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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Source Book of Mediæval History, Edited by
+Frederic Austin Ogg
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Source Book of Mediæval History
+       Documents Illustrative of European Life and Institutions from the German Invasions to the Renaissance
+
+
+Editor: Frederic Austin Ogg
+
+Release Date: March 21, 2012  [eBook #39227]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIæVAL
+HISTORY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Melissa McDaniel and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/sourcebookofmedi00oggfuoft
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original
+      document have been preserved. Obvious typographical errors
+      have been corrected.
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIÆVAL HISTORY
+
+Documents Illustrative of European Life and Institutions
+from the German Invasions to the Renaissance
+
+Edited by
+
+FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG, A.M.
+
+Assistant in History in Harvard University
+and Instructor in Simmons College
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+New York .:. Cincinnati .:. Chicago
+American Book Company
+
+Copyright, 1907, by
+Frederic Austin Ogg
+
+Entered at Stationers' Hall, London
+W. P. 4
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book has been prepared in consequence of a conviction, derived
+from some years of teaching experience, (1) that sources, of proper
+kind and in carefully regulated amount, can profitably be made use of
+by teachers and students of history in elementary college classes, in
+academies and preparatory schools, and in the more advanced years of
+the average high school, and (2) that for mediæval history there
+exists no published collection which is clearly adapted to practical
+conditions of work in such classes and schools.
+
+It has seemed to me that a source book designed to meet the
+requirements of teachers and classes in the better grade of secondary
+schools, and perhaps in the freshman year of college work, ought to
+comprise certain distinctive features, first, with respect to the
+character of the selections presented, and, secondly, in regard to
+general arrangement and accompanying explanatory matter. In the
+choice of extracts I have sought to be guided by the following
+considerations: (1) that in all cases the materials presented should
+be of real value, either for the historical information contained in
+them or for the more or less indirect light they throw upon mediæval
+life or conditions; (2) that, for the sake of younger students, a
+relatively large proportion of narrative (annals, chronicles, and
+biography) be introduced and the purely documentary material be
+slightly subordinated; (3) that, despite this principle, documents of
+vital importance, such as _Magna Charta_ and _Unam Sanctam_, which
+cannot be ignored in even the most hasty or elementary study, be
+presented with some fulness; and (4) that, in general, the rule should
+be to give longer passages from fewer sources, rather than more
+fragmentary ones from a wider range.
+
+With respect to the manner of presenting the selections, I have
+sought: (1) to offer careful translations--some made afresh from the
+printed originals, others adapted from good translations already
+available--but with as much simplification and modernization of
+language as close adherence to the sense will permit. Literal, or
+nearly literal, translations are obviously desirable for maturer
+students, but, because of the involved character of mediæval writings,
+are rarely readable, and are as a rule positively repellent to the
+young mind; (2) to provide each selection, or group of selections,
+with an introductory explanation, containing the historical setting of
+the extract, with perhaps some comment on its general significance,
+and also a brief sketch of the writer, particularly when he is an
+authority of exceptional importance, as Einhard, Joinville, or
+Froissart; and (3) to supply, in foot-notes, somewhat detailed aid to
+the understanding of obscure allusions, omitted passages, and
+especially place names and technical terms.
+
+For permission to reprint various translations, occasionally verbatim
+but usually in adapted form, I am under obligation to the following:
+Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin and Co., publishers of Miss Henry's
+translation of Dante's _De Monarchia_; Messrs. Henry Holt and Co.,
+publishers of Lee's _Source Book of English History_; Messrs. Ginn and
+Co., publishers of Robinson's _Readings in European History_; Messrs.
+Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers of Thatcher and McNeal's _Source
+Book for Mediæval History_; Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons, publishers of
+Robinson and Rolfe's _Petrarch_; and Professor W. E. Lingelbach, of
+the University of Pennsylvania, representing the University of
+Pennsylvania _Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of
+European History_.
+
+In the preparation of the book I have received invaluable assistance
+from numerous persons, among whom the following, at least, should be
+named: Professor Samuel B. Harding, of the University of Indiana, who
+read the entire work in manuscript and has followed its progress from
+the first with discerning criticism; Professor Charles H. Haskins, of
+Harvard University, who has read most of the proof-sheets, and whose
+scholarship and intimate acquaintance with the problems of history
+teaching have contributed a larger proportion of whatever merits the
+book possesses than I dare attempt to reckon up; and Professors
+Charles Gross and Ephraim Emerton, likewise of Harvard, whose
+instruction and counsel have helped me over many hard places.
+
+The final word must be reserved for my wife, who, as careful
+amanuensis, has shared the burden of a not altogether easy task.
+
+     FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG.
+     CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+THE NATURE AND USE OF HISTORICAL SOURCES
+
+
+     [Sidenote: The question of authority in a book of history]
+
+If one proposes to write a history of the times of Abraham Lincoln,
+how shall one begin, and how proceed? Obviously, the first thing
+needed is information, and as much of it as can be had. But how shall
+information, accurate and trustworthy, be obtained? Of course there
+are plenty of books on Lincoln, and histories enough covering the
+period of his career to fill shelf upon shelf. It would be quite
+possible to spread some dozens of these before one's self and, drawing
+simply from them, work out a history that would read well and perhaps
+have a wide sale. And such a book might conceivably be worth while.
+But if you were reading it, and were a bit disposed to query into the
+accuracy of the statements made, you would probably find yourself
+wondering before long just where the writer got his authority for this
+or that assertion; and if, in foot-note or appendix, he should seem to
+satisfy your curiosity by citing some other biography or history, you
+would be quite justified in feeling that, after all, your inquiry
+remained unanswered,--for whence did this second writer get _his_
+authority? If you were thus persistent you would probably get hold of
+the volume referred to and verify, as we say, the statements of fact
+or opinion attributed to it. When you came upon them you might find it
+there stated that the point in question is clearly established from
+certain of Lincoln's own letters or speeches, which are thereupon
+cited, and perhaps quoted in part. At last you would be satisfied that
+the thing must very probably be true, for there you would have the
+words of Lincoln himself upon it; or, on the other hand, you might
+discover that your first writer had merely adopted an opinion of
+somebody else which did not have behind it the warrant of any
+first-hand authority. In either case you might well wonder why,
+instead of using and referring only to books of other later authors
+like himself, he did not go directly to Lincoln's own works, get his
+facts from them, and give authority for his statements at first hand.
+And if you pushed the matter farther it would very soon occur to you
+that there are some books on Lincoln and his period which are not
+carefully written, and therefore not trustworthy, and that your author
+may very well have used some of these, falling blindly into their
+errors and at times wholly escaping the correct interpretation of
+things which could be had, in incontrovertible form, from Lincoln's
+own pen, or from the testimony of his contemporaries. In other words,
+you would begin to distrust him because he had failed to go to the
+"sources" for his materials, or at least for a verification of them.
+
+     [Sidenote: The superiority of direct sources of knowledge]
+
+How, then, shall one proceed in the writing of history in order to
+make sure of the indispensable quality of accuracy? Clearly, the first
+thing to be borne in mind is the necessity of getting information
+through channels which are as direct and immediate as possible. Just
+as in ascertaining the facts regarding an event of to-day it would be
+desirable to get the testimony of an eye-witness rather than an
+account after it had passed from one person to another, suffering more
+or less distortion at every step, so, in seeking a trustworthy
+description of the battle of Salamis or of the personal habits of
+Charlemagne, the proper course would be to lay hold first of all of
+whatever evidence concerning these things has come down from Xerxes's
+or Charlemagne's day to our own, and to put larger trust in this than
+in more recent accounts which have been played upon by the imagination
+of their authors and perhaps rendered wholly misleading by errors
+consciously or unconsciously injected into them. The writer of history
+must completely divest himself of the notion that a thing is true
+simply because he finds it in print. He may, and should, read and
+consider well what others like himself have written upon his subject,
+but he should be wary of accepting what he finds in such books without
+himself going to the materials to which these writers have resorted
+and ascertaining whether they have been used with patience and
+discrimination. If his subject is Lincoln, he should, for example,
+make sure above everything else, of reading exhaustively the letters,
+speeches, and state papers which have been preserved, in print or in
+manuscript, from Lincoln's pen. Similarly, he should examine with care
+all letters and communications of every kind transmitted to Lincoln.
+Then he should familiarize himself with the writings of the leading
+men of Lincoln's day, whether in the form of letters, diaries,
+newspaper and magazine articles, or books. The files, indeed, of all
+the principal periodicals of the time should be gone through in quest
+of information or suggestions not to be found in other places. And, of
+course, the vast mass of public and official records would be
+invaluable--the journals of the two houses of Congress, the
+dispatches, orders, and accounts of the great executive departments,
+the arguments before the courts, with the resulting decisions, and the
+all but numberless other papers which throw light upon the practical
+conditions and achievements of the governing powers, national, state,
+and local. However much one may be able to acquire from the reading of
+later biographies and histories, he ought not to set about the writing
+of a new book of the sort unless he is willing to toil patiently
+through all these first-hand, contemporary materials and get some
+warrant from them, as being nearest the events themselves, for
+everything of importance that he proposes to say. This rule is equally
+applicable and urgent whatever the subject in hand--whether the age of
+Pericles, the Roman Empire, the Norman conquest of England, the French
+Revolution, or the administrations of George Washington--though,
+obviously, the character and amount of the contemporary materials of
+which one can avail himself varies enormously from people to people
+and from period to period.
+
+     [Sidenote: Indirect character of all historical knowledge]
+
+History is unlike many other subjects of study in that our knowledge
+of it, at best, must come to us almost wholly through indirect means.
+That is to say, all our information regarding the past, and most of it
+regarding our own day, has to be obtained, in one form or another,
+through other people, or the remains that they have left behind them.
+No one of us can know much about even so recent an event as the
+Spanish-American War, except by reading newspapers, magazines and
+books, talking with men who had part in it, or listening to public
+addresses concerning it--all indirect means. And, of course, when we
+go back of the memory of men now living, say to the American
+Revolution, nobody can lay claim to an iota of knowledge which he has
+not acquired through indirect channels. In physics or chemistry, if a
+student desires, he can reproduce in the laboratory practically any
+phenomenon which he finds described in his books; he need not accept
+the mere word of his text or of his teacher, but can actually behold
+the thing with his own eyes. Such experimentation, however, has no
+place in the study of history, for by no sort of art can a Roman
+legion or a German comitatus or the battle of Hastings be reproduced
+before mortal eye.
+
+     [Sidenote: An "historical source" defined]
+
+     [Sidenote: Written sources]
+
+For our knowledge of history we are therefore obliged to rely
+absolutely upon human testimony, in one form or another, the value of
+such testimony depending principally upon the directness with which it
+comes to us from the men and the times under consideration. If it
+reaches us with reasonable directness, and represents a well
+authenticated means of studying the period in question from the
+writings or other traces left by that period, it is properly to be
+included in the great body of materials which we have come to call
+historical sources. An historical source may be defined as any product
+of human activity or existence that can be used as direct evidence in
+the study of man's past life and institutions. A moment's thought will
+suggest that there are "sources" of numerous and widely differing
+kinds. Roughly speaking, at least, they fall into two great groups:
+(1) those in writing and (2) those in some form other than writing.
+The first group is by far the larger and more important. Foremost in
+it stand annals, chronicles, and histories, written from time to time
+all along the line of human history, on the cuneiform tablets of the
+Assyrians or the parchment rolls of the mediæval monks, in the
+polished Latin of a Livy or the sprightly French of a Froissart. Works
+of pure literature also--epics, lyrics, dramas, essays--because of the
+light that they often throw upon the times in which they were written,
+possess a large value of the same general character. Of nearly equal
+importance is the great class of materials which may be called
+documentary--laws, charters, formulæ, accounts, treaties, and official
+orders or instructions. These last are obviously of largest value in
+the study of social customs, land tenures, systems of government, the
+workings of courts, ecclesiastical organizations, and political
+agencies--in other words, of _institutions_--just as chronicles and
+histories are of greatest service in unraveling the _narrative_ side
+of human affairs.
+
+     [Sidenote: Sources other than in writing]
+
+Of sources which are not in the form of writing, the most important
+are: (1) implements of warfare, agriculture, household economy, and
+the chase, large quantities of which have been brought to light in
+various parts of the world, and which bear witness to the manner of
+life prevailing among the peoples who produced and used them; (2)
+coins, hoarded up in treasuries or buried in tombs or ruins of one
+sort or another, frequently preserving likenesses of important
+sovereigns, with dates and other materials of use especially in fixing
+chronology; (3) works of art, surviving intact or with losses or
+changes inflicted by the ravages of weather and human abuse--the tombs
+of the Egyptians, the sculpture of the Greeks, the architecture of the
+Middle Ages, or the paintings of the Renaissance; (4) other
+constructions of a more practical character, particularly
+dwelling-houses, roads, bridges, aqueducts, walls, gates, fortresses,
+and ships,--some well preserved and surviving as they were first
+fashioned, others in ruins, and still others built over and more or
+less obscured by modern improvement or adaptation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Various ways of using sources]
+
+These are some of the things to which the writer of history must go
+for his facts and for his inspiration, and it is to these that the
+student, whose business is to learn and not to write, ought
+occasionally to resort to enliven and supplement what he finds in the
+books. As there are many kinds of sources, so there are many ways in
+which such materials may be utilized. If, for example, you are
+studying the life of the Greeks and in that connection pay a visit to
+a museum of fine arts and scrutinize Greek statuary, Greek vases, and
+Greek coins, you are very clearly using sources. If your subject is
+the church life of the later Middle Ages and you journey to Rheims or
+Amiens or Paris to contemplate the splendid cathedrals in these
+cities, with their spires and arches and ornamentation, you are, in
+every proper sense, using sources. You are doing the same thing if you
+make an observation trip to the Egyptian pyramids, or to the excavated
+Roman forum, or if you traverse the line of old Watling Street--nay,
+if you but visit Faneuil Hall, or tramp over the battlefield of
+Gettysburg. Many of these more purely "material" sources can be made
+use of only after long and sometimes arduous journeys, or through the
+valuable, but somewhat less satisfactory, medium of pictures and
+descriptions. Happily, however, the art of printing and the practice
+of accumulating enormous libraries have made possible the indefinite
+duplication of _written_ sources, and consequently the use of them at
+almost any time and in almost any place. There is but one Sphinx, one
+Parthenon, one Sistine Chapel; there are not many Roman roads, feudal
+castles, or Gothic cathedrals; but scarcely a library in any civilized
+country is without a considerable number of the monumental _documents_
+of human history--the funeral oration of Pericles, the laws of
+Tiberius Gracchus, Magna Charta, the theses of Luther, the Bill of
+Rights, the Constitution of the United States--not to mention the all
+but limitless masses of histories, biographies, poems, letters,
+essays, memoirs, legal codes, and official records of every variety
+which are available for any one who seriously desires to make use of
+them.
+
+     [Sidenote: The value of sources to the student]
+
+But why should the younger student trouble himself, or be troubled,
+with any of these things? Might he not get all the history he can be
+expected to know from books written by scholars who have given their
+lives to exploring, organizing, and sifting just such sources? There
+can be no question that schools and colleges to-day have the use of
+better text-books in history than have ever before been available, and
+that truer notions of the subject in its various relations can be had
+from even the most narrow devotion to these texts than could be had
+from the study of their predecessors a generation ago. If the object
+of studying history were solely to acquire facts, it would, generally
+speaking, be a waste of time for high school or younger college
+students to wander far from text-books. But, assuming that history is
+studied not alone for the mastery of facts but also for the broadening
+of culture, and for certain kinds of mental training, the properly
+regulated use of sources by the student himself is to be justified on
+at least three grounds: (1) Sources help to an understanding of the
+point of view of the men, and the spirit of the age under
+consideration. The ability to dissociate one's self from his own
+surroundings and habits of thinking and to put himself in the company
+of Cæsar, of Frederick Barbarossa, or of Innocent III., as the
+occasion may require, is the hardest, but perhaps the most valuable,
+thing that the student of history can hope to get. (2) Sources add
+appreciably to the vividness and reality of history. However
+well-written the modern description of Charlemagne, for example, the
+student ought to find a somewhat different flavor in the account by
+the great Emperor's own friend and secretary, Einhard; and, similarly,
+Matthew Paris's picture of the raving and fuming of Frederick II. at
+his excommunication by Pope Gregory ought to bring the reader into a
+somewhat more intimate appreciation of the character of the proud
+German-Sicilian emperor. (3) The use of sources, in connection with
+the reading of secondary works, may be expected to train the student,
+to some extent at least, in methods of testing the accuracy of modern
+writers, especially when the subject in hand is one that lends itself
+to a variety of interpretations. In the sources the makers of history,
+or those who stood close to them, are allowed to speak for themselves,
+or for their times, and the study of such materials not only helps
+plant in the student's mind the conception of fairness and
+impartiality in judging historical characters, but also cultivates the
+habit of tracing things back to their origins and verifying what
+others have asserted about them. So far as practicable the student of
+history, from the age of fourteen and onwards, should be encouraged to
+develop the critical or judicial temperament along with the purely
+acquisitive.
