull, the already existing Grammar School of which
+place he endowed, and, perhaps, rebuilt. Many other architects of English
+buildings were Englishmen, probably the majority, and doubtless a large
+proportion of the workmen also,[1] but it would be idle to deny that
+imported art speaks loudly from work of all the styles.
+
+The carved detail may be relied upon to tell us something, and it speaks
+of an original reliance upon the East, which was never outgrown. The
+carvings found in England are not marked by anything at all approaching a
+national spirit, even in the limited degree that was possible. Except for
+a few carvings of armorial designs, and still fewer with slight local
+reference, there are none in wood or stone which would not be equally in
+place in any Romance country in Europe. The carvings, also, in the
+Continental churches present familiar aspects to the student of English
+ornament.
+
+But if we have yet to wait some fortunate discovery of rolls of workmen's
+names, with their rate of wages, we are not without such interesting
+information concerning the old carvers as is contained in portraits they
+have left of themselves. Just as authors sometimes recognize how
+satisfactory it is to have their "effigies" done at the fronts of their
+books, so have the carvers of old sometimes attached to their works
+portraits of themselves or their fellows, in their habits as they lived,
+in their attitudes as they laboured.
+
+[Illustration: AN INDUSTRIOUS CARVER, LYNN.]
+
+Our first carver hails from Lincolnshire. In 1852, when the Church of St.
+Nicholas, Lynn, was restored, the misericordes were taken out and not
+replaced, but passed as articles of commerce eventually to the
+Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, London. Among these is a view of a
+carver's studio, shewing the industrious master seated, tapping carefully
+away at a design upon the bench before him. There are three apprentices in
+the background working at benches; there are at the back some incised
+panels, and a piece of open screen-work. Perhaps we may suppose the
+weather to be cold, for the carver has on an exceedingly comfortable cloak
+or surcoat. At his feet reposes his dog.
+
+[Illustration: CARVER'S INITIALS, ST. NICHOLAS'S, LYNN.]
+
+There is an interesting peculiarity about these Lynn carvings; the sides
+of the misericordes are designs in the fashion of monograms, or rebuses.
+The sides supporting the carver are his initials, pierced with his carving
+tools, a saw and a chisel. The difficulty is the same in all of the set;
+the meaning of the monograms is not to be lightly determined. In this case
+it may be U.V., or perhaps U is twice repeated.
+
+[Illustration: COMMUNICATING A STRIKING IDEA, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The next carvers belong to the following century. Here also we see the
+principal figures in the midst of work. In this case, however, there has
+arrived an interruption. Either one of the workers is about to commit
+mock assault and battery upon another with a mallet, or a brilliant idea
+for a grotesque has just struck him, and he hastens to impart it. From the
+expression of the faces, and the attitudes for which two other workmen
+have stood as models, at the sides, the latter may be the more likely. It
+is not impossible that the carver of the fine set of sixty-eight
+misericordes in Beverley Minster had in mind the incident of the blow
+given to Michael Angelo, and it would be interesting to know if any of
+Torregiano's Italians worked at Beverley. This aproned, noisy, jocular
+crew are very different from the dignified artist we have just left, but
+doubtless they turned out good work of the humorous class.
+
+The two "sidesmen" are occupied in the two ways of shewing intelligence
+and contempt known as "taking a sight," etc.
+
+[Illustration: MUTUAL CONTEMPT, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The next carver is a figure at Wellingborough, Northamptonshire. This is
+locally known as the Wellingborough shoemaker, but nearly all local
+designations of such things are wrong, and this is no exception. Elsewhere
+in speaking of this sedate figure, I have conjectured he may be cutting
+something out of leather, and not making shoes. However, I have since
+arrived at Miss Phipson's conclusion: the figure can only be that of a
+carver. He is fashioning not a leather rosette, but a Tudor rose in oak,
+to be afterwards pinned with an oak pin in some spandrel. He is rather a
+reserved-looking individual, but a master of his craft, if we may suppose
+he has "turned out" the two eagles at his right and left.
+
+[Illustration: A PIECE OF FINE WORK, WELLINGBOROUGH.]
+
+No doubt there were several ways of building churches, or supplying them
+with their art decorations. Some masons would be attached to a cathedral,
+and be lent or sent here and there by arrangement. Others would be ever
+wandering, seeking church work. Others might come from abroad for
+particular work, and return with the harvest of English money when the
+work was done. For special objects there were depots. It is an
+acknowledged fact that the black basalt fonts of Norman times were
+imported from Flanders. There are occasionally met other things of this
+material with the same class of design, evidently from the same source,
+such as the sculptured coffin-lid at Bridlington Priory, given on a
+following page. I have not seen it noted, but I think it will be
+established that "brasses," so much alike all over the country, were
+mostly ready-made articles also from Flanders. From the stereotyped
+conventionality of the altar-tomb effigies, they also may be judged to be
+the productions of workshops doing little but this work, and probably
+foreign.
+
+What is required to determine the general facts on these points is a
+return from various fabric accounts. We shall probably find both English
+and foreign carvers. There is little or no doubt that the carvers of our
+grotesques were members of the mysterious society which has developed into
+the modern body of Freemasons. It would be interesting--if it were not so
+apparently impossible--to trace in the records of early Freemasonry, not
+only the names and nationalities of the masons and carvers, but the
+details of that fine organization which enabled them to develope ideas and
+improvements simultaneously throughout Europe; and which would tell us,
+moreover, something of the master minds which conceived and directed the
+changes of style. But the masonic history of our carvers is much enveloped
+in error to the outside world. Thus we are told that in the minority of
+Henry VI. the masons were suppressed by statute, but that on his assuming
+the control of affairs he repealed the Act, and himself became a mason;
+moreover, we are told he wrote out "Certayne Questyons with Awnsweres to
+the same concerning the Mystery of Maconrye" which was afterwards "copyed
+by me Johan Leylande Antiquarius," at the command of Henry VIII.; the MS.
+being gravely stated to be in the Bodleian Library. No such MS. exists at
+the Bodleian Library. If it did, its diction and spelling (which is all on
+pretended record in certain books probably repudiated by the masonic body
+proper) would instantly condemn it as a forgery. Certainly an Act was
+passed, 3 Henry VI., which is in itself a historical monument to the
+importance of Freemasonry. It is a brief enactment that the yearly
+meetings of the masons, being contrary to the Statute of Labourers (of 25
+Edward III., 1351) fixing the rates of labour, which the masons varied and
+apparently increased, were no longer to be held; offenders to be judged
+guilty of felony. The Commons did not quite know what to style the
+meetings, using in this short Act the following terms for them: Chapters,
+Assemblies, Congregations, and Confederacies.
+
+But important though this proves the masons to have been, there is no
+account of the statute being repealed until the 5 Elizabeth, when another
+took its place equally intolerant to the spirit of Freemasonry, and
+Freemasonry really only became legal by the Act of 6 George IV.
+
+But the prohibition of 1424 was not abolition. If the masons were debarred
+from being allowed to exercise their advanced notions of remuneration, or
+to have any legal recognition whatever, it scarcely seems to have affected
+their action. For if they had refrained from exercising their freedom, and
+submitted to being put down by statute, it is probable we should have met
+them in the form of more ordinary gilds as instituted by other craftsmen.
+But we do not meet them thus, and the inference is that they went on in
+their own way, at their own time, and at their own price. It may be
+presumed that the more or less migratory habits of the masons made the Act
+impossible to be rigidly enforced.
+
+Coming down towards the end of Gothic times, we find, at any rate, there
+was one place where images might be ordered. In the Stanford
+churchwardens' accounts for 1556 there occur the following entries:--
+
+  "It. In expences to Abyndon to speke for ymages         vijd.
+   It. for iij ymages, the Rode, Mare, and John   xxijs. iiijd."
+
+It will have been noticed that the portraits of the carvers are Late. It
+is a great merit, on antiquarian grounds, that Gothic work, prior to the
+revival in art, was too much unconscious to admit anything so
+self-personal as a thought of the workers themselves, though frequently
+their 'marks' are unobtrusively set upon their works. By the sixteenth
+century, the sculptor's art developed with the rest of mental effort, and
+the artists drank fresh draughts from the springs coming by way of Rome,
+springs whose waters had been concerned in the existence of nearly all the
+art that had been in Europe for ten centuries.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DOG AND BONE, BRECHIN.]
+
+
+The Artistic Quality of Church Grotesques.
+
+
+The grotesque has been pronounced a false taste, and not desirable to be
+perpetuated. Reflection upon the causes and meanings of Gothic grotesque
+will shew that perpetuation is to be regretted for other than artistic
+reasons. If the taste be false yet the work is valuable on historic
+grounds, for what it teaches of its own time and much more for what it
+hints of earlier periods of which there is meagre record anywhere.
+Therefore it would be well not to confuse the student of the future with
+our clever variations of imperfectly understood ideas. Practically the
+grotesque and emblematic period ended at the Reformation; and it was well.
+
+But while leaving the falseness of the taste for grotesques an open
+question, there is something to be said for them without straining fact.
+For it is certain that there is underlying Gothic grotesque ornament a
+unique and, if not understood, an uncopiable beauty, be the subject never
+so ugly. The fascinating element appear to be, first, the completeness of
+the genius which was exercised upon it. It not only conveys the
+travestying idea, but also sufficiently conveys the original thought
+travestied.
+
+What is it at which we laugh? It shall be a figure which is of a kind
+generally dignified, now with no dignity; generally to be respected, but
+now commanding no respect; capable of being feared, but now inspiring no
+fear; usually lovable, but now provoking no love. It shall be a figure of
+which the preconceived idea was either worthy or dreadful--which suddenly
+we have presented to us shorn of its superior attributes. Ideals are
+unconsciously enshrined in the mind, and when images proclaiming
+themselves the same ideals appear in sharp degraded contrast--we laugh.
+Thus we affirm the correctness of the original judgments both as to the
+great and the contemptible imitating it, for laughter is the effect of
+appreciation of incongruity. Custom overrides nearly all, and blunts
+contrast of ideas, yet wit, darting here and there among men, ever finds
+fresh contrasts and fresh laughter.
+
+[Illustration: DOG AND BONE, CHRISTCHURCH, HAMPSHIRE.]
+
+Further counts for something the excellence of the artistic management,
+which in the treatment of the most unpromising subjects filled the
+composition with beautiful lines. It was left to Hogarth's genius to
+insist on the reality of "the line of beauty" as governing all loveliness,
+and he suggests that a perceptive recognition of this existed on the part
+of the classic sculptors. This applies to their work in general, but he
+also mentions their frequent addition of some curved object connected
+with the subject, as though it were a kind of key to the artistic
+composition. Whether consciously or not, the ancients used many such
+adjunctive curved lines, and Hogarth's conclusions cannot be styled
+fanciful. The helmet, plume, and serpent-edged aegis of Minerva, the
+double-bowed bolt and serpents of Jupiter, the ornaments of the trident,
+the aplustre and the twisted rope of Neptune, the bow and serpent of
+Apollo, the plume of Mars, the caduceus of Mercury, the ship-prow of
+Saturn, the gubernum or rudder of Venus, the drinking horn of Pan,
+together with many another form to be observed in particular works of the
+ancients, is each a definite and perfect example of the faultless line.
+Now, to repeat, many--an infinite number--of the ornaments of Gothic
+architecture, and not less the grotesque than any other description, are
+likewise composed of the most beautiful lines conceivable, either
+entirely, or combined with lines of abrupt and ungraceful turn that seem
+to deliberately provoke one's artistic protest; and yet the whole
+composition shall, by its curious mixture of beauty and bizarre, its
+contrast of elegance with awkwardness, leave a real and unique sense of
+pleasure in the mind. Doubtless the root of this pleasure is the
+gratification of the mind at having secretly detected itself responding to
+the call of art to exercise itself in appreciative discrimination. This
+may be unconsciously done; and in a great measure the qualities which give
+the pleasure would be bestowed upon the work in similar happy
+unconsciousness of the exact why and wherefore. Often, as in the ancient
+statues, a small curved form is introduced as an appendage to a mediaeval
+grotesque.
+
+[Illustration: HAWKS OR EAGLES? WELLINGBOROUGH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.]
+
+Thus we see that there are combinations of two kinds of contrast which
+make Gothic grotesques agreeable, the artistic contrasts among the mere
+lines of the carvings, and the significatory contrasts evolved by the
+meanings of the carvings.
+
+As far back as the twelfth century, a critic of church grotesques
+recognized their combination of contrasts. This was St. Bernard of
+Clairvaux, who, speaking of the ecclesiastical decoration of his time,
+paid the grotesques of church art the exact tribute they so often merit;
+probably the greater portion of what he saw has given place to succeeding
+carvings, though of precisely the same characteristics. He calls them "a
+wonderful sort of hideous beauty and beautiful deformity." He, moreover,
+put a question, many times since repeated by hundreds who never heard of
+him, asking the use of placing ridiculous monstrosities in the cloisters
+before the eyes of the brethren when occupied with their studies.
+
+It is not possible to explain the "use" of perpetuating the barbarous
+symbols of a long-forgotten past; but it will be interesting to shew that
+there were actual causes accounting for their continued existence and
+their continued production, unknown ages after their own epoch.
+
+
+
+
+Gothic Ornaments not Didactic.
+
+
+Reflection will not lead us to believe carvings to have been placed in
+churches with direct intent to teach or preach. Many writers have
+coincided in producing a general opinion that the churches, as containing
+these carvings, were practically the picture (or sculpture) galleries and
+illustrated papers for the illiterate of the past. This supposition will
+not bear examination. It would mean that in the days when humble men
+rarely travelled from home, and then mostly by compulsion, to fight for
+lord or king, or against him, the inhabitant of a village or town had for
+the (say) forty years sojourn in his spot of Merrie England, a small
+collection of composite animals, monsters, mermaids, impossible flowers,
+etc.--with perhaps one doubtful domestic scene of a lady breaking a vessel
+over the head of a gentleman who is inquisitive as to boots--with which to
+improve his mind. Sometimes his church would contain not half-a-dozen
+forms, and mostly not one he could understand or cared to interpret.
+
+Misericordes, the secondary seats or shelves allowed as a relaxation
+during the ancient long standing services, are invariably carved, and
+episode is more likely to be found there than anywhere else in the church.
+Hence, misericordes have been specially selected for this erroneous
+consideration of ornament to be the story-book of the Middle Ages. This is
+unfortunate for the theory, for they were placed only in churches having
+connection with a monastic or collegiate establishment. They are in the
+chancels, where the feet of laymen rarely trod, and, moreover, there would
+be few hours out of the twenty-four when the stalls would not be occupied
+by the performers of the daily offices or celebrations.
+
+The fact appears to be that the carvings were the outcome of causes far
+different from an intention to produce genre pictures. It is patent that
+anything which kept within its proper mechanical and architectural
+outline, was admitted. What was offered depended upon a multitude of
+considerations, but chiefly upon the traditions of mason-craft. The Rev.
+Charles Boutell has an apt description touching upon the origin of the
+carvings: calling them "chronicles," he says they were "written by men who
+were altogether unconscious of being chroniclers at all.... They worked
+under the impulse of motives altogether devoid of the historical element.
+They were influenced by the traditions of their art, by their own
+feelings, and were directed by their own knowledge, experience, and
+observation, and also by the associations of their every-day lives." This
+appears to explain in general terms the sources of iconography. In brief,
+the sculptor had a stock-in-trade of designs, which he varied or
+supplemented, according to his ability and originality.
+
+That the stock-in-trade, or traditions of the art, handed down from
+master to apprentice, generation after generation, persistently retained
+an immense amount of intellectualia thus derived from a remote antiquity,
+is but an item of this subject, but the most important of which this work
+has cognizance.
+
+[Illustration: SEA-HORSE DRAGONZED, LINCOLN, _14th cent._]
+
+
+
+
+Ingrained Paganism.
+
+
+We at this day may be excused for not participating in the good St.
+Bernard's dislike to the "hideous beauties" of the grotesque, and for not
+deploring, as he does, the money expended on their production. For many of
+them are the embodiments of ideas which the masons had perpetuated from a
+period centuries before his time, and which could in no other way have
+been handed down to us. There are many reasons why books were unlikely
+media for early times; for later, the serious import of the origin of the
+designs would be likely to be doubted; and for the most part the special
+function of the designs has been the adornment of edifices of religion.
+They were, in fact, religious symbols which in various ages of the world
+have been used with varying degrees of purity. One of the Rabbis,
+Maimonides, has an instructive passage on the rise of symbolic images.
+Speaking of men's first falling away from a presumed early pure religion
+he says:--"They began to build temples to the stars, ... and this was the
+root of idolatry ... and the false prophet showed them the image that he
+had feigned out of his own heart, and said it was the image of that star
+which was made known to him by prophecy; and they began after this manner
+to make images in temples and under trees ... and this thing was spread
+throughout the world--to serve images with services different one from
+another and to sacrifice unto, and worship them. So in process of time the
+glorious and fearful name was forgotten out of the mouth of all living ...
+and there was found on earth no people that knew aught save images of wood
+and stone, and temples of stone which they built." The ancient Hindoo
+fables also indicate how imagery arose; they speak of the god Ram, "who,
+having no shape, is described by a similitude." The worship of the "Host
+of Heaven" was star-worship, or "Baalim."
+
+The Sabean idolatry was the worship of the stars, to which belongs much of
+the earlier image carving, for the household gods of the ancient Hebrews,
+the Teraphim (as the images of Laban stolen by Rachel), were probably in
+the human form as representing planets, even in varying astronomical
+aspects of the same planet. They are said to have been of metal. The
+ancient Germans had similar household gods of wood, carved out of the root
+of the mandragora plant, or alraun as they called it, from the
+superstition kindred to that of the East, that the images would answer
+questions (from _raunen_ to whisper in the ear). Examination of many
+ancient Attic figurines appears to shew that they had a not unsimilar
+origin, reminding us that both Herodotus and Plato state the original
+religion of the Greeks to have been star-worship, and hence is derived the
+[Greek: Theos] god, from [Greek: Thein] to run. Thus in other than the
+poet's sense are the stars "elder scripture."
+
+A large number of the forms met in architectural ornament, it may be
+fittingly reiterated, have a more or less close connection with the
+worships which existed in times long prior to Christianity. A portion of
+them was continuously used simply because the masons were accustomed to
+them, or in later Gothic on account of the universal practice of copying
+existing works; unless we can take it for granted in place of that
+practice, that there existed down to Reformation days "portfolios" of
+carver's designs which were to the last handed down from master to
+apprentice, as must have undoubtedly been the case in earlier times. Other
+portions of the ancient worship designs are found in Christian art because
+they were received and grafted upon the symbolic system of the Church's
+teaching. The retention of these fragments of superseded paganism does not
+always appear to have been of deliberate or willing intention. The early
+days of the Church even after its firm establishment, were much occupied
+in combating every form of paganism. The converts were constantly lapsing
+into their old beliefs, and the thunders of the early ecclesiastical
+councils were as constantly being directed against the ancient
+superstitions. Sufficient remains on record to shew how hard the gods
+died.
+
+To near the end of the fourth century the chief intelligence of Rome
+publicly professed the Olympic faith. With the next century, however,
+commenced a more or less determined programme of persecutory repression.
+Thus, councils held at Arles about 452 ruled that a bishop was guilty of
+sacrilege who neglected to extirpate the custom of adoring fountains,
+trees, and stones. At that of Orleans in 533 Catholics were to be
+excommunicated who returned to the worship of idols or ate flesh offered
+to idols. At Tours in 567 several pagan superstitions were forbidden, and
+at Narborne in 590; freemen who transgressed were to have penance, but
+slaves to be beaten. At Nicea in 681 image worship was allowed of
+Christ.[2] At Augsburgh (?) in 742 the Count Gravio was associated with
+the Bishop to watch against popular lapses into paganism. In 743 Pepin
+held a council in which he ruled, as his father had done before, that he
+who practised any pagan rites be fined 15 sous (15/22 of a livre). To the
+orders was attached the renunciation, in German, of the worship of Odin by
+the Saxons, and a list of the pagan superstitions of the Germans. The
+Council of Frankfort in 794 ordered the sacred woods to be destroyed.
+Constantinople had apparently already not only become a channel for the
+conveyance of oriental paganism in astro-symbolic images, but was also
+evidently nearer to the lower idolatry of heathenism than the Church of
+the West. Thus we find the bishops of Gaul, Germany, and Italy in council
+at Frankfort, rejecting with anathema, and as idolatrous, the doctrines of
+the Council of Constantinople upon the worship of images.
+
+While all this repression was going on, the Church was making itself
+acceptable, just as the Mosaic system had done in its day, by assimilating
+the symbols of the forbidden faiths. Itself instituted without formularies
+or ceremonial, both were needed when it became a step-ladder of ambition
+and the expedient displacer of the corrupt idolatries into which
+sun-worship had disintegrated. Hence among the means of organization,
+observance and symbol took the place of original simplicity, and it is
+small wonder that ideas were adopted which were already in men's minds.
+Elements of heathenism which, after the lapse of centuries, still clung to
+the Church's robes, became an interwoven part of her dearest symbolism. If
+men did not burn what they had adored, they in effect adored that which
+they had burned.
+
+In spite, however, of edicts and adoptions, paganism has never been
+entirely rooted out; what Sismondi calls the "rights of long possession,
+the sacredness of time-hallowed opinion, and the potency of habit," are
+not yet entirely overcome in the midst of the most enlightened peoples.
+The carvings which point back to forgotten myths have their parallels in
+curious superstitions and odd customs which are not less venerable.
+
+There were many compromises made on account of the ineradicable attachment
+of the people to religious customs into which they were born. Christian
+festivals were erected on the dates of heathen observances. In the sixth
+century, Pope Gregory sent word to Augustine, then in England, that the
+idolatrous temples of the English need not be destroyed, though the idols
+should, and that the cattle sacrificed to the heathen deities should be
+killed on the anniversary of dedication or on the nativities of the
+saints whose relics were within the church.
+
+It is said that it was, later, usual to bring a fat buck into St. Paul's,
+London, with the hunters' horns blowing, in the midst of divine service,
+for the cathedral was built on or near the site of a former temple of
+Diana. This custom was made the condition of a feudal tenure. The story of
+Prosperine, another form of Diana, was the subject of heathen plays, and
+down to the sixteenth century the character appears in religious mystery
+plays as the recipient of much abuse.
+
+Ancient mythology points in one chief direction. "Omnes Deos referri ad
+solem," says Macrobius, "All Gods refer to the sun," and in the light of
+that saying a thousand complicated fables of antiquity melt into
+simplicity. The ancient poets called the sun (at one time symbolically of
+a First Great Cause, at another absolutely) the Leader, the Moderator, the
+Depository of Light, the Ordainer of human things; each of his virtues was
+styled a different god, and given its distinct name. The moon also, and
+the stars were made the symbols of deities. These symbols put before the
+people as vehicles for abstract ideas, were quickly adopted as gods, the
+symbolism being disregarded, and the end was practically the same as that
+narrated by the ancient rabbi just quoted. But it may be doubted whether
+the pantheism of the classic nations was ever entirely gross. The great
+festivals of the gods were accompanied by the initiation of carefully
+selected persons into certain mysteries of which no description is
+extant. Thirlwall hazards the conjecture "that they were the remains of a
+worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic mythology ... grounded on
+a view of nature less fanciful, more earnest and better fitted to awaken
+both philosophical thought and religious feeling." Whether a purer system
+was unfolded to the initiated on these occasions or not, there is little
+doubt that it had existed and was at the root of the symbol rites.
+
+[Illustration: AN IMP ON CUSHIONS, CHRISTCHURCH, HANTS., _early 16th
+cent._]
+
+
+
+
+Mythic Origin of Church Carvings.
+
+
+[Illustration: TAU CROSS, WELLINGBOROUGH.]
+
+The discoveries in Egypt in recent years undoubtedly press upon us the
+fact that there was in Europe an early indigenous civilization, and that
+the exchange of ideas between East and West was at least equal. For the
+purpose of this study, however, the theory of independence is not accepted
+absolutely; it is premised that though there were in numerous parts of the
+old world early native systems of worship of much similarity, yet that
+such relics of them as are met in architecture came from the East.
+
+The mythic ideas at the root of Gothic decoration were probably early
+disseminated through Europe in vague and varying ways, whose chief impress
+is in folk-lore; but the concrete forms themselves appear to have been
+introduced later, after being brought, as it were, to a focus, being
+selected and assimilated at some great mental centre. Alexandria was the
+place where Eastern and Western culture impinged on each other, and
+resulted in a conglomerate of ideas. These ideas, however, were not
+essentially different in their nature, though each school, Assyrian,
+Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, and Hebrew, had diverged widely if they came
+from an unknown common source. But if Alexandria was the furnace in which
+the material was fused, Byzantium appears to have been the great workshop
+where the results were utilized, and from whence they were issued to
+Europe.
+
+Sculptured ornament is not alone in the fact of its being a direct legacy
+from remotely ancient forms, though, on comparing that with any of the
+other arts hitherto recognized as of Eastern origin, it will be found that
+none bears such distinct marks of its parentage, or shews such continuity
+of form. Thus examination of European glazed pottery, which comes perhaps
+the nearest to our subject, shews that the ornamenting devices
+occasionally betray an acquaintance with the old symbolic patterns, but
+there is less recognition of meaning, scarcely any intention to perpetuate
+idea, and no continuity of design. It was not in the nature of the
+potter's purpose that there should be any of these, the difference being
+that for the mason's and the sculptor's art there was a very close
+association with the gild system. The first Christian sculptors would be
+masons brought up in pagan gilds, and the gild instincts and traditions
+had undoubtedly as strong an effect upon their work, on the whole, as any
+religious beliefs they might possess.
+
+The symbolism of the animals of the church in the late points of view of
+the Bestiaries and of the expository writers of the Middle Ages, is not
+here to be made the subject of special attention. That is a department
+well treated in other works, particularly in the volume, "Animal Symbolism
+in Ecclesiastical Architecture," by Mr. E. P. Evans, which yet remains to
+be equalled. It is to be noted, however, that the early Christians,
+seeing the animals and their compounds so integral a portion of pagan
+imagery, endeavoured to twist every meaning to one sufficiently Christian:
+but what is chiefly worthy of note is the unconscious resistance of the
+sculptors to the treatment. Although a multitude of figures can be traced
+as used symbolically in accordance with the Christian dicta, there are at
+least as many which shew stronger affinity to pagan myth. There is
+evidence that this was early recognized by the propogandists. The Council
+of Nice in 787, in enjoining upon the faithful the due regard of images,
+ordered that the works of art were not to be drawn from the imagination of
+the painters, but to be only such as were approved by the rules and
+traditions of the Catholic Church. So also ordained the Council of Milan
+in 1565.
+
+The Artists, however, did not invent the images so much as use old
+material, and, the injunctions of the Council notwithstanding, the ancient
+symbols apparently held their ground. The protests of St. Nilus, in the
+fifth century, against animal figures in the sanctuary, were echoed by the
+repudiations of St. Bernard in the twelfth and Gautier de Coinsi in the
+thirteenth, a final condemnation being made at the Council of Milan in
+1565, all equally in vain. Though the force of the myth symbols has passed
+away, they have left another legacy than the grotesques of church art. The
+art works of the Greeks arose from the same materials, the glorious
+statues and epics being the highest embodiment of the symbolic, so loftily
+overtopping all other forms by the force of supreme physical beauty as to
+almost justify and certainly purify the religion of which they were the
+outcome; so, later, the same ideas clothed with the moral beauty of
+supreme unselfishness enabled Christianity to take hold of the nations.
+
+By the diatribes of Bernard we can see what materials were extant in the
+twelfth century for a study of worship-symbols and of the grotesque,
+though he ignores any possible meaning they may have. He says, "Sometimes
+you may see many bodies under one head; at other times, many heads to one
+body; here is seen the tail of a serpent attached to the body of a
+quadruped; there the head of a quadruped on the body of a fish. In another
+place appears an animal, the fore half of which represents a horse, and
+the hinder portion a goat. Elsewhere you have a horned animal with the
+hinder parts of a horse; indeed there appears everywhere so multifarious
+and so wonderful a variety of diverse forms that one is more apt to con
+over the sculptures than to study the scriptures, to occupy the whole day
+in wondering at these than in meditating upon God's law."
+
+It has now to be observed how far the symbolic fancies of ancient beliefs
+have left their impress on the grotesque art of our churches.
+
+A common representation of the great sun-myth was that of two eagles, or
+dragons, watching one at each side of an altar. These were the powers of
+darkness, one at each limit of the day, waiting to destroy the light. This
+poetic idea has come down to us in many forms. Greek art was unconsciously
+frequent in its use of the form, and mediaeval sculptors, being often quite
+ignorant of the significance of the design, use it in a variety of ways,
+in many of which the likeness to the original is entirely lost, the
+composition ending in but a semi-natural representation of birds pecking
+at fruit. In the above block from Lincoln Minster, the altar is well
+preserved. In the next block, which is from a carving connected with the
+preceding one, the idea is more distantly hinted at.
+
+[Illustration: THE ALTAR OF LIGHT AND THE BIRDS OF DARKNESS, LINCOLN.]
+
+[Illustration: SYMBOLS OF DARKNESS, LINCOLN.]
+
+At Exeter, an ingenious grotesque composition of two duck-footed harpies,
+one on either side of a _fleur-de-lis_, is evidently from the same source.
+Examples of this could be multiplied very readily.
+
+[Illustration: THE ALTAR OF LIGHT AND THE BIRDS OF DARKNESS, EXETER.]
+
+The Cat and the Fiddle are subjects of carvings at Beverley and at Wells.
+
+Man has an almost universal passion for the oral transmission of the
+fruits of his mental activity. In the particular instances of many lingual
+compositions this passion has become an inveterate race habit, and the
+rhymes or reasons have been transmitted verbally to posterity long after
+their original meaning has been lost or obscured. It is no new thing that
+a nursery rhyme has been found to be the relic of an archaic poem long
+misunderstood or perverted. The lines as to "the cat and the fiddle" are
+an excellent instance of the aptitude to continue the use of metrical
+composition the sense of which has departed. The full verse is, as it
+stands, a curious jumble of disconnected sentences.
+
+  "Hey, diddle, diddle, the cat and the fiddle,
+    The cow jumped over the moon,
+  The little dog laughed to see such sport,
+    While the dish run away with the spoon."
+
+[Illustration: THE WEEKS DANCING TO THE MUSIC OF THE MONTH, BEVERLEY
+MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: HEY, DIDDLE, DIDDLE, THE CAT AND THE FIDDLE, WELLS.]
+
+I am not aware that any attempt has yet been made to explain this
+extraordinary verse. Examination seemingly shews that it was originally a
+satire in derision of the worship of Diana. The moon-goddess had a
+three-fold existence. On the earth she was Diana. Among the Egyptians we
+find her as Isis, and her chief symbol was the cat. Apuleius calls her the
+mother of the gods. In the worship of Isis was used a musical instrument,
+the sistrum, which had four metal bars loosely inserted in a frame so as
+to be shaken; on the apex of this frame, which was shaped not unlike a
+horse-shoe, was carved the figure of a cat, as emblematic of the moon. The
+four bars are said by Plutarch to represent the elements, but it is more
+likely they were certain notes of the diapason. The worship of Isis passed
+to Italy, though the Greeks had previously connected the cat with the
+moon. The fiddle, as an instrument played with a bow, was not known to
+classic times, but the word for fiddle--_fides_--was applied to a lyre. It
+is equivalent to a Greek word for gut-string. In the light of what
+follows, I suggest that "the Cat and the Fiddle" is a mocking allusion to
+the worship of Diana upon earth.
+
+In the heavens the moon-goddess had the name of Luna, and her chief symbol
+was the crescent, which is sometimes met figured as a pair of cow's horns.
+Images of Isis were crowned with crescent horns; she was believed to be
+personified in the cow, as Osiris was in the bull, and her symbol, a
+crescent moon, is met in sculpture over the back of the animal. This
+apparently suggested the second line.
+
+The third personality of the goddess was Hecate, which was the name by
+which she was known in the infernal regions,--which means of course, in
+nature, when she was below the horizon. Now another name by which she was
+known was Prosperine (Roman), and Persephone (Greek), and her carrying
+down into Hades by Pluto (Roman), or Dis (Greek), was the fable wrought
+out of the simple phenomenon of moon-set. I suggest that the last line of
+the verse is a grotesque rendering of the statement that--
+
+  "Dis ran away with Persephone."
+
+Dis is equivalent to Serapis the Bull, otherwise Ammon, AEsculapius, Nilus,
+etc., that is, the Sun. Why the little dog laughed to see such sport is
+not easy to explain. It may be an allusion to one of the heads of Hecate,
+that of a dog, to indicate the watchfulness of the moon. There is another
+Hecate (a bad, as the above-mentioned was considered a beneficient deity),
+but which was originally no doubt the same, whose attributes were two
+black dogs, _i.e._, the darkness preceding and following the moonlight in
+short lunar appearances. Or it may be an allusion to the fact that the dog
+was associated with Dis, being considered the impersonation of Sirius the
+Dog-star. In various representations of the rape of Prosperine, Dis is
+accompanied by a dog, _e.g._, the grinning hound in Titian's picture.
+
+Prosperine's symbol of a crescent moon was adopted as one of those of the
+Virgin Mary, and Candlemas Day, 2nd February, takes the place of the Roman
+festival, the candles used to illustrate the text, "a light to lighten the
+Gentiles," being the representatives of the torches carried in the
+processions which affected to search for the lost Prosperine.
+
+Hindoo mythology has also a three-fold Isis, or moon-goddess; namely, Bhu
+on earth, Swar in heaven, Patala, below the earth.
+
+The moon-deity has not come down to us as in every case a female
+personation. This is, however, explained by an early fable [in the
+Puranas] of the Hindoos, in which it is narrated that Chandra, or Lunus,
+lost his sex in the forest of Gauri, and became Chandri, or Luna. The
+origin of this has yet to be discovered; it may be nothing more than the
+account of an etymological change, produced by a transcript of dialect.
+
+Whether the Beverley artist knew that the cat was a moon-symbol may be
+doubted. The fiddle has four strings, as the sistrum had four bars. As
+well as the elements and the four seasons of the year, the four may mean
+the four weeks. It will be observed that as the Hours are said to dance by
+the side of the chariot of the sun, so here four weeks dance to the music
+of the moon-sphere; the word moon means the measurer, and the cat is
+playing a dance measure!
+
+The cat is not a very frequent subject. At Sherborne she is shewn hanged
+by mice, one of the retributive pieces which point to a confidence in the
+existence of something called justice, not always self-evident in the
+olden-time. Rats and mice are the emblem of St. Gertrude. The dog had a
+higher place in ancient estimation than his mention in literature would
+warrant; the fact that among the Romans he was the emblem of the Lares,
+the household gods, is a weighty testimonial to that effect, while the
+Egyptians had a city named after and devoted to the dog.
+
+Among the pre-existing symbols seized by the Christians, the Egyptian
+Cross and Druidical Tau must not be overlooked. It is found on the
+capitals of pillars at Canterbury and other places; the example given in
+the initial on page 34 is perhaps the latest example in English Gothic.
+Its admission as a grotesque is due to its, perhaps merely accidental, use
+as a mask as noted in the chapter on "Masks and Faces."
+
+The sinuous course of the sun among the constellations is mentioned in
+literature as far back as Euripides as an explanation of the presence of
+the dragon in archaic systems of mythology. This may have been the origin
+of the figure. Yet in addition to that there always seems to have been the
+recognition of an evil principle, of which by a change of meaning, the
+dragonic or serpentine star-path of the sun was made the personification
+or symbol. According to Pausanius the "dragon" of the Greeks was only a
+large snake.
+
+It might not be impossible to collect several hundreds of names by which
+the deistic character of the sun has been expressed by various peoples;
+and the same applies, though in a less degree, to the Darkness, Storm,
+Cold, and Wet, which are taken as his antithesis. One of the oldest of
+these Dragon-names is Typhon, which is met in Egyptian mythology. Typhon
+is said to be the Chinese _Tai-fun_, the hot wind, and, if this be so,
+doubtless the adverse principle was taken to be the spirit of the desert
+which ever seeks to embrace Egypt in its arid arms. The symbol of Typhon
+was the crocodile, and doubtless the dragon form thus largely rose. Rahu,
+an evil deity in Hindoo mythology, though generally called a dragon, is
+sometimes met represented as a crocodile, and his numerous progeny are
+styled crocodiles. The constellation called by the Japanese the crocodile
+is that known to us as the dragon. Can it be that in the universal dragon
+we have a chronicle of our race's dim recollection of some survival of the
+terrible Jurassic reptiles, and hence of their period?
+
+But the myth has ever one ending; the power of the evil one is destroyed
+for a time by the coming of the sun-god, though eventually the evil
+triumphs, that is dearth recurs.
+
+In the Scandinavian myth, Odin the son of Bur, broke for a season the
+strength of the great serpent Joermungard, who, however, eventually
+swallowed the hero. Thus was Odin the sun; and his companions, the other
+Asir, were more or less sun attributes. In the case of Egypt the god is
+Horus (the sun-light), the youthful son of Osiris and Isis, who drives
+back Typhon to the deserts; for that country the rising of the Nile is the
+happy crisis. Horus is sometimes called Nilus. Whether the above
+derivation of the word Typhon be correct or not, which may be doubtful,[3]
+that of Horus from the root _Hur_ light, connected with the Sanscrit _Ush_
+to burn (whence also Aurora, etc.,) is certain. When the great myth became
+translated to different climates, the evil principle took on different
+forms of dread. Water, the rainy season in some countries, the darkness
+and cold of winter in others, were the Dragon which the Hero-god, the Sun,
+had to overcome--out of which conflict arose myths innumerable, yet one
+and the same in essence. Apollo slew the Python, the sunbeams drying up
+the waters being his arrows; Perseus slew the Dragon, by turning him to
+stone, which perhaps means that the spring sun dried up the mud of the
+particular locality where the fable rose. Later, Sigurd slew the Dragon
+Fafnir. When the Christians found themselves by expediency committed to
+adopt the form, and to a certain degree the spirit, of heathen beliefs,
+the Sun _versus_ Darkness, or the Spring _versus_ Winter myth was a
+difficulty in very many places. At first the idea was kept up of a
+material victory over the adverse forces of nature, and we find honourable
+mention of various bishops and saints, who--by means of which there is
+little detail, but which may be supposed to be that great monastic
+beneficence, intelligent drainage--conquered the dragons of flood and fen.
+It is somewhat odd that the Psalmist attributes to the Deity the victory
+of breaking the heads of the "dragons in the waters."
+
+Thus St. Romain of Rouen slew there the Dragon Gargouille, which is but
+the name of a draining-gutter after all, and hence the grotesque
+waterspouts of our churches are mostly dragons.
+
+St. Martha slew the Dragon Tarasque at Aix-la-chapelle, but that name is
+derived from _tarir_, to drain. St. Keyne slew the Cornish Dragon, and, to
+be brief, at least twelve other worthies slew dragons, and doubtless for
+their respective districts supplied the place of the older myth. Among
+these, St. George is noteworthy. He is said to have been born at Lydda, in
+Syria, where his legend awaited the Crusaders, who took him as their
+patron, bringing him to the west, as the last Christian adoption of a
+sun-myth idea, to become the patron saint of England. A figure of St.
+George was a private badge of English kings till the time of the Stuarts.
+On the old English angel the combat is between St. Michael and the Dragon,
+and though St. George is generally shewn mounted, as was also sometimes
+Horus, the Egyptian deity, he is sometimes represented on foot, like St.
+Michael. The Dragon is generally the same in the two cases, being the
+Wyvern or two-legged variety.
+
+Another form of dragon is drake. Certain forms of cannon were called both
+dragons and drakes. Sometimes the dragon is found termed the Linden-worm,
+or Lind-drake, in places as widely sundered as Scotland and Germany. It is
+said this is on account of the dragon dwelling under the linden, a sacred
+tree, but this is probably only, as yet, half explained.
+
+Perhaps through all time the sun-myth was accompanied by a constant
+feeling that good and evil were symbolised by the alternation of season.
+It is to be expected that the feeling would increase and solidify upon the
+advent of Christianity, for the periodic dragon of heathendom was become
+the permanent enemy of man, the Devil. The frequent combats between men
+(and other animals) and the dragons, met among church grotesques, though
+their models, far remote in antiquity, were representations of sun-myths,
+would be carved and read as the ever-continuing fight between good and
+evil. That, however, it is reasonable to see in these Dragon sculptures
+direct representatives of the ancient cult, we know from a fact of date.
+The festival of Horus, the Egyptian deity, was the 23rd of April. That is
+the date of St. George's Day.
+
+Less than the foregoing would scarcely be sufficient to explain the
+frequency and significance of the Dragon forms which crowd our subject.
+
+During the three Rogation days, which took the place of the Roman
+processional festivals of the Ambarvalia and Cerealia, the Dragon was
+carried as a symbol both in England and on the continent. When the Mystery
+pageantry of Norwich was swept away, an exception was made in favour of
+the Dragon, who, it was ordained, "should come forth and shew himself as
+of old."
+
+The Rogation Dragon in France was borne, during the first two days of the
+three, before the cross, with a great tail stuffed with chaff, but on the
+third day it was carried behind the cross, with the tail emptied of its
+contents. This signified, it is said, the undisturbed dominion of Satan
+over the world during the two days that Christ was in Hell, and his
+complete humiliation on the third day.
+
+In some countries the figure of the Dragon, or another of the Devil, after
+the procession, was placed on the altar, then drawn up to the roof, and
+being allowed to fall was broken into pieces.
+
+Early Keltic and other pastoral staves end in two Dragons' heads,
+recalling the caduceus of Mercury and rod of Moses; the Dragon was a
+Keltic military or tribal ensign. Henry VII. assumed a red dragon as one
+of the supporters of the royal arms, on account of his Welsh descent;
+Edward IV. had as one of his numerous badges a black dragon. A dragon
+issuing from a chalice is the symbol of St. John the Evangelist, an
+allusion to the dragon of the Apocalypse.
+
+[Illustration: THE SLAYER OF THE DRAGON, IFFLEY.]
+
+The Dragon combat here presented is from the south doorway of Iffley
+Church, near Oxford. In this example of Norman sculpture, the humour
+intent is more marked than usual. The hero is seated astride the dragon's
+back, and, grasping its upper and lower jaws, is tearing them asunder. The
+dragon is rudely enough executed, but the man's face and extremities have
+good drawing. The cloak flying behind him shew that he has leaped into
+the quoin of vantage, and recalls the classic. The calm exultation with
+which the hero seizes his enemy is only equalled by the good-natured
+amusement which the creature evinces at its own undoing.
+
+We now arrive at a form of the sun-myth which appears to have come down
+without much interference. The god Horus is alluded to as a child, and in
+a curious series of carvings the being attacked by a Dragon is a child. It
+is attempted, and with considerable success, to be represented as of great
+beauty. The point to explain is the position of the child, rising as it
+does from a shell. This leads us further into the various contingent
+mythologies dealing with the Typhon story. Horus (also called Averis, or
+Orus), was in Egyptian lore also styled Caimis, and is equivalent to Cama,
+the Cupid of the Hindoos. Typhon (also known as Smu, and as Sambar) is
+stated to have killed him, and left him in the waters, where Isis restored
+him to life. That is the account of Herodotus, but AElian says that Osiris
+threw Cupid into the ocean, and gave him a shell for his abode. After
+which he at length killed Typhon.
+
+Hence the shell in the myth-carvings to be found to-day in mediaeval
+Christian churches.
+
+The Greeks represented Cupid, and also Nerites, as living in shells, and,
+strangely enough, located them on the Red Sea coast, adjacent to the home
+of the Typhon myth. It is probable that the word _sancha_, a sea-shell,
+used in this connection, is from _suca_, a cave, a tent; and we may
+conjecture that there is an allusion to certain dwellers in tents, who,
+coming westward, worked, after a struggle, a political and dynastic
+revolution, carrying with it great changes in agriculture. This is a
+conjecture we may, however, readily withdraw in favour of another, that
+the shell itself is merely a symbol of the ocean, and that Cupid emerging
+is a figure of the sun rising from the sea at some particular zodiacal
+period.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHILD AND DRAGON, LINCOLN.]
+
+Another story kindred to that of Typhon and Horus is that of Sani and
+Aurva, met in Hindoo literature. They were the sons of Surya, regent of
+the Sun (Vishnu); Sani was appointed ruler, but becoming a tyrant was
+deposed, and Aurva reigned in his place. This recalls that one of the
+names given to Typhon in India was Swarbhanu, "light of heaven," from
+which it is evident that he is Lucifer, the fallen angel; so that
+accepting the figurative meaning of all the narratives, we can see even a
+propriety in the Gothic transmission of these symbolic representations.
+
+It may be added to this that the early conception of Cupid was as the god
+of Love in a far wider and higher sense than indicated in the later
+poetical and popular idea. He was not originally considered the son of
+Venus, whom he preceded in birth. It is scarcely too much to say that he
+personified the love of a Supreme Unknown for creation; and hence the
+assumption by Love of the character of a deliverer.
+
+There are other shell deities in mythology. Venus had her shell, and her
+Northern co-type, Frigga, the wife of the Northern sun-god, Odin, rode in
+a shell chariot.
+
+The earliest of our examples is the most serious and precise. The Dragon
+is a very bilious and repulsive reptile, while the child form, thrice
+repeated in the same carving, has grace and originality. This is from
+Lincoln Minster.
+
+The next is also on a misericorde, and is in Manchester Cathedral. Here
+the shell is different in position, being upright. The Child in this has
+long hair.
+
+[Illustration: DRAGON AND CHILD, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The third example is from a misericorde at Beverley Minster, the series at
+which place shews strong evidence of having been executed from the same
+set of designs as those of Manchester Cathedral, and were carved some
+twelve years later. Many of the subjects are identically the same, but in
+this case it will be seen how a meaning may be lost by a carver's
+misapprehension. The shell would not be recognizable without comparison
+with the other instances, and the Dragon has become two. The head of the
+Child in this carving appears to be in a close hood, or Puritan infantile
+cap, which, as the "foundling cap," survived into this century. In all the
+three carvings, the Dragons are of the two-legged kind, which St.
+George is usually shewn slaying. It is a little remarkable that the
+Child's weapon in all three cases is broken away. The object borne
+sceptre-wise by the left hand child in the Lincoln carving, is apparently
+similar to the Egyptian hieroglyphic [symbol], the Greek [Greek: z],
+European s. It may be worth while to suggest that the greatly-discussed
+collar of ss, worn by the lords chief justices, and others in authority,
+may have its origin in this hieroglyphic as a symbol of sovereignty,
+rather than in any of the arbitrary ascriptions of a mediaeval initial.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHILD AND DRAGON, MANCHESTER.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SLAYING OF THE SNAIL, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The weapon is evidently a form of the falx, or falcula, for it was with
+such a one (and here we see further distribution of the myth) that Jupiter
+wounded Typhon, and such was the instrument with which Perseus slew the
+sea-dragon: the falx, the pruning-hook, sickle or scythe, is an emblem of
+Saturn, and the oldest representation of it in that connection shew it in
+simple curved form. Saturn's sickle became a scythe, and the planet deity
+thus armed became, on account of the length of his periodical revolution,
+our familiar figure of Father Time. Osiris, the father of Horus, is styled
+"the cause of Time." An Egyptian regal coin bears a man cutting corn with
+a sickle of semi-circular blade. In many parts of England, the sickle is
+spoken of simply as "a hook."
+
+[Illustration: GROTESQUE OF HORUS IN THE SHELL. THE PALMER FOX EXHIBITING
+HOLY WATER. NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+Apparently the carver of the Beverley misericorde was conscious he had
+rendered the shell very badly, for in the side supporter of the carving he
+had placed, by way of reminder as to an attack upon the occupant of a
+shell, a man in a fashionable dress, piercing a snail as it approaches
+him. In mediaeval carvings, as in many of their explanations, it is
+scarcely a step from the sublime to the ridiculous.
+
+One other carving which seems to point to the foregoing is at New
+College, Oxford. It is a genuine grotesque, and may be a satire upon the
+more serious works. It represents, seated in the same univalve kind of
+shell as the others, a fox or ape in a religious habit, displaying a
+bottle containing, perhaps, water from the Holy Land, the Virgin's Milk,
+or other wondrous liquid. One of the side carvings is an ape in a hood
+bringing a bottle.
+
+
+
+
+Hell's Mouth.
+
+
+[Illustration: HELL'S MOUTH, HOLY CROSS, STRATFORD-ON-AVON.]
+
+Hell's Mouth was one of the most popular conceptions of mediaeval times.
+Except so far as concerns the dragon form of the head whose mouth was
+supposed to be the gates of Hell, the idea appears to be entirely
+Christian. "Christ's descent into Hell" was a favourite subject of Mystery
+plays. In the Coventry pageant the "book of words" contained but six
+verses, in which Hell is styled the "cindery cell." The Chester play is
+much longer, and is drawn from the Apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus. This
+gospel, which has a version in Anglo-Saxon of A.D. 950, is no doubt the
+source from which is derived a prevalent form of Hell's Mouth in which
+Christ is represented holding the hand of one of the persons engulped in
+the infernal jaws. This is seen in a carving on the east window of
+Dorchester Abbey.
+
+The Mouth is here scarcely that of a dragon, but that of an exceedingly
+well-studied serpent; for intent and powerful malignity the expression of
+this fine stone carving would be difficult to surpass. The Descent into
+Hell is one of a series, on the same window, of incidents in the life of
+Christ; all are exceedingly quaint, but their distance from the ground
+improves them in a more than ordinary degree, and their earnest intention
+prevails over their accidental grotesqueness. The beautiful curves in this
+viperous head are well worthy of notice in connection with the remarks
+upon the artistic qualities of Gothic grotesques.
+
+[Illustration: HELL'S MOUTH, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+The verse of the Gospel (xix., 12), explains who the person is. "And [the
+Lord] taking hold of Adam by his right hand he ascended from hell and all
+the saints of God followed him." The female figure is of course Eve, who
+is shewn with Adam in engravings of the subject by Albert Durer (1512,
+etc.,) and others. The vision of Piers Ploughman (_circa_ 1362), has
+particular mention of Adam and Eve among Satan's captive colony. Satan, on
+hearing the order of a voice to open the gates of Hell, exclaims:--
+
+  "Yf he reve me of my ryght he robbeth me by mastrie,
+  For by ryght and reson the reukes [rooks] that be on here
+  Body and soul beth myne both good and ille
+  For he hyms-self hit seide that Syre is of Helle,
+  That Adam and Eve and al hus issue
+  Sholden deye with deol [should die with grief] and here dwell evere
+  Yf thei touchede a tree othr toke ther of an appel."
+
+A MS. volume in the British Museum, of poems written in the thirty-fourth
+year of the reign of Henry VI., has "Our Lady's Song of the Chyld that
+soked hyr brest," in which other persons than Adam and Eve are stated to
+have been taken out of hell on the same occasion:--
+
+  "Adam and Eve wyth hym he take,
+  Kyng David, Moyses and Salamon
+  And haryed hell every noke,
+  Wythyn hyt left he soulys non."
+
+The belief in the descent in Hell can be traced back to the second
+century. The form of Hell as a mouth is much later.
+
+There is mention of a certain "Mouth of Hell," which in 1437 was used in a
+Passion play in the plain of Veximiel; this Mouth was reported as very
+well done, for it opened and shut when the devils required to pass in or
+out, and it had two large eyes of steel.
+
+The great east window of York Cathedral, the west front and south doorway
+of Lincoln, and the east side of the altar-screen, Beverley Minster, have
+representations of the Mouth of Hell. The chancel arch of Southleigh has a
+large early fresco of the subject, in which two angels, a good and a bad
+(white and black), are gathering the people out of their graves; the black
+spirit is plucking up certain bodies (or souls) with a flesh-hook, and his
+companions are conveying them to the adjacent Mouth. In a Flemish Book of
+Hours of the fifteenth century (in the Bodleian Library) there is a
+representation with very minute details of all the usual adjuncts of the
+Mouth, and, in addition, several basketsful of children (presumably the
+unbaptized) brought in on the backs of wolf-like fiends, and on sledges, a
+common mediaeval method of conveyance.
+
+Sackvil mentions Hell as "an hideous hole" that--
+
+  "With ougly mouth and griesly jawes doth gape."
+
+Further instances of Hell's Mouth are in the block of the Ludlow ale-wife
+on a following page.
+
+
+
+
+Satanic Representations.
+
+
+[Illustration: WINCHESTER COLLEGE, _14th century_.]
+
+Quaint as are the grotesques derived from the great symbolic Dragon, there
+is another series of delineations of Evil, which are still more curious.
+These are the representations of Evil which are to be regarded not so much
+symbolic as personal. The constant presence of Satan and his satellites on
+capital and corbel, arcade and misericorde, is to be explained by the
+exceedingly strong belief in their active participation in mundane affairs
+in robust physical shapes.
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+It would, perhaps, not seem improper to refer the class of carving
+instanced by the three cuts, next following, to the Typhon myth. I think,
+however, a distinction may be drawn between such carvings as represent
+combat, and such as represent victimization; the former I would attribute
+to the myth, the latter to the Christian idea of the torments consequent
+on sin. At the same time, the victim-carving, generally easily disposed of
+by styling it "Satan and a Soul," is undoubtedly largely influenced by
+the myth-idea of Typhon (by whatever name known) as a _seizer_, as
+indicated definitely in one of his general names, Graha. The figure was
+naturally one according well with the mediaeval understanding of spiritual
+punishment, and its varieties in carving are numerous enough to furnish an
+adequate inferno. The Dorchester example is a small boss in the groined
+ceiling of the sedilia of celebrants; that at Ewelme is a weather-worn
+parapet-ornament on the south of the choir; the carving at Farnsham is on
+a misericorde.
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, EWELME, OXON.]
+
+Not entirely, though in some degree, the two next illustrations support
+the theory, of punishment rather than conflict, for the others.
+
+[Illustration: REMORSE, YORK.]
+
+The carving in York Cathedral is of a graceful type; there is one closely
+resembling it at Wells. The Glasgow sketch is from the drawing of a
+fragment of the cathedral; it is more vivid and ludicrous than the other.
+A comparison of these two affords a good idea of the excellent in Gothic
+ornament. The Glasgow carving lacks everything but vigor; the York
+production, though no exceptional example, has vigor, poetry, and grace.