+
+     [Sidenote: Simplicity of many mediæval sources]
+
+In preparing a source book, such as the present one, the purpose is to
+further the study of the most profitable sources by removing some of
+the greater difficulties, particularly those of accessibility and
+language. Clearly impracticable as anything like historical "research"
+undoubtedly is for younger students, it is none the less believed that
+there are abundant first-hand materials in the range of history which
+such students will not only find profitable but actually enjoy, and
+that any acquaintance with these things that may be acquired in
+earlier studies will be of inestimable advantage subsequently. It is
+furthermore believed, contrary to the assertions that one sometimes
+hears, that the history of the Middle Ages lends itself to this sort
+of treatment with scarcely, if any, less facility than that of other
+periods. Certainly Gregory's Clovis, Asser's Alfred, Einhard's
+Charlemagne, and Joinville's St. Louis are living personalities, no
+less vividly portrayed than the heroes of a boy's storybook. Tacitus's
+description of the early Germans, Ammianus's account of the crossing
+of the Danube by the Visigoths and his pictures of the Huns, Bede's
+narrative of the Saxon invasion of Britain, the affectionate letter
+Stephen of Blois to his wife and children, the portrayal of the
+sweet-spirited St. Francis by the Three Companions, and Froissart's
+free and easy sketch of the battle of Crécy are all interesting,
+easily comprehended, and even adapted to whet the appetite for a
+larger acquaintance with these various people and events. Even solid
+documents, like the Salic law, the Benedictine Rule, the Peace of
+Constance, and the Golden Bull, if not in themselves exactly
+attractive, may be made to have a certain interest for the younger
+student when he realizes that to know mediæval history at all he is
+under the imperative necessity of getting much of the framework of
+things either from such materials or from text-books which essentially
+reproduce them. It is hoped that at least a reasonable proportion of
+the selections herewith presented may serve in some measure to
+overcome for the student the remote and intangible character which the
+Middle Ages have much too commonly, though perhaps not unnaturally,
+been felt to possess.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+   SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+     CHAPTER I.--THE EARLY GERMANS
+
+   1. A Sketch by Cæsar                                             19
+
+   2. A Description by Tacitus                                      23
+
+
+     CHAPTER II.--THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION
+
+   3. The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)                          32
+
+   4. The Battle of Adrianople (378)                                37
+
+
+     CHAPTER III.--THE HUNS
+
+   5. Description by a Græco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian       42
+
+
+     CHAPTER IV.--THE EARLY FRANKS
+
+   6. The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours            47
+
+   7. The Law of the Salian Franks                                  59
+
+
+     CHAPTER V.--THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN
+
+   8. The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)                                 68
+
+   9. The Mission of Augustine (597)                                72
+
+
+     CHAPTER VI.--THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
+
+   10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy                   78
+
+   11. The Rule of St. Benedict                                     83
+
+   12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor                  90
+
+
+     CHAPTER VII.--THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM
+
+   13. Selections from the Koran                                    97
+
+
+     CHAPTER VIII.--THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF
+     FRANKISH KINGS
+
+   14. Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)               105
+
+
+     CHAPTER IX.--THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE
+
+   15. Charlemagne the Man                                         108
+
+   16. The War with the Saxons (772-803)                           114
+
+   17. The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)    118
+
+   18. The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)      124
+
+   19. An Inventory of one of Charlemagne's Estates                127
+
+   20. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)                           130
+
+   21. The General Capitulary for the _Missi_ (802)                134
+
+   22. A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad                     141
+
+   23. The Carolingian Revival of Learning                         144
+
+
+     CHAPTER X.--THE ERA OF THE LATER CAROLINGIANS
+
+   24. The Oaths of Strassburg (842)                               149
+
+   25. The Treaty of Verdun (843)                                  154
+
+   26. A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century    157
+
+   27. The Northmen in the Country of the Franks                   163
+
+   28. Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order                 173
+
+   29. The Election of Hugh Capet (987)                            177
+
+
+     CHAPTER XI.--ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND IN PEACE
+
+   30. The Danes in England                                        181
+
+   31. Alfred's Interest in Education                              185
+
+   32. Alfred's Laws                                               194
+
+
+     CHAPTER XII.--THE ORDEAL
+
+   33. Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire                    196
+
+
+     CHAPTER XIII.--THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+   34. Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism          203
+
+   35. The Granting of Fiefs                                       214
+
+   36. The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty                         216
+
+   37. The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals                 220
+
+   38. Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord               221
+
+   39. The Peace and the Truce of God                              228
+
+
+     CHAPTER XIV.--THE NORMAN CONQUEST
+
+   40. The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans         233
+
+   41. William the Conqueror as Man and as King                    241
+
+
+     CHAPTER XV.--THE MONASTIC REFORMATION OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH,
+     AND TWELFTH CENTURIES
+
+   42. The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)      245
+
+   43. The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of
+       Clairvaux                                                   250
+
+   44. A Description of Clairvaux                                  258
+
+
+     CHAPTER XVI.--THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE
+
+   45. Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority            261
+
+   46. Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (1075)                  264
+
+   47. Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (1076)                269
+
+   48. Henry IV. Deposed by Gregory (1076)                         272
+
+   49. The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)                  273
+
+   50. The Concordat of Worms (1122)                               278
+
+
+     CHAPTER XVII.--THE CRUSADES
+
+   51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont
+       (1095)                                                      282
+
+   52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)                        288
+
+   53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife                        291
+
+
+     CHAPTER XVIII.--THE GREAT CHARTER
+
+   54. The Winning of the Great Charter                            297
+
+   55. Extracts from the Charter                                   303
+
+
+     CHAPTER XIX.--THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS
+
+   56. The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by
+       Joinville                                                   311
+
+
+     CHAPTER XX.--MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITY
+
+   57. Some Twelfth Century Town Charters                          325
+
+   58. The Colonization of Eastern Germany                         330
+
+   59. The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)                         334
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXI.--UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT LIFE
+
+   60. Privileges Granted to Students and Masters                  340
+
+   61. The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)       345
+
+   62. Mediæval Students' Songs                                    351
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXII.--THE FRIARS
+
+   63. The Life of St. Francis                                     362
+
+   64. The Rule of St. Francis                                     373
+
+   65. The Will of St. Francis                                     376
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXIII.--THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL POWERS IN THE
+     LATER MIDDLE AGES
+
+   66. The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)        380
+
+   67. The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)            383
+
+   68. The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance     389
+
+   69. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)                    393
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXIV.--THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH, AND
+       FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+   70. The Peace of Constance (1183)                               398
+
+   71. Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of
+       Frederick II.                                               402
+
+   72. The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)                       409
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXV.--THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
+
+   73. An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France  418
+
+   74. Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of
+       France                                                      421
+
+   75. The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)                            424
+
+   76. The Battle of Crécy (1346)                                  427
+
+   77. The Sack of Limoges (1370)                                  436
+
+   78. The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)           439
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXVI.--THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
+
+   79. Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language           445
+
+   80. Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power                    452
+
+   81. Petrarch's Love of the Classics                             462
+
+   82. Petrarch's Letter to Posterity                              469
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXVII.--FORESHADOWINGS OF THE REFORMATION
+
+   83. The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI.
+       (1384)                                                      474
+
+
+
+
+A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIÆVAL HISTORY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLY GERMANS
+
+
+1. A Sketch by Cæsar
+
+One of the most important steps in the expansion of the Roman Republic
+was the conquest of Gaul by Julius Cæsar just before the middle of the
+first century B.C. Through this conquest Rome entered deliberately
+upon the policy of extending her dominion northward from the
+Mediterranean and the Alps into the regions of western and central
+Europe known to us to-day as France and Germany. By their wars in this
+direction the Romans were brought into contact with peoples concerning
+whose manner of life they had hitherto known very little. There were
+two great groups of these peoples--the Gauls and the Germans--each
+divided and subdivided into numerous tribes and clans. In general it
+may be said that the Gauls occupied what we now call France and the
+Germans what we know as Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Germany, and
+Austria. The Rhine marked a pretty clear boundary between them.
+
+During the years 58-50 B.C., Julius Cæsar, who had risen to the
+proconsulship through a long series of offices and honors at Rome,
+served the state as leader of five distinct military expeditions in
+this country of the northern barbarians. The primary object of these
+campaigns was to establish order among the turbulent tribes of Gauls
+and to prepare the way for the extension of Roman rule over them. This
+great task was performed very successfully, but in accomplishing it
+Cæsar found it necessary to go somewhat farther than had at first been
+intended. In the years 55 and 54 B.C., he made two expeditions to
+Britain to punish the natives for giving aid to their Celtic kinsfolk
+in Gaul, and in 55 and 53 he crossed the Rhine to compel the Germans
+to remain on their own side of the river and to cease troubling the
+Gauls by raids and invasions, as they had recently been doing. When
+(about 51 B.C.) he came to write his _Commentaries on the Gallic War_,
+it is very natural that he should have taken care to give a brief
+sketch of the leading peoples whom he had been fighting, that is, the
+Gauls, the Britons, and the Germans. There are two places in the
+_Commentaries_ where the Germans are described at some length. At the
+beginning of Book IV. there is an account of the particular tribe
+known as the Suevi, and in the middle of Book VI. there is a longer
+sketch of the Germans in general. This latter is the passage
+translated below. Of course we are not to suppose that Cæsar's
+knowledge of the Germans was in any sense thorough. At no time did he
+get far into their country, and the people whose manners and customs
+he had an opportunity to observe were only those who were pressing
+down upon, and occasionally across, the Rhine boundary--a mere fringe
+of the great race stretching back to the Baltic and, at that time, far
+eastward into modern Russia. We may be sure that many of the more
+remote German tribes lived after a fashion quite different from that
+which Cæsar and his legions had an opportunity to observe on the
+Rhine-Danube frontier. Still, Cæsar's account, vague and brief as it
+is, has an importance that can hardly be exaggerated. These early
+Germans had no written literature and but for the descriptions of them
+left by a few Roman writers, such as Cæsar, we should know almost
+nothing about them. If we bear in mind that the account in the
+_Commentaries_ was based upon very keen, though limited, observation,
+we can get out of it a good deal of interesting information concerning
+the early ancestors of the great Teutonic peoples of the world to-day.
+
+     Source--Julius Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_ ["The Gallic War"],
+     Bk. VI., Chaps. 21-23.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their religion]
+
+   =21.= The customs of the Germans differ widely from those of the
+   Gauls;[1] for neither have they Druids to preside over religious
+   services,[2] nor do they give much attention to sacrifices. They
+   count in the number of their gods those only whom they can see, and
+   by whose favors they are clearly aided; that is to say, the Sun,
+   Vulcan,[3] and the Moon. Of other deities they have never even
+   heard. Their whole life is spent in hunting and in war. From
+   childhood they are trained in labor and hardship....
+
+     [Sidenote: Their system of land tenure]
+
+   =22.= They are not devoted to agriculture, and the greater portion
+   of their food consists of milk, cheese, and flesh. No one owns a
+   particular piece of land, with fixed limits, but each year the
+   magistrates and the chiefs assign to the clans and the bands of
+   kinsmen who have assembled together as much land as they think
+   proper, and in whatever place they desire, and the next year compel
+   them to move to some other place. They give many reasons for this
+   custom--that the people may not lose their zeal for war through
+   habits established by prolonged attention to the cultivation of the
+   soil; that they may not be eager to acquire large possessions, and
+   that the stronger may not drive the weaker from their property;
+   that they may not build too carefully, in order to avoid cold and
+   heat; that the love of money may not spring up, from which arise
+   quarrels and dissensions; and, finally, that the common people may
+   live in contentment, since each person sees that his wealth is kept
+   equal to that of the most powerful.
+
+     [Sidenote: Leaders and officers in war and peace]
+
+   =23.= It is a matter of the greatest glory to the tribes to lay
+   waste, as widely as possible, the lands bordering their territory,
+   thus making them uninhabitable.[4] They regard it as the best
+   proof of their valor that their neighbors are forced to withdraw
+   from those lands and hardly any one dares set foot there; at the
+   same time they think that they will thus be more secure, since the
+   fear of a sudden invasion is removed. When a tribe is either
+   repelling an invasion or attacking an outside people, magistrates
+   are chosen to lead in the war, and these are given the power of
+   life and death. In times of peace there is no general magistrate,
+   but the chiefs of the districts and cantons render justice among
+   their own people and settle disputes.[5] Robbery, if committed
+   beyond the borders of the tribe, is not regarded as disgraceful,
+   and they say that it is practised for the sake of training the
+   youth and preventing idleness. When any one of the chiefs has
+   declared in an assembly that he is going to be the leader of an
+   expedition, and that those who wish to follow him should give in
+   their names, they who approve of the undertaking, and of the man,
+   stand up and promise their assistance, and are applauded by the
+   people. Such of these as do not then follow him are looked upon as
+   deserters and traitors, and from that day no one has any faith in
+   them.
+
+     [Sidenote: German hospitality]
+
+   To mistreat a guest they consider to be a crime. They protect from
+   injury those who have come among them for any purpose whatever, and
+   regard them as sacred. To them the houses of all are open and food
+   is freely supplied.
+
+
+2. A Description by Tacitus
+
+Tacitus (54-119),[6] who is sometimes credited with being the greatest
+of Roman historians, published his treatise on the _Origin, Location,
+Manners, and Inhabitants of Germany_ in the year 98. This was about a
+century and a half after Cæsar wrote his _Commentaries_. During this
+long interval we have almost no information as to how the Germans were
+living or what they were doing. There is much uncertainty as to the
+means by which Tacitus got his knowledge of them. We may be reasonably
+sure that he did not travel extensively through the country north of
+the Rhine; there is, in fact, not a shred of evidence that he ever
+visited it at all. He tells us that he made use of Cæsar's account,
+but this was very meager and could not have been of much service. We
+are left to surmise that he drew most of his information from books
+then existing but since lost, such as the writings of Posidonius of
+Rhodes (136-51 B.C.) and Pliny the Elder (23-79). These sources were
+doubtless supplemented by the stories of officials and traders who had
+been among the Germans and were afterwards interviewed by the
+historian. Tacitus's essay, therefore, while written with a desire to
+tell the truth, was apparently not based on first-hand information.
+The author nowhere says that he had _seen_ this or that feature of
+German life. We may suppose that what he really did was to gather up
+all the stories and reports regarding the German barbarians which were
+already known to Roman traders, travelers, and soldiers, sift the true
+from the false as well as he could, and write out in first class Latin
+the little book which we know as the _Germania_. The theory that the
+work was intended as a satire, or sermon in morals, for the benefit of
+a corrupt Roman people has been quite generally abandoned, and this
+for the very good reason that there is nothing in either the
+treatise's contents or style to warrant such a belief. Tacitus wrote
+the book because of his general interest in historical and
+geographical subjects, and also, perhaps, because it afforded him an
+excellent opportunity to display a literary skill in which he took no
+small degree of pride. That it was published separately instead of in
+one of his larger histories may have been due to public interest in
+the subject during Trajan's wars in the Rhine country in the years 98
+and 99. The first twenty-seven chapters, from which the selections
+below are taken, treat of the Germans in general--their origin,
+religion, family life, occupations, military tactics, amusements, land
+system, government, and social classes; the last nineteen deal with
+individual tribes and are not so accurate or so valuable. It will be
+found interesting to compare what Tacitus says with what Cæsar says
+when both touch upon the same topic. In doing so it should be borne in
+mind that there was a difference in time of a century and a half
+between the two writers, and also that while Tacitus probably did not
+write from experience among the Germans, as Cæsar did, he nevertheless
+had given the subject a larger amount of deliberate study.
+
+     Source--C. Cornelius Tacitus, _De Origine, Situ, Moribus, ac
+     Populis Germanorum_ [known commonly as the "Germania"], Chaps.
+     4-24, _passim_. Adapted from translation by Alfred J. Church
+     and William J. Brodribb (London, 1868), pp. 1-16. Text in
+     numerous editions, as that of William F. Allen (Boston, 1882)
+     and that of Henry Furneau (Oxford, 1894).
+
+     [Sidenote: Physical characteristics]
+
+   =4.= For my own part, I agree with those who think that the tribes
+   of Germany are free from all trace of intermarriage with foreign
+   nations, and that they appear as a distinct, unmixed race, like
+   none but themselves. Hence it is that the same physical features
+   are to be observed throughout so vast a population. All have fierce
+   blue eyes, reddish hair, and huge bodies fit only for sudden
+   exertion. They are not very able to endure labor that is
+   exhausting. Heat and thirst they cannot withstand at all, though to
+   cold and hunger their climate and soil have hardened them.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their weapons and mode of fighting]
+
+   =6.= Iron is not plentiful among them, as may be inferred from the
+   nature of their weapons.[7] Only a few make use of swords or long
+   lances. Ordinarily they carry a spear (which they call a _framea_),
+   with a short and narrow head, but so sharp and easy to handle that
+   the same weapon serves, according to circumstances, for close or
+   distant conflict. As for the horse-soldier, he is satisfied with a
+   shield and a spear. The foot-soldiers also scatter showers of
+   missiles, each man having several and hurling them to an immense
+   distance, and being naked or lightly clad with a little cloak. They
+   make no display in their equipment. Their shields alone are marked
+   with fancy colors. Only a few have corselets,[8] and just one or
+   two here and there a metal or leather helmet.[9] Their horses are
+   neither beautiful nor swift; nor are they taught various wheeling
+   movements after the Roman fashion, but are driven straight forward
+   so as to make one turn to the right in such a compact body that
+   none may be left behind another. On the whole, one would say that
+   the Germans' chief strength is in their infantry. It fights along
+   with the cavalry, and admirably adapted to the movements of the
+   latter is the swiftness of certain foot-soldiers, who are picked
+   from the entire youth of their country and placed in front of the
+   battle line.[10] The number of these is fixed, being a hundred from
+   each _pagus_,[11] and from this they take their name among their
+   countrymen, so that what was at the outset a mere number has now
+   become a title of honor. Their line of battle is drawn up in the
+   shape of a wedge. To yield ground, provided they return to the
+   attack, is regarded as prudence rather than cowardice. The bodies
+   of their slain they carry off, even when the battle has been
+   indecisive. To abandon one's shield is the basest of crimes. A man
+   thus disgraced is not allowed to be present at the religious
+   ceremonies, or to enter the council. Many, indeed, after making a
+   cowardly escape from battle put an end to their infamy by hanging
+   themselves.[12]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Germans in battle]
+
+   =7.= They choose their kings[13] by reason of their birth, but
+   their generals on the ground of merit. The kings do not enjoy
+   unlimited or despotic power, and even the generals command more by
+   example than by authority. If they are energetic, if they take a
+   prominent part, if they fight in the front, they lead because they
+   are admired. But to rebuke, to imprison, even to flog, is allowed
+   to the priests alone, and this not as a punishment, or at the
+   general's bidding, but by the command of the god whom they believe
+   to inspire the warrior. They also carry with them into battle
+   certain figures and images taken from their sacred groves.[14] The
+   thing that most strengthens their courage is the fact that their
+   troops are not made up of bodies of men chosen by mere chance, but
+   are arranged by families and kindreds. Close by them, too, are
+   those dearest to them, so that in the midst of the fight they can
+   hear the shrieks of women and the cries of children. These loved
+   ones are to every man the most valued witnesses of his valor, and
+   at the same time his most generous applauders. The soldier brings
+   his wounds to mother or wife, who shrinks not from counting them,
+   or even demanding to see them, and who provides food for the
+   warriors and gives them encouragement.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their popular assemblies]
+
+   =11.= About matters of small importance the chiefs alone take
+   counsel, but the larger questions are considered by the entire
+   tribe. Yet even when the final decision rests with the people the
+   affair is always thoroughly discussed by the chiefs. Except in the
+   case of a sudden emergency, the people hold their assemblies on
+   certain fixed days, either at the new or the full moon; for these
+   they consider the most suitable times for the transaction of
+   business. Instead of counting by days, as we do, they count by
+   nights, and in this way designate both their ordinary and their
+   legal engagements. They regard the night as bringing on the day.