+
+We will now revert to the more personal and "human" aspect of Satan.
+
+[Illustration: REMORSE, GLASGOW.]
+
+A writer[4] in the _Art Journal_ some years ago offered excellent general
+observations upon the ideas of the Evil One found at various periods. He
+pointed out that the frolicsome character of the mediaeval demon was
+imparted by Christianity, with its forbidden Satan coming into contact
+with the popular belief in hobgoblins and fairies which were common in the
+old heathen belief of this island, and so the sterner teaching was tinged
+by more popular fancies.
+
+There is much truth in this, except that for the hobgoblins and fairies we
+may very well read ancient deities, for the ultimate effect of
+Christianity upon Pagan reverence was to turn it into contempt and
+abhorrence for good and bad deities alike. We can read this in the slender
+records of ancient worships whose traces are left in language. Thus _Bo_
+is apparently one of the ancient root-words implying divinity; _Bod_, the
+goddess of fecundity; _Boivani_, goddess of destruction; _Bolay_, the
+giant who overcame heaven, earth and hell; _Bouders_, or _Boudons_, the
+genii guarding Shiva, and _Boroon_, a sea-god, are in Indian mythology.
+_Bossum_ is a good deity of Africa. _Borvo_ and _Bormania_ were guardians
+of hot springs, and with _Bouljanus_ were gods of old Gaul. _Borr_ was
+the father of Odin, and _Bure_ was Borr's sister. The _Bo_-tree of
+India is the sacred tree of wisdom. In Sumatra _boo_ is a root-word
+meaning good (as in _booroo_). _Bog_ is the Slavonic for god. These are
+given to shew a probable connection among wide-spread worships.
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, DORCHESTER.]
+
+We are now chiefly concerned with the last instance. The Slavonic _Bog_, a
+god, is met in Saxon as a goblin, for the "boy" who came into the court of
+King Arthur and laid his wand upon a boar's head was clearly a "bog" (the
+Saxon _g_ being exchanged erroneously for _y_, as in _dag's aeg_, day's
+eye, etc). In Welsh, similarly, _Brog_ is a goblin, and we have the evil
+idea in _bug_.
+
+  "Warwick was a bug that feared us all."
+              --_Shakespeare. Henry IV., v., 2._
+
+That is "Warwick was a goblin that made us all afraid." The Boggart is a
+fairy still believed in by Staffordshire peasants. We have yet _bugbear_,
+as the Russians have _Buka_, and the Italians _Buggaboo_, of similar
+meaning.
+
+As with the barbaric gods, so with the classic deities, who equally
+supplied material of which to make foul fiends. Bacchus, with the legs and
+sprouting horns of a goat, that haunter of vine-yards, then his fauns
+constructed on the same symbolic principle, gave rise to the satyrs.
+These, offering in their form disreputable points for reprobation, were
+found to be a sufficiently appropriate symbol of the Devil. The reasons of
+variety in the satyr figure are not far to seek, beyond the constant
+tendency of the mediaeval artist to vary form while preserving essence.
+Every artist had his idea of the devil, either drawn from the rich depths
+of a Gothic imagination, from the descriptions accumulated by popular
+credulity, and most of all from that result of both--the Devil of the
+Mystery or Miracle Plays.
+
+The plays were performed by trade gilds. Every town had many of these
+gilds, though several would sometimes join at the plays; and even very
+small villages had both gild and plays. There are yet existing some slight
+traces of the reputation which obscure villages had in their own vicinity
+for their plays, of which Christmas mumming contains the last tattered
+relic. So that, the Devil being a favourite character in the pieces so
+widely performed, it is not surprising to find him equally at home among
+the works of the carvers, who, according to the nature of artists of all
+time, would doubtless holiday it with the best, and look with more or less
+appreciation upon such drama as was set before them.
+
+Where we see Satan as the satyr, he is the rollicking fiend of the Mystery
+stage, tempting with sly good-humour, tormenting with a grim and ferocious
+joy, or often merely posturing and capering in a much to be envied height
+of the wildest animal spirits. There is in popular art no trace, so far as
+the writer's observation extends, of that lofty sorrow at man's
+unworthiness, which has occasionally been attributed to Satan.
+
+The general feeling is that indicated by the semi-contemptuous epithets
+applied to the satyr-idea of "Auld Clootie" (cloven-footed), and "Auld
+Hornie," of our Northern brethren.
+
+[Illustration: A MAN-GOAT, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+Horns were among all ancient nations symbolic of power and dignity.
+Ancient coinages shew the heads of kings and deities thus adorned. The
+Goths wore horns. Alexander frequently wore an actual horn to indicate his
+presumption of divine descent. The head dress of priests was horned on
+this account. This may point to a pre-historic period when the horned
+animals were not so much of a prey as we find them in later days; thus the
+aurochs of Western Europe appears to have been more dreaded by the wild
+men of its time, than has been, say, the now fast-disappearing bison by
+the North American Indians. On the other hand, the marvellous continuity
+of nature's designs lead us to recognize that the carnivorous animals must
+always have had the right to be the symbols of physical power. Therefore,
+the idea of power, originally conveyed by the horns, is that carried by
+the possession of riches in the shape of flocks and herds. The pecunia
+were the means of power, and their horns the symbol of it. With the
+Egyptians, the ox signified agriculture and subsistence. Pharaoh saw the
+kine coming out of the Nile because the fertility of Egypt depends upon
+that river. So that it is easy to see how the ox became the figure of the
+sun, and of life. Similar significance attached to the sheep, the goat,
+and the ram. Horus is met as "Orus, the Shepherd." Ammon wore the horns of
+a ram. Mendes was worshipped as a goat.
+
+[Illustration: A CHERISHED BEARD, CHICHESTER.]
+
+The goat characteristics are well carved on a seat in All Souls. A goat
+figure of the thirteenth century at Chichester has the head of a man with
+a curious twisted or tied beard, clutched by one of the hands in which the
+fore feet terminate. The clutching of the beard is not uncommon among
+Gothic figures, and has doubtless some original on a coin, or other
+ancient standard design. At St. Helen's, Abingdon, Berkshire, in different
+parts of the church, three heads, one being a king, another a bishop, are
+shewn grasping or stroking each his own beard. It is to be remembered that
+the stroking of the beard is a well-known Eastern habit.
+
+Of close kindred to the goat form is the bull form. Just as Ceres
+symbolized the fecundity of the earth in the matter of cereals, so Pan was
+the emblem by which was figured its productiveness of animal life. Thus
+Priapus was rendered in goat form, as the ready type of animal sexual
+vigor; but not less familiar in this connection was the bull, and that
+animal also symbolizes Pan, who became, when superstition grew out of
+imagery, the protector of cattle in general. An old English superstition
+was that a piece of horn, hung to the stable or cowhouse key, would
+protect the animals from night-fright and other ills. When the pagan Gods
+were skilfully turned into Christian devils, we find the bull equally with
+the goat as a Satanic form, and several examples will be seen in the
+drawings.
+
+The ox, as the symbol of St. Luke, is stated to refer, on account of its
+cud-chewing, to the eclectic character of this evangelist's gospel.
+Irenaeus, speaking of the second cherubim of the Revelation, which is the
+same animal, says the calf signifies the sacerdotal office of Christ; but
+the fanciful symbolisms of the fathers and of the Bestiaries are often
+indifferent guides to original meaning. It may be that in the ox forms we
+have astronomical allusions to Taurus, Bacchus, to Diana, or to Pan. A
+note on the emblems of the Evangelists follows in the remarks on the
+combinatory forms met in grotesque art.
+
+Before passing on to consider particular examples of satyr or bull-form
+fiends, a few words may be said as to another form which, though allied to
+the dragon-shape embodiments, has the personal character. This is the
+Serpent. The origin of this appears to be the translation of the word
+_Nachasch_ for serpent in the Biblical account of the momentous Eden
+episode, a rendering which, without philological certainty, is
+countenanced by the general presence of the serpent in one form or another
+in every system of theology in the world. Jewish tradition states that the
+serpent, with beauty of form and power of flight, had no speech, until in
+the presence of Eve he ate of the fruit of the Tree, and so acquired
+speech, immediately using the gift to tempt Eve. Other traditions say that
+Nachasch was a camel, and became a serpent by the curse. Adam Clarke
+maintained that Nachasch was a monkey. The traditional and mystic form of
+the angels was that of a serpent. _Seraph_ means a fiery serpent. In
+Isaiah's vision, the seraphim are human-headed serpents. One of the most
+remarkable items in the history of worship is the account of the symbolic
+serpent erected by Moses, and the subsequent use of it as an idol until
+the time of Hezekiah. In the first satire of Perseus, he says, "paint two
+snakes, the place is sacred!"
+
+[Illustration: THE SERPENT, ELY.]
+
+The use of the serpent as the Church symbol of regeneration and revival of
+health or life is not common in carvings. In these senses it was used by
+the Greeks, though chiefly as the symbol of the Supreme Intellect, being
+the special attribute and co-type of Minerva. The personal apparition
+which confronted Eve is not so infrequent, though without much variety.
+
+In a representation of the temptation of Adam and Eve among the
+misericordes of Ely, the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is shewn
+of a very peculiar shape. The serpent, whose coils are difficult to
+distinguish from the foliage of the tree, has the head of a saturnine
+Asiatic, who is taking the least possible notice of "our first parents,"
+as they stand eating apples and being ashamed, one on each side of the
+composition.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD SERPENT, CHICHESTER. _13th century._]
+
+A carving in the choir of Chichester Cathedral shews in a double
+repetition, one half of which is here shewn, the evil head with an attempt
+at the legendary comeliness, mingled with debased traits, that is
+artistically very creditable to the sculptor. As though dissatisfied with
+the amount of beauty he had succeeded in imparting to the heads on the
+serpents, he adds, on the side-pieces of the carving, two other heads of
+females in eastern head-dresses, to which he has imparted a demure Dutch
+beauty, due perhaps to his own nationality. Human-headed serpents are in
+carvings at Norwich and at Bridge, Kent.
+
+[Illustration: DEMURENESS MEDITATING MISCHIEF. DEUTCHO-EGYPTIAN MASK,
+CHICHESTER.]
+
+With regard to Satan's status as an angel, a considerable number of
+representations of him are to be found, in which he conforms to a
+prevalent mediaeval idea as to the plumage of the spirit race. Angels are
+found clothed entirely with feathers, as repeated some scores of times in
+the memorial chapel, at Ewelme, of Alice, Duchess of Suffolk,
+grand-daughter of Chaucer, who died in 1475. The annexed block shews a
+small archangel which surmounts the font canopy, and is of the same
+character as the chapel angels. At All Souls, Oxford, is a carving of a
+warrior-visaged person wearing a morion, and armed with a falchion and
+buckler. He is clad in feathers only, appearing to be flying downward, and
+is either a representation of St. Michael or Lucifer.
+
+[Illustration: ANGEL, EWELME.]
+
+[Illustration: ST. MICHAEL, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+Satan is often similarly treated. Loki, the tempter of the Scandinavian
+Eden, who was ordered to seek the lost Idun he had deceived, had to go
+forth clad in borrowed garments of falcon's feathers with wings. When the
+pageant at the Setting of the Midsummer Watch at Chester was forbidden by
+the Mayor, in 1599, one of the prohibited figures was "the Devil and his
+Feathers."
+
+There may be a connection between the final punishment of Loki and the
+idea embodied in the carvings mentioned above as being at, among other
+places, Wells, York, and Glasgow, and which have been considered as
+conceptions of Remorse. Loki was condemned to be fastened to a rock to
+helplessly endure the eternal dropping upon his brow of poison from the
+jaws of a serpent; only that there is neither in these carvings, nor any
+others noted to the present, any indication of the presence of the
+ministering woman-spirit who for even the fiend Loki stood by to catch the
+death-drops in a cup of mercy.
+
+
+
+
+The Devil and the Vices.
+
+
+[Illustration: RECORDING IMP. ST. KATHERINE'S, REGENT'S PARK. (_Initial
+added_).]
+
+Having examined the various lower forms given by man to his great enemy,
+and now noting that to such forms may be added the human figure in whole
+or part, we will next take in review a few of the sins which bring erring
+humanity into the clutches of Satan; for we find some of the most
+grotesque of antique carvings devoted to representation of what may be
+called the finale of the Sinner's Progress. These are probably largely
+derived from the Mystery Plays; for the moral teaching has the same direct
+soundness. The ideas are often jocosely put, but the principle is one of
+mere retribution. The Devil cannot hurt the Saint and he pays out to the
+Wicked the exact price of his wrong-doing. Thus in nearly all of what may
+be termed the Sin series there is a Recording Imp who bears a tablet or
+scroll, on which we are to suppose the evil commissions and omissions of
+the sinner are duly entered, entitling the fiend to take possession. This
+reminds of the Egyptian Mercury, Thoth, who recorded upon his tablets the
+actions of men, in order that at the Judgment there might be proper
+evidence.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, ELY.
+
+The Account Presented. Satan Satisfied. The Record of Sin.]
+
+There is a series of carvings, examplified at Ely, New College, Oxford,
+St. Katherine's (removed from near the Tower to the Regent's Park) and
+Gayton, which have Satan encouraging or embracing two figures apparently
+engaged in conversation. I have placed these among the Sins, for though no
+very particular explanation is forthcoming as to the meaning of the group,
+it is clear that the two human beings are engaged in some occupation
+highly agreeable to the fiend. This evidently has a connection with the
+monkish story told of St. Britius. One day, while St. Martin was saying
+mass, Britius, who was officiating as deacon, saw the devil behind the
+altar, writing on a slip of parchment "as long as a proctor's bill" the
+sins which the congregation were then and there committing. The people,
+both men and women, appear to have been doing many other things besides
+listening to St. Martin, for the devil soon filled his scroll on both
+sides. Thus far our carvings.
+
+The story goes further, and states that the devil, having further sins to
+record, but no further space on which to write them, attempted to stretch
+the parchment with teeth and claws, which, however, broke the record, the
+devil falling back against a wall. The story then betrays itself. Britius
+laughed loudly, whereat St. Martin, highly displeased, demanded the
+reason, when Britius told him what he had seen, which relation the other
+saint accepted as being true.
+
+This story is one of a class common among mediaeval pulpit anecdotes. It
+cannot well be considered that the carvings arose from the story, nor the
+story from the carvings. Probably both arose from something else,
+accounting for the number of sinners being uniformly two, and for the
+attitude of the fiend in each case being so similar. With regard to the
+latter I must leave the matter as it is.
+
+I venture, as to the signification of the two figures, to make a
+suggestion to stand good until a better be found. In the Mystery Play
+entitled the "Trial of Mary and Joseph" (Cotton MS., Pageant xiv.,
+amplified out of the Apocryphal New Testament, _Protevan_, xi.), the story
+runs that Mary and Joseph, particularly the former, are defamed by two
+Slanderers. The Bishop sends his Summoner for the two accused persons, and
+orders that they drink the water of vengeance "which is for trial," a kind
+of miraculous ordeal by poison. Joseph drinks and is unhurt; Mary likewise
+and is declared a pure maid in spite of facts. One of the Slanderers
+declares that the drink has been changed because the Virgin was of the
+High Priest's kindred, upon which the Slanderer is himself ordered to
+drink what is left in the cup. Doing so he instantly becomes frantic. All
+ask pardon of Mary for their suspicions, and, that being granted, the play
+is ended.
+
+Now the play commences with the meeting of the Two Slanderers. A brief
+extract or two will shew their method.
+
+  1ST DETRACTOR.--To reyse blawthyr is al my lay,
+                    Bakbyter is my brother of blood
+                  Dede he ought come hethyr in al this day
+                    Now wolde God that he were here,
+                  And, by my trewth, I dare well say
+                  That if we tweyn to gethyr apere
+                  Mor slawndyr we t[w]o schal a rere
+                  With in an howre thorwe outh this town,
+                  Than evyr ther was this thouwsand yer,
+                  Now, be my trewth, I have a sight
+                  Evyn of my brother ... Welcome ...
+
+  2ND DETRACTOR.--I am ful glad we met this day.
+
+  1ST DETRACTOR.--Telle all these pepyl [the audience] what is yor name--
+
+  2ND DETRACTOR.--I am Bakbyter, that spyllyth all game,
+                  Both hyd and known in many a place.
+
+Then they fall to, and in terms of some wit and much freedom describe the
+physical condition of she who was "calde mayd Mary."
+
+The Two Slanderers in this play are undoubtedly men, for each styles the
+other "brother." Yet there are words in their dialogue, not suited to
+these pages, which could properly only be used by women. As in at least
+one of the carvings the sinners are women, if my hypothesis has any
+correctness there must be some other form of the story in which the
+detractors are female. It is to be noted, also, that the play from which I
+have quoted has no mention of the devil.
+
+[Illustration: A BACKBITER, ST. KATHERINE'S.]
+
+Years before I met with the play of the trial of Joseph and Mary, I
+considered that the sin of the Two might be scandal, and put down a
+curious carving adjoining the St. Katherine group as a reference to it,
+and suggested it might be a humorous rendering of a Backbiter. This is
+shewn in the accompanying block. It was therefore agreeable to find one
+of the Mystery detractors actually named Backbiter. Against that it may be
+mentioned that the composite figure with a head at the rear is not unique.
+At Rothwell, Northamptonshire, is a dragon attempt, rude though probably
+of late fifteenth century work, with a similar head in the same anatomical
+direction; this is not connected with anything that can be considered
+bearing upon the subject of the Mystery, unless the heads on the same
+misericorde are meant to be those of Jews.
+
+The example at Ely shews the fiend closely embracing the two sinners who
+are evidently in the height of an impressive conversation. One figure has
+a book on its knee, the other is telling the beads of a rosary. At the
+sides are two imps of a somewhat Robin Goodfellow-like character, each
+bearing a scroll with the account of the misdeeds of the sinners, and
+which we may presume are the warrants by which Satan is entitled to seize
+his prey. He is the picture of jovial good-nature.
+
+[Illustration: A BACKBITER, ROTHWELL, NORTHANTS.]
+
+New College, Oxford, has a misericorde of the subject in which the
+figures, female in appearance, are seated in a sort of box. This reminds
+us of Baldini and Boticelli's picture of Hell, which is divided into
+various ovens for different vices. That may be the idea here, or perhaps
+the object is a coffin and is used to emphasize what the wages of sin
+are. They, like the two sinners of Ely, are in animated conversation.
+Satan here is of a bull-headed form with wings rather like those of a
+butterfly. These are of the end of the fifteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+There are foreign carvings described by Mr. Evans as being of the devil
+taking notes of the idle words of two women during mass. This is, perhaps,
+the simple meaning of all this series, and an evidence of the resentment
+of ecclesiastics against the irreverent. There is considerable evidence
+that religious service was scarcely a solemn thing in mediaeval times. If
+this is the signification the box arrangement described above may be some
+sort of early pew.
+
+The next example, from St. Katherine's (lately) by the Tower, has the
+fiend in a fashionable slashed suit. The ladies here are only in bust, and
+though of demurely interested expression they have not that rapport and
+animation which distinguish the two previously noticed. Satan does not
+embrace them, but stands behind with legs outstretched and hands, or
+rather claws, on knees, ready to clutch them at the proper moment.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, ST. KATHERINE'S.]
+
+At Gayton, Northants, is a further curious instance of this group. The two
+Sinners are in this case unquestionably males, and, but for the
+coincidence with the preceding examples, the men might have been supposed
+to have been engaged in some game of chance. It will be observed that the
+one to the right has a rosary as in the first-named carving. Satan here
+is well clothed in feathers, and in his left wing is the head of what is
+probably one of the instruments of torture awaiting the very much
+overshadowed victims. It is a kind of rake or flesh-hook, with three
+sharp, hooked teeth; perhaps a figure of the tongue of a slanderer,
+materialized for his own subsequent scarification; it may be added as a
+kind of satanic badge. Satan bears on his right arm a leaf-shaped shield.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNSEEN WITNESS, GAYTON, NORTHANTS.]
+
+The vice next to be regarded is Avarice. In a misericorde at Beverley
+Minster we have three scenes from the history of the Devil. One gives us
+the avaricious man bending before his coffers. He has taken out a coin; if
+we read aright his contemplative and affectionate look, it is gold.
+Hidden behind the chest behold Satan, one of whose bullock horns is
+visible as he lurks out of the miser's sight, grinning to think how surely
+the victim is his.
+
+At the opposite end of the carving is the other extreme, Gluttony. A man
+is drinking out of a huge flask, which he holds in his right hand, while
+in the other he grasps a ham (or is it not impossible that this is a
+second bottle). In this the devil is likewise present; he is apparently
+desperately anxious the victim should have enough.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVIL AND THE MISER, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: SATAN AND A SOUL, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Between these two reliefs appears Satan seizing a naked soul. In the
+original all that remains of the Devil's head is the outline and one
+horn; of the soul's head there remains only the outline; the two faces I
+have ventured to supply, also the fore-arm of the Devil. The fiend is here
+again presented with the attributes of a bullock, rather than a goat.
+Satan has had placed on his abdomen a mask or face, a somewhat common
+method of adding to the startling effect of his boisterous personality.
+The fine rush which the fiend is making upon the soul, and the shrinking
+horror of the latter, are exceedingly well rendered. The moral is, we may
+suppose, that the sinners on either side will come to the same bad end.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVIL AND THE GLUTTON, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Among the seat-carvings of Henry VII's. Chapel, Westminster Abbey, we have
+the vice of Avarice more fully treated, there being two carvings devoted
+to the subject. In the first we see a monk suddenly seized by a quaint and
+curious devil (to whom I have supplied his right fore-arm). The monk,
+horror-stricken, yet angry, has dropped his bag of sovereigns, or nobles,
+and the coins fall out. He would escape if he could, but the claws of the
+fiend have him fast.
+
+[Illustration: DISMAY, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+In the companion carving we have the incident--and the monk--carried a
+little further. The devil has picked him up, thrown him down along his
+conveniently horizontal back, and strides on with him through a wild place
+of rocks and trees, holding what appears to be a flaming torch, which he
+also uses as a staff. The monk has managed to gather up his dearly-loved
+bag of money, and is frantically clutching at the rocks as he is swiftly
+borne along. Satan in the first carving has rather a benevolent human
+face, in the second a debased beast face, unknown to natural history.
+There is no explanation of how Sathanus has disposed in the second scene
+of the graceful dragon wings he wears in the first. It is probable that
+two of the Italians who carved this set each took the same subject, and we
+have here their respective renderings. I mention with diffidence that if
+the mild and timorous face of Bishop Alcock (which may be seen at Jesus
+College, Cambridge), the architect of this part of the abbey, could be
+supposed to have unfortunately borne at any time the expressions upon
+either of these two representations of the monk, the likeness would, in my
+opinion, be rather striking.
+
+[Illustration: THE OVERTAKING OF AVARICE, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: THE TAKING OF THE AVARICIOUS, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: DEMONIACAL DRUMMER, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+On the side carving of the carrying-away scene is shewn a woman, dismayed
+at the sight. On the opposite side a fiend is welcoming the monk with beat
+of drum, just as we shall see the ale-wife saluted with the drone of the
+bagpipes.
+
+[Illustration: VANITY, ST. MARY'S MINSTER.]
+
+A carving at St. Mary's Minster, Isle of Thanet, has the devil looking out
+with a vexed frown from between the horns of a lofty head-dress, which is
+on a lady's head. Whether this be a rendering of the dishonest ale-wife,
+or a separate warning against the vice of Vanity, cannot well be decided.
+
+There was a popular opinion at one time that the bulk of church carvings
+were jokes at the expense of clergy, probably largely because every hood
+was thought to be a cowl. There is, however, no doubt as to the carving
+here presented. It may represent the consecration of a bishop. The
+presence of Satan dominating both the individuals, and pulling forward the
+cowl of the seated figure, appears to declare that this is to illustrate
+the vice of Hypocrisy. It is at New College, Oxford.
+
+[Illustration: HYPOCRISY, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+
+
+
+Ale and the Ale-wife.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE JOLLY TAPSTER, LUDLOW.]
+
+Ale, good old ale, has formed the burden of more songs and satires ancient
+and modern, than will ever be brought together. Ale was the staple
+beverage for morning, noon, and evening meals. It is probable that swollen
+as is the beer portion of the Budget, the consumption of ale, man for man,
+is much less than that of any mediaeval time. The records of all the
+authoritative bodies who dealt with the liquor traffic of the olden time
+are crowded with rules and regulations that plainly demonstrate not only
+the universal prevalence of beer drinking in a proper and domestic degree,
+but also the constant growing abuse of the sale of the liquor. In the
+reign of Elizabeth the evils of the tavern had become so notorious, that
+in some places women were forbidden to keep ale-houses.
+
+As far back as A.D. 794, ale-houses had become an institution, for we find
+the orders passed at the Council of Frankfort in that year included one by
+which ecclesiastics and monks were forbidden to drink in an ale-house. St.
+Adrian was the patron of brewers.
+
+In some boroughs (Hull may be given as an instance) in the fifteenth
+century, the Mayor was not allowed to keep a tavern in his year of office.
+Brewers and tavern keepers, with many nice distinctions of grade among
+them, were duly licensed and supervised, various penalties meeting
+attempts at illicit trade. The quality of ale was also an object of
+solicitude, and an official, called the ale-taster, was in nearly every
+centre of population made responsible for the due strength and purity of
+the national beverage. It was customary in some places in the fifteenth
+century for the ale-taster to be remunerated by a payment of 4d. a year
+from each brewer.
+
+It has to be remembered ale was drunk at the meals at which we now use
+tea, coffee, and cocoa; it will be interesting to glance at an instance of
+the rate at which it was consumed. At the Hospital of St. Cross, founded
+in 1132, at Winchester, thirteen "impotent" men had each a daily allowance
+of a gallon and a half of good small beer, with more on holidays; this was
+afterwards reduced to three quarts with some two quarts extra for
+holidays. The porter at the gate had only three quarts to give away to
+beggars. There was great idea of continuity at this establishment; even in
+1836 there was spent L133 5s. for malt and hops for the year's brewing.
+The happy thirteen had each yet three quarts every day as well as a jack
+(say four gallons) extra among them on holidays, with 4s. for beer money.
+Two gallons of beer were also daily dispensed at the gate at the rate of a
+horn of not quite half a pint to each applicant.
+
+[Illustration: LETTICE LITTLETRUST AND A SIMPLE SIMON. WELLINGBOROUGH,
+_14th century_.]
+
+Ale, no more than other things, could be kept out of church. A carving at
+Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, shews us an interview between a would-be
+customer on the one part and an ale-wife on the other part. There is, in a
+list of imaginary names in an epilogue or "gagging" summons to a miracle
+play, mention of one Letyce Lytyltrust, whom surely we see above.
+Evidently the man is better known than trusted, and while a generous
+supply of the desired refreshment is "on reserve" in a dear old jug, some
+intimation has been made that cash is required; he, like one Simon on a
+similar occasion, has not a penny, and with one hand dipped into his
+empty pocket, he scratches his head with the other. His good-natured
+perplexity contrasts well with the indifferent tradeswoman-like air of the
+ale-wife, who while she rests the jug upon a bench, does not relinquish
+the handle. He is saying to himself, "Nay, marry, an I wanted a cup o' ale
+aforetime I was ever served. A thirsty morn is this. I know not what to
+say to t' jade;" while she is muttering, "An he wipe off the chalk ahint
+the door even, he might drink and welcome, sorry rogue tho' he be. But no
+use to cry pay when t' barrel be empty."
+
+At Edgeware in 1558, an innkeeper, was fined for selling a pint and a half
+of ale at an exorbitant price, namely, one penny. A quart was everywhere
+the proper quantity, and that of the strongest; small ale sold at one
+penny for two quarts. With regard to the then higher value of money,
+however, the prices may be considered to be about the same as at present,
+and the same may be said of many commodities which appear in records at
+low figures.
+
+Of an earlier date is the tapster of the initial block, from Ludlow, who
+furnishes a comfortable idea of a congenial, and to judge from his pouch,
+a profitable occupation. It is to be presumed the smallness of the barrel
+as compared with that of the jug--probably of copper, and dazzlingly
+bright--was the artist's means of getting its full outline within the
+picture, and not an indication of the relations of supply and demand.
+
+Alas for the final fate of the dishonest woman who could cheat men in the
+important matter of ale! At Ludlow we are shewn such a one, stripped of
+all but the head dress and necklace of her vanity, and carried
+ignominiously and indecorously to Hell's Mouth on the shoulders of a
+stalwart demon (whose head is supplied in the block). In her hand, and
+partaking of her own reverse, she bears the hooped tankard with which she
+defrauded her customers. It is the measure of her woe. The demon thus
+loaded with mischief is met by another, armed with the bagpipes. With
+hilarious air and fiendish grin he welcomes the latest addition to the
+collection of evil-doers within. To the right are the usual gaping jaws of
+Hell's Mouth, into which are disappearing two nude females, who, we may
+suppose, are other ale-wifes not more meritorious than the lady of the
+horned head dress. To the left is the Recording Imp.
+
+[Illustration: THE END OF THE ALE-WIFE, LUDLOW.]
+
+[Illustration: THE FEMALE DRAWER, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+There is allusion in a copy of the Chester Mystery of Christ's Descent
+into Hell, among the Harleian MSS., to an ale-wife of Chester, which
+doubtless suggested this carving. This lady, a little-trust and a cheater
+in her day, laments having to dwell among the fiends; she endeavours to
+propitiate one of them by addressing him as "My Sweet Master Sir
+Sattanas," who returns the compliment by calling her his "dear darling."
+She announces that:--
+
+  "Some tyme I was a tavernere,
+  A gentill gossipe and a tapstere,
+  Of wyne and ale a trustie brewer,
+      Which wo hath me wroughte.
+  Of cannes I kepte no trewe measuer
+  My cuppes I soulde at my pleasuer,
+  Deceaving manye a creature,
+      Tho' my ale were naughte."
+
+The Devil then delivers a short speech, which is one of the earliest
+temperance addresses on record. He says:--
+
+  "Welckome, dere ladye, I shall thee wedd,
+  For many a heavye and droncken head
+  Cause of thy ale were broughte to bed
+  Farre worse than anye beaste."
+
+There is an old saying "pull Devil, pull Baker" connected with the
+representation of a baker who sold his bread short of weight, and was
+carried to the lower regions in his own basket; the ale-wife, of our
+carving, however, does not appear to have retained any power of
+resistance, however slight or ineffectual.
+
+[Illustration: A HORN OF ALE, ELY.]
+
+At All Souls, Oxford, there is a good carving of a woman drawing ale. It
+is not, apparently, the ale-wife herself, but the maid sent down into the
+cellar. The maid, perhaps after a good draught of the brew, seems to be
+blowing a whistle to convey, to the probably listening ears of her
+mistress upstairs, the impression that the jug has not received any
+improper attention from her. The artful expression of the ale-loving maid
+lends countenance to the conjecture that the precaution has not been
+entirely efficacious. It is to this day a jocular expression in
+Oxfordshire, and perhaps elsewhere, "You had better whistle while you are
+drawing that beer."
+
+A carving at Ely represents Pan as an appreciative imbiber from a
+veritable horn of ale.
+
+
+
+
+Satires without Satan.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE SLUMBERING PRIEST, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.]
+
+There are numbers of grotesques which are satires evidently aimed at sins,
+but which have not the visible attendance of the evil one himself.
+
+Among these must be included a curious carving from Swine, in Holderness.
+The priory of Swine was a Cistercian nunnery of fifteen sisters and a
+prioress. Mr. Thomas Blashill states, "There were, however, two canons at
+least, to assist in the offices of religion, who did not refrain from
+meddling in secular affairs."[5] There was also a small community of
+lay-brethren.
+
+The female in the centre of the carving is a nun; her hood is drawn partly
+over her face, so that only one eye is fully visible, but with the other
+eye she is executing a well-known movement of but momentary duration. The
+two ugly animals between which she peers are intended for hares, a symbol
+of libidinousness, as well as of timidity.
+
+Another carving in the same chancel may be in derision of some official of
+the papal court, which, in the thirteenth century, on an occasion of the
+contumacy of the nuns in refusing to pay certain tithes, caused the
+church, with that adjoining, of the lay brethren, to be closed. The nuns
+defied all authority, broke open the chapels, and in general during the
+long contest acted in a curiously ungovernable, irresponsible manner.
+
+[Illustration: A PAPAL MONSTER, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+At Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire, are some misericordes, which, says
+Miss Phipson, are stated to have originally belonged to Old St. Paul's.
+Among them is the annexed subject. The wicked expression of the face, and
+the general incorrectness of the composition, are a historical evidence of
+indecorum akin to the gestures of the Beverley carvers.
+
+[Illustration: IMPUDENCE, BISHOP'S STORTFORD, HERTFORDSHIRE.]
+
+From the fine choir carvings of Westminster Abbey yet another example is
+given. It is one in which the spirit of the old _Comptes a Plaisance_ is
+well illustrated. A well-clad man, suggesting Falstaff in his prime, is
+seated with a lady among luxurious foliage. His arm is right round his
+companion's waist, while his left hand dips into his capacious and
+apparently well-lined pouch, or gipciere. He has been styled a merchant.
+He is manifestly making a bargain. The lady is evidently a daughter of the
+hireling (_hirudo!_), and is crying, "Give, give." In spite of this being
+the work of an Italian artist, the artistic feeling about it would seem to
+recall slightly the lines of Holbein.
+
+[Illustration: THE WINKING NUN, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: A QUESTION OF PRICE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+The small carving to the right of the above is a highly-elate pig, playing
+the pipe. This is shewn in a short chapter hereafter given on Animal
+Musicians. The initial at the head of this chapter is illustrated with the
+"slumbering priest," the carving of whom is at the right of that of the
+'Unseen Witness,' drawn on page 85. This doubtless implies that some
+portion of the sin of the people was to be attributed to the indifference
+of the clergy. Balancing this, there is in the original carving an aged
+person kneeling, and, supported by a crutch, counting her beads.
+
+In a subsequent chapter (on Compound Forms in Gothic) the harpy is
+mentioned, and shewn to be a not uncommon subject of church art, either as
+from the malignant classic form which symbolized fierce bad weather, or as
+the more beneficient though not unsimilar figure which was the symbol of
+Athor, the Egyptian Venus. A Winchester example which might seem in place
+among the remarks on the Compounds, is included here, as it is evidently
+intended to embody a sin. It serves to show that a modern use of the word
+harpy was well understood in mediaeval times. The design is simple, the
+vulture wings being made to take the position of the hair of the woman
+head. She lies in wait spider-wise, her great claws in readiness for the
+prey; and is evidently a character-sketch of a coarse, insatiable daughter
+of the horse-leech.
+
+[Illustration: THE HARPY IN WAIT, WINCHESTER.]
+
+
+
+
+Scriptural Illustrations.
+
+
+[Illustration: ADAM AND EVE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Mystery Plays, we have seen, drew upon the Apocryphal New Testament for
+subjects, but it has simply happened that the examples of vice carvings
+illustrate those writings, for Mystery Plays were in general founded upon
+the canonical scriptures. There are many carvings which have Biblical
+incidents for their subject, but it is often impossible to say whether the
+text were the sole material of the designer, or whether his ideas were
+formed by representations he had seen on the Mystery stage. It may be
+presumed that the effect would not be greatly different in one case from
+the other.
+
+The story of Jonah furnishes a subject for two misericordes in Ripon
+Cathedral. One is in the frontispiece of this volume. In the first the
+prophet is being pushed by three men unceremoniously over the side of the
+vessel which has the usual mediaeval characteristics, and, in which,
+plainly, there is no room for a fourth person. The ship is riding easily
+on by no means tumultuous waves, out of which protrudes the head of the
+great fish. The fish and Jonah appear to regard the situation with equal
+complacency.
+
+In the sequel carving Jonah is shewn being cast out by the fish, of
+which, as in the other, the head only is visible. The monster of the deep
+has altered its appearance slightly during the period of Jonah's
+incarceration, its square upper teeth having become pointed. The prophet
+is represented kneeling among the teeth, apparently offering up thanks for
+his deliverance. The sea is bounded by a rocky shore on which stand trees
+of the well-known grotesque type in which they are excellent fir-cones.
+
+[Illustration: THE STORY OF JONAH. THE CASTING OUT.]
+
+These two carvings are of somewhat special interest, as their precise
+origin is known. They are both exceedingly close copies of engravings in
+the Biblia Pauperum, or Poor Man's Bible, otherwise called "Speculum
+Humanae Salvationis," or the Mirror of Human Salvation. Other Biblical
+subjects in the Ripon Series of Misericordes are from the same source. Did
+the Sculptor or Sculptors of the series fall short of subjects, or were
+their eyes caught by the definite outlines of the prints in the "Picture
+Bible" as it lay chained in the Minster?
+
+The Adoration, in a carving in the choir of Worcester, comes under the
+head of unintentional grotesques. It is a proof that though the
+manipulative skill of the artist may be great, that may only accentuate
+his failure to grasp the true spirit of a subject; and render what might
+have been only a piece of simplicity, into an elaborate grotesque. The
+common-place, ugly features--where not broken away--the repeated attitudes
+and the symmetric arrangement join to defeat the artist's aim. Add to
+those the anachronisms, the ancient Eastern rulers in Edward III. crowns
+and gowns, seated beneath late Gothic Decorated Arches offering gifts,
+and the absurdity is nearly complete. It is difficult to quite understand
+the presence of the lady with gnarled features, on the left, bearing the
+swathed infant (headless) which seems to demonstrate that this was carved
+by a foreigner, or was from a foreign source; for though swathing was
+practised to some extent in England, I can only find that in Holland,
+Germany, etc., and more especially in Italy, the children were swathed to
+this extent, in the complete mummy fashion styled "bambino."
+
+Perhaps the reason of the two figures right and left was that the artist
+went with the artistic tide in representing the recently-born infant as a
+strapping boy of four or five; yet his common-sense telling him that was a
+violation of fact he put the other figure in with the strapped infant to
+show what--in his own private opinion--the child would really be like at
+the time.
+
+We might have supposed it to be St. John, but he was older and not younger
+than the Divine Child. In the Scandinavian mythology, Vali, the New Year,
+is represented as a child in swaddling clothes.
+
+[Illustration: ADORATION OF THE MAGI, WORCHESTER.]
+
+The Scriptural subjects in carved work may be compared with the wall
+paintings which in a few instances have survived the reforming zeal of
+bygone white-washing churchwardens. The comparison is infinitely to the
+advantage of the carvings. These paintings are in distemper and were the
+humble inartistic precursors of noble frescoes in the continental fanes,
+but which had in England no development. To what extent there was merit in
+the mural decoration of the English cathedrals cannot well be stated.
+Such examples, as in a few churches are left to us, are simply
+curiosities. Though changing with the styles they are more crude than the
+sculptures, and the modern eye in search of the grotesque, finds here
+compositions infinitely more excruciatingly imbecile than in any other
+department of art-work of pretension.
+
+[Illustration: BAPTISMAL SCENE, GUILDFORD.]
+
+At the same time when they are considered in conjunction with the most
+perfect of the paintings of their period they are by no means so low in
+the scale of merit as at the first thought might be supposed.
+
+Outside the present purpose of looking at them as unintentional grotesques
+they are very valuable specimens of the English art of painting of dates
+which have, except in illuminations, no other examples.
+
+Those of St. Mary's, Guildford, are very quaint. The first selected from
+the series is a representation of Christ attending the ministration of St.
+John the Baptist. St. John has apparently taken down to the river bank a
+classic font, in which is seated a convert. The Baptist himself, wearing a
+Phrygian cap (probably Saxon), is turning away from the figures of Christ
+and the man in the font, and is apparently addressing a company which does
+not appear in the picture. Just as the font was put in to make the idea of
+baptism easily understood, so, we may suppose, the curious buttons on
+thongs, or whatever they are, were shewn attached to St. John's wrist, to
+indicate that he is speaking of the "shoe-latchets." The waters and bank
+of the Jordan are indicated in a few lines.
+
+[Illustration: CASTING OUT OF DEVILS, GUILDFORD.]
+
+The other selection is still more bizarre. It evidently portrays Christ
+casting out devils. The chief point of interest in this painting is the
+original conception of the devils. Anything more vicious, degraded, and
+abhorrent, it would be difficult to produce in so few lines. Roughly
+speaking, they are a compound of the hawk, the hog, and the monkey; this
+curious illustration is an excellent pendant to the marks made upon early
+Satanic depictions on a previous page. The faces are Saxon, except in the
+case of the man with the sword, who is a distinct attempt at a Roman. The
+artist had evidently in his mind one who was set in authority.
+
+The churches of the Midlands are rich in wall-paintings.
+
+A fine example is in North Stoke Church, Oxfordshire, which has two
+Scriptural subjects, a series of angelic figures, and several other
+figures, etc., only fragmentally visible. They were all found accidentally
+under thick coats of whitewash. It may be doubted whether they were ever
+finished. The two Biblical subjects are "Christ betrayed in the Garden,"
+and "Christ before Pilate." Christ is a small apparently blind-folded
+figure, of which only the head and one shoulder remains. Pilot is the
+Saxon lord, posing as the seated figure of legal authority, poising a
+hiltless sword in his right hand. The figure addressing Pilate is
+apparently a Roman (Saxon) official; his hand is very large, but there is
+a simple force about his drawing. The fourth figure in a mitre is
+doubtless meant for a Jewish priest, and he has a nasty, clamorous look.
+Pilate, unfortunately, has no pupils to his eyes, but his general
+appearance is as though he was expostulating with the priest.
+
+There is a carol, printed in 1820, which has a woodcut of the subject not
+less rude and not less of an anachronism than this: but what is curious,
+as illustrating the main theory of the present volume--the tenacity with
+which form is adhered to in unconscious art--is that the disposition of
+the figures is exactly the same in both pictures. Where the Saxon lord is
+seated, imagine a bearded magistrate, at a sort of Georgian
+quarter-sessions bench, with panelled front. For the simple Saxon, with
+vandyked shirt, suppose a Roman half-soldier, half-village-policeman. Then
+comes the figure of Christ, with the head much lower than those of the
+others because he is nearer. Lastly, there is an incomplete figure behind.
+
+In this case the perfect correspondence may be mere coincidence; it is
+difficult to explain otherwise. The design, however, is the same, only the
+Anglo-Norman filled in his detail from his observation of a manorial
+court, the Moorfield engraver from his knowledge of Bow Street
+police-court.
+
+To conclude, although these paintings are ludicrous in the extreme, the
+artists, who had no easy task, were absolutely serious, and their works,
+divested of the comic aspect conferred by haste and manipulative
+incompetence, are marked by bold impressiveness.
+
+The initial to this chapter is from one of a series of similar ornaments
+on the parapet of the south side of the nave of Beverley Minster; it
+illustrates the toilsome nature of the later portion of Adam's life.
+
+
+
+
+Masks and Faces.
+
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, THE CHOIR, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The merriest, oddest, most ill-assorted company in the world meet together
+in the masks and faces of Gothic ornament. Space could always be found for
+a head, and skill to execute it. Yet though the variety is immense, the
+faces of Gothic art will be found to classify themselves very definitely.
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+Perhaps the most prevalent type is the classic mask with leaves issuing
+from the mouth. This may be an idea of the mask which every player in the
+ancient drama wore, displayed as an ornament with laurel, bay, oak, ivy,
+or what not, inserted in the mouth, because it was pierced for speaking
+through, and the only aperture in which the decorative branches could be
+inserted. Or seeds might germinate in sculptured masks and so have
+suggested the idea. Masks were hung in vineyards, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, ST. MARY'S MINSTER, ISLE OF THANET.]
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+A mask above the internal tower-doorway in the Lady Chapel of Dorchester
+Abbey has a close resemblance to the classic mask in the protruding lips,
+which, for the conveying of the voice for the great distance necessary in
+the arrangement of the ancient theatres, were often shaped like a shallow
+speaking-trumpet. The leaves appear to be the vine, and so the head,
+perhaps, that of Bacchus. Between the eyebrows will be noticed an angular
+projection. This is probably explained by a mask in a misericorde in St.
+Mary's Minster, in which some object, perhaps the nasal of a helmet, comes
+down the middle of the forehead. The leaves in this case appear to be oak,
+which is, indeed, the prevailing tree used for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN MASK, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+[Illustration: LATE ITALIAN FOLIATE MASK, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+Occasionally a mask with leaves has the tongue protruding.
+
+Perhaps one of the most remarkable masks in Gothic is on another
+misericorde in the same town, but in St. Mary's Church; in which the
+features, the head-dress, the treatment of the ears, are all Indian, while
+the leaves are those of the palm. This is, perhaps, unique as an instance
+of Gothic work so nearly purely Indian in its form.
+
+[Illustration: RIPON, _late Fifteenth Century_.]
+
+Sometimes the leaves are much elaborated as in one of the late
+misericordes of Westminster Abbey; in a few cases the original simplicity
+is quite lost, and we have, as at Ripon, the mask idea run mad, inverted,
+and the leaves become a graceful composition of foliage, flower, and
+fruit.
+
+A rosette from the tomb of Bishop de La Wich, Chichester, has four animal
+faces in an excellent design.
+
+[Illustration: ROSETTE ON TOMB OF BISHOP DE LA WICH, CHICHESTER.]
+
+Often masks are of the simple description known as the Notch-head; these
+are of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They are generally found
+in exposed situations at some elevation, as among the series of corbels
+(_corbula_ a small basket) or brackets called the corbel-table,
+supporting a stone course or cornice. The likeness to the human face
+caused by the shadows of the T varies in different examples. That below,
+by curving back at the base, suggests the idea of a mouth. Occasionally,
+as at Finedon, Northamptonshire, the notch-head has its likeness to a face
+increased by the addition of ears.
+
+[Illustration: MASK, BUCKLE, OR NOTCH HEAD, CULHAM, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+Norman masks are interesting, as they explain some odd appearances in
+later work. In many churches are faces scored with lines across the
+cheeks, regardless of the ordinary lines of expression, in a manner
+closely resembling the tattoo incisions of the New Zealand warrior. This
+appearance, however, is simply the too faithful copying of crude Norman
+masks, in which the lines are meant to be the semi-circles round eyes and
+mouth. Moreover, the Norman heads are most often the heads of animals
+grinning to shew the teeth, although their general effect is that of
+grotesque human heads. Iffley west doorway furnishes the best example.
+Here we have the well-known "beak head" ornament. The semicircle and upper
+portion of the jambs have single heads, not two of which are exactly
+alike, though all closely resemble each other. They are heads of the eagle
+or gryphon order, with a forehead ornament very Assyrian in character. The
+heads of the jambs are compound, being the head of a grinning beast,
+probably a lion, from the mouth of which emerges a gryphon head of small
+size. These are sometimes called "Cat-heads," and the gryphon head is
+sometimes considered (and perhaps occasionally shewn as such) a tongue. A
+fine doorway of beak-heads is at St. Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford, which
+church was probably executed by the workmen who were responsible for
+Iffley.
+
+[Illustration: BEAK HEADS, IFFLEY.]
+
+It is probable that the symbolism of this is the swallowing up of night by
+day or _vice versa_. The outer arch of the Iffley doorway consists of
+zodiacal signs, and at the south doorway are other designs elsewhere
+mentioned in this volume, far removed from Christian intent.
+
+[Illustration: NORMAN MASK, ROCHESTER.]
+
+The grotesqueness of Norman work is almost entirely unconscious. The
+workers were full of Byzantine ideas, and the severe and awful was their
+object rather than the comic. They frequently attempted pretty detail in
+their symbolic designs, but in all the forms which have come from their
+chisels it is easy to see how incomplete an embodiment they gave to their
+conceptions, or rather to the conceptions of their traditional school.
+Norman work, beyond the Gothic, irrespective of the architectural
+peculiarities, has traces of its eastern origin in the classic connection
+of its designs. Adel Church, near Leeds, is peculiar in having co-mingled
+with its eastern designs more than ordinarily tangible references to
+ancient Keltic worship, but nearly all Norman ideographic detail concerns
+itself with old-world myths.
+
+[Illustration: GORGONIC MASK, EWELME.]
+
+An excellent conception, well carried out, is in a mask which is one of a
+series of late carvings alternating with the gargoyles of Ewelme. In this,
+instead of leaves issuing from the mouth of the mask, there are two
+dragons. If those with leaves are deities, this surely must be one of the
+Furies. It is on the north side of the nave; on the exterior of the
+aisle, at the same side, other sculptures form a kind of irregular
+corbel-table, and special attention may be drawn to them as affording an
+indication of the derivation of such ornaments from the "antefixes" or
+decorated tiles occupying a nearly corresponding position in classic
+architecture.
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, EWELME.]
+
+One of those on the aisle offers a further explanation of the mark before
+mentioned as being on the foreheads of some masks. In this case the
+prominences of the eyebrows branch off into foliage. This appears also to
+be the intention in a capital carving in Lincoln Chapter House.
+
+Roslyn Chapel has some very realistic heads, notably of apes or gorillas
+near the south doorway, of which one is drawn (opposite).
+
+[Illustration: FOLIATE MASK, LINCOLN.]
+
+Norman work has frequently some very grotesque heads in corbel tables and
+tower corners, to the odd appearance of which the decay by weather has no
+doubt much contributed. Two examples from Sutton Courtney, Oxfordshire,
+illustrate this weather-worn whimsicality.
+
+[Illustration: GORILLA, ROSLYN CHAPEL.]
+
+Then comes a crowd of faces which have no particular significance, being
+simply the outcome of the unrestrainable fun of the carver. Some are
+merely oddities, while others are full of life-like character.
+
+[Illustration: GARGOYLE, SUTTON COURTNEY.]
+
+[Illustration: WEATHER-WORN NORMAN, SUTTON COURTNEY, BERKSHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: HUMOUR, YORK.]
+
+[Illustration: MASK WITH SAUSAGE, STRATFORD-UPON-AVON.]
+
+[Illustration: A JEALOUS EYE, YORK.]
+
+The knight with the twisted beard, from Swine, may be a portrait, and the
+Gargantuan-faced dominus from St. Mary's Minster certainly is. An old
+barbarian head from a croche or elbow-rest at Bakewell is rude and worn,
+but yet bold and fine.
+
+[Illustration: A BEARD WITH A TWIST, SWINE, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: A QUIZZICAL VISAGE, BAKEWELL.]
+
+[Illustration: GRIMACE MAKER, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: FOOL'S HEADS, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Some of these are better than the joculators and mimes' faces in which the
+artist seriously set himself a humorous task, as in the three heads
+(page 130) from Beverley Minster, though the latter are in some respects
+more grotesque.
+
+[Illustration: A PORTRAIT, ST. MARY'S MINSTER. ISLE OF THANET.]
+
+[Illustration: A ROUGH CHARACTER, BAKEWELL.]
+
+Another curious instance of a grimace and posture maker, assisting his
+countenance's contortions by the use of his fingers, is at Dorchester
+Abbey. In this the artist has not been master of the facial anatomy, and
+shows a double pair of lips, one pair in repose, the other pulled back at
+the corners.
+
+[Illustration: GRIMACE MAKER, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+Often a grotesque face will be found added to a beautiful design of
+foliage, either as the conventional mask, as in the design in Lincoln
+Chapter House, or a realistic head, as the following grim, dour visage
+between graceful curves on a misericord at King's College, Cambridge.
+
+[Illustration: GRACE AND THE GRACELESS, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.]
+
+
+
+
+The Domestic and Popular.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE WEAKER VESSEL, SHERBORNE.]
+
+Domestic and popular incidents are plentiful among the carvings, of which
+they form, indeed, a distinct class; and they afford a considerable amount
+of material with which might be built up, in a truly Hogarthian and
+exaggerated spirit, an elaborate account of mediaeval manners in general.
+In the majority of cases the incidents have a familiar, if not an
+endearing suggestiveness.
+
+[Illustration: DOMESTIC DISCIPLINE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The records of mankind are not wanting in stormy incidents in which the
+gentle female spirit has chafed under some presumed foolishness or
+wickedness of the head of the house, and at length breaking bounds,
+inflicted on him personal reminders that patience endureth but for a
+season. An example of this is given above, which shews the possibility of
+such a thing as far back as 1520, the date of the Beverley Minster
+misericordes. While the lady is devoting her attention to the flagellation
+of her unfortunate and perhaps entirely blameless spouse, a dog avails
+himself of the opportunity to rifle the caldron.
+
+[Illustration: AN UNKIND FARE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+The picture in the initial, taken from a carving in the choir of Sherborne
+Minster, shews another domestic incident in which the lady administers
+castigation. Though in itself no more than a vulgar satire, it is probable
+that this carving was copied from some representation of St. Lucy, who is
+sometimes shewn with a staff in her hand, and behind her the devil
+prostrate.
+
+It is not easy to say what is the meaning of another carving in Beverley
+Minster, or whether it has any connection with that just noted. The
+probability is that it has not. This may be a shrewish wife being wheeled
+in the tumbril to the waterside, there to undergo for the better ruling of
+her tongue, a punishment the authority for which was custom older than
+law. But I am inclined to think that another reading will be nearer the
+truth. The vehicle is not the tumbril but a wheelbarrow, and the man
+propelling it is younger than the lady, who is pulling his hair. I imagine
+the man is apprentice or husband, and is not very cheerfully trundling his
+companion home. A similar, but more definite misericorde is in Ripon
+Cathedral.
+
+In this barrow, the old woman, wearing a cap with hat on the top, as yet
+occasionally seen in country places, is seated in a mistress-like way. She
+is not committing any violence, but apparently is offering the man (call
+him the bridegroom) his choice of either a bag of money with dutiful
+obedience, or a huge cudgel, which she wields with muscular power, with
+dereliction. The gem of the carving is the man's face. He smiles a quiet,
+amused, satirical smile, as of one who would say, "'Tis no harm to humour
+these foolish old bodies, and must be done, I trow."
+
+[Illustration: THE CHARIOT, RIPON.]
+
+But the object called a bag of money is as likely to be a bottle, and the
+whole subject may be something quite different. She may be going to the
+doctor, or offering the man a drink; or it may be Noah wheeling his
+wife into the Ark, which, it was one of the jokes in a Mystery play to
+suppose she was very unwilling to enter.
+
+[Illustration: PILGRIMAGE IN COMFORT, CANTERBURY.]
+
+[Illustration: MARTINMAS. CHRISTMAS. HOLY TRINITY, HULL.]