+   Their freedom has one disadvantage, in that they do not all come
+   together at the same time, or as they are commanded, but two or
+   three days are wasted in the delay of assembling. When the people
+   present think proper, they sit down armed. Silence is proclaimed by
+   the priests who, on these occasions, are charged with the duty of
+   keeping order. The king or the leader speaks first, and then others
+   in order, as age, or rank, or reputation in war, or eloquence, give
+   them right. The speakers are heard more because of their ability to
+   persuade than because of their power to command. If the speeches
+   are displeasing to the people, they reject them with murmurs; if
+   they are pleasing, they applaud by clashing their weapons together,
+   which is the kind of applause most highly esteemed.[15]
+
+     [Sidenote: The chiefs and their companions]
+
+   =13.= They transact no public or private business without being
+   armed, but it is not allowable for any one to bear arms until he
+   has satisfied the tribe that he is fit to do so. Then, in the
+   presence of the assembly, one of the chiefs, or the young man's
+   father, or some kinsman, equips him with a shield and a spear.
+   These arms are what the toga is with the Romans, the first honor
+   with which a youth is invested. Up to this time he is regarded as
+   merely a member of a household, but afterwards as a member of the
+   state. Very noble birth, or important service rendered by the
+   father, secures for a youth the rank of chief, and such lads attach
+   themselves to men of mature strength and of fully tested valor. It
+   is no shame to be numbered among a chief's companions.[16] The
+   companions have different ranks in the band, according to the will
+   of the chief; and there is great rivalry among the companions for
+   first place in the chief's favor, as there is among the chiefs for
+   the possession of the largest and bravest throng of followers. It
+   is an honor, as well as a source of strength, to be thus always
+   surrounded by a large body of picked youths, who uphold the rank of
+   the chief in peace and defend him in war. The fame of such a chief
+   and his band is not confined to their own tribe, but is spread
+   among foreign peoples; they are sought out and honored with gifts
+   in order to secure their alliance, for the reputation of such a
+   band may decide a whole war.
+
+     [Sidenote: The German love of war]
+
+   =14.= In battle it is considered shameful for the chief to allow
+   any of his followers to excel him in valor, and for the followers
+   not to equal their chief in deeds of bravery. To survive the chief
+   and return from the field is a disgrace and a reproach for life. To
+   defend and protect him, and to add to his renown by courageous
+   fighting is the height of loyalty. The chief fights for victory;
+   the companions must fight for the chief. If their native state
+   sinks into the sloth of peace and quiet, many noble youths
+   voluntarily seek those tribes which are waging some war, both
+   because inaction is disliked by their race and because it is in war
+   that they win renown most readily; besides, a chief can maintain a
+   band only by war, for the men expect to receive their war-horse and
+   their arms from their leader. Feasts and entertainments, though not
+   elegant, are plentifully provided and constitute their only pay.
+   The means of such liberality are best obtained from the booty of
+   war. Nor are they as easily persuaded to plow the earth and to wait
+   for the year's produce as to challenge an enemy and earn the glory
+   of wounds. Indeed, they actually think it tame and stupid to
+   acquire by the sweat of toil what they may win by their blood.[17]
+
+     [Sidenote: Life in times of peace]
+
+   =15.= When not engaged in war they pass much of their time in the
+   chase, and still more in idleness, giving themselves up to sleep
+   and feasting. The bravest and most warlike do no work; they give
+   over the management of the household, of the home, and of the land
+   to the women, the old men, and the weaker members of the family,
+   while they themselves remain in the most sluggish inactivity. It is
+   strange that the same men should be so fond of idleness and yet so
+   averse to peace.[18] It is the custom of the tribes to make their
+   chiefs presents of cattle and grain, and thus to give them the
+   means of support.[19] The chiefs are especially pleased with gifts
+   from neighboring tribes, which are sent not only by individuals,
+   but also by the state, such as choice steeds, heavy armor,
+   trappings, and neck-chains. The Romans have now taught them to
+   accept money also.
+
+     [Sidenote: Lack of cities and towns]
+
+   =16.= It is a well-known fact that the peoples of Germany have no
+   cities, and that they do not even allow buildings to be erected
+   close together.[20] They live scattered about, wherever a spring,
+   or a meadow, or a wood has attracted them. Their villages are not
+   arranged in the Roman fashion, with the buildings connected and
+   joined together, but every person surrounds his dwelling with an
+   open space, either as a precaution against the disasters of fire,
+   or because they do not know how to build. They make no use of stone
+   or brick, but employ wood for all purposes. Their buildings are
+   mere rude masses, without ornament or attractiveness, although
+   occasionally they are stained in part with a kind of clay which is
+   so clear and bright that it resembles painting, or a colored
+   design....
+
+     [Sidenote: Their food and drink]
+
+   =23.= A liquor for drinking is made out of barley, or other grain,
+   and fermented so as to be somewhat like wine. The dwellers along
+   the river-bank[21] also buy wine from traders. Their food is of a
+   simple variety, consisting of wild fruit, fresh game, and curdled
+   milk. They satisfy their hunger without making much preparation of
+   cooked dishes, and without the use of any delicacies at all. In
+   quenching their thirst they are not so moderate. If they are
+   supplied with as much as they desire to drink, they will be
+   overcome by their own vices as easily as by the arms of an enemy.
+
+     [Sidenote: German amusements]
+
+   =24.= At all their gatherings there is one and the same kind of
+   amusement. This is the dancing of naked youths amid swords and
+   lances that all the time endanger their lives. Experience gives
+   them skill, and skill in turn gives grace. They scorn to receive
+   profit or pay, for, however reckless their pastime, its reward is
+   only the pleasure of the spectators. Strangely enough, they make
+   games of chance a serious employment, even when sober, and so
+   venturesome are they about winning or losing that, when every other
+   resource has failed, on the final throw of the dice they will stake
+   even their own freedom. He who loses goes into voluntary slavery
+   and, though the younger and stronger of the players, allows himself
+   to be bound and sold. Such is their stubborn persistency in a bad
+   practice, though they themselves call it honor. Slaves thus
+   acquired the owners trade off as speedily as possible to rid
+   themselves of the scandal of such a victory.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] In chapters 11-20, immediately preceding the present passage,
+Cæsar gives a comparatively full and minute description of Gallic life
+and institutions. He knew more about the Gauls than about the Germans,
+and, besides, it was his experiences among them that he was writing
+about primarily.
+
+[2] The Druids were priests who formed a distinct and very influential
+class among the Gauls. They ascertained and revealed the will of the
+gods and were supreme in the government of the tribes. Druids existed
+also among the Britons.
+
+[3] By Vulcan Cæsar means the German god of fire.
+
+[4] Of the Suevi, a German tribe living along the upper course of the
+Danube, Cæsar says: "They consider it their greatest glory as a nation
+that the lands about their territories lie unoccupied to a very great
+extent, for they think that by this it is shown that a great number of
+nations cannot withstand their power; and thus on one side of the
+Suevi the lands are said to lie desolate for about six hundred
+miles."--_Gallic War_, Bk. IV., Chap. 3.
+
+[5] This statement is an instance of Cæsar's vagueness, due possibly
+to haste in writing, but more likely to lack of definite information.
+How large these districts and cantons were, whether they had fixed
+boundaries, and how the chiefs rendered justice in them are things we
+should like to know but are not told.
+
+[6] All dates from this point, unless otherwise indicated, are A.D.
+
+[7] In reality iron ore was abundant in the Germans' territory, but it
+was not until long after the time of Tacitus that much use began to be
+made of it. By the fifth century iron swords were common.
+
+[8] Coats of mail.
+
+[9] Defensive armor for the head and neck.
+
+[10] See Cæsar's description of this mode of fighting.--_Gallic War_,
+Bk. I., Chap. 48.
+
+[11] The canton was known to the Romans as a _pagus_ and to the
+Germans themselves as a _gau_. It was made up of a number of
+districts, or townships (Latin _vicus_, German _dorf_), and was itself
+a division of a tribe or nation.
+
+[12] A later law of the Salian Franks imposed a fine of 120 _denarii_
+upon any man who should accuse another of throwing down his shield and
+running away, without being able to prove it [see p. 64].
+
+[13] Many of the western tribes at the time Tacitus wrote did not have
+kings, though in eastern Germany the institution of kingship seems to
+have been quite general. The office, where it existed, was elective,
+but the people rarely chose a king outside of a privileged family,
+assumed to be of divine origin.
+
+[14] Evidently these were not images of their gods, for in another
+place (Chap. 9) Tacitus tells us that the Germans deemed it a dishonor
+to their deities to represent them in human form. The images were
+probably those of wild beasts, as the wolf of Woden (or Odin), or the
+ram of Tyr, and were national standards preserved with religious care
+in the sacred groves, whence they were brought forth when the tribe
+was on the point of going to war.
+
+[15] The German popular assembly was simply the periodical gathering
+of free men in arms for the discussion and decision of important
+points of tribal policy. It was not a legislative body in the modern
+sense. Law among the Germans was immemorial custom, which, like
+religion, could be changed only by a gradual shifting of popular
+belief and practice. It was not "made" by any process of deliberate
+and immediate choice. Nevertheless, the assembly constituted an
+important democratic element in the government, which operated in a
+measure to offset the aristocratic element represented by the
+_principes_ and _comitatus_ [see p. 28]. Its principal functions were
+the declaring of war and peace, the election of the kings, and,
+apparently, the hearing and deciding of graver cases at law.
+
+[16] This relation of _principes_ (chiefs) and _comites_ (companions)
+is mentioned by Cæsar [see p. 22]. The name by which the Romans
+designated the band of companions, or followers, of a German chieftain
+was _comitatus_.
+
+[17] Apparently the Germans did not now care much more for agriculture
+than in the time of Cæsar. The women, slaves, and old men sowed some
+seeds and gathered small harvests, but the warrior class held itself
+above such humble and unexciting employment. The raising of cattle
+afforded a principal means of subsistence, though hunting and fishing
+contributed considerably.
+
+[18] Compare the Germans and the North American Indians in this
+respect. The great contrast between these two peoples lay in the
+capacity of the one and the comparative incapacity of the other for
+development.
+
+[19] The Germans had no system of taxation on land or other property,
+such as the Romans had and such as we have to-day. It was not until
+well toward the close of the Middle Ages that the governments of
+kingdoms built up by Germanic peoples in western Europe came to be
+maintained by anything like what we would call taxes in the modern
+sense.
+
+[20] The lack of cities and city life among the Germans struck Tacitus
+with the greater force because of the complete dominance of city
+organization to which he, as a Roman, was accustomed. The Greek and
+Roman world was made up, in the last analysis, of an aggregation of
+_civitates_, or city states. Among the ancient Greeks these had
+usually been independent; among the Romans they were correlated under
+the greater or lesser control of a centralized government; but among
+the Germans of Tacitus's time, and long after, the mixed agricultural
+and nomadic character of the people effectually prevented the
+development of anything even approaching urban organization. Their
+life was that of the forest and the pasture, not that of forum,
+theatre, and circus.
+
+[21] That is, on the Rhine, where traders from the south brought in
+wines and other Roman products. The drink which the Germans themselves
+manufactured was, of course, a kind of beer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION
+
+
+3. The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)
+
+The earliest invasion of the Roman Empire which resulted in the
+permanent settlement of a large and united body of Germans on Roman
+soil was that of the Visigoths in the year 376. This invasion was very
+far, however, from marking the first important contact of the German
+and Roman peoples. As early as the end of the second century B.C. the
+incursions of the Cimbri and Teutones (113-101) into southern Gaul and
+northern Italy had given Rome a suggestion of the danger which
+threatened from the northern barbarians. Half a century later, the
+Gallic campaigns of Cæsar brought the two peoples into conflict for
+the first time in the region of the later Rhine boundary, and had the
+very important effect of preventing the impending Germanization of
+Gaul and substituting the extension of Roman power and civilization in
+that quarter. Roman imperial plans on the north then developed along
+ambitious lines until the year 9 A.D., when the legions of the Emperor
+Augustus, led by Varus, were defeated, and in large part annihilated,
+in the great battle of the Teutoberg Forest and the balance was turned
+forever against the Romanization of the Germanic countries. Thereafter
+for a long time a state of equilibrium was preserved along the
+Rhine-Danube frontier, though after the Marcomannic wars in the latter
+half of the second century the scale began to incline more and more
+against the Romans, who were gradually forced into the attitude of
+defense against a growing disposition of the restless Germans to push
+the boundary farther south.
+
+During the more than three and a half centuries intervening between
+the battle of the Teutoberg and the crossing of the Danube by the
+Visigoths, the intermingling of the two peoples steadily increased. On
+the one hand were numerous Roman travelers and traders who visited
+the Germans living along the frontier and learned what sort of people
+they were. The soldiers of the legions stationed on the Rhine and
+Danube also added materially to Roman knowledge in this direction. But
+much more important was the influx of Germans into the Empire to serve
+as soldiers or to settle on lands allotted to them by the government.
+Owing to a general decline of population, and especially to the lack
+of a sturdy middle class, Rome found it necessary to fill up her army
+with foreigners and to reward them with lands lying mainly near the
+frontiers, but often in the very heart of the Empire. The
+over-population of Germany furnished a large class of excellent
+soldiers who were ready enough to accept the pay of the Roman emperor
+for service in the legions, even if rendered, as it often was, against
+their kinsmen who were menacing the weakened frontier. From this
+source the Empire had long been receiving a large infusion of German
+blood before any considerable tribe came within its bounds to settle
+in a body. Indeed, if there had occurred no sudden and startling
+overflows of population from the Germanic countries, such as the
+Visigothic invasion, it is quite possible that the Roman Empire might
+yet have fallen completely into the hands of the Germans by the quiet
+and gradual processes just indicated. As it was, the pressure from
+advancing Asiatic peoples on the east was too great to be withstood,
+and there resulted, between the fourth and sixth centuries, a series
+of notable invasions which left almost the entire Western Empire
+parceled out among new Germanic kingdoms established by force on the
+ruins of the once invincible Roman power. The breaking of the frontier
+by the West Goths (to whom the Emperor Aurelian, in 270, had abandoned
+the rich province of Dacia), during the reign of Gratian in the West
+and of Valens in the East, was the first conspicuous step in this
+great transforming movement.
+
+The ferocious people to whose incursions Ammianus refers as the cause
+of the Visigothic invasion were the Huns [see p. 42], who had but
+lately made their first appearance in Europe. Already by 376 the
+Ostrogothic kingdom of Hermaneric, to the north of the Black Sea, had
+fallen before their onslaught, and the wave of conquest was spreading
+rapidly westward toward Dacia and the neighboring lands inhabited by
+the Visigoths. The latter people were even less able to make effectual
+resistance than their eastern brethren had been. Part of them had
+become Christians and were recognizing Fridigern as their leader,
+while the remaining pagan element acknowledged the sway of Athanaric.
+On the arrival of the Huns, Athanaric led his portion of the people
+into the Carpathian Mountains and began to prepare for resistance,
+while the Christians, led by Fridigern and Alaf (or Alavivus),
+gathered on the Danube and begged permission to take refuge across the
+river in Roman territory. Athanaric and his division of the Visigoths,
+having become Christians, entered the Empire a few years later and
+settled in Moesia.
+
+Ammianus Marcellinus, author of the account of the Visigothic invasion
+given below, was a native of Antioch, a soldier of Greek ancestry and
+apparently of noble birth, and a member of the Eastern emperor's
+bodyguard. Beyond these facts, gleaned from his _Roman History_, we
+have almost no knowledge of the man. The date of his birth is unknown,
+likewise that of his death, though from his writings it appears that
+he lived well toward the close of the fourth century. His _History_
+began with the accession of Nerva, 96 A.D., approximately where the
+accounts by Tacitus and Suetonius end, and continued to the death of
+his master Valens in the battle of Adrianople in 378. It was divided
+into thirty-one books; but of these thirteen have been lost, and some
+of those which survive are imperfect. Although the narrative is broken
+into rather provokingly here and there by digressions on earthquakes
+and eclipses and speculations on such utterly foreign topics as the
+theory of the destruction of lions by mosquitoes, it nevertheless
+constitutes an invaluable source of information on the men and events
+of the era which it covers. Its value is greatest, naturally, on the
+period of the Visigothic invasion, for in dealing with these years the
+author could describe events about which he had direct and personal
+knowledge. Ammianus is to be thought of as the last of the old Roman
+school of historians.