+
+The block from the capital of a column in the crypt of Canterbury
+Cathedral, tells us little of its history. It is given as an example of a
+cheerful grace and ease not common in early work.
+
+The hunting of the boar is a frequent subject of the Gothic carver, being
+generally considered the sport of September, though Sir Edward Coke says
+the season for the boar was from Christmas to Candlemas. It is uncommon to
+find the boar's head shewn treated as in the accompanying block, struck
+off, and with the lemon in his mouth, ready for the table. These
+quatrefoils are the only two with a special design upon them, out of
+twelve on the font of Holy Trinity Church, Hull, the others having
+rosettes. There is no rule in this, but there are other examples in which
+small portions of fonts are picked out for significant decoration, and
+possibly on the side originally intended to be turned towards the door of
+the church, or the altar.
+
+[Illustration: HUNTSMAN AND DEER, YORK.]
+
+Hunting scenes frequently occur. A boss in York Minster shews a huntsman
+"breaking" a deer as it hangs from a tree.
+
+The wild sweetness of one stringed and one wind instrument--not uncommonly
+met as harp and piccolo near London "saloon bars"--was a usual duet of
+the middle ages. In Stoeffler's _Calendarum Romanorum Magnum_ (of 1518) in
+a series of woodcuts illustrating the months, and which are otherwise
+reasonable, he gives one of these duets performed in a field as a proper
+occupation of the month of April with the following highly appropriate
+distich--
+
+  "Aprilis patule nucis sub umbra
+  post convivia dormio libenter."
+
+[Illustration: A CURIOUS DUET, CHICHESTER.]
+
+In this carving, however, the musicians appear to be within doors and to
+be giving a set duet. To the interest of the ear they add a curious
+spectacle for the eye, for they are seated in chairs which have no
+fore-legs, and their balance is kept by the flageoletist taking hold of
+the harp as the players sit facing, so that while leaning back they form a
+counter-poise to each other. The chairs are a curious study in mediaeval
+furniture.
+
+It is not unlikely that the sculptor in the case of the annexed block had
+in his mind something similar to the saying--
+
+  "When a man's single he lives at his ease."
+
+[Illustration: BACHELOR QUARTERS, WORCESTER.]
+
+A man come in from, we may presume, frost and snow, has taken off his
+boots, and warms his feet as, seated on his fald-stool by the fire, he
+stirs the pot with lively anticipation of the meal preparing inside. He is
+probably a shepherd or swine-herd; on one side is seated his dog, at the
+other are hung two fat gammons of bacon.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Shepherds and shepherding furnish frequent subjects to the carver.
+
+In a Coventry Corpus Christi play of 1534 one of the three shepherds
+presents his gloves to the infant Saviour in these words--
+
+  "Have here my myttens, to pytt en thi hondis,
+  Other treysure have I none to present thee with."
+
+This carving has been called the Good Shepherd. If the artist really meant
+Christ by this shepherd with a hood over his head and hat over that, with
+great gloves and shoes, with a round beardless face, with his arms round
+the necks of two sheep, holding their feet in his hands, it is the finest
+piece of religious burlesque extant. But it is not to be supposed that the
+idea even occurred to the sculptor.
+
+The Feast of Fools was a kind of religious farce, a "mystery" run riot.
+Cedranus, a Byzantine historian, who wrote in the eleventh century,
+records that it was introduced into the Greek Church A.D. 990, by
+Theophylact, patriarch of Constantinople. We can partly understand that
+the popular craving for the wild liberties of the Saturnalia might be met,
+and perhaps modified, by a brief removal of the solemn constraint of the
+Christian priest-rule. But licentiousness in church worship was no new
+thing, and, long before the time of Theophylact, the Church of the West,
+and probably the Greek Church also, had been rendered scandalous by the
+laxity with which the church services were conducted. At the Council of
+Orleans, in A.D. 533, it was found necessary to rule that no person in a
+church shall sing, drink, or do anything unbecoming; at another in
+Chalons, in A.D. 650, women were forbidden to sing indecent songs in
+church. There is in fact every evidence, including the sculptures of our
+subject, that religion was not, popularly, a thing solemn in itself.
+Cedranus mentions the "diabolic dances" among the enormities practised at
+the Feast of Fools, which was generally held about Christmas, though not
+confined to that festival.
+
+In the twelfth century, the abuse increased; songs of the most indecent
+and offensive character were sung in the midst of the mock services;
+puddings were eaten, and dice rattled on the altar, and old shoes burnt as
+incense.
+
+[Illustration: DANCING FOOLS, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+This observance, so evidently an expedient parody of the old-time
+festivals, is traceable in England, and said to have been abolished about
+the end of the fourteenth century. The carvings in Beverley Minster, here
+presented, are supposed to refer to the Feast, and at any rate give us a
+good idea of the mediaeval fool. There were innumerable classic dances.
+The Greeks send down the names of two hundred kinds. A dance with arms was
+the Pyrrhic dance, which was similar in some of its varieties to the
+military dance known as the Morris. The Morris was introduced into Spain
+by the Moors, and brought into England by John of Gaunt in 1332. It was,
+however, little used until the reign of Henry VII. There were other
+vivacious dances, called Bayle, of Moorish origin, which, as well as
+various kinds of the stately Court dance, were used by the Spaniards. It
+is difficult, from general sources, to ascertain the dances in vogue in
+old England. A drawing in the Cotton MSS. shews a Saxon dancing a reel.
+The general inference is, however, that the Morris (of the Moors or
+Moriscoes) was the chief dance of the English, and perhaps it is that in
+which the saltatory fools of the carving are engaged.
+
+[Illustration: AN ABJECT OBJECT. WINCHESTER COLLEGE CHAPEL.]
+
+Probably the extraordinary monstrosity shewn in the annexed block had an
+actual existence. There are fairly numerous accounts of such malformities
+in mediaeval times, and it was a function of mediaeval humour to make
+capital out of unfortunate deformity. This poor man has distorted hands
+instead of feet, and he moves about on pattens or wooden clogs strapped to
+his hands and legs. There is little meaning in the side carvings. The
+fool-ape, making an uncouth gesture, is perhaps to shew the character of
+those who mock misfortune. The man with the scimitar may represent the
+alarm of one who might suddenly come upon the sight of the abortion, and
+fearing some mystery or trap, draw his blade. In a sense this is a
+humourous carving--yet there is a quality for which it is much more
+remarkable, and that is its element of forcible and realistic pathos.
+
+[Illustration: A MYTHOLOGICAL EPISODE, YORK.]
+
+Two reliefs from York Minster are presumably scenes from classic
+mythology, from, in regard to the costumes, a Saxon point of view. One may
+be supposed to be the rape of Ganymede. Oak leaves are an attribute of
+Jupiter, as is also the eagle which bore Ganymede to Olympus.
+
+The other may be Vulcan giving Venus "a piece of his mind."
+
+[Illustration: MARITAL VIOLENCE, YORK.]
+
+If these readings are correct these two carvings are among the very few
+instances of representations of circumstantial detail of the Olympian
+mythology. Most of the church references to mythology have more connection
+with the earlier symbolic meanings than with the later narrative histories
+into which the cults degenerated. Other examples are in the references to
+Hercules in the sixteenth century stalls of Henry VII.'s Chapel,
+Westminster.
+
+There is in mediaeval art several examples remaining of what may be called
+topsy-turveyism, in which two figures mutually lent their parts to each
+other in such a way that four figures may be found.
+
+An excellent example of this is at New College, Oxford, in which, though
+the four figures are so apparent when once seen, the two (taken as upper
+and lower), are in a natural and ingenious acrobatic position. The
+grotesque head at the base is put in to balance the composition, and
+perhaps to prevent the trick being discerned at once.
+
+[Illustration: A CONTINUOUS GROUP OF FOUR FIGURES, OXFORD.]
+
+The grace of the free if somewhat meagre Corinthian acanthus as used in
+Early English work is often rendered more marked by the introduction of
+an extraneous subject. Thus at Wells the foliate design is relieved by the
+ungainly figure of a melancholy individual, who, before retiring to rest,
+pursues an examination into his pedal callosities, or extracts the
+poignant thorn. Or can it be that we have here a reminder of the Egyptian
+monarch, Somaraja, mentioned in the Hindoo accounts of the Egyptian
+mythology, who was dissolute and outcast, and who, to shew his repentance
+and patience, stood twelve days upon one leg?
+
+[Illustration: A PILGRIM'S PAINS, WELLS.]
+
+This discursive chapter would not be complete without a reference to the
+alleged impropriety of church grotesques. Though it is not to be denied
+that in the wide range of subjects a considerable number of indecent
+subjects have crept in, yet their proportion is small. Examination would
+lead to the belief that upon the whole the art of the churches is much
+purer than the literature or the popular taste of the respective periods.
+Though there may be sometimes met examples of grossness of humour and a
+frank want of reserve, such as in the annexed drawing from the chapel of
+All Souls, Oxford, yet these are rarely of the most gross or least
+reserved character.
+
+[Illustration: A POSTURIST, ALL SOULS, OXFORD.]
+
+It may be well to note, in this connection that the literature from which
+we draw the bulk of our ideas as to mediaeval life, are foreign, and that,
+although English manners would not be remotely different in essentials,
+yet there would be as many absolute differences as there are yet remaining
+to our eyes in architecture and in art generally.
+
+
+
+
+The Pig and other Animal Musicians.
+
+
+[Illustration: APE AS PIPER, BEVERLEY.]
+
+One might count in the churches animal musicians, perhaps, by thousands,
+and the reason of their presence is doubtless the same as that which
+explains the frequency of the serious carvings of musicians which adorn
+the arches of nave and choir throughout the country--namely the prevalent
+use of various kinds of instrumental music in the service of the church.
+The animal musicians are the burlesques of the human, and the fact that
+the pig is the most frequent performer may perhaps suggest that the
+ability of the musician had overwhelmed the consideration of other
+qualities which might be expected, but were not found, in the
+harmony-producing choristers. Clever as musicians, they may have become
+merely functionaries as regards interest in the church, as we see to-day
+in the case of our bell-ringers, who for the most part issue from the
+churches as worshippers enter them.
+
+It may also be that the frequency of suilline musicians may have derisive
+reference to the ancient veneration in which the pig was held in the
+mythologies. It was a symbol of the sun, and, derivatively, of fecundity.
+Perhaps the strongest trace of this is in Scandinavian mythology. The
+northern races sacrificed a boar to Freyr, the patron deity of Sweden and
+of Iceland, the god of fertility; he was fabled to ride upon a boar named
+Gullinbrusti, or Golden Bristle. Freyr's festival was at Yule-tide. Yule
+is _jul_ or _heol_, the sun, and Gehul is the Saxon "Sunfeast." The gods
+of Scandinavia were said to nightly feast upon the great boar Saehrimnir,
+which eaten up, was every morning found whole again. This seems somewhat
+akin to the Hindoo story of Crorasura, a demon with the face of a boar,
+who continually read the Vedas and was so devout that Vishnu (the sun god)
+gave him a boon. He asked that no creature existing in the three worlds
+might have power to slay him, which was granted.
+
+[Illustration: SOW AND FIDDLE, WINCHESTER.]
+
+The special sacrifice of the pig was not peculiar to Scandinavia, for the
+Druids and the Greeks also offered up a boar at the winter solstice. The
+sacrifice of a pig was a constant preliminary of the Athenian assemblies.
+As a corn destroyer the same animal was sacrificed to Ceres.
+
+The above explains the recurrence of the pig rather than the pig musician.
+A pregnant sow was, however, yearly sacrificed to Mercury, the inventor of
+the harp, and a sow playing the harp is among the rich set of choir
+carvings in Beverley Minster.
+
+The chase of the boar was the sport of September, the ordinary killing
+season, the swine being then in condition after their autumn feed of
+_bucon_, or beechmast (hence _bacon_), "His Martinmas has come" passed
+into a proverb. The prevalence of the pig as a food animal had undoubtedly
+its share in the frequency of art reference.
+
+[Illustration: SOW AS HARPIST, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+In the Christian adoption of pagan attributes, the pig was apportioned to
+St. Anthony, it is said, variously, because he had been a swine-herd, or
+lived in woods. The smallest or weakling pig in a litter, called in the
+north "piggy-widdy" (small white pig), and in the south midlands the
+"dillin" (perhaps equivalent to _delayed_), and is elsewhere styled the
+Anthony pig, as specially needing the protection of his patron.
+
+[Illustration: MUSIC AT DINNER, WINCHESTER.]
+
+A common representation of the pig musician is a sow who plays to her
+brood. At Winchester, the feast of the little ones is enlivened by the
+strains of the double flute. At Durham Castle, in a carving formerly in
+Aucland Castle Chapel, the sow plays the bagpipes while the young pigs
+dance. At Ripon, a vigorous carving has the same subject, and another at
+Beverley, in which a realistic trough forms the foreground.
+
+[Illustration: SOW AND BAGPIPES, DURHAM CASTLE.]
+
+[Illustration: PIGS AND PIPES, RIPON.]
+
+The "Pig and Whistle" forms an old tavern sign. Dr. Brewer explains this
+as the pot, bowl, or cup (the _pig_), and the wassail it contained. The
+earthenware vessel used to warm the feet in bed is in Scotland yet called
+"the pig," and to southern strangers the use of the word has caused a
+temporary embarrassment. If this explanation is not coincident with some
+other not at present to hand, the carving of the pig and whistle in the
+sixteenth century carving in Henry VII.'s chapel shows that the corruption
+of the "pig and wassail" was accepted in ignorance as far back as that
+period.
+
+[Illustration: PIG AND WHISTLE, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+But too much stress is not to be laid upon the pig as a musician, for at
+Westminster the bear plays the bagpipes, just as at Winchester the ape
+performs on the harp. In the Beverley Minster choir an ape converts a cat
+into an almost automatic instrument by biting its tail.
+
+[Illustration: APE AS HARPIST, WESTMINSTER.]
+
+
+
+
+Compound Forms.
+
+
+[Illustration: ATHOR, CHICHESTER.]
+
+In nearly every church compound forms are met which in a high degree merit
+the designation of grotesque. Few religions have been without these
+symbolic representations of complex characters. If the Egyptian had its
+cat-headed and hawk-headed men, the Assyrian its human-headed bull, the
+Mexican its serpent-armed tiger-men, so also the Scandinavian mythology
+had its horse-headed and vulture-headed giants, and its human-headed
+eagle. Horace, who doubtless knew the figurative meaning of what he
+satirizes, viewed the representations of such compounds in his days, and
+asks--
+
+  "If in a picture you should see
+  A handsome woman with a fishes tail,
+  Or a man's head upon a horse's neck,
+  Or limbs of beasts of the most diff'rent kind,
+  Cover'd with feathers of all sorts of birds
+  Would you not laugh?"[6]
+
+It is, perhaps, a little remote from our subject to inquire whether the
+poet or the priest came the first in bringing about these archaic
+combinations; yet a word or two may be devoted to suggesting the inquiry.
+It is probable that the religious ideas and artistic forms met in ancient
+worships first solely existed in poetic expressions of the qualities of
+the sun--of the other members of the solar system--of the gods. Thus the
+swiftness of the sun in his course and in his light induced the mention of
+wings. Hence the wings of an eagle added to a circular form arose as the
+symbol in one place; in another arose the God Mercury; while Jove the
+great sun-god is shewn accompanied by an eagle. The fertility of the earth
+became as to corn Ceres, as to vines Bacchus, as to flowers Flora, and so
+forth. The human personification, in cases where a combination of
+qualities or functions was sought to be indicated, resulted in more or
+less abstruse literary fables; on the other hand the artist or symbol
+seeker found it easier to select a lower plane of thought for his
+embodiments. Thus, while swiftness suggested the eagle, strength was
+figured by the lion: so when a symbol of swiftness and strength was
+required arose the compound eagle-lion, the gryphon.
+
+The gryphon, however, though constantly met in Gothic, is rarely grotesque
+in itself. Another form which also, to a certain extent, is incorruptible,
+is that of the sphinx. This is a figure symbolic of the sun from the
+Egyptian point of view, in which the Nile was all-important. Nilus, or
+Ammon, the Egyptian Jove, was the sun-god, an equivalent to Osiris, and
+the sphinx was similar in estimation, being, it is reasonably conjectured,
+a compound of Leo and Virgo, at whose conjunction the Nile has yearly
+risen. According to Dr. Birch, the sphinx is to be read as being the
+symbol of Harmachis or "the sun on the horizon." It may be that the Child
+rising from the Shell is sunrise over the sea, and the Sphinx sunrise over
+the land. It has been conjectured that the cherubim of the tabernacle were
+sphinx-form. The cherubim on the Mosaic Ark are among the subjects of the
+earliest mention of composite symbols. Ezekiel says they were composed of
+parts of the figures of a man (wisdom, intellect), a lion (dominion), a
+bull (strength), and an eagle (sharp-sightedness, swiftness.) The Persians
+and Hindoos had similar figures. A man with buffalo horns is painted in
+the Synhedria of the American Indians in conjunction with that of a
+panther or puma-like beast, and these are supposed to be a contraction of
+the cherubimical figures of the man, the bull, and the lion; these,
+renewed yearly, are near the carved figures of eagles common in the Indian
+sun-worship.
+
+[Illustration: SPHINX AND BUCKLER, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+[Illustration: SPHINX FIGURE, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+A carving in the arm-rest of one of the stalls of Beverley Minster,
+suggested in the block on page 159, shews a sphinx with a shield; there
+are in the same church several fine examples seated in the orthodox
+manner.
+
+On a capital in the sedilia of Dorchester Abbey is a curious compound
+which may be classed as a sphinx. One of the hands (or paws) is held over
+the eyes of a dog, which suggests the manner in which animals were
+anciently sacrificed. Another sphinx in the same sedilia is of the winged
+variety. It has the head cowled; many of the mediaeval combinatory forms
+are mantled.
+
+In Worcester Cathedral is a compound of man, ox, and lion, very different
+from the sphinx or cherubim shapes, being a grotesque deprived of all the
+original poetry of the conception.
+
+[Illustration: COWLED SPHINX, DORCHESTER, OXON.]
+
+Virgil describes Scylla (the Punic _Scol_, destruction) as a beautiful
+figure upwards, half her body being a beautiful virgin; downwards, a
+horrible fish with a wolf's belly (utero). Homer similarly.
+
+The mermaid is a frequent subject, but more monotonous in its form and
+action than any other creature, and is generally found executed with a
+respectful simplicity that scarcely ever savours of grotesqueness. The
+mermaid, "the sea wolf of the abyss," and the "mighty sea-woman" of
+Boewulf, has an early origin as a deity of fascinating but malignant
+tendencies.
+
+The centaur, perhaps, ranks next to the sphinx in artistic merit. To the
+early Christians the centaur was merely a symbol of unbridled passions,
+and all mediaeval reference classes it as evil. Virgil mentions it as being
+met in numbers near the gates of Hades, and the Parthenon sculptures shew
+it as the enemy of men.
+
+[Illustration: GROTESQUE CHERUBIM, WORCESTER.]
+
+The story of the encyclopedias regarding centaurs is that they were
+Thessalonian horsemen, whom the Greeks, ignorant of horsemanship, took to
+be half-men, half-animals. They were called, it is said, centaurs, from
+their skill in killing the wild bulls of the Pelion mountains, and, later,
+hippo-centaurs. This explanation may, in the presence of other
+combinatory forms, be considered doubtful, as it is more probable that
+this, like those, arose out of a poetic appreciation of the qualities
+underlying beauty of form, that is, out of an intelligent symbolism. The
+horse, where known, was always a favourite animal among men. Innumerable
+coinages attest this fact. Early Corinthian coins have the figure of
+Pegasus. In most the horse is shewn alone. In the next proportion he is
+attached to a chariot. In few is he shewn being ridden, as it is his
+qualities that were intended to be expressed, and not those of the being
+who has subjected him. One of the old Greek gold staters has a man driving
+a chariot in which the horse has a human head; while the man is urging the
+horse with the sacred three-branched rod, each branch of which terminates
+in a trefoil. The centaur has a yet unallotted place in the symbolism of
+the sun-myth. Classic mythology says Chiron the centaur was the teacher of
+Apollo in music, medicine, and hunting, and centaurs are mostly sagittarii
+or archers, whose arrows, like those of Apollo, are the sunbeams. The
+centaur met in Gothic ornament is the Zodiacal Sagittarius, and true to
+this original derivation, the centaur is generally found with his bow and
+arrow.
+
+It is said that the Irish saints, Ciaran and Nessan, are the same with the
+centaurs Chiron and Nessus.
+
+[Illustration: MATERNAL CARES OF THE CENTAUR, IFFLEY.]
+
+A capital of the south doorway, Iffley, has a unique composition of
+centaurs. A female centaur, armed with bow (broken) and arrow, is suckling
+a child centaur after the human manner. The equine portions of the figures
+are in exceptionally good drawing, though the tremendous elongation of
+the human trunks, and the ill-rendered position, render the group very
+grotesque. Both the mother and child wear the classic cestus or girdle.
+The bow carried by the mother is held apparently in readiness in the left
+hand, while it is probable that the right breast was meant to be shown
+removed, as was stated of the Amazons. The mother looks off, and there is
+an air of alertness about the two, which is explained by the sculpture on
+the return of the capital, where the father-centaur is seen slaying a
+wolf, lion, or other beast.
+
+[Illustration: CENTAUR AS DRAGON SLAYER, EXETER.]
+
+On a centaur at Exeter of the thirteenth century, the mythical idea is
+somewhat retained; the centaur has shot an arrow into the throat of a
+dragon, which is part of the ornament. This is a very rude but suggestive
+carving. Is the centaur but a symbol of Apollo himself?
+
+The next block (at Ely) is also of the centaur order, though not
+suggestive of aggression. The figure is female, and she is playing the
+zither. This is of the fourteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: MUSICAL CENTAUR, ELY.]
+
+[Illustration: HARPY, WINCHESTER.]
+
+Another classic conception which has been perpetuated in Gothic is the
+harpy, though in most cases without any apparent recognition of the harpy
+character. Exceptions are such instances as that of the harpy drawn in the
+chapter "Satires without Satan." In one at Winchester a fine mediaeval
+effect is produced by putting a hood on the human head.
+
+[Illustration: IBIS-HEADED FIGURE FROM AN UNKNOWN CHURCH.]
+
+Another curious bird combination is in a carving in the Architectural
+Museum, Tufton Street, London, from an unknown church. This is a
+semi-human figure, whose upper part is skilfully draped. The head, bent
+towards the ground, is that of a bird of the ibis species, and it is
+probable that we have here a relic of the Egyptian Mercury Thoth, who was
+incarnated as an ibis. Thoth is called the God of the Heart (the
+conscience), and the ibis was said to be sacred to him because when
+sleeping it assumes the shape of a heart.
+
+[Illustration: THE SWAN SISTER, ST. GEORGE'S CHAPEL, WINDSOR.]
+
+An unusual compound is that of a swan with the agreeable head of a young
+woman, in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. This may be one of the
+swan-sisters in the old story of the "Knight of the Swan."
+
+The initial letter of this section is a fine grotesque rendering of the
+Egyptian goddess Athor, Athyr, or Het-her (meaning the dwelling of God.)
+She was the daughter of the sun, and bore in images the sun's disc.
+Probably through a lapse into ignorance on the part of the
+priest-painters, she became of less consideration, and the signification
+even of her image was forgotten. She had always had as one of her
+representations, a bird with a human head horned and bearing the disc; but
+the disc began to be shewn as a tambourine, and she herself was styled
+"the mistress of dance and jest." As in the cosmogony of one of the
+Egyptian Trinities she was the Third Person, as Supreme Love, the Greeks
+held her to be the same as Aphrodite. The name of the sun-disc was Aten,
+and its worship was kindred to that of Ra, the mid-day sun. The Hebrew
+Adonai and the Syriac Adonis have been considered to be derived from this
+word Aten.
+
+Several examples of bird-compounds are in the Exeter series of
+misericordes of the thirteenth century. They are renderings in wood of the
+older Anglo-Saxon style of design, and are ludicrously grotesque.
+
+It is scarcely to be considered that the compound figures were influenced
+by the prevalence of mumming in the periods of the various carvings. In
+this, as in many other respects, the traditions of the carvers' art
+protected it from being coloured by the aspect of the times, except in a
+limited degree, shewn in distinctly isolated examples.
+
+[Illustration: BIRD-COMPOUND, EXETER.]
+
+
+
+
+Non-descripts.
+
+
+[Illustration: A BEARDED BIPED, ST. KATHERINE'S.]
+
+There is a large number of bizarre works which defy natural
+classification, and though in many cases they are a branch of the compound
+order of figures, yet they are frequently well defined as non-descripts.
+These, though in one respect the most grotesque of the grotesques, do not
+claim lengthy description. Where they are not traceable compounds, they
+are often apparently the creatures of fancy, without meaning and without
+history. It may be, however, that could we trace it, we should find for
+each a pedigree as interesting, if not as old, as that of any of the
+sun-myths. Among the absurd figures which scarcely call for explanation
+are such as that shown in the initial, from the Hospital and Collegiate
+Church of St. Katherine by the Tower (now removed to a substituted
+hospital in Regent's Park).
+
+[Illustration: A CLOAKED SIN, TUFTON STREET.]
+
+In the Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, London, is a carving from an
+unknown church, in which appear two figures which were not an uncommon
+subject for artists of the odd. These are human heads, to which are
+attached legs without intermediary bodies, and with tails depending from
+the back of the heads.
+
+[Illustration: THE WORM OF CONSCIENCE. (_From an unknown Church._)]
+
+In the "Pilgremage of the Sowle," printed by Caxton in 1483, translated
+from a French manuscript of 1435 or earlier, is a description of a man's
+conscience, which, there is little doubt, furnished the idealic material
+for these carvings. A "sowle" being "snarlyed in the trappe" of Satan, is
+being, by a travesty on the forms of a court of law, claimed by both the
+"horrible Sathanas" and its own Warden or Guardian Angel. The Devil calls
+for his chief witness by the name of Synderesys, but the witness calls
+himself the Worm of Conscience. The following is the soul's
+description:--"Then came forth by me an old one, that long time had hid
+himself nigh me, which before that time I had not perceived. He was
+wonderfully hideous and of cruel countenance; and he began to grin, and
+shewed me his jaws and gums, for teeth he had none, they all being broken
+and worn away. He had no body, but under his head he had only a tail,
+which seemed the tail of a worm of exceeding length and greatness." This
+strange accuser tells the Soul that he had often warned it, and so often
+bitten it that all his teeth were wasted and broken, his function being
+"to bite and wounde them that wrong themselves."[7]
+
+The above examples are scarcely unique. In Ripon Cathedral, on a
+misericorde of 1489, representing the bearing of the grapes of Eschol on a
+staff, are two somewhat similar figures, likewise mere "nobodies," though
+without tails. These are a covert allusion to the wonderful stories of the
+spies, which, it is thus hinted, are akin to the travellers' tales of
+mediaeval times, as well as a pun on the report that they had seen nobody.
+
+[Illustration: NOBODIES, RIPON.]
+
+It is evident that the idea of men without bodies came from the East, and
+also that it had credence as an actual fact. In the _Cosmographiae
+Universalis_, printed in 1550, they are alluded to in the following
+terms:--"Sunt qui cervicibus carent et in humeris habet oculos; De India
+ultra Gangem fluvium sita."