+
+     Source--Ammianus Marcellinus, _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui
+     Supersunt_, Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 3-4. Translated by Charles D.
+     Yonge under the title of _Roman History during the Reigns of
+     the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and
+     Valens_ (London, 1862), pp. 584-586. Text in edition of Victor
+     Gardthausen (Leipzig, 1875), Vol. II., pp. 239-240.
+
+     [Sidenote: Visigoths ask permission to settle within the Empire]
+
+   In the meantime a report spread extensively through the other
+   nations of the Goths [i.e., the Visigoths], that a race of men,
+   hitherto unknown, had suddenly descended like a whirlwind from the
+   lofty mountains, as if they had risen from some secret recess of
+   the earth, and were ravaging and destroying everything that came in
+   their way. Then the greater part of the population (which, because
+   of their lack of necessities, had deserted Athanaric), resolved to
+   flee and to seek a home remote from all knowledge of the
+   barbarians; and after a long deliberation as to where to fix their
+   abode, they resolved that a retreat into Thrace was the most
+   suitable, for these two reasons: first of all, because it is a
+   district most abundant in grass; and in the second place, because,
+   by the great breadth of the Danube, it is wholly separated from the
+   barbarians [i.e., the Goths], who were already exposed to the
+   thunderbolts of foreign warfare. And the whole population of the
+   tribe adopted this resolution unanimously. Accordingly, under the
+   command of their leader Alavivus, they occupied the banks of the
+   Danube; and having sent ambassadors to Valens,[22] they humbly
+   entreated that they might be received by him as his subjects,
+   promising to live peaceably and to furnish a body of auxiliary
+   troops, if any necessity for such a force should arise.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rumors of Gothic movements reach Rome]
+
+   While these events were passing in foreign countries, a terrible
+   rumor arose that the tribes of the north were planning new and
+   unprecedented attacks upon us,[23] and that over the whole region
+   which extends from the country of the Marcomanni and Quadi to
+   Pontus,[24] a barbarian host composed of various distant nations
+   which had suddenly been driven by force from their own country, was
+   now, with all their families, wandering about in different
+   directions on the banks of the river Danube.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their coming represented as a blessing to the Empire]
+
+   At first this intelligence was treated lightly by our people,
+   because they were not in the habit of hearing of any wars in those
+   remote regions until after they had been terminated either by
+   victory or by treaty. But presently the belief in these occurrences
+   grew stronger, being confirmed, moreover, by the arrival of the
+   foreign ambassadors who, with prayers and earnest entreaties,
+   begged that the people thus driven from their homes and now
+   encamped on the other side of the river might be kindly received by
+   us. The affair seemed a cause of joy rather than of fear, according
+   to the skilful flatterers who were always extolling and
+   exaggerating the good fortune of the Emperor; congratulating him
+   that an embassy had come from the farthest corners of the earth
+   unexpectedly, offering him a large body of recruits, and that, by
+   combining the strength of his own nation with these foreign forces,
+   he would have an army absolutely invincible; observing farther
+   that, by the payment for military reinforcements which came in
+   every year from the provinces, a vast treasure of gold might be
+   accumulated in his coffers.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crossing of the Danube]
+
+   Full of this hope, he sent several officers to bring this ferocious
+   people and their wagons into our territory. And such great pains
+   were taken to gratify this nation, which was destined to overthrow
+   the empire of Rome, that not one was left behind, not even of those
+   who were stricken with mortal disease. Moreover, having obtained
+   permission of the Emperor to cross the Danube and to cultivate some
+   districts in Thrace, they crossed the stream day and night, without
+   ceasing, embarking in troops on board ships and rafts, and canoes
+   made of the hollow trunks of trees. In this enterprise, since the
+   Danube is the most difficult of all rivers to navigate, and was at
+   that time swollen with continual rains, a great many were drowned,
+   who, because they were too numerous for the vessels, tried to swim
+   across, and in spite of all their exertions were swept away by the
+   stream.
+
+     [Sidenote: Number of the invaders]
+
+   In this way, through the turbulent zeal of violent people, the
+   ruin of the Roman Empire was brought on. This, at all events, is
+   neither obscure nor uncertain, that the unhappy officers who were
+   intrusted with the charge of conducting the multitude of the
+   barbarians across the river, though they repeatedly endeavored to
+   calculate their numbers, at last abandoned the attempt as useless;
+   and the man who would wish to ascertain the number might as well
+   attempt to count the waves in the African sea, or the grains of
+   sand tossed about by the zephyr.[25]
+
+
+4. The Battle of Adrianople (378)
+
+Before crossing the Danube the Visigoths had been required by the
+Romans to give up their arms, and also a number of their children to
+be held as hostages. In return it was understood that the Romans would
+equip them afresh with arms sufficient for their defense and with food
+supplies to maintain them until they should become settled in their
+new homes. So far as our information goes, it appears that the Goths
+fulfilled their part of the contract, or at least were willing to do
+so. But the Roman officers in Thrace saw an opportunity to enrich
+themselves by selling food to the famished barbarians at extortionate
+prices, and a few months of such practices sufficed to arouse all the
+rage and resentment of which the untamed Teuton was capable. In the
+summer of 378 the Goths broke out in open revolt and began to avenge
+themselves by laying waste the Roman lands along the lower Danube
+frontier. The Eastern emperor, Valens, hastened to the scene of
+insurrection, but only to lose the great battle of Adrianople, August
+9, 378, and to meet his own death. "The battle of Adrianople," says
+Professor Emerton, "was one of the decisive battles of the world. It
+taught the Germans that they could beat the legions in open fight and
+that henceforth it was for them to name the price of peace. It broke
+once for all the Rhine-Danube frontier." Many times thereafter German
+armies, and whole tribes, were to play the rôle of allies of Rome; but
+neither German nor Roman could be blinded to the fact that the
+decadent empire of the south lay at the mercy of the stalwart sons of
+the northern wilderness.
+
+     Source--Ammianus Marcellinus, _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui
+     Supersunt_, Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 12-14. Translated by Charles D.
+     Yonge [see p. 34], pp. 608-615 _passim_. Text in edition of
+     Victor Gardthausen (Leipzig, 1875), Vol. II., pp. 261-269.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Goths approach the Roman army]
+
+   He [Valens] was at the head of a numerous force, neither unwarlike
+   nor contemptible, and had united with them many veteran bands,
+   among whom were several officers of high rank--especially Trajan,
+   who a little while before had been commander of the forces. And as,
+   by means of spies and observation, it was ascertained that the
+   enemy was intending to blockade with strong divisions the different
+   roads by which the necessary supplies must come, he sent a
+   sufficient force to prevent this, dispatching a body of the archers
+   of the infantry and a squadron of cavalry with all speed to occupy
+   the narrow passes in the neighborhood. Three days afterwards, when
+   the barbarians, who were advancing slowly because they feared an
+   attack in the unfavorable ground which they were traversing,
+   arrived within fifteen miles from the station of Nice[26] (which
+   was the aim of their march), the Emperor, with wanton impetuosity,
+   resolved on attacking them instantly, because those who had been
+   sent forward to reconnoitre (what led to such a mistake is unknown)
+   affirmed that the entire body of the Goths did not exceed ten
+   thousand men....[27]
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle begins]
+
+   When the day broke which the annals mark as the fifth of the Ides
+   of August [Aug. 9] the Roman standards were advanced with haste.
+   The baggage had been placed close to the walls of Adrianople, under
+   a sufficient guard of soldiers of the legions. The treasures and
+   the chief insignia of the Emperor's rank were within the walls,
+   with the prefect and the principal members of the council.[28]
+   Then, having traversed the broken ground which divided the two
+   armies, as the burning day was progressing towards noon, at last,
+   after marching eight miles, our men came in sight of the wagons of
+   the enemy, which had been reported by the scouts to be all arranged
+   in a circle. According to their custom, the barbarian host raised a
+   fierce and hideous yell, while the Roman generals marshalled their
+   line of battle. The right wing of the cavalry was placed in front;
+   the chief portion of the infantry was kept in reserve....[29]
+
+   And while arms and missiles of all kinds were meeting in fierce
+   conflict, and Bellona,[30] blowing her mournful trumpet, was raging
+   more fiercely than usual, to inflict disaster on the Romans, our
+   men began to retreat; but presently, aroused by the reproaches of
+   their officers, they made a fresh stand, and the battle increased
+   like a conflagration, terrifying our soldiers, numbers of whom were
+   pierced by strokes of the javelins hurled at them, and by arrows.
+
+     [Sidenote: The fury of the conflict]
+
+   Then the two lines of battle dashed against each other, like the
+   beaks of ships and, thrusting with all their might, were tossed to
+   and fro like the waves of the sea. Our left wing had advanced
+   actually up to the wagons, with the intent to push on still farther
+   if properly supported; but they were deserted by the rest of the
+   cavalry, and so pressed upon by the superior numbers of the enemy
+   that they were overwhelmed and beaten down like the ruin of a vast
+   rampart. Presently our infantry also was left unsupported, while
+   the various companies became so huddled together that a soldier
+   could hardly draw his sword, or withdraw his hand after he had once
+   stretched it out. And by this time such clouds of dust arose that
+   it was scarcely possible to see the sky, which resounded with
+   horrible cries; and in consequence the darts, which were bearing
+   death on every side, reached their mark and fell with deadly
+   effect, because no one could see them beforehand so as to guard
+   against them. The barbarians, rushing on with their enormous host,
+   beat down our horses and men and left no spot to which our ranks
+   could fall back to operate. They were so closely packed that it was
+   impossible to escape by forcing a way through them, and our men at
+   last began to despise death and again taking to their swords, slew
+   all they encountered, while with mutual blows of battle-axes,
+   helmets and breastplates were dashed in pieces.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Romans put to flight]
+
+   Then you might see the barbarian, towering in his fierceness,
+   hissing or shouting, fall with his legs pierced through, or his
+   right hand cut off, sword and all, or his side transfixed, and
+   still, in the last gasp of life, casting around him defiant
+   glances. The plain was covered with corpses, showing the mutual
+   ruin of the combatants; while the groans of the dying, or of men
+   fearfully wounded, were intense and caused much dismay on all
+   sides. Amid all this great tumult and confusion our infantry were
+   exhausted by toil and danger, until at last they had neither
+   strength left to fight nor spirits to plan anything. Their spears
+   were broken by the frequent collisions, so that they were forced
+   to content themselves with their drawn swords, which they thrust
+   into the dense battalions of the enemy, disregarding their own
+   safety, and seeing that every possibility of escape was cut off
+   from them.... The sun, now high in the heavens (having traversed
+   the sign of Leo and reached the abode of the heavenly Virgo[31])
+   scorched the Romans, who were emaciated by hunger, worn out with
+   toil, and scarcely able to support even the weight of their armor.
+   At last our columns were entirely beaten back by the overpowering
+   weight of the barbarians, and so they took to disorderly flight,
+   which is the only resource in extremity, each man trying to save
+   himself as best he could....
+
+   Scarcely one third of the whole army escaped. Nor, except the
+   battle of Cannæ, is so destructive a slaughter recorded in our
+   annals;[32] though, even in the times of their prosperity, the
+   Romans have more than once been called upon to deplore the
+   uncertainty of war, and have for a time succumbed to evil Fortune.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] Valens was the Eastern emperor from 364 until his death in the
+battle of Adrianople in 378. His brother Valentinian was emperor in
+the West from 364 to 375. Gratian, son of Valentinian, was the real
+sovereign in the West when the Visigoths crossed the Danube.
+
+[23] That is, upon the writer's people, the Romans.
+
+[24] The Marcomanni and Quadi occupied a broad stretch of territory
+along the upper Danube in what is now the northernmost part of
+Austria-Hungary. Pontus was a province in northern Asia Minor.
+
+[25] Moeller (_Histoire du Moyen Age_, p. 58), estimates that the
+Goths who now entered Thrace numbered not fewer than 200,000 grown
+men, accompanied by their wives and children. The Italian Villari, in
+his _Barbarian Invasions of Italy_, Vol. I., p. 49, gives the same
+estimate. The tendency of contemporary chroniclers to exaggerate
+numbers has misled many older writers. Even Moeller's and Villari's
+estimate would mean a total of upwards of a million people. That there
+were so many may well be doubted. The Vandals played practically as
+important a part in the history of their times as did the Visigoths;
+yet it is known that when the Vandals passed through Spain, in the
+first half of the fifth century, they numbered not more than 20,000
+fighting men, with their wives and children.
+
+[26] Nice was about thirty miles east of Adrianople.
+
+[27] The Visigoths under Fridigern finally took their position near
+Adrianople and Valens led his army into that vicinity and pitched his
+camp, fortifying it with a rampart of palisades. From the Western
+emperor, Gratian, a messenger came asking that open conflict be
+postponed until the army from Rome could join that from
+Constantinople. But Valens, easily flattered by some of his
+over-confident generals, foolishly decided to bring on a battle at
+once. Apparently he did not dream that defeat was possible.
+
+[28] After the battle here described, which occurred in the open
+plain, the victorious Goths proceeded to the siege of the city itself,
+in which, however, they were unsuccessful. The taking of fortified
+towns was an art in which the Germans were not skilled.
+
+[29] When both armies were in position Fridigern, "being skilful in
+divining the future," says Ammianus, "and fearing a doubtful
+struggle," sent a herald to Valens with the promise that if the Romans
+would give hostages to the Goths the latter would cease their
+depredations and even aid the Romans in their wars. Richomeres, the
+Roman cavalry leader, was chosen by Valens to serve as a hostage; but
+as he was proceeding to the Gothic camp the soldiers who accompanied
+him made a rash attack upon a division of the enemy and precipitated a
+battle which soon spread to the whole army.
+
+[30] The goddess of war, regarded in Roman mythology as the sister of
+Mars.
+
+[31] Signs of the zodiac, sometimes employed by the Romans to give
+figurative expression to the time of day.
+
+[32] The number of Romans killed at Cannæ (216 B.C.) is variously
+estimated, but it can hardly have been under 50,000.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE HUNS
+
+
+5. Descriptions by a Graeco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian
+
+The Huns, a people of Turanian stock, were closely related to the
+ancestors of the Magyars, or the modern Hungarians. Their original
+home was in central Asia, beyond the great wall of China, and they
+were in every sense a people of the plains rather than of the forest
+or of the sea. From the region of modern Siberia they swept westward
+in successive waves, beginning about the middle of the fourth century,
+traversed the "gateway of the nations" between the Caspian Sea and the
+Ural Mountains, and fell with fury upon the German tribes (mainly the
+Goths) settled in eastern and southern Europe. The descriptions of
+them given by Claudius Claudianus and Ammianus Marcellinus set forth
+their characteristics as understood by the Romans a half-century or
+more before the invasion of the Empire by Attila. There is no reason
+to suppose that either of these authors had ever seen a Hun, or had
+his information at first hand. When both wrote the Huns were yet far
+outside the Empire's bounds. Tales of soldiers and travelers, which
+doubtless grew as they were told, must have supplied both the poet and
+the historian with all that they knew regarding the strange Turanian
+invaders. This being the case, we are not to accept all that they say
+as the literal truth. Nevertheless the general impressions which one
+gets from their pictures cannot be far wrong.
+
+Claudius Claudianus, commonly regarded as the last of the Latin
+classic poets, was a native of Alexandria who settled at Rome about
+395. For ten years after that date he occupied a position at the court
+of the Emperor Honorius somewhat akin to that of poet-laureate. Much
+of his writing was of a very poor quality, but his descriptions were
+sometimes striking, as in the stanza given below. On Ammianus
+Marcellinus see p. 34.
+
+     Sources--(a) Claudius Claudianus, _In Rufinum_ ["Against
+     Rufinus"], Bk. I., 323-331. Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ
+     Historica, Auctores Antiquissimi_, Vol. X., pp. 30-31.
+     Translated in Thomas Hodgkin, _Italy and Her Invaders_
+     (Oxford, 1880), Vol. II., p. 2.
+
+     (b) Ammianus Marcellinus, _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui
+     Supersunt_, Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 2-4 [see p. 34]. Translated in
+     Hodgkin, _ibid._, pp. 34-38.
+
+   (a)
+
+     There is a race on Scythia's[33] verge extreme
+     Eastward, beyond the Tanais'[34] chilly stream.
+     The Northern Bear[35] looks on no uglier crew:
+     Base is their garb, their bodies foul to view;
+     Their souls are ne'er subdued to sturdy toil
+     Or Ceres' arts:[36] their sustenance is spoil.
+     With horrid wounds they gash their brutal brows,
+     And o'er their murdered parents bind their vows.
+     Not e'en the Centaur-offspring of the Cloud[37]
+     Were horsed more firmly than this savage crowd.
+     Brisk, lithe, in loose array they first come on,
+     Fly, turn, attack the foe who deems them gone.
+
+     [Sidenote: Physical appearance of the Huns]
+
+   (b)
+
+   The nation of the Huns, little known to ancient records, but
+   spreading from the marshes of Azof to the Icy Sea,[38] surpasses
+   all other barbarians in wildness of life. In the first days of
+   infancy, deep incisions are made in the cheeks of their boys, in
+   order that when the time comes for whiskers to grow there, the
+   sprouting hairs may be kept back by the furrowed scars; and hence
+   they grow to maturity and to old age beardless. They all, however,
+   have strong, well-knit limbs and fine necks. Yet they are of
+   portentous ugliness and so crook-backed that you would take them
+   for some sort of two-footed beasts, or for the roughly-chipped
+   stakes which are used for the railings of a bridge. And though they
+   do just bear the likeness of men (of a very ugly type), they are so
+   little advanced in civilization that they make no use of fire, nor
+   of any kind of relish, in the preparation of their food, but feed
+   upon the roots which they find in the fields, and the half-raw
+   flesh of any sort of animal. I say half-raw, because they give it a
+   kind of cooking by placing it between their own thighs and the
+   backs of their horses. They never seek the shelter of houses, which
+   they look upon as little better than tombs, and will enter only
+   upon the direst necessity; nor would one be able to find among them
+   even a cottage of wattled rushes; but, wandering at large over
+   mountain and through forest, they are trained to endure from
+   infancy all the extremes of cold, of hunger, and of thirst.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their dress]
+
+   They are clad in linen raiment, or in the skins of field-mice sewed
+   together, and the same suit serves them for use in-doors and out.