+
+[Illustration: NON-DESCRIPT, CHRIST CHURCH, HANTS.]
+
+There are many carvings which are more or less of the same character, and
+probably intended to embody the idea of conscience or sins.
+
+The two rather indecorous figures shewn in the following block from Great
+Malvern are varieties doubtless typifying sins.
+
+[Illustration: SINS IN SYMBOL, GREAT MALVERN.]
+
+
+
+
+Rebuses.
+
+
+[Illustration: BOLT-TON.]
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM WHITE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+Rebuses are often met among Gothic sculptures, but not in such frequency,
+or with an amount of humour to claim any great attention here. They are
+almost entirely, as in the case of the canting heraldry of seals, of late
+date, being mostly of the 15th and 16th centuries. They are often met as
+the punning memorial of the name of a founder, builder, or architect, as
+the bolt-ton of Bishop Bolton in St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, the
+many-times-repeated cock of Bishop Alcock in Henry VII's. Chapel, the eye
+and the slip of a tree, and the man slipping from a tree, for Bishop
+Islip, Westminster; and others well known. In the series of misericordes
+in Beverley Minster, there are _arma palantes_ of the dignitaries of the
+Church in 1520. William White, the Chancellor, has no less than seven
+different renderings of the pun upon his name, all being representations
+of weights, apparently of four-stone ponderosity. Thomas Donnington, the
+Precentor, whose name would doubtless often be written Do'ington, has a
+doe upon a ton or barrel. John Sperke, the Clerk of the Fabric, has a dog
+with a bone, and a vigilant cock; this, however, is not a name-rebus so
+much as an allusion to the exigencies of his office. The Church of St.
+Nicholas, Lynn, had misericordes (some of which are now in the
+Architectural Museum) which have several monograms and rebuses.
+Unfortunately, they are somewhat involved, and there is at present no key
+by which to read them. The least doubtful is that given below.
+
+[Illustration: WEIGHT, REBUS FOR WHITE, BEVERLEY MINSTER.]
+
+It has a "ton" rebus which will admit, however, of perhaps three different
+renderings. It is most likely Thorn-ton, less so Bar-ton, and still less
+Hop-ton, all Lincolnshire names.
+
+[Illustration: MERCHANT MARK, COGNIZANCE AND REBUS, ST. NICHOLAS'S,
+LYNN.]
+
+
+
+
+Trinities.
+
+
+[Illustration: LARVA-LIKE DRAGON, ST. PAUL'S, BEDFORD.]
+
+Repeatedly has the statement been made that the various mythologies are
+only so many corruptions of the Mosaic system. Manifestly if this could be
+admitted there would be little interest in enquiring further into their
+details. But there are three arguments against the statement, any one of
+which is effective. Although it is perhaps totally unnecessary to
+contradict that which can be accepted by the unreflective only, it is
+sufficiently near the purpose of this volume to slightly touch upon the
+matter, as pointing strong distinctions among ancient worships.
+
+First, there is the simple fact recorded in the Mosaic account itself,
+that there existed at that time, and had done previously, various
+religious systems, the rooting out of which was an important function of
+the liberated Hebrews. The only reply to this is that, by a slight shift
+of ground, the mythologies were corruptions of the patriarchal religion,
+not the Mosaic system. Yet paganism surrounded the patriarchs.
+
+The second point is that most of the mythologies had crystallized into
+taking the sun as the main symbol of worship, and into taking the
+equinoxes and other points of the constellation path as other symbols and
+reminders of periodic worship; whereas in the Mosaic system the whole
+structure of the solar year is ignored, all the calculations being lunar.
+If it be objected that Numbers ix. 6-13, and II. Chronicles xxx. 2, refer
+indirectly to an intercalary month, that, if admitted, could only for
+expediency's sake, and has no bearing upon the general silence as to the
+solar periods. This second point is an important testimony to what may be
+termed Mosaic originality.
+
+The third point is that in most of the mythologies there is the distinct
+mention of a Trinity; in the Mosaic system, the system of the Old
+Testament, none. With the question as to whether the New Testament
+supports the notion of a Trinity, we need not concern ourselves here; it
+is enough that it has been adopted as an item of the Christian belief.
+
+The mythological Trinities are vague and, of course, difficult or
+impossible to understand. Most of them appear to be attempts of great
+minds of archaic times to reconcile the manifest contradictions ever
+observable in the universe. This is done in various ways. Some omit one
+consideration, some another; but they generally agree that to have a
+three-fold character in one deity is necessary in explaining the
+phenomenon of existence. Some of the Trinities may be recited.
+
+PERSIAN.
+
+    OROMASDES, Goodness, the deviser of Creation.
+
+    MITHRAS, Eternal Intellect, the architect and ruler of the world,
+    literally "the Friend."
+
+    ARIMANES, the mundane soul (Psyche).
+
+GRECIAN.
+
+    ZEUS.
+
+    PALLAS.
+
+    HERA.
+
+ROMAN.
+
+    JUPITER, Power.
+
+    MINERVA, Wisdom, Eternal Intellect.
+
+    JUNO, Love.
+
+SCANDINAVIAN.
+
+    ODIN, Giver of Life.
+
+    HAENIR, Giver of motion and sense.
+
+    LODUR, Giver of speech and the senses.
+
+AMERICAN INDIAN.
+
+    OTKON.
+
+    MESSOU.
+
+    ATAHUATA.
+
+EGYPTIAN.
+
+    CNEPH, the Creator, Goodness.
+
+    PTA (Opas), the active principle of Creation (= Vulcan).
+
+    EICTON.
+
+The Egyptians had other Trinities than the above, each chief city having
+its own form; in these, however, the third personality appears to be
+supposed to proceed from the other two, which scarcely seems to have been
+intended in the instances already given. Some of the city Trinities were
+as follow:--
+
+THEBES.
+
+    AMUN-RA (= Jupiter), (RA = the Mid-day Sun.)
+
+    MANT or MENTU (= "the mother," Juno.)
+
+    CHONSO (= Hercules.)
+
+PHILAE & ABYDOS.
+
+    OSIRIS (= Pluto).
+
+    ISIS (= Prosperine).
+
+    HORUS, the Saviour, the Shepherd (the Rising Sun).
+
+ABOO-SIMBEL.
+
+    PTA or PHTHAH.
+
+    AMUM-RA.
+
+    ATHOR, Love (the wife of HORUS).
+
+So that it is no coincidence that both Hercules and Horus are met in
+Gothic carvings as deliverers from dragons.
+
+ELEPHANTINE.
+
+    KHUM or CHNOUMIS.
+
+    ANUKA.
+
+    HAK.
+
+MEMPHIS.
+
+    PTAH.
+
+    MERENPHTAH.
+
+    NEFER-ATUM.
+
+HELIOPOLIS.
+
+    TUM (Setting Sun.)
+
+    NEBHETP.
+
+    HORUS.
+
+Another Egyptian triad, styled "Trimorphous God!" was:--
+
+    BAIT.
+
+    ATHOR.
+
+    AKORI.
+
+Another:--
+
+    TELEPHORUS.
+
+    ESCULAPIUS.
+
+    SALUS.
+
+VEDIC HINDOO.
+
+    AGNI, Fire, governing the Earth.
+
+    INDRA, The Firmament, governing Space or Mid Air.
+
+    SURYA, The Sun, governing the Heavens.
+
+BRAHMINIC HINDOO.
+
+    BRAHMA, the Creator.
+
+    VISHNU, the Preserver.
+
+    SIVA, the Destroyer (the Transformer) (= Fire).
+
+The Platonic and other philosophic Trinities need not detain us; it has
+been asserted that by their means the doctrine of the pagan Trinity was
+grafted on to Christianity.
+
+Right down through the ages the number three has always been regarded as
+of mystic force. Wherever perfection or efficiency was sought its means
+were tripled; thus Jove's thunderbolt had three forks of lightning,
+Neptune's lance was a trident, and Pluto's dog had three heads. The
+Graces, the Fates, and the Furies were each three. The trefoil was held
+sacred by the Greeks as well as other triad forms. In the East three was
+almost equally regarded. Three stars are frequently met upon Asiatic
+seals. The Scarabaeus was esteemed as having thirty joints.
+
+Mediaeval thought, in accepting the idea of the Christian Trinity, lavishly
+threw its symbolism everywhere; writers and symbolists, architects and
+heralds, multiplied ideas of three-fold qualities.
+
+Heraldry is permeated with three-fold repetitions, a proportion of at
+least one-third of the generality of heraldic coats having a trinity of
+one sort or another. In all probability the stars and bars of America rose
+from the coat-armour of an English family in which the stars were three,
+the bars three.
+
+St. Nicholas had as his attributes three purses, three bulls of gold,
+three children.
+
+Sacred marks were three dots, sometimes alone, sometimes in a triangle,
+sometimes in a double triangle; three balls attached, making a trefoil;
+three bones in a triangle crossing at the corners; a fleur-de-lys in
+various designs of three conjoined; three lines crossed by three lines;
+and many other forms.
+
+God, the symbolists said, was symbolized by a hexagon, whose sides were
+Glory, Power, Majesty, Wisdom, Blessing, and Honor. The three steps to
+heaven were Oratio, Amor, Imitatio. The three steps to the altar, the
+three spires of the cathedral, the three lancets of an Early English
+window, were all supposed to refer to the Trinity.
+
+Having seen that the idea of the Trinity is a part of most of the ancient
+religious systems, it remains to point to one or two instances where, in
+common with other ideas from that source, the Trinity has a place among
+church grotesques.
+
+There is a triune head in St. Mary's Church, Faversham, Kent, which was
+doubtless executed as indicative of the Trinity. The _Beehive of the
+Romishe Church_, in 1579, says: "They in their churches and Masse Bookes
+doe paint the Trinitie with three faces; for our mother the holie Church
+did learn that at Rome, where they were wont to paint or carve Janus with
+two faces." In the Salisbury Missal of 1534 is a woodcut of the Trinity
+triangle surmounted by a three-faced head similar to the above. Hone
+reproduces it in his _Ancient Mysteries Described_, and asks, "May not the
+triune head have been originally suggested by the three-headed Saxon deity
+named "Trigla"?" The Faversham tria, it will be noticed, has the curled
+and formal beards of the Greek mask.
+
+[Illustration: A TRINITY, ST. MARY'S, FAVERSHAM.]
+
+Another instance of a three-fold head similar to the Faversham carving is
+at Cartmel.
+
+A still more remarkable form of the same thing occurs as a rosette on the
+tomb of Bishop de la Wich, in Chichester Cathedral, in which the trinity
+of faces is doubled and placed in a circle in an exceedingly ingenious and
+symmetrical manner. This has oak leaves issuing from the mouths, which we
+have seen as a frequent adjunct of the classic mask as indicating Jupiter.
+
+[Illustration: DOUBLE TRINITY OF FOLIATE MASKS, CHICHESTER.]
+
+In carvings three will often be found to be a favourite number without a
+direct reference to the Trinity. The form of the misericorde is almost
+invariably a three-part design, and, being purely arbitrary, its universal
+adoption is one of the evidences of the organization of the craft gild.
+
+As with the misericorde, so with its subjects. At Exeter we have seen
+(page 4) the tail of the harpy made into a trefoil ornament, while she
+grasps a trefoil-headed rod (just as among Assyrian carvings we should
+have met a figure bearing the sacred three-headed poppy). At Gayton (page
+87) we have the three-toothed flesh-hook; at Maidstone is another.
+Chichester Cathedral and Chichester Hospital have each three groups.
+Beverley Minster has three fish interlaced, and three hares running round
+inside a circle. In Worcester Cathedral there are three misericordes, in
+each of which there are three figures, in which groups the number is
+evidently intentional. Three till the ground, three reap corn with
+sickles, three mow with scythes.
+
+[Illustration: TRINITY OF MOWERS, WORCESTER.]
+
+From them as being unusual in treatment, even in this stiff Flemish set,
+is selected the trinity of mowers. Groups of three in mowing scenes is a
+frequent number. Doubtless this carving is indicative of July, that being
+the "Hey-Monath" of early times. One of the side supporters or pendant
+carvings of this is a hare riding upon the back of a leoparded lion,
+perhaps some reference to Leo, the sign governing July.
+
+The three mowers do not make a pleasing carving, owing to the repetition
+and want of curve.
+
+Other instances of triplication in Gothic design might be given,
+particularly in the choice of floral forms in which nature has set the
+pattern. This section, however, is chiefly important as a convenient means
+of incorporating a record of something further of the fundamental beliefs
+of the world's youth, connected with and extending the question of the
+remote origin of the ideas at the root of so many grotesques in church
+art.
+
+
+
+
+The Fox in Church Art.
+
+
+[Illustration: PREACHING FOX, CHRISTCHURCH, HAMPSHIRE.]
+
+The Fox, apostrophized as follows:
+
+  "O gentle one among the beasts of prey
+  O eloquent and comely-faced animal!"
+
+as an important subject in mediaeval art, has two distinct places.
+
+There is a general impression that there was a great popular literary
+composition, running through many editions and through many centuries,
+having its own direct artistic illustration, and a wide indirect
+illustration which, later, by its ability to stand alone, had broken away
+from close connection with the epic, yet possessed a derivative identity
+with it.
+
+Closer examination, however, proves that there is indeed the Fox in its
+particular literature with its avowed illustrations, but also that there
+is the Fox in mediaeval art, illustrative of ideas partly found in
+literature, but illustrative of no particular work, and yet awaiting a
+key. Each is a separate and distinct thing.
+
+Among the grotesques of our churches there are some references to the
+literary "Reynard the Fox," but they are few and far between; while
+numerous most likely and prominent incidents of Reynard's career, as
+narrated in the poem, have no place among the carvings.
+
+The subjects of the carvings are mostly so many variations of the idea of
+the Fox turned ecclesiastic and preying upon his care and congregation;
+and in this he is assisted by the ape, who also takes sides with him in
+carvings of other proceedings; but in none of these scenes is there
+evidence of reference to the epic. A great point of difference, too, lies
+in the conclusion of the epic, and the conclusion of Reynard's life as
+shewn in the carvings. In the epic, the King makes Reynard the Lord
+Chancellor and favourite.
+
+The end of the Fox of church art, however, is far different; several
+sculptures agree in shewing him hanged by a body of geese.
+
+In the epic, Reynard's victims are many. The deaths of the Hare and the
+Ram afford good circumstantial pictures, yet in the carvings there is
+neither of these; and it is scarcely Reynard who plots, and sins, and
+conceals, but a more vulgar fox who concerns himself, chiefly about geese,
+in an open, verminous way, while many of the sculptures are little more
+than natural history illustrations, in which we see _vulpes_, but not the
+Fox.
+
+To enable, however, a fair comparison to be made between literature and
+art in this byway, it will be as well to glance at the history of the
+poem, and lay down a brief analysis of its episodes; and, next, to present
+sketches of some typical examples from the carvings.
+
+Much of ancient satire owes its origin to that description of fable which
+bestows the attributes and capacities of the human race upon the lower
+animals, which are made to reason and to speak. Their mental processes and
+their actions are entirely human, although their respective animal
+characteristics are often used to accentuate their human character. In
+every animal Edward Carpenter sees varying sparks of the actual mental
+life we call human, in, it may be added, arrested or perverted
+development, in which, in each instance, one characteristic has
+immeasurably prevailed. For the animal qualities, whether human or not in
+kind, man has ever had a sympathetic recognition, which has made both
+symbol and fable easily acceptable. Perhaps symbolism, which for so many
+ages has taken the various animals as figures to intelligibly express
+abstract qualities, gave rise to fable. If so, fable may be considered the
+grotesque of symbolism. The same ideas--of certain qualities--are taken
+from their original serious import, and used to amuse, and, while amusing,
+to strike.
+
+On the other hand, Grimm asserts that animal-fable arose in the
+Netherlands, North France, and West Germany, extending neither to the
+Romance countries, nor to the Keltic; whereas we find animal symbolism
+everywhere. Grimm's statement may be taken to speak, perhaps, of a certain
+class of fable, and the countries he names are certainly where we should
+expect to find the free-est handling of superstitions. His arguments are
+based on the Germanic form of the names given to the beasts, but his
+localities seem to follow the course of the editions. Perhaps special
+causes, and not the influence of race, decided the localities. The
+earliest trace of a connected animal-fable is of that which is also the
+most wide-spread and popular--the history of the Fox.
+
+This early production is a poem, called _Isengrinus_, in Latin hexameters,
+by a cleric of South Flanders, whose name has not survived. It was written
+in the first half of the twelfth century, and first printed, it is said,
+so late as 1834.
+
+In this, the narrative is briefly as follows:--The Lion is sick, and calls
+a court to choose his successor. Reynard is the only animal that does not
+appear. The Wolf, Isengrinus, to ruin Reynard's adherents, the Goat and
+the Ram, prescribes as a remedy for the Lion's disorder a medicine of Goat
+and Ram livers. They defend the absent Reynard, and pronounce him a great
+doctor, and, to save their livers, drive the Wolf by force from before the
+throne. Reynard is summoned. He comes with herbs, which, he says, will
+only be efficacious if the patient is wrapped in the skin of a wolf four
+years old. The Wolf is skinned, the Lion is cured, and Fox made
+Chancellor.
+
+In this story is neatly dovetailed another, narrating how the Wolf had
+been prevented from devouring a party of weak pilgrim animals by the
+judicious display of a wolf's head. This head was cut off a wolf found
+hanging in a tree, and, at Reynard's instigation, the party, on the
+strength of possessing it, led the Wolf to believe them to be a company of
+professional wolf-slayers.
+
+After this poem followed another at the end of the same century with
+numerous additions and alterations, by a monk of Ghent. Next came a high
+German poem, also of the twelfth century, expanded, but without great
+addition. After this came the French version, Roman de Renart, which, with
+supplementary compositions, enlarged the matter to no less than 41,748
+verses. There is another French version, called Renart le Contrefet, of
+nearly the same horrible length.
+
+A Flemish version, written in the middle of the thirteenth century, and
+continued in the fourteenth, became the great father of editions.
+
+All these were in verse, but on the invention of printing the Flemish form
+was re-cast into prose, and printed at Gouda in 1479, and at Delft in
+1485; abridged and mutilated it was often re-printed in Holland.
+
+Caxton printed a translation in 1481, and another a few years later. The
+English quarto, like the Dutch, also gave rise in time to a call for a
+cheap abridgment, and it appeared in 1639, as "The Most delectable history
+of Reynard the Fox."
+
+Meanwhile a Low Saxon form had appeared, "Reinche Bos," first printed at
+Lubeck in 1498, and next at Rostock in 1517, a translation, with
+alterations, from the Flemish publication. Various other editions in
+German followed, with cuts by Amman.
+
+In all these and their successors the incidents were varied. Having seen
+that, within at least certain limits, the story must have been exceedingly
+well-known and popular, we will run through the incidents narrated in the
+most popular of the German Reynard poems, chiefly taken from Goethe's
+rendering.
+
+Nouvel, the Lion, calls a parliament, and the Fox does not appear, and is
+accused of various crimes. The Wolf accuses him of sullying the honour of
+his wife, and blinding his three children. A little Dog accuses him of
+stealing a pudding end (this the Cat denies, stating that the pudding was
+one of her own stealing). The Leopard accuses him of murder, having only
+the day before rescued the Hare from his clutch as he was throttling him,
+under pretence of severity in teaching the Creed.
+
+The Badger, Grimbart, now comes forward in defence.
+
+  "An ancient proverb says, quoth he,
+  Justice in an enemy
+  Is seldom to be found."
+
+He accuses the Wolf in his turn of violating the bonds of partnership. The
+Fox and the Wolf had arranged to rob a fish-cart. The Fox lay for dead on
+the road, and the carter, taking him up, threw him on the top of the load
+of fish, turning to his horse again. Reynard then threw the fish on to the
+road, and jumping down to join in the feast found left for him but fin and
+scales. The Badger explains away also the story of Reynard's guilt as to
+Dame Isengrin, and, with regard to the Hare, asks if a teacher shall not
+chastise his scholars. In short, since the King proclaimed a peace,
+Reynard was thoroughly reformed, and but for being absorbed in penance
+would no doubt have been present to defend himself from any false
+reports.
+
+Unfortunately for this justification, at the very moment of its conclusion
+a funeral procession passes;
+
+  "On sable bier
+  The relics of a Hen appear,"
+
+while Henning, the Cock, makes a piteous complaint of Reynard's misdeeds.
+He said how the Fox had
+
+  "Assured him he'd become a friar,
+  And brought a letter from his prior;
+  Show'd him his hood and shirt of hair,
+  His rosary and scapulaire;
+  Took leave of him with pious grace,
+  That he might hasten to his place
+  To read the nona and the sept,
+  And vesper too before he slept;
+  And as he slowly took his way,
+  Read in his pocket breviary."
+
+all of which ended in the devout penitent eating nineteen of Henning's
+brood.
+
+The Lion invites his council's advice. It is decided to send an envoy to
+Reynard, and Bruno, the Bear, is selected to summon him to court.
+
+Bruno finds him at his castle of Malepart, and thunders a summons.
+Reynard, by plausible speech and a story of honey, disarms some of his
+hostility, and entices him off to a carpenter's yard, where an oak trunk,
+half split, yet has the wedge in. Reynard declaring the honey is in the
+cleft, Bruno puts his head and paws in. Reynard draws out the wedge. The
+Bear howls till the whole village is aroused, and Bruno, to save his life,
+draws himself out minus skin from head and paws. In the confusion the
+parson's cook falls into the stream, and the parson offers two butts of
+beer to the man who saves her. While this is being done, the Bear escapes,
+and the Fox taunts him.
+
+The Bear displaying his condition at court, the King swears to hang
+Reynard, this time sending Hinge, the Cat, to summon Reynard to trial.
+Hinge is lured to the parson's house in hopes of mice, and caught in a
+noose fixed for Reynard. The household wake, and beat the Cat, who dashes
+underneath the priest's robe, revenging himself in a cruel and unseemly
+way. The Cat is finally left apparently dead, but reviving, gnaws the
+cord, and crawls back to court.
+
+  "The King was wroth, as wroth could be."
+
+The Badger now offers to go, three times being the necessary number for
+summoning a peer of the realm. He puts the case plainly before Reynard,
+who agrees to come, and they set out together. On the way Reynard has a
+fit of remorse, and confesses his sins. Grimbart plucks a twig, makes the
+Fox beat himself, leap over it three times, kiss it; and then declares him
+free from his sins. All the time Reynard casts a greedy eye on some
+chickens, and makes a dash at one shortly after. Accused by Grimbart, he
+declares he had only looked aside to murmur a prayer for those who die in
+"yonder cloister."
+
+  "And also I would say
+  A prayer for the endless peace
+  Of many long-departed geese,
+  Which, when in a state of sin,
+  I stole from the nuns who dwell therein."
+
+The Fox arrives at court with a proud step and a bold eye. He is accused,
+but
+
+  "Tried every shift and vain pretence
+  To baffle truth and common sense,
+  And shield his crimes with eloquence."
+
+In vain. He is condemned to die. His friend Martin the Ape, Grimbart the
+Badger, and others withdraw in resentment, and the King is troubled.
+
+At the gallows Reynard professes to deliver a dying confession, and
+introduces a story of seven waggon-loads of gold and jewels which had been
+a secret hoard of his father, stolen for the purpose of bribing chiefs to
+depose the Lion and place the Bear on the throne.
+
+Reynard is pardoned on condition of pointing out the treasure. He declares
+it to be in Husterlo, but excuses himself from accompanying the King on
+his way there, as he, Reynard, is excommunicated for once assisting the
+Wolf to escape from a monastery, and must, therefore, go to Rome to get
+absolution.
+
+The King announces his pardon to the court. The Bear and Wolf are thrown
+into prison, and Reynard has a scrip made of a piece of the Bear's hide,
+and shoes of the skin of the feet of the Wolf and his wife. Blessed by
+Bellin the Ram, who is the King's chaplain, and accompanied a short
+distance by the whole court, he sets out for Rome. The chaplain Ram and
+Lampe the Hare, accompany him home to bid his wife farewell. He inveigles
+the Hare inside, and the family eat him. He puts the Hare's head in the
+bear-skin wallet, and taking it to the impatient Bellin outside, asks him
+to take it to the King, as it contains letters of state policy.
+
+The satchel is opened in full court, and Reynard once more proclaimed a
+traitor, accursed and banned, the Bear and Wolf restored, and the Ram and
+all his race given to them for atonement. A twelve-day tourney is held. On
+the eighth day the Coney and the Crow present complaint against Reynard;
+he had wounded the Coney, and eaten the Crow's wife. It is resolved, in
+spite of the Lioness's second intercession, to besiege Malepart and hang
+Reynard.
+
+Grimbart secretly runs off to warn Reynard, who decides to return to court
+once more and plead his cause. They set out together, and Reynard again
+confesses his sins. This introduces a story of how he once fooled the
+Wolf. Isengrin coveted to eat a foal, and sent the Fox to inquire the
+price from the mare. She replied the price was written on her hinder hoof.
+The Fox, seeing the trick, returned to the Wolf saying he could not
+understand the inscription. The Wolf boasts of his learning, having long
+ago taken his degrees as Doctor of Both Faculties. The Wolf bends down to
+examine the newly-shod hoof, and the rest may be supposed.
+
+On their way to court, Reynard and Grimbart meet Martin the Ape, who is
+bound for Rome, and promises his gold shall buy Reynard's absolution.
+Arrived at court, Reynard boldly explains away the stories of the Coney
+and the Crow, and demands the trial by battle. The Coney and Crow, having
+no witnesses, and being averse to battle, withdraw. Reynard accuses the
+dead Bellin of killing the Hare Lampe and secreting rare jewels he sent
+to the King. His story is half believed in the hope that the jewels, which
+he described at great length, may be found. Reynard's former services to
+the state are remembered, and he is about to depart triumphant, when the
+Wolf, unable to restrain his rage, accuses him afresh. In the end, as each
+accusation is smoothly foiled, he accepts the wager of battle. They
+withdraw to prepare for the lists. Reynard is shorn and shaven, all but
+his tail, by his relatives the Apes. He is well oiled. He is also enjoined
+to drink plentifully overnight.
+
+They meet in the lists. Reynard kicks up the dust to blind the Wolf, draws
+his wet tail across his eyes, and at length tears an eye out. He is,
+however, seized by the Wolf's strong jaw, and is about to be finished off
+when he takes advantage of a word of parley to seize the wolf in a tender
+part with his hand, and the fight recommences, ending in the total
+overthrow of Isengrin. The King orders the fray to be stayed and the
+Wolf's life spared. The Wolf is carried off. All fly to congratulate the
+victor,
+
+  "All gazed in his face with fawning eyes,
+  And loaded him with flatteries."
+
+The King makes him the Lord Chancellor and takes him to his close esteem.
+
+The tale winds up:
+
+  "To wisdom now let each one turn,
+  Avoid the base and virtue learn;
+  This is the end of Reynard's story,
+  May God assist us to His glory."
+
+[Illustration: THE FOX RETURNING FROM HUNTING, MANCHESTER.]