+   However dingy the color of it may become, the tunic which has once
+   been hung around their necks is never laid aside nor changed until
+   through long decay the rags of it will no longer hold together.
+   Their heads are covered with bent caps, their hairy legs with the
+   skins of goats; their shoes, never having been fashioned on a last,
+   are so clumsy that they cannot walk comfortably. On this account
+   they are not well adapted to encounters on foot; but on the other
+   hand they are almost welded to their horses, which are hardy,
+   though of ugly shape, and on which they sometimes ride woman's
+   fashion. On horseback every man of that nation lives night and day;
+   on horseback he buys and sells; on horseback he takes his meat and
+   drink, and when night comes on he leans forward upon the narrow
+   neck of his horse and there falls into a deep sleep, or wanders
+   into the varied fantasies of dreams.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their mode of fighting]
+
+   When a discussion arises upon any matter of importance they come on
+   horseback to the place of meeting. No kingly sternness overawes
+   their deliberations, but being, on the whole, well-contented with
+   the disorderly guidance of their chiefs, they do not scruple to
+   interrupt the debates with anything that comes into their heads.
+   When attacked, they will sometimes engage in regular battle. Then,
+   going into the fight in order of columns, they fill the air with
+   varied and discordant cries. More often, however, they fight in no
+   regular order of battle, but being extremely swift and sudden in
+   their movements, they disperse, and then rapidly come together
+   again in loose array, spread havoc over vast plains and, flying
+   over the rampart, pillage the camp of their enemy almost before he
+   has become aware of their approach. It must be granted that they
+   are the nimblest of warriors. The missile weapons which they use at
+   a distance are pointed with sharpened bones admirably fastened to
+   the shaft. When in close combat they fight without regard to their
+   own safety, and while the enemy is intent upon parrying the thrusts
+   of their swords they throw a net over him and so entangle his limbs
+   that he loses all power of walking or riding.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their nomadic character]
+
+   Not one among them cultivates the ground, or ever touches a
+   plow-handle. All wander abroad without fixed abodes, without home,
+   or law, or settled customs, like perpetual fugitives, with their
+   wagons for their only habitations. If you ask them, not one can
+   tell you what is his place of origin. They are ruthless
+   truce-breakers, fickle, always ready to be swayed by the first
+   breath of a new desire, abandoning themselves without restraint to
+   the most ungovernable rage.
+
+   Finally, like animals devoid of reason, they are utterly ignorant
+   of what is proper and what is not. They are tricksters with words
+   and full of dark sayings. They are never moved by either religious
+   or superstitious awe. They burn with unquenchable thirst for gold,
+   and they are so changeable and so easily moved to wrath that many
+   times in the day they will quarrel with their comrades on no
+   provocation, and be reconciled, having received no satisfaction.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] A somewhat indefinite region north and east of the Caspian Sea.
+
+[34] The modern Don, flowing into the Sea of Azof.
+
+[35] One of two constellations in the northern hemisphere, called
+respectively the Great Bear and the Lesser Bear, or _Ursa Major_ and
+_Ursa Minor_. The Great Bear is commonly known as the Dipper.
+
+[36] That is, agriculture. The Huns were even less settled in their
+mode of life than were the early Germans described by Tacitus.
+
+[37] A strange creature of classical mythology, represented as half
+man and half horse.
+
+[38] The White Sea. It is hardly to be believed that the Huns dwelt so
+far north. This was, of course, a matter of sheer speculation with the
+Romans.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE EARLY FRANKS
+
+
+6. The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours
+
+The most important historical writer among the early Franks was a
+bishop whose full name was Georgius Florentius Gregorius, but who has
+commonly been known ever since his day as Gregory of Tours. The date
+of his birth is uncertain, but it was probably either 539 or 540. He
+was not a Frank, but a man of mixed Roman and Gallic descent, his
+parentage being such as to rank him among the nobility of his native
+district, Auvergne. At the age of thirty-four he was elected bishop of
+Tours, and this important office he held until his death in 594.
+During this long period of service he won distinction as an able
+church official, as an alert man of affairs, and as a prolific writer
+on ecclesiastical subjects. Among his writings, some of which have
+been lost, were a book on the Christian martyrs, biographies of
+several holy men of the Church, a commentary on the Psalms, and a
+treatise on the officers of the Church and their duties.
+
+But by far his largest and most important work was his _Ecclesiastical
+History of the Franks_, in ten books, written well toward the end of
+his life. It is indeed to be regarded as one of the most interesting
+pieces of literature produced in any country during the Middle Ages.
+For his starting point Gregory went back to the Garden of Eden, and
+what he gives us in his first book is only an amusing but practically
+worthless account of the history of the world from Adam to St. Martin
+of Tours, who died probably in 397. In the second book, however, he
+comes more within the range of reasonable tradition, if not of actual
+information, and brings the story down to the death of Clovis in 511.
+In the succeeding eight books he reaches the year 591, though it is
+thought by some that the last four were put together after the
+author's death by some of his associates. However that may be, we may
+rest assured that the history grows in accuracy as it approaches the
+period in which it was written. Naturally it is at its best in the
+later books, where events are described that happened within the
+writer's lifetime, and with many of which he had a close connection.
+Gregory was a man of unusual activity and of wide acquaintance among
+the influential people of his day. He served as a counselor of several
+Frankish kings and was a prominent figure at their courts. The shrine
+of St. Martin of Tours[39] was visited by pilgrims from all parts of
+the Christian world and by conversation with them Gregory had an
+excellent opportunity to keep informed as to what was going on among
+the Franks, and among more distant peoples as well. He was thus
+fortunately situated for one who proposed to write the history of his
+times. As a bishop of the orthodox Church he had small regard for
+Arians and other heretics, and so was in some ways less broad-minded
+than we could wish; and of course he shared the superstition and
+ignorance of his age, as will appear in some of the selections below.
+Still, without his extensive history we should know far less than we
+now do concerning the Frankish people before the seventh century. He
+mixes legend with fact in a most confusing manner, but with no
+intention whatever to deceive. The men of the earlier Middle Ages knew
+no other way of writing history and their readers were not critical as
+we are to-day. The passages quoted below from Gregory's history give
+some interesting information concerning the Frankish conquerors of
+Gaul, and at the same time show something of the spirit of Gregory
+himself and of the people of his times.
+
+Particularly interesting is the account of the conversion of Clovis
+and of the Franks to Christianity. When the Visigoths, Ostrogoths,
+Vandals, Lombards, and Burgundians crossed the Roman frontiers and
+settled within the bounds of the old Empire they were all Christians
+in name, however much their conduct might be at variance with their
+profession. The Franks, on the other hand, established themselves in
+northern Gaul, as did the Saxons in Britain, while they were yet
+pagans, worshipping Woden and Thor and the other strange deities of
+the Germans. It was about the middle of the reign of King Clovis, or,
+more definitely, in the year 496, that the change came. In his
+_Ecclesiastical History_ Gregory tells us how up to this time all the
+influence of the Christian queen, Clotilde, had been exerted in vain
+to bring her husband to the point of renouncing his old gods. In his
+wars and conquests the king had been very successful and apparently he
+was pretty well satisfied with the favors these old gods had showered
+upon him and was unwilling to turn his back upon such generous
+patrons. But there came a time, in 496, in the course of the war with
+the Alemanni, when the tide of fortune seemed to be turning against
+the Frankish king. In the great battle of Strassburg the Franks were
+on the point of being beaten by their foe, and Clovis in desperation
+made a vow, as the story goes, that if Clotilde's God would grant him
+a victory he would immediately become a Christian. Whatever may have
+been the reason, the victory was won and the king, with characteristic
+German fidelity to his word, proceeded to fulfill his pledge. Amid
+great ceremony he was baptized, and with him three thousand of his
+soldiers the same day. The great majority of Franks lost little time
+in following the royal example.
+
+Two important facts should be emphasized in connection with this
+famous incident. The first is the peculiar character of the so-called
+"conversion" of Clovis and his Franks. We to-day look upon religious
+conversion as an inner experience of the individual, apt to be brought
+about by personal contact between a Christian and the person who is
+converted. It was in no such sense as this, however, that the
+Franks--or any of the early Germans, for that matter--were made
+Christian. They looked upon Christianity as a mere portion of Roman
+civilization to be adopted or let alone as seemed best; but if it were
+adopted, it must be by the whole tribe or nation, not by individuals
+here and there. In general, the German peoples took up Christianity,
+not because they became convinced that their old religions were false,
+but simply because they were led to believe that the Christian faith
+was in some ways better than their own and so might profitably be
+taken advantage of by them. Clovis believed he had won the battle of
+Strassburg with the aid of the Christian God when Woden and Thor were
+about to fail him; therefore he reasoned that it would be a good thing
+in the future to make sure that the God of Clotilde should always be
+on his side, and obviously the way to do this was to become himself a
+Christian. He did not wholly abandon the old gods, but merely
+considered that he had found a new one of superior power. Hence he
+enjoined on all his people that they become Christians; and for the
+most part they did so, though of course we are not to suppose that
+there was any very noticeable change in their actual conduct and mode
+of life, at least for several generations.
+
+The second important point to observe is that, whereas all of the
+other Germanic peoples on the continent had become Christians of the
+Arian type, the Franks accepted Christianity in its orthodox form such
+as was adhered to by the papacy. This was sheer accident. The Franks
+took the orthodox rather than the heretical religion simply because it
+was the kind that was carried to them by the missionaries, not at all
+because they were able, or had the desire, to weigh the two creeds and
+choose the one they liked the better. But though they became orthodox
+Christians by accident, the fact that they became such is of the
+utmost importance in mediæval history, for by being what the papacy
+regarded as true Christians rather than heretics they began from the
+start to be looked to by the popes for support. Their kings in time
+became the greatest secular champions of papal interests, though
+relations were sometimes far from harmonious. This virtual alliance of
+the popes and the Frankish kings is a subject which will repay careful
+study.
+
+     Source--Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, _Historia
+     Ecclesiastica Francorum_ [Gregory of Tours, "Ecclesiastical
+     History of the Franks"], Bk. II., Chaps. 27-43 _passim_. Text
+     in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores Rerum
+     Merovingicarum_, Vol. I., Part 1, pp. 88-89, 90-95, 98-100,
+     158-159.
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle of Soissons (486)]
+
+   =27.= After all these things Childeric[40] died and his son Clovis
+   ruled in his stead. In the fifth year of the new reign Syagrius,
+   son of Ægidius, was governing as king of the Romans in the town of
+   Soissons, where his father had held sway before him.[41] Clovis now
+   advanced against him with his kinsman Ragnachar, who also held a
+   kingdom, and gave him an opportunity to select a field of battle.
+   Syagrius did not hesitate, for he was not at all afraid to risk an
+   encounter. In the conflict which followed, however, the Roman soon
+   saw that his army was doomed to destruction; so, turning and
+   fleeing from the field, he made all haste to take refuge with King
+   Alaric at Toulouse.[42] Clovis then sent word to Alaric that he
+   must hand over the defeated king at once if he did not wish to
+   bring on war against himself. Fearing the anger of the Franks,
+   therefore, as the Goths continually do, Alaric bound Syagrius with
+   chains and delivered him to the messengers of King Clovis. As soon
+   as the latter had the prisoner in his possession he put him under
+   safe guard and, after seizing his kingdom, had him secretly
+   slain.[43]
+
+     [Sidenote: The story of the broken vase]
+
+   At this time the army of Clovis plundered many churches, for the
+   king was still sunk in the errors of idolatry. Upon one occasion
+   the soldiers carried away from a church, along with other ornaments
+   of the sacred place, a remarkably large and beautiful vase. The
+   bishop of that church sent messengers to the king to ask that, even
+   if none of the other holy vessels might be restored, this precious
+   vase at least might be sent back. To the messengers Clovis could
+   only reply: "Come with us to Soissons, for there all the booty is
+   to be divided. If when we cast lots the vase shall fall to me, I
+   will return it as the bishop desires."
+
+   When they had reached Soissons and all the booty had been brought
+   together in the midst of the army the king called attention to the
+   vase and said, "I ask you, most valiant warriors, to allow me to
+   have the vase in addition to my rightful share." Then even those of
+   his men who were most self-willed answered: "O glorious king, all
+   things before us are thine, and we ourselves are subject to thy
+   control. Do, therefore, what pleases thee best, for no one is able
+   to resist thee." But when they had thus spoken, one of the
+   warriors, an impetuous, jealous, and vain man, raised his battle-ax
+   aloft and broke the vase in pieces, crying as he did so, "Thou
+   shalt receive no part of this booty unless it fall to you by a fair
+   lot." And at such a rash act they were all astounded.
+
+     [Sidenote: Clovis's revenge]
+
+   The king pretended not to be angry and seemed to take no notice of
+   the incident, and when it happened that the broken vase fell to him
+   by lot he gave the fragments to the bishop's messengers;
+   nevertheless he cherished a secret indignation in his heart. A year
+   later he summoned all his soldiers to come fully armed to the
+   Campus Martius, so that he might make an inspection of his
+   troops.[44] After he had reviewed the whole army he finally came
+   across the very man who had broken the vase at Soissons. "No one,"
+   cried out the king to him, "carries his arms so awkwardly as thou;
+   for neither thy spear nor thy sword nor thy ax is ready for use,"
+   and he struck the ax out of the soldier's hands so that it fell to
+   the ground. Then when the man bent forward to pick it up the king
+   raised his own ax and struck him on the head, saying, "Thus thou
+   didst to the vase at Soissons." Having slain him, he dismissed the
+   others, filled with great fear....[45]
+
+     [Sidenote: Clovis decides to become a Christian (496)]
+
+   =30.= The queen did not cease urging the king to acknowledge the
+   true God and forsake idols, but all her efforts failed until at
+   length a war broke out with the Alemanni.[46] Then of necessity he
+   was compelled to confess what hitherto he had wilfully denied. It
+   happened that the two armies were in battle and there was great
+   slaughter.[47] The army of Clovis seemed about to be cut in pieces.
+   Then the king raised his hands fervently toward the heavens and,
+   breaking into tears, cried: "Jesus Christ, who Clotilde declares to
+   be the son of the living God, who it is said givest help to the
+   oppressed and victory to those who put their trust in thee, I
+   invoke thy marvellous help. If thou wilt give me victory over my
+   enemies and I prove that power which thy followers say they have
+   proved concerning thee, I will believe in thee and will be baptized
+   in thy name; for I have called upon my own gods and it is clear
+   that they have neglected to give me aid. Therefore I am convinced
+   that they have no power, for they do not help those who serve them.
+   I now call upon thee, and I wish to believe in thee, especially
+   that I may escape from my enemies." When he had offered this prayer
+   the Alemanni turned their backs and began to flee. And when they
+   learned that their king had been slain, they submitted at once to
+   Clovis, saying, "Let no more of our people perish, for we now
+   belong to you." When he had stopped the battle and praised his
+   soldiers for their good work, Clovis returned in peace to his
+   kingdom and told the queen how he had won the victory by calling on
+   the name of Christ. These events took place in the fifteenth year
+   of his reign.[48]
+
+   =31.= Then the queen sent secretly to the blessed Remigius, bishop
+   of Rheims, and asked him to bring to the king the gospel of
+   salvation. The bishop came to the court where, little by little, he
+   led Clovis to believe in the true God, maker of heaven and earth,
+   and to forsake the idols which could help neither him nor any one
+   else. "Willingly will I hear thee, O holy father," declared the
+   king at last, "but the people who are under my authority are not
+   ready to give up their gods. I will go and consult them about the
+   religion concerning which you speak." When he had come among them,
+   and before he had spoken a word, all the people, through the
+   influence of the divine power, cried out with one voice: "O
+   righteous king, we cast off our mortal gods and we are ready to
+   serve the God who Remigius tells us is immortal."
+
+     [Sidenote: The baptism of Clovis and his warriors]
+
+   When this was reported to the bishop he was beside himself with
+   joy, and he at once ordered the baptismal font to be prepared. The
+   streets were shaded with embroidered hangings; the churches were
+   adorned with white tapestries, exhaling sweet odors; perfumed
+   tapers gleamed; and all the temple of the baptistry was filled with
+   a heavenly odor, so that the people might well have believed that
+   God in His graciousness showered upon them the perfumes of
+   Paradise. Then Clovis, having confessed that the God of the Trinity
+   was all-powerful, was baptized in the name of the Father, and of
+   the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and was anointed with the holy oil
+   with the sign of the cross. More than three thousand of his
+   soldiers were baptized with him....
+
+   =35.= Now when Alaric, king of the Goths, saw that Clovis was
+   conquering many nations, he sent messengers to him, saying, "If it
+   please my brother, let us, with the favor of God, enter into an
+   alliance." Clovis at once declared his willingness to do as Alaric
+   suggested and the two kings met on an island in the Loire, near the
+   town of Amboise in the vicinity of Tours.[49] There they talked,
+   ate, and drank together, and after making mutual promises of
+   friendship they departed in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: Clovis resolves to take the Visigoths' lands in Gaul]
+
+   =37.= But Clovis said to his soldiers: "It is with regret that I
+   see the Arian heretics in possession of any part of Gaul. Let us,
+   with the help of God, march against them and, after having
+   conquered them, bring their country under our own control." This
+   proposal was received with favor by all the warriors and the army
+   started on the campaign, going towards Poitiers, where Alaric was
+   then staying. As a portion of the troops passed through the
+   territory about Tours, Clovis, out of respect for the holy St.