+
+The above is the gist of the matter dealing with the Fox in letters; from
+these lively images we will turn to the more wooden achievements of the
+carvers. The general fact that the Fox is a marauder specially fond of the
+flesh of that bird of long descent, the goose, but also partial to that of
+other birds, is frequently illustrated by church carvings. In the churches
+at the following places he is carved as having seized his prey:--Beverley
+(Minster), Boston, Fairford, Faversham, Gloucester, Hereford, Norwich,
+Oxford (Magdalen), Peterborough, Ripon, Wellingborough, Winchester, and
+Windsor (St. George's Chapel). At the last-named he is also shewn as
+preying upon a hen. At Beverley (Minster) Ely, Manchester, and Thanet (St.
+Mary's Minster) the picture of the abduction of the goose is heightened in
+interest by his pursuit by a woman armed with a distaff. Doubtless there
+are others; the object throughout is to give examples, not an exhaustive
+list.
+
+A somewhat unusual subject is one in Manchester Cathedral, in which the
+Fox is returning from hunting. A carving where the Fox is used to point a
+moral is another, in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, in which three monks,
+conveyed in a wheel-barrow into Hell's Mouth, are accompanied by a Fox
+with a goose in his mouth. Probably the idea here broadly expressed is
+intended to be quietly suggested by some of the above.
+
+Next in frequency is the more definite satire of the Fox preaching to
+Geese. We find it at Beverley (both the Minster and St. Mary's), Boston,
+Bristol, Cartmel, Ely, Etchingham, Nantwich, Ripon, Stowlangcroft, and
+Windsor (St. George's Chapel). In the last he has a goose in his cowl.
+
+All those need for their completion the supposition that the text of the
+Fox's sermon is the same as was given at length in a representation of a
+preaching scene on an ancient stained-glass window in the church of St.
+Martin, Leicester, which was unhappily destroyed in the last century. In
+this, from the Fox's mouth proceeded the words "Testis est mihi Deus, quam
+cupiam vos omnes visceribus meus" (God is my witness how I desire you all
+in my bowels.--Philippians, i., 8). In Wolfius, A.D. 1300, is a
+description of another such representation, in a MS. of AEsop's Fables. It
+may accord quite well with the theory of the transmission of designs by
+the continuity of the artificers' gild system to suppose that some
+proportion of the material found its way into their repertoire through
+the medium of manuscripts (not necessarily original in them), especially
+for such subjects as were essentially mediaeval. We have seen how the
+carvings of Jonah and of Samson, at Ripon, were taken from the Poor Man's
+Bible; here we have the Preaching Fox mentioned in a book of 1300 as being
+in an earlier work. A Fox bearing two Cocks by the neck on a staff is the
+initial T in a MS. considered by Montflaucon to be of the ninth century.
+Fredegarius, the Frankish historian, in the middle of the seventh century,
+has a fable of a Fox at the court of the Lion, repeated by others in the
+tenth and eleventh. Paulin Paris and Thomas Wright agreed in thinking the
+whole fable of French origin, and first in the Latin tongue. So that we
+may reasonably suppose that the countless tons of books and MSS. (though
+it is useless to grope now among the mere memories of ashes), burnt at the
+Reformation, would contain much that would have made clearer our
+understanding of this subject of Gothic grotesques. It is clear, however,
+that the Fox was used as a means of satirical comment before the writing
+of the Isengrine Fable, and that most of the church carvings refer to what
+we may call pre-Fable or co-Fable conceptions.
+
+There may be other material lying hidden in our great libraries, but
+search for early Reynard drawings produces almost nothing.
+
+At Ripon the Fox is shewn without vestments, in a neat Gothic pulpit
+adorned with carvings of the trefoil.[8] His hands, and what they may
+have held, are gone. His congregation is to his right a goose, to his left
+a cock, who appear to be uttering responses, while his face is significant
+of conscious slyness.
+
+[Illustration: THE PREACHING FOX, RIPON.]
+
+In Beverley Minster the Preaching Fox is in a square panelled pulpit on
+four legs; before him are seven geese, one of whom slumbers peacefully. He
+wears a gown and cowl, has a rosary in his right hand, and appears to be
+performing his part with some animation. Behind the pulpit stands an ape
+with a goose hung on a stick, while another fox--to give point to the
+lesson--is slinking off with a goose slung over his back. At St. Mary's,
+Beverley, the various carvings have a decidedly manuscript appearance. The
+one of the Preaching Fox has labels, upon which, in some unknown original,
+may have been inscribed texts or other matter. Here the Fox wears only his
+"scapulaire," and has his right hand raised in correct exhortative manner;
+his pulpit is of stone, and is early. Behind stand two persons, perhaps
+male and female, whose religious dress would lead us to suppose them to
+represent the class to whose teaching a fox-like character is to be
+attributed. At the front are seated two apes, also in scapularies, or
+hoods, who, as well as the Fox, may be here to shew the real character of
+the supposed sanctified.
+
+[Illustration: THE RULE AND THE ROAST CONTRASTED, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+It will have been noticed how frequently the carvings evade explanation;
+all these satires on the clergy may mean either that the system was bad,
+or that there was much abuse of it. A remarkable instance of this is in
+another misericorde in St. Mary's, Beverley. Here we have the Benedictine
+with mild and serene countenance, without a sign of sin, and bearing the
+scroll of truth and simplicity of life--call it the rule of his order. Yet
+how do many of his followers act? With greed for the temporalities, they
+aspire to the pastoral crook, and devour their flocks with such rapacity
+as to threaten the up-rooting of the whole order.
+
+[Illustration: THE PREACHING FOX, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+Such might be one rendering; yet the placid cleric may be simply
+introduced to shew the outward appearance of the ravening ones.
+
+It has been a favourite explanation of these anti-cleric carvings to say
+that they were due to the jealousy which existed between the regular
+orders and the preaching friars. But carvings such as this last are
+sufficient to prove the explanation erroneous; preaching friars carried no
+croziers.
+
+Yet another instance from St. Mary's shews us two foxes in scapularies
+reading from a book placed on an eagle-lectern.
+
+[Illustration: FOXES AT THE LECTERN, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+The bird--lectern or not--has round its head a kind of aureola or glory;
+it is probably an eagle, but who shall say it is not a dove? The
+religiously-garbed foxes are alone unmistakable.
+
+At Boston we have a mitred Fox, enthroned in the episcopal seat in full
+canonicals, clutching at a cock which stands near, while another bird is
+at the side. Close by the throne, another fox, in a cowl only, is reading
+from a book.
+
+At Christchurch, Hampshire, we see the Fox on a seat-elbow, in a pulpit of
+good design, and near him, on a stool, the Cock; it appears in the
+initial of this article.
+
+At Worcester, a scapularied Fox is kneeling before a small table or altar,
+laying his hand with an affectation of reverence upon--a sheep's head.
+This is one of the side carvings to the misericorde of the three mowers,
+considered under the head of "Trinities."
+
+[Illustration: EPISCOPAL HYPOCRISY, BOSTON.]
+
+The Fox seizing the Hen, at Windsor, reminds of the Fable, yet in so many
+other instances it is the Cock who is the prey. Still further removing the
+carvings out of the sphere of the Fable is a carving at Chicester of the
+Fox playing the harp to a goose, while an ape dances; and another at St.
+George's, Windsor, in which it is an ape who wears the stole, and is
+engaged in the laying on of hands. In the Fable the Fox teaches the Hare
+the Creed, yet in a carving at Manchester it is his two young cubs whom
+he is teaching from a book.
+
+The Fox in the Shell of Salvation, artfully discoursing on the merits of a
+bottle of holy water, as drawn on page 58, may be considered a Preaching
+Fox.
+
+There is at Nantwich a carving which, unlike any of those already noticed,
+is closely illustrative of an incident of the epic. It represents the
+story told to Nouvel's court by the widower Crow. He and his wife, in
+travelling through the country, came across what they thought was the dead
+body of Reynard on the heath. He was stiff, his tongue protruded, his eyes
+were inverted. They lamented his unhappy fate, and "course so early run."
+The lady approached his chin, not, indeed, with any idea of commencing a
+meal; far from that, it was to ascertain if perchance any signs of life
+remained, when--snap! Her head was off! The Crow himself had the
+melancholy luck to fly to a tree, there to sit and watch his wife eaten
+up. In the carving we have the crows first coming upon the sight of the
+counterfeit carrion as it lies near a rabbit warren. To shew how perfect
+is Reynard's semblance of death, the rear portions of two rabbits are to
+be seen as they hurry into their holes on the approach of the crows, the
+proximity of the Fox not having previously alarmed them.
+
+The side figures have no simultaneous connection with the central
+composition, being merely representations of Reynard, once more as a
+larder regarder. The pilgrim's hat, borne by one of the figures, is a
+further reminder of the Fable, and the monkish garb is of course in
+keeping. These two are somewhat singular in being fox-headed men. At
+Chester, also, is a Fox feigning death.
+
+[Illustration: THE FOX FEIGNING DEATH, NANTWICH.]
+
+[Illustration: THE TEMPTATION. THE PUNISHMENT. THE WAKE KNOT. BEVERLEY
+MINSTER.]
+
+Thus far the examples have been of Reynard's crimes; we will now survey
+his punishment. In the fable he was to be hanged, but was not, the Wolf
+and the Bear, whom he always outwitted, being the disappointed
+executioners. In the carvings he is really hanged, and the hangsmen are
+the geese of his despoliation. Beverley Minster has among its fine
+carvings an admirable rendering of this subject. Reynard is hanged on a
+square gallows, a number of birds, geese, taking a beak at the rope. To
+the left of the gallows stand two official geese, with mace and
+battle-axe. The left supplementary carving gives a note of the crime;
+Reynard is creeping upon two sleeping geese. The right hand supporting
+carving gives us the Fox after being cut down. His friend, the Ape, is
+untying the rope from his neck. Observe the twist of the rope at the end;
+it declares that Reynard is dead, for it is a Wake Knot!
+
+Also at Boston, Bristol, Nantwich, and Sherborne are carvings of the
+hanging by geese. The gallows of the Sherborne execution is square, and
+made of rough trees. The general action is less logical than in the
+Beverley scene, but the geese are full of vivacity, evidently enjoying the
+thoroughness with which they are carrying out their intentions.
+
+[Illustration: EXECUTION OF REYNARD, SHERBORNE.]
+
+In the hanging scenes there is no suggestion of the religious dress.
+Reynard has lost his Benefit of Clergy. Besides the carving of the Ape
+laying out the dead Fox, at Beverley there are also others where the Ape
+is riding on the Fox's back, and again where he is tending him in bed. The
+Ape succouring the Fox is also instanced at Windsor.
+
+However, after the two broad classes of carvings are exhausted--the Fox
+deluding or eating birds, and the Fox hanged by birds, there is little
+left to tell of him.
+
+It may be added that his hanging by his one-time victims has suggested to
+the carver another subject of the same kind--the hanging of the cat by
+mice, or, more probably, rats, mentioned on page 43. It is there stated to
+be at Sherborne, in error, the place being Great Malvern.
+
+[Illustration: EXECUTION OF THE CAT, GREAT MALVERN.]
+
+The following curious scene from the Fox-fruitful church of St. Mary's,
+Beverley, is perplexing, and gives the Fox receiving his quietus under
+unique circumstances. He is, with anxiety, awaiting the diagnosis of an
+ape-doctor, who is critically examining urinary deposits; his health has
+been evidently not all he could wish. When, lo, an arrow, from the bow of
+an archer in quilted leather, pierces him through the heart! What more
+this carving means is a mystery.
+
+[Illustration: REYNARD IN DANGER, ST. MARY'S, BEVERLEY.]
+
+Carvings of the ordinary fables in which the Fox is concerned are not
+unknown. At Faversham, Kent, is one of the Fox and the Grapes; at Chester
+is the Fox and the Stork. The latter is, again, on a remarkable slab,
+probably a coffin lid, in the Priory Church of Bridlington, East
+Yorkshire, the strange combination of designs on which may be described.
+At the head appear two curious dragon forms opposed over an elaborate
+embattled temple, suggestive of Saxon and Byzantine derivation, with a
+central pointed arch. This may be a rendering of the sun-myth, noted on
+page 37. At the foot is a reversed lion, the curls and twists of whose
+mane and tail closely resembles those of the white porcelain lions used by
+the Chinese as incense-burners. Between the temple and the lion is incised
+an illustration of the fable of the Fox and the Stork. The slab, of which
+a rough sketch is annexed, is of black basaltic marble, similar to that
+of the font of the church, which is of the type generally considered to be
+Norman, and to have been imported ready made from Flanders, and on which
+dragons are sometimes the ornament. The Fox on this slab is the earliest
+sculptured figure of the animal known in England.
+
+[Illustration: COFFIN LID, BRIDLINGTON, YORKSHIRE.]
+
+There are also hunting scenes in which the fox is shot with bow and arrow,
+as in Beverley Minster; or chased with hounds in a way more commending
+itself to modern sporting ideas, as at Ripon.
+
+In conclusion, the satirical intent of the fox inventions, as we find them
+in the library or in the church, may be summed up, for here indeed lies
+the whole secret of their prevalence and popularity. The section of
+society satirized by the epic is large, but is principally covered by the
+feudal institution. The notes struck are its greed of wealth and its greed
+of the table, its injustice under the pretext of laws, its expedient
+lying, the immunity from punishment afforded by riches, the absolute yet
+revolution-fearing power of the sovereign, the helplessness of nobles
+single-handed, and the general influence of religion thrown over
+everything, while for its own sake being allowed to really influence
+nothing.
+
+The chief point of the epic is generally considered to be that power in
+the hands of the feudal barons was accompanied by a trivial amount of
+intelligence, which was easily deceived by the more astute element of
+society. The carvings give no note of this. A further object, however, may
+be seen. The whole story of the Fox is meant not only to shew that
+
+  "It is not strength that always wins,
+  For wit doth strength excel,"
+
+by playing on the passions and weaknesses of mankind, but in particular to
+hold up to scorn the immunity procured by professional religion, though it
+is fair to note that the Fox does not adopt a religious life because
+suited to his treacherous and deceitful character, but to conceal it. Thus
+so far as they elucidate the general "foxiness" of religious hypocrisy,
+the carvings and the epic illustrate the same theme, but it is evident
+that they embodied and developed already-existing popular recognition of
+the evil, each in its own way, and without special reference one to the
+other.
+
+
+
+
+Situations of the Grotesque Ornament in Church Art.
+
+
+The places chosen for the execution of the work which, by reason of its
+intention or its want of conformity with what we now consider a true taste
+in art, may be styled Grotesque, do not seem to be in any marked degree
+different from the situations selected for other ornamental work. It may,
+however, be permitted to glance at those situations, and enquire as to
+such comparisons as they afford, though the conclusions to be arrived at
+must necessarily be loose and general.
+
+In Norman work the chief iconographical interest is to be found in the
+capitals of pilasters and pillars, for here is often told a story of some
+completeness. Other places are the arches, chiefly of doorways; bosses of
+groining, and the horizontal corners of pillar plinths; exteriorly, the
+gargoyles are most full of meaning, seconded by the corbels of the
+corbel-table. We may expect in Norman grotesque some reference to ancient
+mystics; the forms are bold and rugged, such appearance of delicacy as
+exists being attained by interlacing lines in conventional patterns, with,
+also, the effect of distance upon repeating ornament.
+
+Transitional Norman retained all the characteristic ornament of the purer
+style, but with the development of Early English the grotesque for a time
+somewhat passed out of vogue, slight but eminently graceful modifications
+of the Corinthian acanthus supplying most of the places where strange
+beasts had formerly presented their bewildering shapes. It might not be
+impossible to connect this partial purification of ornament with a phase
+of church history.
+
+[Illustration: APE CORBEL, CARRYING ROOF TIMBER, EWELME.]
+
+But in some portions of structure, as the gargoyles, and in the woodwork
+of the choirs, the grotesque still held its own. As Early English grew
+distinctly into the Decorated, every available spot was enriched with
+carving. The collections (called "portfolios" elsewhere) of the old
+carvers would seem to have been ransacked and exhausted, all that had gone
+before receiving fresh rendering in wood and stone, while life and nature
+were now often called upon to furnish new material. The pointed arch
+remained, however, an undecorated sweep of mouldings, and the plinth
+corners were rarely touched; in fact there was here scarcely now the same
+squareness of space which before had asked for ornament. All the other
+places ornamented in Norman work were filled up in Decorated with the new
+designs of old subjects. The resting-places of ornament were multiplied;
+the dripstones of every kind of arch, and the capitals of every kind of
+pillar, whether in the arcading of the walls, the heaped-up richness of
+the reredos, or the single subject of the piscina, became nests of the
+grotesque. In a single group of sedilia all the architecture of a great
+cathedral may be seen in miniature, in arch, column, groined roof, boss,
+window-tracery, pinnacle, and finial, each part with its share of
+ornament, of grotesque. In the choirs the carvers had busied themselves
+with summoning odd forms from out the hard oak, till the croches or
+elbow-rests, the bench ends, the stall canopies, and below all, and above
+all, the misericordes, swarmed with all the ideas of Asia and Europe past
+and present. Musicians are everywhere, but most persistently on the
+intersections of the choir arches, and somewhat less so on those of the
+nave.
+
+[Illustration: MISERICORDE--LION COMPOSITION, WELLINGBOROUGH.]
+
+A favourite place for humourous figures was on the stone brackets or
+corbels which bear up timber roofs; examples are in the ape corbel in this
+article, and the responsible yet happy-looking saint at the end of the
+list of Contents.
+
+When the Perpendicular style came with other arts from Italy, and the
+lavish spread of the Decorated was chastened and over-chastened into
+regularity, there came for the second or third time the same ideas from
+the never-dying mythologies, their concrete embodiments sometimes with
+eloquence rendered, nearly always with vigour. They came to the old
+places, but in most fulness to that most full place, the dark recess where
+lurks the misericorde.
+
+Upon the whole it would appear that the grotesque, be it in the relics of
+a long-forgotten symbolism, in crude attempts at realism, or in the
+fantastic whimseys of irresponsibility, is chiefly met in the portions of
+the church where would occur, in the development of architecture, the
+problems and difficulties. They occur, so to speak, at the joints of
+construction. It may be that the pluteresques (grotesque and other
+ornaments made of metal) employed in many Spanish churches are to be
+accounted for in this way on the score of the facility of attachment.
+Where it may be questioned that the ornament was to conceal juncture, it
+is often to be acknowledged that it was to give external apparent
+lightness to masses which are in themselves joints or centres of weight.
+To conclude--to whatever extent we may carry our inquiries into the
+meaning of the grotesques in church art, we have in them undoubtedly
+objects whose associations are among the most ancient of the human race;
+whatever our opinion of their fitness for a place in the temple, it is
+plain that practically they could be nowhere else.
+
+[Illustration: MUSICIAN ON THE INTERSECTION OF NAVE ARCHES, ST. HELEN'S,
+ABINGDON, BERKSHIRE.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+
+
+Index.
+
+
+  Abdominal Mask, 91
+
+  Abingdon, 18, 72, 218, and Preface
+
+  Aboo-Simbel Trinity, 177
+
+  Abydos Trinity, 177
+
+  Acanthus, 149-50, 214
+
+  Adam, 61, 62, 74;
+    and Eve, 112, 120
+
+  Adam Clarke, 74
+
+  Adel, Yorkshire, 127
+
+  Adonai, 168
+
+  Adonis, 168
+
+  Adoration, the, 113-5
+
+  AElian, 50
+
+  AEsculapius, 42
+
+  _AEsop's Fables_, 196
+
+  Africa, 66
+
+  Agni, 178
+
+  Aix-la-Chapelle, 46
+
+  Akori, 178
+
+  Alcock, Bishop, 10, 92, 173
+
+  Ale and the Alewife, 99-105
+
+  Alewife, 97
+
+  Alehouses, 99
+
+  Ale-taster, 100
+
+  Alexander, 71
+
+  Alexandria, 34
+
+  All Souls, Oxford, 71, 76, 104-5, 150-1
+
+  Alraun images, 28
+
+  Altar of the Sun, 37-39
+
+  Ambarvalia, 48
+
+  American Arms, 179
+
+  American-Indian mythology, 159
+
+  American-Indian Trinity, 177
+
+  Amman, Justus, 188
+
+  Ammon, 42, 72, 158
+
+  Amun-Ra, 177
+
+  _Ancient Mysteries described_, 180
+
+  Ancient Worships, 27-59, 64-77, 152-3, 157-168, 175-183
+
+  Angel Choir, Lincoln, 3, 9
+
+  Angel (coin), 47
+
+  Angels, 63
+
+  Animal Musicians, 152-6
+
+  Animal symbolism, 35
+
+  Anthony pig, the, 154
+
+  Anuka, 178
+
+  Archers, 205, 209-10
+
+  Ape, the, 59, 28-9, 145, 152, 156, 192-4, 198, 201, 203, 207-10, 214
+
+  Aphrodite, 168
+
+  Apocryphal New Testament, the, 60, 112
+
+  Apollo, 21, 46, 162, 165
+
+  April, 141
+
+  Apuleius, 41
+
+  Architectural Museum, Tufton Street, the, 12, 167, 169, 174
+
+  Arimanes, 176
+