+   Martin, forbade his soldiers to take anything from the country
+   except grass for the horses. One soldier, having come across some
+   hay which belonged to a poor man said, "Has, then, the king given
+   us permission to take only grass? O well! hay is grass. To take it
+   would not be to violate the command." And by force he took the hay
+   away from the poor man. When, however, the matter was brought to
+   the king's attention he struck the offender with his sword and
+   killed him, saying, "How, indeed, may we hope for victory if we
+   give offense to St. Martin?" This was enough thereafter to prevent
+   the army from plundering in that country.
+
+     [Sidenote: Miraculous incidents of the campaign]
+
+   When Clovis arrived with his forces at the banks of the Vienne he
+   was at a loss to know where to cross, because the heavy rains had
+   swollen the stream. During the night he prayed that the Lord would
+   reveal to him a passage. The following morning, under the guidance
+   of God, a doe of wondrous size entered the river in plain sight of
+   the army and crossed by a ford, thus pointing out the way for the
+   soldiers to get over. When they were in the neighborhood of
+   Poitiers the king saw at some distance from his tent a ball of
+   fire, which proceeded from the steeple of the church of St.
+   Hilary[50] and seemed to him to advance in his direction, as if to
+   show that by the aid of the light of the holy St. Hilary he would
+   triumph the more easily over the heretics against whom the pious
+   priest had himself often fought for the faith. Clovis then forbade
+   his army to molest any one or to pillage any property in that part
+   of the country.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Visigoths defeated by Clovis (507)]
+
+   Clovis at length engaged in battle with Alaric, king of the Goths,
+   in the plain of Vouillé at the tenth mile-stone from Poitiers.[51]
+   The Goths fought with javelins, but the Franks charged upon them
+   with lances. Then the Goths took to flight, as is their custom,[52]
+   and the victory, with the aid of God, fell to Clovis. He had put
+   the Goths to flight and killed their king, Alaric, when all at once
+   two soldiers bore down upon him and struck him with lances on both
+   sides at once; but, owing to the strength of his armor and the
+   swiftness of his horse, he escaped death. After the battle
+   Amalaric, son of Alaric, took refuge in Spain and ruled wisely over
+   the kingdom of his father.[53] Alaric had reigned twenty-two years.
+   Clovis, after spending the winter at Bordeaux and carrying from
+   Toulouse all the treasure of the king, advanced on Angoulême. There
+   the Lord showed him such favor that at his very approach the walls
+   of the city fell down of their own accord.[54] After driving out
+   the Goths he brought the place under his own authority. Thus,
+   crowned with victory, he returned to Tours and bestowed a great
+   number of presents upon the holy church of the blessed Martin.[55]
+
+     [Sidenote: Other means by which Clovis extended his power]
+
+   =40.= Now while Clovis was living at Paris he sent secretly to the
+   son of Sigibert,[56] saying: "Behold now your father is old and
+   lame. If he should die his kingdom would come to you and my
+   friendship with it." So the son of Sigibert, impelled by his
+   ambition, planned to slay his father. And when Sigibert set out
+   from Cologne and crossed the Rhine to go through the Buchonian
+   forest,[57] his son had him slain by assassins while he was
+   sleeping in his tent, in order that he might gain the kingdom for
+   himself. But by the judgment of God he fell into the pit which he
+   had digged for his father. He sent messengers to Clovis to announce
+   the death of his father and to say: "My father is dead and I have
+   his treasures, and likewise the kingdom. Now send trusted men to
+   me, that I may give them for you whatever you would like out of his
+   treasury." Clovis replied: "I thank you for your kindness and will
+   ask you merely to show my messengers all your treasures, after
+   which you may keep them yourself." And when the messengers of
+   Clovis came, the son of Sigibert showed them the treasures which
+   his father had collected. And while they were looking at various
+   things, he said: "My father used to keep his gold coins in this
+   little chest." And they said, "Put your hand down to the bottom,
+   that you may show us everything." But when he stooped to do this,
+   one of the messengers struck him on the head with his battle-ax,
+   and thus he met the fate which he had visited upon his father.
+
+   Now when Clovis heard that both Sigibert and his son were dead, he
+   came to that place and called the people together and said to them:
+   "Hear what has happened. While I was sailing on the Scheldt River,
+   Cloderic, son of Sigibert, my relative, attacked his father,
+   pretending that I had wished him to slay him. And so when his
+   father fled through the Buchonian forest, the assassins of Cloderic
+   set upon him and slew him. But while Cloderic was opening his
+   father's treasure chest, some man unknown to me struck him down. I
+   am in no way guilty of these things, for I could not shed the blood
+   of my relatives, which is very wicked. But since these things have
+   happened, if it seems best to you, I advise you to unite with me
+   and come under my protection." And those who heard him applauded
+   his speech, and, raising him on a shield, acknowledged him as their
+   king. Thus Clovis gained the kingdom of Sigibert and his treasures,
+   and won over his subjects to his own rule. For God daily confounded
+   his enemies and increased his kingdom, because he walked uprightly
+   before Him and did that which was pleasing in His sight.
+
+     [Sidenote: The removal of remaining rivals]
+
+   =42.= Then Clovis made war on his relative Ragnachar.[58] And when
+   the latter saw that his army was defeated, he attempted to flee;
+   but his own men seized him and his brother Richar and brought them
+   bound before Clovis. Then Clovis said: "Why have you disgraced our
+   family by allowing yourself to be taken prisoner? It would have
+   been better for you had you been slain." And, raising his
+   battle-ax, he slew him. Then, turning to Richar, he said, "If you
+   had aided your brother he would not have been taken;" and he slew
+   him with the ax also. Thus by their death Clovis took their kingdom
+   and treasures. And many other kings and relatives of his, who he
+   feared might take his kingdom from him, were slain, and his
+   dominion was extended over all Gaul.
+
+     [Sidenote: The death of Clovis (511)]
+
+   =43.= And after these things he died at Paris and was buried in the
+   basilica of the holy saints which he and his queen, Clotilde, had
+   built. He passed away in the fifth year after the battle of
+   Vouillé, and all the days of his reign were thirty years.
+
+
+7. The Law of the Salian Franks
+
+When the Visigoths, Lombards, and other Germanic peoples settled
+within the bounds of the Roman Empire they had no such thing as
+written law. They had laws, and a goodly number of them, but these
+laws were handed down from generation to generation orally, having
+never been enacted by a legislative body or decreed by a monarch in
+the way that laws are generally made among the civilized peoples of
+to-day. In other words, early Germanic law consisted simply of an
+accumulation of the immemorial custom of the tribe. When, for example,
+a certain penalty had been paid on several occasions by persons who
+had committed a particular crime, men came naturally to regard that
+penalty as the one regularly to be paid by _any one_ proved guilty of
+the same offense; so that what was at first only habit gradually
+became hardened into law--unwritten indeed, but none the less binding.
+The law thus made up, moreover, was personal rather than territorial
+like that of the Romans and like ours to-day. That is, the same laws
+did not apply to all the people throughout any particular country or
+region. If a man were born a Visigoth he would be subject to
+Visigothic law throughout life, no matter where he might go to live.
+So the Burgundian would always have the right to be judged by
+Burgundian law, and the Lombard by the Lombard law. Obviously, in
+regions where several peoples dwelt side by side, as in large portions
+of Gaul, Spain, and northern Italy, there was no small amount of
+confusion and the courts had to be conducted in a good many different
+ways.
+
+After the Germans had been for some time in contact with the Romans
+they began to be considerably influenced by the customs and ways of
+doing things which they found among the more civilized people. They
+tried to master the Latin language, though, on the whole, they
+succeeded only so well as to create the new "Romance" tongues which we
+know as French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. They adopted the
+Roman religion, i.e., Christianity. And, among the most important
+things of all, they took up the Roman idea of having their law written
+out rather than in the uncertain shape of mere tradition. In this work
+of putting the old customary law in written form the way was led by
+the Salian branch of the Franks. Just when the Salic code was drawn up
+is not known, but the work was certainly done at some time during the
+reign of Clovis, probably about the year 496. The portions of this
+code which are given below will serve to show the general character of
+all the early Germanic systems of law--Visigothic, Lombard,
+Burgundian, and Frisian, as well as Frankish; for among them all there
+was much uniformity in principles, though considerable variation in
+matters of detail. Like the rest, the Salic law was fragmentary. The
+codes were not intended to embrace the entire law of the tribe, but
+simply to bring together in convenient form those portions which were
+most difficult to remember and which were most useful for ready
+reference. In the Salic code, for instance, we find a large amount of
+criminal law and of the law of procedure, but only a few touches of
+the law of property, or indeed of civil law of any sort. There is
+practically nothing in the way of public or administrative law. Many
+things are not mentioned which we should expect to find treated and,
+on the other hand, some things are there which we should not look for
+ordinarily in a code of law. The greater portion is taken up with an
+enumeration of penalties for various crimes and wrongful acts. These
+are often detailed so minutely as to be rather amusing from our modern
+point of view. Yet every one of the sixty-five chapters of the code
+has its significance and from the whole law can be gleaned an immense
+amount of information concerning the manner of life which prevailed in
+early Frankish Gaul. For the Merovingian period in general the Salic
+law is our most valuable documentary source of knowledge, just as for
+the same epoch the _Ecclesiastical History_ of Gregory of Tours is our
+most important narrative source.
+
+     Source--Text in Heinrich Geffcken, _Lex Salica_ ["The Salic
+     Law"], Leipzig, 1898; also Heinrich Gottfried Gengler,
+     _Germanische Rechtsdenkmäler_ ["Monuments of German Law"],
+     Erlangen, 1875, pp. 267-303. Adapted from translation in
+     Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical Documents of the
+     Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 176-189.
+
+   I.
+
+   =1.= If any one be summoned before the _mallus_[59] by the king's
+   law, and do not come, he shall be sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which
+   make 15 _solidi_.[60]
+
+     [Sidenote: Summonses to the meetings of the local courts]
+
+   =2.= But he who summons another, and does not come himself, if a
+   lawful impediment have not delayed him, shall be sentenced to 15
+   _solidi_, to be paid to him whom he summoned.
+
+   =3.= And he who summons another shall go with witnesses to the home
+   of that man, and, if he be not at home, shall enjoin the wife, or
+   any one of the family, to make known to him that he has been
+   summoned to court.
+
+   =4.= But if he be occupied in the king's service he cannot summon
+   him.
+
+   =5.= And if he shall be inside the hundred attending to his own
+   affairs, he can summon him in the manner just explained.
+
+   XI.
+
+   =1.= If any freeman steal, outside of a house, something worth 2
+   _denarii_, he shall be sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which make 15
+   _solidi_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Theft by a slave]
+
+   =2.= But if he steal, outside of a house, something worth 40
+   _denarii_, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced, besides
+   the amount and the fines for delay, to 1,400 _denarii_, which make
+   35 _solidi_.
+
+   =3.= If a freeman break into a house and steal something worth 2
+   _denarii_, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 15
+   _solidi_.
+
+   =4.= But if he shall have stolen something worth more than 5
+   _denarii_, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced, besides
+   the value of the object and the fines for delay, to 1,400
+   _denarii_, which make 35 _solidi_.
+
+   =5.= But if he shall have broken, or tampered with, the lock, and
+   thus have entered the house and stolen anything from it, he shall
+   be sentenced, besides the value of the object and the fines for
+   delay, to 1,800 _denarii_, which make 45 _solidi_.
+
+   =6.= And if he shall have taken nothing, or have escaped by flight,
+   he shall, for the housebreaking alone, be sentenced to 1,200
+   _denarii_, which make 30 _solidi_.
+
+   XII.
+
+     [Sidenote: Theft by a freeman]
+
+   =1.= If a slave steal, outside of a house, something worth 2
+   _denarii_, besides paying the value of the object and the fines for
+   delay, he shall be stretched out and receive 120 blows.
+
+   =2.= But if he steal something worth 40 _denarii_, he shall pay 6
+   _solidi_. The lord of the slave who committed the theft shall
+   restore to the plaintiff the value of the object and the fines for
+   delay.
+
+   XIV.
+
+     [Sidenote: Robbery with assault]
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have assaulted and robbed a freeman, and it
+   be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which
+   make 63 _solidi_.
+
+   =2.= If a Roman shall have robbed a Salian Frank, the above law
+   shall be observed.
+
+   =3.= But if a Frank shall have robbed a Roman, he shall be
+   sentenced to 35 _solidi_.
+
+   XV.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crime of incendiarism]
+
+   =1.= If any one shall set fire to a house in which people were
+   sleeping, as many freemen as were in it can make complaint before
+   the _mallus_; and if any one shall have been burned in it, the
+   incendiary shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which make 63
+   _solidi_.[61]
+
+   XVII.
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have sought to kill another person, and the
+   blow shall have missed, he on whom it was proved shall be sentenced
+   to 2,500 _denarii_, which make 63 _solidi_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Various deeds of violence]
+
+   =2.= If any person shall have sought to shoot another with a
+   poisoned arrow, and the arrow has glanced aside, and it shall be
+   proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which make
+   63 _solidi_.
+
+   5. If any one shall have struck a man so that blood falls to the
+   floor, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 600
+   _denarii_, which make 15 _solidi_.
+
+   =6.= But if a freeman strike a freeman with his fist so that blood
+   does not flow, he shall be sentenced for each blow--up to 3
+   blows--to 120 _denarii_, which make 3 _solidi_.[62]
+
+   XIX.
+
+     [Sidenote: Use of poison or witchcraft]
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have given herbs to another, so that he die,
+   he shall be sentenced to 200 _solidi_, or shall surely be given
+   over to fire.
+
+   =2.= If any person shall have bewitched another, and he who was
+   thus treated shall escape, the author of the crime, having been
+   proved guilty of it, shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which
+   make 63 _solidi_.
+
+   XXX.
+
+     [Sidenote: Punishment for slander]
+
+   =6.= If any man shall have brought it up against another that he
+   has thrown away his shield, and shall not have been able to prove
+   it, he shall be sentenced to 120 _denarii_, which make 3
+   _solidi_.[63]
+
+   =7.= If any man shall have called another "gossip" or "perjurer,"
+   and shall not have been able to prove it, he shall be sentenced to
+   600 _denarii_, which make 15 _solidi_.
+
+   XXXIV.
+
+   =1.= If any man shall have cut 3 staves by which a fence is bound
+   or held together, or shall have stolen or cut the heads of 3
+   stakes, he shall be sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which make 15
+   _solidi_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The offense of trespass]
+
+   =2.= If any one shall have drawn a harrow through another's field
+   of grain after the seed has sprouted, or shall have gone through it
+   with a wagon where there was no road, he shall be sentenced to 120
+   _denarii_, which make 3 _solidi_.
+
+   =3.= If any one shall have gone, where there is no road or path,
+   through another's field after the grain has grown tall, he shall be
+   sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which make 15 _solidi_.
+
+   XLI.
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have killed a free Frank, or a barbarian
+   living under the Salic law, and it shall have been proved on him,
+   he shall be sentenced to 8,000 _denarii_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Punishments for homicide]
+
+   =2.= But if he shall have thrown him into a well or into the water,
+   or shall have covered him with branches or anything else, to
+   conceal him, he shall be sentenced to 24,000 _denarii_, which make
+   600 _solidi_.
+
+   =3.= If any one shall have slain a man who is in the service of the
+   king, he shall be sentenced to 24,000 _denarii_, which make 600
+   _solidi_.[64]
+
+   =4.= But if he shall have put him in the water, or in a well, and
+   covered him with anything to conceal him, he shall be sentenced to
+   72,000 _denarii_, which make 1,000 _solidi_.
+
+   =5.= If any one shall have slain a Roman who eats in the king's
+   palace, and it shall have been proved on him, he shall be sentenced
+   to 12,000 _denarii_, which make 300 _solidi_.[65]
+
+   =6.= But if the Roman shall not have been a landed proprietor and
+   table companion of the king, he who killed him shall be sentenced
+   to 4,000 _denarii_, which make 100 _solidi_.
+
+   =7.= If he shall have killed a Roman who was obliged to pay
+   tribute, he shall be sentenced to 63 _solidi_.
+
+   =9.= If any one shall have thrown a freeman into a well, and he has
+   escaped alive, he [the criminal] shall be sentenced to 4,000
+   _denarii_, which make 100 _solidi_.
+
+   XLV.
+
+     [Sidenote: Right of migration]
+
+   =1.= If any one desires to migrate to another village, and if one
+   or more who live in that village do not wish to receive him--even
+   if there be only one who objects--he shall not have the right to
+   move there.
+
+   =3.= But if any one shall have moved there, and within 12 months no
+   one has given him warning, he shall remain as secure as the other
+   neighbors.
+
+   L.
+
+     [Sidenote: Enforcement of debt]
+
+   1. If any freeman or leet[66] shall have made to another a promise
+   to pay, then he to whom the promise was made shall, within 40 days,
+   or within such time as was agreed upon when he made the promise, go
+   to the house of that man with witnesses, or with appraisers. And if
+   he [the debtor] be unwilling to make the promised payment, he shall
+   be sentenced to 15 _solidi_ above the debt which he had promised.
+
+   LIX.
+
+   =1.= If any man die and leave no sons, the father and mother shall
+   inherit, if they survive.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rights of inheritance]
+
+   =2.= If the father and mother do not survive, and he leave brothers
+   or sisters, they shall inherit.
+
+   =3.= But if there are none, the sisters of the father shall
+   inherit.
+
+   =4.= But if there are no sisters of the father, the sisters of the
+   mother shall claim the inheritance.
+
+   =5.= If there are none of these, the nearest relatives on the
+   father's side shall succeed to the inheritance.
+
+   =6.= Of Salic land no portion of the inheritance shall go to a
+   woman; but the whole inheritance of the land shall belong to the
+   male sex.[67]
+
+   LXII.
+
+     [Sidenote: Payment of wergeld]
+
+   =1.= If any one's father shall have been slain, the sons shall have
+   half the compounding money [wergeld]; and the other half, the
+   nearest relatives, as well on the mother's as on the father's side,
+   shall divide among themselves.[68]
+
+   =2.= But if there are no relatives, paternal or maternal, that
+   portion shall go to the fisc.[69]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39] St. Martin was born in Pannonia somewhat before the middle of the
+fourth century. For a time he followed his father's profession as a
+soldier in the service of the Roman emperor, but later he went to Gaul
+with the purpose of aiding in the establishment of the Christian
+Church in that quarter. In 372 he was elected bishop of Tours and
+shortly afterwards he founded the monastery with which his name was
+destined to be associated throughout the Middle Ages. This monastery,
+which was one of the earliest in western Europe, became a very
+important factor in the prolonged combat with Gallic paganism, and
+subsequently a leading center of ecclesiastical learning.
+
+[40] Childeric I., son of the more or less mythical Merovius, was king
+from 457 to 481. Clovis became ruler of the Salian branch of the
+Franks in this latter year. The tomb of Childeric was discovered at
+Tournai in 1653.
+
+[41] Ægidius and his son Syagrius were the last official
+representatives of the Roman imperial power in Gaul; and since the
+fall of the Empire in the West even they had taken the title of "king
+of the Romans" and had been practically independent sovereigns in the
+territory between the Somme and the Loire, with their capital at
+Soissons, northeast of Paris.
+
+[42] Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 485-507.
+
+[43] The battle of Soissons in 486, with the defeat and death of
+Syagrius, insured for the Franks undisputed possession southward to
+the Loire, which was the northern frontier of the Visigothic kingdom.
+
+[44] The Campus Martius was the "March-field," i.e., the assembling
+place of the Frankish army. It was not regularly in any one locality
+but wherever the king might call the soldiers together, as he did
+every spring for purposes of review. In the eighth century the month
+of May was substituted for March as the time for the meeting.
+
+[45] In the words of Hodgkin (_Charles the Great_, p. 12), "the
+well-known story of the vase of Soissons illustrates at once the
+German memories of freedom and the Merovingian mode of establishing a
+despotism. As a battle comrade the Frankish warrior protests against
+Clovis receiving an ounce beyond his due share of the spoils. As a
+battle leader Clovis rebukes his henchman for the dirtiness of his
+accoutrements, and cleaves his skull to punish him for his
+independence."
+
+[46] The Alemanni were a German people occupying a vast region about
+the upper waters of the Rhine and Danube. They had been making
+repeated efforts to acquire territory west of the Rhine--an
+encroachment which Clovis resolved not to tolerate.
+
+[47] The battle was fought near Strassburg, in the upper Rhine valley.
+
+[48] The ultimate result of the defeat of the Alemanni was that the
+Frankish kingdom was enlarged by the annexation of the great region
+known in the later Middle Ages as Suabia, comprising modern Alsace,
+Baden, Würtemberg, the western part of Bavaria, and the northern part
+of Switzerland. The Alemanni as a people disappeared speedily from
+history, being absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. Their only
+monument to-day is the name by which the French have always known the
+people of Germany--_Allemands_.
+
+[49] The Loire was the boundary between the dominions of the two
+kings. There have been many famous instances in history of two
+sovereigns coming together to confer at some point on the common
+border of the territories controlled by them, notably the interview of
+Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I. on the Niemen River in 1807. The Franks
+and the Visigoths had been enemies ever since by Clovis's defeat of
+Syagrius their dominions had been brought into contact (486), and the
+present jovial interview of the two kings did not long keep them at
+peace with each other.
+
+[50] St. Hilary was bishop of Poitiers in the later fourth century. He
+was a contemporary of St. Martin of Tours and a co-worker with him in
+the organization of Gallic Christianity.
+
+[51] The plain of Vouillé was ten miles west of Poitiers.
+
+[52] This amusing comment of Gregory was due largely to his prejudice
+in favor of the Franks and against the heretical Visigoths.
+
+[53] The Visigothic kingdom in Spain, with its capital at Toledo,
+endured until the Saracen conquest of that country in 711 and the
+years immediately following, but it did not give evidence of much
+strength. It stood so long only because the Pyrenees made a natural
+boundary against the Franks and because, after Clovis, for two hundred
+years the Franks produced no great conqueror who cared to crowd the
+Visigoths into still closer quarters.
+
+[54] Clovis, particularly after his conversion to Christianity in 496,
+was the hero of Gregory's history and apparently the enthusiastic old
+bishop did not lose an opportunity to glorify his career. At any rate
+it would certainly be difficult to relate anything more remarkable
+about him than this legend of the walls of Angoulême falling down
+before him at his mere approach.
+
+[55] This notable campaign had advanced Frankish territory to the
+Pyrenees, except for the strip between these mountains and the Rhone,
+known as Septimania, which the Visigoths were able to retain by the
+aid of the Ostrogoths from Italy. No great number of Franks settled in
+this broad territory south of the Loire, and to this day the
+inhabitants of south France show a much larger measure of Roman
+descent than do those of the north. It may be added that Septimania
+was conquered by Clovis's son Childebert in 531, and thus the last bit
+of old Gaul--practically modern France--was brought under Frankish
+control.
+
+[56] This was Cloderic, son of Sigibert the Lame, king of a tribe of
+Franks living along the middle Rhine. Sigibert was one of the numerous
+independent and rival princes whom Clovis used every expedient to put
+out of the way.
+
+[57] Along the Upper Weser, near the monastery of Fulda.
+
+[58] Ragnachar's kingdom was in the region about Cambrai.
+
+[59] The _mallus_ was the local court held about every six weeks in
+each community or hundred. In early German law the state has small
+place and the principle of self-help by the individual is very
+prominent. To bring a suit one summons his opponent himself and gets
+him to appear at court if he can. Ordinarily the court merely
+determines the method by which the guilt or innocence of the accused
+may be tested. Execution of the sentence rests again with the
+plaintiff, or with his family or clan group.
+
+[60] "The monetary system of the Salic law was taken from the Romans.
+The basis was the gold _solidus_ of Constantine, 1/72 of a pound of
+gold. The small coin was the silver _denarius_, forty of which made a
+_solidus_. This system was adopted as a monetary reform by Clovis, and
+the statement of the sum in terms of both coins is probably due to the
+newness of the system at the time of the appearance of the
+law."--Thatcher and McNeal, _Source Book for Mediæval History_, p. 17.
+The gold _solidus_ was worth somewhere from two and a half to three
+dollars, but its purchasing power was perhaps equal to that of twenty
+dollars to-day, because gold and silver were then so much scarcer and
+more valuable. Such estimates of purchasing power, however, involve so
+great uncertainty as to be practically worthless.
+
+[61] The Burgundian law (Chap. 41) contained a provision that if a man
+made a fire on his own premises and it spread to fences or crops
+belonging to another person, and did damage, the man who made the fire
+should recompense his neighbor for his loss, provided it could be
+shown that there was no wind to drive the fire beyond control. If
+there was such a wind, no penalty was to be exacted.
+
+[62] The law of the Lombards had a more elaborate system of fines for
+wounds than did the Salic code. For example, knocking out a man's
+front teeth was to be paid for at the rate of sixteen _solidi_ per
+tooth; knocking out back teeth at the rate of eight _solidi_ per
+tooth; fracturing an arm, sixteen _solidi_; cutting off a second
+finger, seventeen _solidi_; cutting off a great toe, six _solidi_;
+cutting off a little toe, two _solidi_; giving a blow with the fist,
+three _solidi_; with the palm of the hand, six _solidi_; and striking
+a person on the head so as to break bones, twelve _solidi_ per bone.
+In the latter case the broken bones were to be counted "on this
+principle, that one bone shall be found large enough to make an
+audible sound when thrown against a shield at twelve feet distance on
+the road; the said feet to be measured from the foot of a man of
+moderate stature."
+
+[63] The man who had "thrown away his shield" was the coward who had
+fled from the field of battle. How the Germans universally regarded
+such a person appears in the _Germania_ of Tacitus, Chap. 6 (see p.
+25). To impute this ignominy to a man was a serious matter.
+
+[64] This was the so-called "triple wergeld." That is, the lives of
+men in the service of the king were rated three times as high as those
+of ordinary free persons.
+
+[65] Here is an illustration of the personal character of Germanic
+law. There is one law for the Frank and another for the Roman, though
+both peoples were now living side by side in Gaul. The price put upon
+the life of the Frankish noble who was in the king's service was 600
+_solidi_ (§ 3), but that on the life of the Roman noble in the same
+service was but half that amount. The same proportion held for the
+ordinary freemen, as will be seen by comparing §§ 1 and 6.
+
+[66] A leet was such a person as we in modern times commonly designate
+as a serf--a man only partially free.
+
+[67] This has been alleged to be the basis of the misnamed "Salic Law"
+by virtue of which no woman, in the days of the French monarchy, was
+permitted to inherit the throne. As a matter of fact, however, the
+exclusion of women from the French throne was due, not to this or to
+any other early Frankish principle, but to later circumstances which
+called for stronger monarchs in France than women have ordinarily been
+expected to be. The history of the modern "Salic Law" does not go back
+of the resolution of the French nobles in 1317 against the general
+political expediency of female sovereigns [see p. 420].
+
+[68] The wergeld was the value put by the law upon every man's life.
+Its amount varied according to the rank of the person in question. The
+present section specifies how the wergeld paid by a murderer should be
+divided among the relatives of the slain man.
+
+[69] That is, to the king's treasury.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN
+
+
+8. The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)
+
+The Venerable Bede, the author of the passage given below, was born
+about 673 in Northumberland and spent most of his life in the
+Benedictine abbey of Jarrow on the Tyne, where he died in 735. He was
+a man of broad learning and untiring industry, famous in all parts of
+Christendom by reason of the numerous scholarly books that he wrote.
+The chief of these was his _Ecclesiastical History of the English
+People_, covering the period from the first invasion of Britain by
+Cæsar (B.C. 55) to the year 731. In this work Bede dealt with many
+matters lying properly outside the sphere of church history, so that
+it is exceedingly valuable for the light which it throws on both the
+military and political affairs of the early Anglo-Saxons in Britain.
+As an historian Bede was fair-minded and as accurate as his means of
+information permitted.
+
+The Angle and Saxon seafarers from the region we now know as Denmark
+and Hanover had infested the shores of Britain for two centuries or
+more before the coming of Hengist and Horsa which Bede here describes.
+The withdrawal of the Roman garrisons about the year 410 left the
+Britons at the mercy of the wilder Picts and Scots of the north and
+west, and as a last resort King Vortigern decided to call in the
+Saxons to aid in his campaign of defense. Such, at least, is the story
+related by Gildas, a Romanized British chronicler who wrote about the
+year 560, and this was the view adopted by Bede. Recent writers, as
+Mr. James H. Ramsay in his _Foundations of England_, are inclined to
+cast serious doubts upon the story because it seems hardly probable
+that any king would have taken so foolish a step as that attributed to
+Vortigern.[70] At any rate, whether by invitation or for pure love of
+seafaring adventure, certain it is that the Saxons and Angles made
+their appearance at the little island of Thanet, on the coast of Kent,
+and found the country so much to their liking that they chose to
+remain rather than return to the over-populated shores of the Baltic.
+There are many reasons for believing that people of Germanic stock had
+been settled more or less permanently in Britain long before the
+traditional invasion of Hengist and Horsa. Yet we are justified in
+thinking of this interesting expedition as, for all practical
+purposes, the beginning of the long and stubborn struggle of Germans
+to possess the fruitful British isle. While Visigoths and Ostrogoths,
+Vandals and Lombards were breaking across the Rhine-Danube frontier
+and finding new homes in the territories of the Roman Empire, the
+Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from the farther north were led by their
+seafaring instincts to make their great movement, not by land, but by
+water, and into a country which the Romans had a good while before
+been obliged to abandon. There they were free to develop their own
+peculiar Germanic life and institutions, for the most part without
+undergoing the changes which settlement among the Romans produced in
+the case of the tribes whose migrations were towards the
+Mediterranean.
+
+     Source--Bæda, _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ [Bede,
+     "Ecclesiastical History of the English People"], Bk. I.,
+     Chaps. 14-15. Translated by J. A. Giles (London, 1847), pp.
+     23-25.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Britons decide to call in the Saxons]
+
+   They consulted what was to be done,[71] and where they should seek
+   assistance to prevent or repel the cruel and frequent incursions of
+   the northern nations. And they all agreed with their king,
+   Vortigern, to call over to their aid, from the parts beyond the
+   sea, the Saxon nation; which, as the outcome still more plainly
+   showed, appears to have been done by the inspiration of our Lord
+   Himself, that evil might fall upon them for their wicked deeds.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Saxons settle in the island]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 449,[72] Martian, being made emperor with
+   Valentinian, the forty-sixth from Augustus, ruled the Empire seven
+   years. Then the nation of the Angles, or Saxons, being invited by
+   the aforesaid king, arrived in Britain with three long ships, and
+   had a place assigned them to reside in by the same king, in the
+   eastern part of the island,[73] that they might thus appear to be
+   fighting for their country, while their real intentions were to
+   enslave it. Accordingly they engaged with the enemy, who were come
+   from the north to give battle, and obtained the victory; which,
+   being known at home in their own country, as also the fertility of
+   the islands and the cowardice of the Britons, a larger fleet was
+   quickly sent over, bringing a still greater number of men, who,
+   being added to the former, made up an invincible army. The
+   newcomers received from the Britons a place to dwell, upon
+   condition that they should wage war against their enemies for the
+   peace and security of the country, while the Britons agreed to
+   furnish them with pay.
+
+   Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations of
+   Germany--Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are descended
+   the people of Kent and of the Isle of Wight, and those also in the
+   province of the West Saxons who are to this day called Jutes,
+   seated opposite to the Isle of Wight. From the Saxons, that is, the
+   country which is now called Old Saxony, came the East Saxons, the
+   South Saxons, and the West Saxons. From the Angles, that is, the
+   country which is called Anglia, and which is said, from that time,
+   to remain desert to this day, between the provinces of the Jutes
+   and the Saxons, are descended the East Angles, the Midland Angles,
+   Mercians, all the race of the Northumbrians, that is, of those
+   nations that dwell on the north side of the River Humber, and the
+   other nations of the English.
+
+     [Sidenote: Hengist and Horsa]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Saxons turn against the Britons]
+
+   The first two commanders are said to have been Hengist and Horsa.
+   Horsa, being afterwards slain in battle by the Britons,[74] was
+   buried in the eastern part of Kent, where a monument bearing his
+   name is still in existence. They were the sons of Victgilsus, whose
+   father was Vecta, son of Woden; from whose stock the royal races of
+   many provinces trace their descent. In a short time swarms of the
+   aforesaid nations came over into the island, and they began to
+   increase so much that they became a terror to the natives
+   themselves who had invited them. Then, having on a sudden entered
+   into a league with the Picts, whom they had by this time repelled
+   by the force of their arms, they began to turn their weapons
+   against their confederates. At first they obliged them to furnish a
+   greater quantity of provisions; and, seeking an occasion to
+   quarrel, protested that unless more plentiful supplies were brought
+   them they would break the confederacy and ravage all the island;
+   nor were they backward in putting their threats in execution.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their devastation of the country]
+
+   They plundered all the neighboring cities and country, spread the
+   conflagration from the eastern to the western sea without any
+   opposition, and covered almost every part of the island. Public as
+   well as private structures were overturned; the priests were
+   everywhere slain before the altars; the prelates and the people,
+   without any respect of persons, were destroyed with fire and sword;
+   nor were there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly
+   slaughtered. Some of the miserable remainder, being taken in the
+   mountains, were butchered in heaps. Others, driven by hunger, came
+   forth and submitted themselves to the enemy for food, being
+   destined to undergo perpetual servitude, if they were not killed
+   upon the spot. Some, with sorrowful hearts, fled beyond the seas.
+   Others, continuing in their own country, led a miserable life among
+   the woods, rocks, and mountains, with scarcely enough food to
+   support life, and expecting every moment to be their last.[75]
+
+
+9. The Mission of Augustine (597)
+
+How or when the Christian religion was first introduced into Britain
+cannot now be ascertained. As early as the beginning of the third
+century the African church father Tertullian referred to the Britons
+as a Christian people, and in 314 the British church was recognized by
+the Council of Arles as an integral part of the church universal.
+Throughout the period of Roman control in the island Christianity
+continued to be the dominant religion. When, however, in the fifth
+century and after, the Saxons and Angles invaded the country and the
+native population was largely killed off or driven westward (though
+not so completely as some books tell us), Christianity came to be
+pretty much confined to the Celtic peoples of Ireland and Wales. The
+invaders were still pagans worshiping the old Teutonic deities Woden,
+Thor, Freya, and the rest, and though an attempt at their conversion
+was made by a succession of Irish monks, their pride as conquerors
+seems to have kept them from being greatly influenced. At any rate,
+the conversion of the Angles and Saxons was a task which called for a
+special evangelistic movement from no less a source than the head of
+the Church. This movement was set in operation by Pope Gregory I.
+(Gregory the Great) near the close of the sixth century. It is
+reasonable to suppose that the impulse came originally from Bertha,
+the Frankish queen of King Ethelbert of Kent, who was an ardent
+Christian and very desirous of bringing about the conversion of her
+adopted people. In 596 Augustine (not to be confused with the
+celebrated bishop of Hippo in the fifth century) was sent by Pope
+Gregory at the head of a band of monks to proclaim the religion of the
+cross to King Ethelbert, and afterwards to all the Angles and Saxons
+and Jutes in the island. On Whitsunday, June 2, 597, Ethelbert
+renounced his old gods and was baptized into the Christian communion.