+  Arles, the Council of, 29
+
+  Arma palantes, 173
+
+  Arthur, King, 69
+
+  Artistic quality of Church grotesques, 19-23, 61
+
+  _Art Journal, the_, 66
+
+  Asir, 45
+
+  Assyrian myth, 34, 157, 181
+
+  Assyrians, no record of their humour, 6
+
+  Astronomical symbols a source of Gothic design, 4, 27-8, 37-59, 73,
+      157-68, 177
+
+  Atahuata, 177
+
+  Aten, 168
+
+  Athor, 111, 157, 167, 177-8
+
+  Athyr, 167
+
+  Attic figurines, 28
+
+  Auckland Castle, 155
+
+  Augsburgh, (?) Council of, 30
+
+  "Auld Clootie," 70
+
+  "Auld Hornie," 70
+
+  Aurva, 53
+
+  Avarice, 87, 91-95
+
+  Averus (Horus), 50
+
+
+  Baalim, 28
+
+  Babylonian myth, 34
+
+  Bacon, 142, 154
+
+  Bacchus, 69, 73, 158
+
+  Backbiter, 82-84
+
+  Badger Grimbart, 189, 191-3
+
+  Bagpipes, 103, 152, 155
+
+  Ba-it, 178
+
+  Baker, 105
+
+  Bakewell, Derbyshire, 130-1
+
+  Baldini and Boticelli, 84
+
+  Baptism of John, the, 117-8
+
+  Barton, Lincs., 174
+
+  Basketsful of Children, 63
+
+  Bayle, a kind of dance, 147
+
+  Beakheads, 125-6
+
+  Bear Bruno, 190-3
+
+  Bear, the, 152-156
+
+  Beard, the, 72
+
+  Bedford, 175
+
+  _Beehive of the Romishe Church_, 180
+
+  Bellin the Ram, 192
+
+  Berkshire, 18, 72, 125, 129, 218
+
+  Bestiaries, the, 73
+
+  Beverley, Percy Shrine at, 3;
+    Carvings at, 13, 39, 40, 54, 57, 63, 87, 112, 120-3, 130, 133-6, 144,
+        152, 154-5, 159, 173, 182, 195-6, 198-9, 201-2, 208-11
+
+  Bhu, 42
+
+  Bible (as Old and New Testaments), 176
+
+  Biblia Pauperum, 113
+
+  Birch, Dr., 158
+
+  Birds, 4, 9, 22, 38, 39
+
+  Bishop Foxes, 199, 203
+
+  Bishops Stortford, 109
+
+  Blashill, Mr. Thomas, 106
+
+  Bo, Bo-tree. Bod, Bog, Boggart, Boivani, Bolay, Boo, Bouders, Boudons,
+      Boroon, Bormania, Borr, Borvo, Bouljanus, Brog, Bug, Bugbear,
+      Buggaboo, Buka, 66, 69
+
+  Boar, 139-40, 152
+
+  Boar's Head, 69, 139
+
+  Bodleian Library, 16, 63
+
+  Bolton, Bishop, 173
+
+  Boston, Lincolnshire, 195, 196, 202, 208
+
+  Boutell, Rev. C., 25
+
+  Bow and arrow, 162-5
+
+  Boy (Bog), 69
+
+  Brahma, 178
+
+  Brahminic Trinity, 178
+
+  Breast, removal of, 165
+
+  Bridge, Kent, 75
+
+  Bridlington Priory Church, Yorks, 15, 210-1
+
+  Bristol, 196, 208
+
+  British Museum, 62
+
+  Bruno the Bear, 190-3
+
+  Buckle Mask, 125
+
+  Bull, the, 41-2, 72-3, 85, 88-9, 91, 159
+
+  Bur, 45
+
+  Byzantine ideas, 127
+
+  Byzantium, 35
+
+
+  Caimis, 50
+
+  _Calendarum Romanorum Magnum_, 141
+
+  Calf, 73
+
+  Cama, 50
+
+  Cambridge, 10, 92, 133
+
+  Cambridgeshire, 74
+
+  Candlemas, 42, 140
+
+  Canterbury, 139
+
+  Canting heraldry, 173
+
+  Caricature in part explained, 3
+
+  Carpenter, Mr. Edward, 186
+
+  Cartmel, 180, 196
+
+  Carvers, 9-18
+
+  Cat, the, 156, 189, 191, 209
+
+  Cat and Fiddle, the, 39-43
+
+  Cat-heads, 126
+
+  Caxton, 170, 188
+
+  Cedranus, 143-4
+
+  Centaur, 161-6
+
+  Cerealia, 48
+
+  Ceres, 72, 153, 158
+
+  Cestus, 165
+
+  Chairs, 141
+
+  Chalons, Council of, 143
+
+  Chandra, Chandri, 43
+
+  Cherubim, 73, 159, 161
+
+  Chester, 60, 77, 103, 207, 210
+
+  Chichester, 72, 75, 124, 141, 157, 181, 182, 203
+
+  Chiron the Centaur, 162
+
+  Chnoumis, 178
+
+  Chonso, 177
+
+  Christ, 30, 48, 60-62, 104, 114-20
+
+  Christchurch (Hants), 21, 33, 172, 184, 202
+
+  Christmas, 139-40, 144
+
+  _Chronicles, the Book of_, 176
+
+  Church symbolism, expediency, etc., 31
+
+  Ciaran (St.), 162
+
+  Clergy, the, 97, 111
+
+  Cneph, 177
+
+  Cock, the, 184, 197-8, 202-3
+
+  Compound Forms, 37, 111, 157-168
+
+  Coney, the, 193, 204-5
+
+  Conscience, 170-1
+
+  Constantinople, Council of, 30;
+    Byzantium, 35
+
+  Continuous group, 149
+
+  Conventional form a matter of development, 3
+
+  Corinthian Acanthus, 149-50, 214
+
+  Corpus Christi Play, 142-3
+
+  _Cosmographiae Universalis_, 172
+
+  Cotton MSS., 82, 147
+
+  Councils, Arles, 29;
+    Augsburgh (?), 30;
+    Constantinople, 30;
+    Frankfurt, 30, 99;
+    Narbonne, 30;
+    Nicea, 30;
+    Orleans, 29;
+    Tours, 30;
+    Nice, 36;
+    Milan, 36
+
+  Coventry, 60, 142
+
+  Cow, the, 41
+
+  Creators, Mythological, 176-8
+
+  Crescent, the, 41, 42
+
+  Cripple, 145, 147
+
+  Crocodile, 44-5
+
+  Crorasura, 153
+
+  Cross, the, 43
+
+  Crow and his wife, the, 193, 204-5
+
+  Croziers, 198, 202
+
+  Crusaders, 47
+
+  Culham, Berkshire, 125
+
+  Cupid, 50, 51, 53-55
+
+
+  Dance, 40, 43, 144, 147
+
+  David, King, 62
+
+  Decorated Carvings, 214-217
+
+  Deer, 140
+
+  Definitions of the Grotesque, 5-8
+
+  De la Wich, Bishop, 181
+
+  Delft, 188
+
+  Derbyshire, 130-1
+
+  Design, Continuity of Gothic, 4
+
+  Detractors, 82-3
+
+  Devil and the Vices, the, 78-98
+
+  Devil, the, 47, 69, 70, 77, 103-5
+
+  Devils, 63, 119
+
+  Diana, 32, 40-43, 73
+
+  Diapason, the, 41
+
+  Dillin pig, the, 154
+
+  Disc of the Sun, 167-8
+
+  Distaff, 195
+
+  Dog, 5, 19, 21, 40, 42, 142, 159-60, 189
+
+  Domestic and Popular, the, 134-151
+
+  Donnington, Thomas (1520), 174
+
+  Dorchester Abbey, Oxon., 60, 64-5, 121-2, 133, 159-60
+
+  Dragons, 26, 37, 44-57, 60, 64-66, 84, 127, 165, 177, 211
+
+  Drake (dragon), 47
+
+  Druidical Tau, 43-4
+
+  Drum (Tabor), 97
+
+  Durer, Albert, 61
+
+  Durham, 155
+
+
+  Eagle, the, 22, 37, 148, 158-9, 202
+
+  Early English Carvings, 214
+
+  Eastern ideas, 9-10, 34-5
+
+  Eden, 73, 76
+
+  Edgeware, 102
+
+  Edward the Confessor, 9
+
+  Edward III., 17
+
+  Edward IV., 49
+
+  Egypt, 34, 43-45
+
+  Egyptians, little record of their humour, 6
+
+  Egyptian myth, etc., 34, 41-5, 47-8, 50-6, 157-8, 177-8
+
+  Egyptian Trinities, 177-8
+
+  Eicton, 177
+
+  Elephantine Trinity, 178
+
+  Ely, 74, 80-1, 84, 105, 166, 195-6
+
+  Equinoxes, the, 175
+
+  Eschol, 171
+
+  Esculapius, 178
+
+  Etchingham, 196
+
+  Evans, Mr. E. P., 35, 85
+
+  Evil, Images of, 1, 26, 33
+
+  Eve, 62, 74
+
+  Ewelme, Oxon., Carvings at, 1, 65, 67
+    (not Dorchester), 76, 127-8, 214
+
+  Exeter, 4, 39, 165, 168, 181
+
+  Ezekiel, 159
+
+
+  Fable, 186
+
+  Fafnir the Dragon, 46
+
+  Fairford, 195
+
+  Fairies, 66
+
+  Falx, the, 57
+
+  Farnsham, 65
+
+  Fates, the, 178
+
+  Fauns, 69
+
+  Faversham, Kent, 180, 195, 210
+
+  Feast of Fools, the, 143-7
+
+  Feathered Angels, 75-7
+
+  Fecundity, Goddess of, 66, 72
+
+  Fiddle, 40, 41, 153
+
+  Figurines as _lares_, 28
+
+  Finedon, Northamptonshire, 125
+
+  Fire, 178
+
+  Fish, 182
+
+  Flagellation, 134
+
+  Flanders, a church workshop, 9, 15
+
+  Flesh hook, 63, 87, 182
+
+  Fleur-de-lys, 39, 179
+
+  Flora, 158
+
+  Fools, 130
+
+  Fools, the Feast of, 143-7
+
+  Foreign carvers, 9-18
+
+  Fox, the, 58-9, 184-212
+
+  Fox and Grapes, the, 210
+
+  Fox and Stork, the, 210-1
+
+  France, 48
+
+  Frankfort, Council of, 30, 99
+
+  Fredegarius, 197
+
+  Freemasonry, 16, 17
+
+  French work for Saxons, 9
+
+  Frigga, 53
+
+  Freyr, 153
+
+  Furies, the, 178
+
+
+  Gallows, the, 207-9
+
+  Ganges, the, 172
+
+  Gargonilles, 46, 129
+
+  Gaul, 66
+
+  Gaul, Bishops of, 30
+
+  Gauri, 43
+
+  Gautier de Coinsi, 36
+
+  Gayton, Northants, 81, 86, 87
+
+  Geese, Reynard's theft of, etc., 191, 195, 198, 203
+
+  Gehul, 153
+
+  George IV., 17
+
+  German "teraphim," 28;
+    paganism, 30
+
+  Germany, Bishops of, 30
+
+  Ghent, 188
+
+  Gild, continuity the explanation of continuity of design, 4, 35, 196
+      (_see_ Freemasonry)
+
+  Gilds, 70
+
+  Glasgow, 65, 66, 77
+
+  Gloucester, 195
+
+  Gluttony, 88
+
+  Goat, the, 69, 71-3, 187
+
+  Goethe, 189
+
+  Golden Bristle, 153
+
+  Gorgon, 127
+
+  Gothic ornament, uses of, etc., 2, 3;
+    some characteristics of, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 19-23, 24-26, 35-39,
+        49, 54;
+    not didactic, 24-26;
+    situations of, 213, 218
+
+  Gouda, 188
+
+  Graces, the, 178
+
+  Gravio, Count, 30
+
+  Great Malvern, 172, 209
+
+  Grecian Trinity, 177
+
+  Greek wit, 6;
+    star-worship, 28;
+    myth, 34, 41, 177-8;
+    art, 36-37;
+    symbolism 74;
+    dances, 147
+
+  Grimace-makers, 130, 133
+
+  Grimbart, the Badger, 189, 191-3
+
+  Grimm, 186
+
+  Gryphon, 125, 158
+
+  Guildford, Surrey, 117-8
+
+  Gullinbrusti, 153
+
+
+  Hades, 42, 161
+
+  Haenir, 177
+
+  Hak, 178
+
+  Hampshire, 21, 33, 172
+
+  Hanging of the Cat, 209
+
+  Hanging of the Fox, 207-8
+
+  Hare, the, 106-7, 182, 189, 192, 194, 203
+
+  Harleian MSS., 104
+
+  Harmachis, 158
+
+  Harp, the, 140-1, 153, 154, 155
+
+  Harpy, the, 4, 111, 166, 181
+
+  Hebrew Teraphim, 28
+
+  Hecate, 41, 42
+
+  Heliopolis, Trinity of, 178
+
+  Hell, 48, 84, 104
+
+  Hell's Mouth, 60-63, 103, 196
+
+  Hen, the, 195, 203
+
+  Henning the Cock, 190
+
+  Henry VI., 16, 62
+
+  Henry VII.'s Chapel, 10, 91, 95, 148, 156, 173
+
+  Henry VIII., 16, 49
+
+  Hera, 177
+
+  Heraldry, canting, 173
+
+  Heraldry and three-fold repetitions, 179
+
+  Hercules, 148, 177
+
+  Hereford, 195
+
+  Herodotus, 28, 50
+
+  Hertfordshire, 109
+
+  Het-her, 167
+
+  Hexagon, symbolic, 179
+
+  Hezekiah, 74
+
+  Hindoo myth, 28, 42-45, 50, 53, 153, 178
+
+  Hinge the Cat, 191
+
+  Hippocampus, Lincoln, 26
+
+  Hippo-centaurs, 161
+
+  Hobgoblins, 66
+
+  Hogarth, 20, 21
+
+  Holy Cross, Stratford-on-Avon, 60
+
+  Holy Trinity, Hull, 139-40
+
+  Holderness, 106
+
+  Homer, 160
+
+  Hone, 180
+
+  Hopton, 174
+
+  Horace, 157
+
+  Horns, 70;
+    Horn, 73
+
+  Horse, the, 162, 139
+
+  Horse-leech, 110-1
+
+  Horus, 45, 48, 50-56, 57, 72, 177, 178
+
+  Hull, 10, 100, 139-40
+
+  Humour, of nations, 6, 7;
+    defined, 20
+
+  Hunting, 140
+
+  Huntsman, 139
+
+  Husterlo, 192
+
+  Hypocrisy, 98
+
+
+  Ibis, 167
+
+  Iceland, 153
+
+  Idun, 76
+
+  Iffley, 49, 126, 162, 163
+
+  Imagery in Architecture and Language compared, 1-3
+
+  Impudence, 109
+
+  Indecency in church, 143-7, 150-1
+
+  India, 172
+
+  Indian mask, 123-4
+
+  Indian mythology, East, 66, 69, 178
+
+  Indian Trinity, American, 177
+
+  Indra, 178
+
+  Irenaeus, 73
+
+  Irreverence in art explained in part, 8
+
+  _Isaiah_, 74
+
+  _Isengrinus_, 187
+
+  Isis, 41, 42, 45, 50, 177
+
+  Islip, Bishop, 173
+
+  Italian workers in England, 9, 10, 13
+
+  Italy, 41
+
+  Italy, Bishops of, 30
+
+
+  Janus, 180
+
+  Japanese (crocodile), 45
+
+  Jesus College, Cambridge, 92
+
+  Joke, the, 6
+
+  Jonah, 112-3, 197
+
+  Joermungard, 45
+
+  Jove (Jupiter), 11
+
+  July, 183
+
+  Juno, 177
+
+  Jupiter, 21, 57, 148, 158, 177, 178, 181
+
+  Jurassic reptiles, 145
+
+
+  Keltic dragons, 49
+
+  Kent, 75, 180, 182
+
+  Khum, 178
+
+  King Arthur, 69
+
+  King Edward the Confessor, 9
+
+  King Edward III., 17
+
+  King Edward IV., 49
+
+  King George IV., 17
+
+  King Henry VI., 16, 62
+
+  King Henry VII., 147
+
+  King Henry VII. Chapel, 10, 173
+
+  King Henry VIII., 16, 49
+
+  King's College, Cambridge, 10, 133
+
+
+  Lampe the Hare, 192, 194
+
+  Lares, 43
+
+  Laughter of nations, 6-7;
+    defined, 20
+
+  Lectern, 202
+
+  Leicester, 196
+
+  Leland, John, 16
+
+  Lemon, 139-40
+
+  Leo, 158
+
+  Leopard, The, 189
+
+  Lincoln Cathedral, 3, 9, 38, 51, 54, 63, 128, 133
+
+  Lincolnshire, 11, 174
+
+  Lind-drake, 47
+
+  Linden worm, 47
+
+  Linden tree, 47
+
+  Line of Beauty, 20
+
+  Lion, 5, 158, 183, 187, 189-90, 210-1, 215
+
+  Lioness, The, 193
+
+  Little-trust, Lettice, 101
+
+  Lodur, 177
+
+  Loki, 76, 77
+
+  Love, 53
+
+  Lubeck, 188
+
+  Lucifer, 53, 76
+
+  Ludlow, 99, 102, 103
+
+  Luna, 41, 43
+
+  Lunar calculations of Mosaic system, 176
+
+  Lunus, 43
+
+  Lydda, 47
+
+  Lynn, 11, 174
+
+
+  Macrobius, 32
+
+  Magdalen College, Oxford, 195
+
+  Magi, Adoration of the, 113-5
+
+  Maidstone, 182
+
+  Maimonides, the Rabbi, 27
+
+  Malepart, 190, 193
+
+  Malvern, Great, 172, 209
+
+  Manchester, 54, 55, 203-4, 195, 196
+
+  Mandragora images, 28
+
+  Mann, Mr. Robert, 66
+
+  Mant, 177
+
+  Mare and foal, the story of, 193
+
+  Mars, 21
+
+  Marks, sculptors', ignored; an example is on p. 103
+
+  Martinmas, 139, 154
+
+  Martin the Ape, 192-3
+
+  Mary, the Virgin, 34, 42, 82, 83
+
+  Masks and Faces, 121-133
+
+  Meaux Abbey, Yorkshire, 10
+
+  Memphis, Trinity of, 178
+
+  Mendes, 72
+
+  Mentu, 177
+
+  Merchant mark, 174
+
+  Mercury, 21, 49, 78, 153, 158, 167
+
+  Merenphtah, 178
+
+  Mermaid, 160
+
+  Messon, 177
+
+  Mexican myth, 157
+
+  Mice, 40, 43, 209
+
+  Michael Angelo, 10, 13
+
+  Midsummer Watch, 77
+
+  Milan, Council of, 36
+
+  Minerva, 21, 74, 177
+
+  Miracle Plays, 70
+
+  _Mirror of Human Salvation, the_, 113
+
+  Misericordes, 24-5, 181, 215, 217
+
+  Mithras, 176
+
+  Monstrosity, 147
+
+  Montflaucon, 197
+
+  Moon worship, 32, 40, 43
+
+  Morris Dance, 144, 147
+
+  Mosaic system, 31;
+    Ark, 159, 175;
+    not the original of pagan myth, 175-6
+
+  Moses, 62, 74, 175
+
+  Mouth of Hell, 60, 63
+
+  Mowers, 182
+
+  Mumming, 70, 168
+
+  Music, 140, 152
+
+  Monograms, 12
+
+  Mystery Plays, 32, 48, 70, 82, 103, 112, 142-3
+
+  Mythic origin of Church carvings, 34-59
+
+
+  Nachasch, 73
+
+  Nantwich, Cheshire, 196, 204-5, 208
+
+  Narbonne, the Council of, 30
+
+  Nebhetp, 178
+
+  Nefer-Atum, 178
+
+  Neptune, 21, 178
+
+  Nerites, 50
+
+  Nessus the Centaur, 162
+
+  New College, Oxford, 58-9, 81, 84-5, 98, 106, 149
+
+  Nice, 36
+
+  Nicea, the Council of, 30
+
+  _Nicodemus, the Gospel of_, 60
+
+  Nile, the River, 45, 71, 158
+
+  Nilus, 45, 158;
+    St. Nilus, _see_ Saints
+
+  Nobodies, 171
+
+  Non-descripts, 169-172
+
+  Norfolk, 48, 75, 195
+
+  Norman carvings, 49, 125, 127, 129, 163, 211, 213;
+    fonts 15
+
+  North Stoke, 119
+
+  Northamptonshire, 14, 22, 81, 84, 86-7, 101, 125
+
+  Norwich, 48, 75, 195
+
+  Notch-heads, 124-5
+
+  Nouvel the Lion, 189
+
+  _Numbers, the Book of_, 176
+
+  Nuns, 106-7
+
+  Nursery Rhymes, 39
+
+
+  Oak, the, 148, 181
+
+  Odin, 45, 53, 69, 177
+
+  Opas, 177
+
+  Orleans, the Council of, 143
+
+  Ornament, the use of Gothic, 2
+
+  Oromasdes, 176
+
+  Orus (_see_ Horus), 50, 72
+
+  Osiris, 41, 45, 50, 57, 158, 177
+
+  Otkon, 177
+
+  Ox, 71, 73, 160
+
+  Oxford, 58, 59, 71, 76, 81, 84, 85, 97, 104-6, 149, 151, 195
+
+  Oxfordshire, 49, 60, 64-5, 67, 105, 121-2, 133, 159
+
+
+  Paganism, ingrained among nations, 27
+
+  Pallas, 177
+
+  Palmer Fox, 58
+
+  Pan, 21, 72-3, 105
+
+  Pantheism, 32
+
+  Panther, the, 159
+
+  Paris, Paulin, 197
+
+  Parody, a characteristic of Greek wit, 7
+
+  Patala, 42
+
+  Pastoral staves, 49
+
+  Pausanius, 44
+
+  Pegasus, 162
+
+  Pepin, 30
+
+  Percy Shrine, 3
+
+  Perpendicular Ornament, 217
+
+  Persephone, 41
+
+  Perseus, 46, 57
+
+  Persian Trinity, 176
+
+  Peterborough, 195
+
+  Philaean Trinity, 176
+
+  _Philippians, the Epistle to the_, 196
+
+  Phipson, Miss, 14, 109, and preface
+
+  Phyrric Dance, the, 147
+
+  _Picture Bible, the_, 113, 197
+
+  Pig and Whistle, 155, 156
+
+  Pig, and other Animal Musicians, the, 110, 152-6
+
+  Piggy-widdy, 154
+
+  _Pilgremage of the Sowle, the_, 170
+
+  Pipes, Double, 155
+
+  Planet symbols, 28
+
+  Plato, 28
+
+  Plutarch, 41
+
+  Pluteresques, 218
+
+  Pluto, 42, 177-8
+
+  _Poor Man's Bible, the_, 113, 197
+
+  Poppy, Assyrian, 182
+
+  Pottery, 35
+
+  Preaching Fox, the, 184, 196-204
+
+  Priapus, 73
+
+  Prideaux, Bishop, 30
+
+  Priest sleeping, 106, 110-1
+
+  Prosperine, 32, 41-2, 177
+
+  Protevan, 82
+
+  Psyche, 176
+
+  Pta, 177-8
+
+  Pulpits, 184, 197-8, 201
+
+  Puranas, 43
+
+  Python, the, 46
+
+
+  Ra, 168, 177
+
+  Rabbi Maimonides, 27
+
+  Rahu, 44
+
+  Ram, the, 72, 187, 192
+
+  Ram Bellin, 192-3
+
+  Ram's Head, 19
+
+  Ram, the Hindoo deity, 28
+
+  Rebuses, 12, 173-4
+
+  Recording Imps, 78-9, 81, 84-5, 103
+
+  Red Sea, the, 50
+
+  _Reinche Bos_, 188
+
+  _Renart le Contrefet_, 188
+
+  _Reynard the Fox_, 184
+
+  _Reynard the Fox, the most delectable history of_, 188
+
+  Ripon, 5, 112-3, 124, 136-7, 155, 171, 195-8, 211
+
+  Rochester, 127
+
+  Rogation, 48
+
+  _Roman de Renart_, 188
+
+  Roman Trinity, 177
+
+  Roman, Wit bitter and low, 6-7;
+    myth, 42-3
+
+  Roman work for Saxons, 9
+
+  Roscommon, the Poet, 157
+
+  Roslyn Chapel, 128-9
+
+  Rostock, 188
+
+  Rothwell, Northants, 84
+
+
+  Sabean Idolatry, 28
+
+  Sackville the Poet, 63
+
+  Sacred Marks, 103 (block), 179
+
+  Saehrimnir, 153
+
+  Sagittarius, 162-5
+
+  Saints--Adrian, 99
+    Anthony, 154
+    Augustine, 31
+    Bartholomew's, Smithfield, 173
+    Bernard of Clairvaux, 23, 27, 36-7
+    Britius, 81
+    Ciaran, 162
+    Cross, Hospital of, Winchester, 100
+    George, 47-8, 57
+    George's Chapel, Windsor, 10, 167, 195-6, 203
+    Gertrude, 43
+    Helen's, Abingdon, 218
+    John, 49, 118
+    Katherine's, Regent's Park, 78, 81, 83, 86, 169
+    Keyne, 46
+    Lucy, 134-5
+    Luke, 73
+    Martha, 46
+    Michael, 47, 76
+    Martin's, Leicester, 196
+    Martin, 81
+    Mary's, Beverley, 123 (_see_ Beverley)
+    Mary's, Faversham, 180
+    Mary's Minster, Thanet, 97, 122-3, 130-1, 195
+    Nessan, 162
+    Nicholas's, Lynn, 11-2, 174
+    Nicholas, 179
+    Nilus, 36
+    Paul's, Bedford, 175
+    Paul's, London, 32, 109
+    Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford, 126
+    Romain, 46
+
+
+  Salus, 178
+
+  Sambar, 50
+
+  Samson, 198
+
+  Sani, 53
+
+  Satan, 48, 62, 70, 104-6, 170
+
+  Satanic Representations, 64-77, 78-105
+
+  Sathanus, 170
+
+  Satire, 185
+
+  Satires without Satan, 106-11
+
+  Satyrs, 69
+
+  Saturn, 21, 57
+
+  Saturnalia, 143
+
+  Saxon work, 9
+
+  Scandinavian mythology, 45, 76, 153, 157;
+    Trinity, 177
+
+  Scarabaeus, 178
+
+  Scriptural Illustrations, 112-120
+
+  Scylla, 160
+
+  Scythes, 182
+
+  Sea-horse (hippocampus), 26
+
+  Seals, 8, and end of Index
+
+  September, 140, 154
+
+  Seraphim, 74
+
+  Serapis, 42
+
+  Serpent, the, 44-5, 60-1, 73-5, 77
+
+  Sex of the Moon, 43
+
+  Sheep, 72, 142
+
+  Shell, 50-1, 54-5, 57-9, 159
+
+  Shell Child, the, 50-9, 159
+
+  Shepherd, 72, 142
+
+  Sherborne, 134-5, 208
+
+  Shiva, 66
+
+  Sigurd, 46
+
+  Sin series of carvings, 78-111
+
+  Sirius, 42
+
+  Sismondi, 31
+
+  Sistrum, 41, 43
+
+  Situations of Church Grotesques, 213-8
+
+  Siva, 178
+
+  Slanderers, 82
+
+  Sledges, 63
+
+  Smu, 50
+
+  Snail, 57-8
+
+  Solomon, King, 62
+
+  Sources of material for Gothic grotesques, General, 4
+
+  Southleigh, 63
+
+  _Speculum Humanae Salvationis_, 113
+
+  Sperke, John (1520), 174
+
+  Spinx, the, 158-9
+
+  Springs, 66
+
+  SS., the letter, and Collar of, 57
+
+  Stanford, Berkshire, 18
+
+  Star Worship, 27-8
+
+  Stars and Stripes, 179
+
+  Statute of Labourers, 17
+
+  Stoeffler, 141
+
+  Stowlangcroft, 196
+
+  Stratford-on-Avon, 60, 129
+
+  Suffolk, Duchess of (ob. 1475), 76
+
+  Sun, 167
+
+  Sun Feast, 153
+
+  Sun Worship, 32, 37, 42, 44-59, 71, 153, 158, 162, 175, 210-1
+
+  Superstition, Horn, 73
+
+  Supreme Intellect, the, 74
+
+  Surya, 53, 178
+
+  Sutton Courtney, 128-9
+
+  _Sutton-in-Holderness_, 106
+
+  Swan, 167
+
+  Swar, 42
+
+  Swathing of Infants, 114
+
+  Swarhanu, 53
+
+  Sweden, 153
+
+  Swine, Yorkshire, 106-7, 109, 129-30
+
+  Symbolism and Fable, 186
+
+  Symbols of worship a general source of Gothic ornament, 4, 27
+
+  Syderesys, 170
+
+  Syria, 47
+
+
+  Tabor (drum), 97
+
+  Tarasque, 46
+
+  Tau Cross, the, 34, 43-4
+
+  Taurus, 73
+
+  Telephorus, 178
+
+  Teraphim, 28
+
+  Teutonic appreciation of humour, 7
+
+  Thanet, Isle of, 97, 122, 130-1, 195
+
+  Theban Trinity, 177
+
+  Theophylact, 143
+
+  Thirlwall, 33
+
+  Thoth, 78, 167
+
+  Three, the number, 162 (_see_ Trinities)
+
+  Three branched rod, 103 (block), 162, 181-2
+
+  Time, Father, 57
+
+  Titian, 42
+
+  Topsey-turveyism, 149
+
+  Torregiano, 10
+
+  Tree of Knowledge, the, 74
+
+  Trefoil, the, 162, 178-9
+
+  _Trial of Mary and Joseph_, 82
+
+  Trigla, 180
+
+  Trinities, 168, 175-183
+
+  Tufton Street Architectural Museum, 12
+
+  Tum, the Setting Sun, 178
+
+  Typhon, 44-57, 64-5
+
+
+  Unseen Witness, the, 79, 85, 86, 87
+
+
+  Vali, 114
+
+  Vanity, 97
+
+  Vedie Trinity, 178
+
+  Venus, 21, 53, 111, 148
+
+  Veximiel, 62
+
+  Virgil, the, 160-1
+
+  Virgin Mary, the, 30, 42, 82-3
+
+  Virgo, 158
+
+  Vishnu, 53, 153, 178
+
+  Vulcan, 148, 177
+
+
+  Wall paintings compared with carvings, 114-117, 119-20
+
+  Wake Knot, 207-8
+
+  Wellingborough, 14, 15, 22, 34, 101, 195, 215
+
+  Wells, 65, 77, 150
+
+  Westminster Abbey, 9, 10, 91-95, 97, 109-110, 123-4, 156, 173
+
+  Wheelbarrows, 135-7, 196
+
+  Whistling Maid, the, 104-5
+
+  Whistling while drawing ale, 105
+
+  White, Wm. (1520), 173-4
+
+  Wich, Bishop de la, 124, 181
+
+  Winchester, 64, 100, 111, 145, 154, 166, 195
+
+  Windsor, 10, 167, 195, 203, 208
+
+  Winking Nun, the, 106-7
+
+  Wolf, the, 187, 189, 192;
+    story of the wolf's head, 187
+
+  Wolfius, 196
+
+  Worcester, 113-5, 142, 160, 161, 182-3, 203
+
+  Worm of conscience, the, 170
+
+  Wright, Thomas, 197
+
+  Wyvern, the, 47
+
+
+  York, 63, 65, 77, 129-30, 140, 148
+
+  Yorkshire, 10, 63, 65, 77, 106-7, 109, 127 (_see_ Beverley)
+
+  Yule, 153
+
+
+  Zeus, 177
+
+  Zither, 166
+
+  Zodiac, 45, 53
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Early in the thirteenth century unruly converts of the Abbey of Meaux,
+Yorkshire, were, to humble their pride, made stonemasons, etc.
+
+[2] Of Christ, the Virgin, and saints only. It is here quoted as evidence
+of a tendency. It is plain that the council protected itself, for the
+following distich is attributed to it, which sums up the original intent
+of all images--
+
+  "Id Deus est, quod Imago docet, sed non deus ipse;
+  Hanc Videas, sed mente colas; quod cemis in ipse."
+
+which Prideaux, Bishop of Worcester, translates (1681):
+
+  "A God the Image represents,
+    But is no God in kind;
+  That's the eye's object, what it shews
+    The object of the mind."
+
+[3] Yet the Hindoo signification of Typhon is "the power of destruction by
+heat." In this we have another piece of evidence that both the good and
+the bad of the fable are referrable to the sun as his varying attributes,
+and probably describe his particular effects at various portions of the
+zodiacal year. The true, or rather the close, meaning of the various
+accounts is obscured and confused; firstly, by imperfect knowledge as to
+the geographical situations where the idea of the zodiac was conceived and
+developed; secondly, by the gradual precession of the Equinoxes during the
+ages which have elapsed since such conception.
+
+[4] Mr. Robert Mann.
+
+[5] "Sutton-in-Holderness."
+
+[6] Roscommon.
+
+[7] Hone.
+
+[8] The Church Treasury, by William Andrews, 1898, p. 193.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+The original text includes Greek characters. For this text version these
+letters have been replaced with transliterations.
+
+The original text contains a hieroglyph. This is noted in this text as
+[symbol].
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Grotesque in Church Art, by
+T. Tindall Wildridge
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GROTESQUE IN CHURCH ART ***
+
+***** This file should be named 39264.txt or 39264.zip *****
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