+The majority of his people soon followed his example and four years
+later Augustine was appointed "Bishop of the English." After this
+encouraging beginning the Christianizing of the East, West, and South
+Saxons went steadily forward.
+
+     Source--Bæda, _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_, Bk.
+     I., Chaps. 23, 25-26. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles
+     (London, 1847), pp. 34-40 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Pope Gregory I. sends missionaries to Britain]
+
+     [Sidenote: They become frightened at the outlook]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 582, Maurice, the fifty-fourth from
+   Augustus, ascended the throne,[76] and reigned twenty-one years. In
+   the tenth year of his reign, Gregory, a man renowned for learning
+   and piety, was elected to the apostolical see of Rome, and presided
+   over it thirteen years, six months and ten days.[77] He, being
+   moved by divine inspiration, in the fourteenth year of the same
+   emperor, and about the one hundred and fiftieth after the coming of
+   the English into Britain, sent the servant of God, Augustine,[78]
+   and with him several other monks who feared the Lord, to preach the
+   word of God to the English nation. They, in obedience to the Pope's
+   commands, having undertaken that work, were on their journey seized
+   with a sudden fear and began to think of returning home, rather
+   than of proceeding to a barbarous, fierce, and unbelieving nation,
+   to whose very language they were strangers; and this they
+   unanimously agreed was the safest course.[79] In short, they sent
+   back Augustine, who had been appointed to be consecrated bishop in
+   case they were received by the English, that he might, by humble
+   entreaty, obtain consent of the holy Gregory, that they should not
+   be compelled to undertake so dangerous, toilsome, and uncertain a
+   journey. The Pope, in reply, sent them an encouraging letter,
+   persuading them to proceed in the work of the divine word, and rely
+   on the assistance of the Almighty. The substance of this letter was
+   as follows:
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory's letter of encouragement]
+
+   "Gregory, the servant of the servants of God, to the servants of
+   our Lord. Forasmuch as it had been better not to begin a good work
+   than to think of abandoning that which has been begun, it behooves
+   you, my beloved sons, to fulfill the good work which, by the help
+   of our Lord, you have undertaken. Let not, therefore, the toil of
+   the journey nor the tongues of evil-speaking men deter you. With
+   all possible earnestness and zeal perform that which, by God's
+   direction, you have undertaken; being assured that much labor is
+   followed by an eternal reward. When Augustine, your chief, returns,
+   whom we also constitute your abbot,[80] humbly obey him in all
+   things; knowing that whatsoever you shall do by his direction will,
+   in all respects, be helpful to your souls. Almighty God protect you
+   with his grace, and grant that I, in the heavenly country, may see
+   the fruits of your labor; inasmuch as, though I cannot labor with
+   you, I shall partake in the joy of the reward, because I am willing
+   to labor. God keep you in safety, my most beloved sons. Dated the
+   23rd of July, in the fourteenth year of the reign of our pious and
+   most august lord, Mauritius Tiberius, the thirteenth year after the
+   consulship of our said lord."
+
+     [Sidenote: Augustine and his companions arrive in Kent]
+
+   Augustine, thus strengthened by the confirmation of the blessed
+   Father Gregory, returned to the work of the word of God, with the
+   servants of Christ, and arrived in Britain. The powerful Ethelbert
+   was at that time king of Kent. He had extended his dominions as far
+   as the great River Humber, by which the Southern Saxons are
+   divided from the Northern.[81] On the east of Kent is the large
+   isle of Thanet containing according to the English reckoning 600
+   families, divided from the other land by the River Wantsum, which
+   is about three furlongs over and fordable only in two places, for
+   both ends of it run into the sea.[82] In this island landed the
+   servant of our Lord, Augustine, and his companions, being, as is
+   reported, nearly forty men. By order of the blessed Pope Gregory,
+   they had taken interpreters of the nation of the Franks,[83] and
+   sending to Ethelbert, signified that they were come from Rome and
+   brought a joyful message, which most undoubtedly assured to all
+   that took advantage of it everlasting joys in heaven and a kingdom
+   that would never end, with the living and true God. The king,
+   having heard this, ordered that they stay in that island where they
+   had landed, and that they be furnished with all necessaries, until
+   he should consider what to do with them. For he had before heard of
+   the Christian religion, having a Christian wife of the royal family
+   of the Franks, called Bertha;[84] whom he had received from her
+   parents upon condition that she should be permitted to practice her
+   religion with the Bishop Luidhard, who was sent with her to
+   preserve her faith.[85]
+
+     [Sidenote: Augustine preaches to King Ethelbert]
+
+   Some days after, the king came to the island, and sitting in the
+   open air, ordered Augustine and his companions to be brought into
+   his presence. For he had taken precaution that they should not come
+   to him in any house, lest, according to an ancient superstition, if
+   they practised any magical arts, they might impose upon him, and so
+   get the better of him. But they came furnished with divine, not
+   with magic virtue, bearing a silver cross for their banner, and the
+   image of our Lord and Savior painted on a board; and singing the
+   litany, they offered up their prayers to the Lord for the eternal
+   salvation both of themselves and of those to whom they were come.
+   When Augustine had sat down, according to the king's commands, and
+   preached to him and his attendants there present the word of life,
+   the king answered thus: "Your words and promises are very fair, but
+   as they are new to us, and of uncertain import, I cannot approve of
+   them so far as to forsake that which I have so long followed with
+   the whole English nation. But because you are come from afar into
+   my kingdom, and, as I conceive, are desirous to impart to us those
+   things which you believe to be true and most beneficial, we will
+   not molest you, but give you favorable entertainment and take care
+   to supply you with necessary sustenance; nor do we forbid you to
+   preach and win as many as you can to your religion." Accordingly he
+   permitted them to reside in the city of Canterbury, which was the
+   metropolis of all his dominions, and, according to his promise,
+   besides allowing them sustenance, did not refuse them liberty to
+   preach. It is reported that, as they drew near to the city, after
+   their manner, with the holy cross and the image of our sovereign
+   Lord and King, Jesus Christ, they sang this litany together: "We
+   beseech thee, O Lord, in all Thy mercy, that Thy anger and wrath be
+   turned away from this city, and from Thy holy house, because we
+   have sinned. Hallelujah."
+
+     [Sidenote: The life of the missionaries at Canterbury]
+
+   As soon as they entered the dwelling-place assigned them, they
+   began to imitate the course of life practised in the primitive
+   Church; applying themselves to frequent prayer, watching, and
+   fasting; preaching the word of life to as many as they could;
+   despising all worldly things as not belonging to them; receiving
+   only their necessary food from those they taught; living themselves
+   in all respects in conformity with what they prescribed for others,
+   and being always disposed to suffer any adversity, and even to die
+   for that truth which they preached. In short, several believed and
+   were baptized, admiring the simplicity of their innocent life, and
+   the sweetness of their heavenly doctrine. There was, on the east
+   side of the city, a church dedicated to the honor of St. Martin,
+   built whilst the Romans were still in the island, wherein the
+   queen, who, as has been said before, was a Christian, used to
+   pray.[86] In this they first began to meet, to sing, to pray, to
+   say mass, to preach, and to baptize, until the king, being
+   converted to the faith, allowed them to preach openly, and build or
+   repair churches in all places.
+
+     [Sidenote: Ethelbert converted]
+
+   When he, among the rest, induced by the unspotted life of these
+   holy men, and their pleasing promises, which by many miracles they
+   proved to be most certain, believed and was baptized, greater
+   numbers began daily to flock together to hear the word, and
+   forsaking their heathen rites, to associate themselves, by
+   believing, to the unity of the church of Christ. Their conversion
+   the king encouraged in so far that he compelled none to embrace
+   Christianity, but only showed more affection to the believers, as
+   to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly kingdom. For he had learned
+   from his instructors and guides to salvation that the service of
+   Christ ought to be voluntary, not by compulsion. Nor was it long
+   before he gave his teachers a settled residence in his metropolis
+   of Canterbury, with such possessions of different kinds as were
+   necessary for their subsistence.[87]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[70] James H. Ramsay, _The Foundations of England_ (London, 1898), I.,
+p. 121.
+
+[71] Bede has just been describing a plague which rendered the Britons
+at this time even more unable than usual to withstand the fierce
+invaders from the north; also lamenting the luxury and crime which a
+few years of relief from war had produced among his people.
+
+[72] This date is evidently incorrect. Martian and Valentinian III.
+became joint rulers of the Empire in 450; hence this is the year that
+Bede probably meant.
+
+[73] That is, Thanet, which practically no longer exists as an island.
+In Bede's day it was separated from the rest of Kent by nearly half a
+mile of water, but since then the coast line has changed so that the
+land is cut through by only a tiny rill. The intervening ground,
+however, is marshy and only partially reclaimed.
+
+[74] This battle was fought between Hengist and Vortimer, the eldest
+son of Vortigern, at Aylesford, in Kent.
+
+[75] It is by no means probable that the invasion of Britain by the
+Saxons was followed by such wholesale extermination of the natives as
+is here represented, though it is certain that everywhere, except in
+the far west (Wales) and north (Scotland), the native population was
+reduced to complete subjection.
+
+[76] That is, the throne of the Eastern Empire at Constantinople.
+
+[77] Gregory was a monk before he was elected pope. He held the papal
+office from 590 to 604 [see p. 90].
+
+[78] Augustine at the time (596) was prior of a monastery dedicated to
+St. Andrew in Rome.
+
+[79] The missionaries had apparently gone as far as Arles in southern
+Provence when they reached this decision.
+
+[80] An abbot was the head of a monastery. Should such an
+establishment be set up in Britain, Augustine was to be its presiding
+officer.
+
+[81] The Germanic peoples north of the Humber were more properly
+Angles, but of course they were in all essential respects like the
+Saxons. Ethelbert was not actually king in that region, but was
+recognized as "bretwalda," or over-lord, by the other rulers.
+
+[82] For later changes in this part of the coast line, see p. 70,
+note 1.
+
+[83] This was possible because the Franks and Saxons, being both
+German, as yet spoke languages so much alike that either people could
+understand the other without much difficulty.
+
+[84] Bertha was a daughter of the Frankish king Charibert. The Franks
+had been nominally a Christian people since the conversion of Clovis
+in 496 [see p. 53]--just a hundred years before Augustine started on
+his mission to the Angles and Saxons.
+
+[85] Luidhard had been bishop of Senlis; a town not many miles
+northeast of Paris. Probably Augustine and his companions profited not
+a little by the influence which Luidhard had already exerted at the
+Kentish court.
+
+[86] "The present church of St. Martin near Canterbury is not the old
+one spoken of by Bede, as it is generally thought to be, but is a
+structure of the thirteenth century, though it is probable that the
+materials of the original church were worked up in the masonry in its
+reconstruction, the walls being still composed in part of Roman
+bricks."--J. A. Giles, _Bede's Ecclesiastical History_, p. 39.
+
+[87] Thus was established the "primacy," or ecclesiastical leadership,
+of Canterbury, which has continued to this day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
+
+
+10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy
+
+In tracing the history of the great ecclesiastical institution known
+as the papacy, the first figure that stands out with considerable
+clearness is that of Leo I., or Leo the Great, who was elected bishop
+of Rome in the year 440. Leo is perhaps the first man who, all things
+considered, can be called "pope" in the modern sense of the term,
+although certain of his predecessors in the bishop's seat at the
+imperial capital had long claimed and exercised a peculiar measure of
+authority over their fellow bishops throughout the Empire. Almost from
+the earliest days of Christianity the word _papa_ (pope) seems to have
+been in common use as an affectionate mode of addressing any bishop,
+but after the fourth century it came to be applied in a peculiar
+manner to the bishop of Rome, and in time this was the only usage, so
+far as western Europe was concerned, which survived. The causes of the
+special development of the Roman bishopric into the powerful papal
+office were numerous. Rome's importance as a city, and particularly as
+the political head of the Mediterranean world, made it natural that
+her bishop should have something of a special dignity and influence.
+Throughout western Europe the Roman church was regarded as a model and
+its bishop was frequently called upon for counsel and advice. Then,
+when the seat of the imperial government was removed to the East by
+Constantine, the Roman bishop naturally took up much of the leadership
+in the West which had been exercised by the emperor, and this added
+not a little in the way of prestige. On the whole the Roman bishops
+were moderate, liberal, and sensible in their attitude toward church
+questions, thereby commending themselves to the practical peoples of
+the West in a way that other bishops did not always do. The growth of
+temporal possessions, especially in the way of land, also made the
+Roman bishops more independent and able to hold their own. And the
+activity of such men as Leo the Great in warding off the attacks of
+the German barbarians, and in providing popular leadership in the
+absence of such leadership on the part of the imperial authorities,
+was a not unimportant item.
+
+After all, however, these are matters which have always been regarded
+by the popes themselves as circumstances of a more or less transitory
+and accidental character. It is not upon any or all of them that the
+papacy from first to last has sought to base its high claims to
+authority. The fundamental explanation, from the papal standpoint, for
+the peculiar development of the papal power in the person of the
+bishops of Rome is contained in the so-called theory of the "Petrine
+Supremacy," which will be found set forth in Pope Leo's sermon
+reproduced in part below. The essential points in this theory are: (1)
+that to the apostle Peter, Christ committed the keys of the kingdom of
+heaven and the supremacy over all other apostles on earth; (2) that
+Peter, in the course of time, became the first bishop of Rome; and (3)
+that the superior authority given to Peter was transmitted to all his
+successors in the Roman bishopric. It was fundamentally on _these_
+grounds that the pope, to quote an able Catholic historian, was
+believed to be "the visible representative of ecclesiastical unity,
+the supreme teacher and custodian of the faith, the supreme
+legislator, the guardian and interpreter of the canons, the legitimate
+superior of all bishops, the final judge of councils--an office which
+he possessed in his own right, and which he actually exercised by
+presiding over all ecumenical synods, through his legates, and by
+confirming the acts of the councils as the Supreme Head of the
+Universal Catholic Church."[88] Modern Protestants discard certain of
+the tenets which go to make up the Petrine theory, but it is essential
+that the student of history bear in mind that the people of the Middle
+Ages never doubted its complete and literal authenticity, nor
+questioned that the authority of the papal office rested at bottom
+upon something far more fundamental than a mere fortunate combination
+of historical circumstances. Whatever one's personal opinions on the
+issues involved, the point to be insisted upon is that in studying
+mediæval church life and organization the universal acceptance of
+these beliefs and conclusions be never lost to view.
+
+Leo was pope from 440 to 461 and it has been well maintained that he
+was the first occupant of the office to comprehend the wide
+possibilities of the papal dignity in the future. In his sermons and
+letters he vigorously asserted the sovereign authority of his
+position, and in his influence on the events of his time, as for
+example the Council of Chalcedon in 451, he sought with no little
+success to bring men to a general acknowledgment of this authority.
+
+     Source--Text in Jacques Paul Migne, _Patroligiæ Cursus
+     Completus_ ["Complete Collection of Patristic Literature"],
+     First Series, Vol. LIV., cols. 144-148. Translated in Philip
+     Schaff and Henry Wace, _Select Library of Nicene and
+     Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church_ (New York, 1895),
+     Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 117-118.
+
+     [Sidenote: The apostle Peter still with his Church]
+
+   Although, therefore, dearly beloved, we be found both weak and
+   slothful in fulfilling the duties of our office, because, whatever
+   devoted and vigorous action we desire to undertake, we are hindered
+   in by the frailty of our nature, yet having the unceasing
+   propitiation of the Almighty and perpetual Priest [Christ], who
+   being like us and yet equal with the Father, brought down His
+   Godhead even to things human, and raised His Manhood even to things
+   Divine, we worthily and piously rejoice over His dispensation,
+   whereby, though He has delegated the care of His sheep to many
+   shepherds, yet He has not Himself abandoned the guardianship of His
+   beloved flock. And from His overruling and eternal protection we
+   have received the support of the Apostle's aid also, which
+   assuredly does not cease from its operation; and the strength of
+   the foundation, on which the whole superstructure of the Church is
+   reared, is not weakened by the weight of the temple that rests upon
+   it. For the solidity of that faith which was praised in the chief
+   of the Apostles is perpetual; and as that remains which Peter
+   believed in Christ, so that remains which Christ instituted in
+   Peter.
+
+     [Sidenote: Christ's commission to Peter]
+
+   For when, as has been read in the Gospel lesson,[89] the Lord had
+   asked the disciples whom they believed Him to be amid the various
+   opinions that were held, and the blessed Peter had replied, saying,
+   "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God," the Lord said,
+   "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona, because flesh and blood hath not
+   revealed it to thee, but My Father, which is in heaven. And I say
+   to thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build My
+   church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against it. And I
+   will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And
+   whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth, shall be bound in heaven; and
+   whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, shall be loosed also in
+   heaven." [Matt. xvi. 16-19.]
+
+     [Sidenote: Peter properly rules the Church through his successors
+   at Rome]
+
+   The dispensation of Truth therefore abides, and the blessed Peter
+   persevering in the strength of the Rock, which he has received, has
+   not abandoned the helm of the Church, which he undertook. For he
+   was ordained before the rest in such a way that from his being
+   called the Rock, from his being pronounced the Foundation, from his
+   being constituted the Doorkeeper of the kingdom of heaven, from his
+   being set as the Umpire to bind and to loose, whose judgments shall
+   retain their validity in heaven--from all these mystical titles we
+   might know the nature of his association with Christ. And still
+   to-day he more fully and effectually performs what is intrusted to
+   him, and carries out every part of his duty and charge in Him and
+   with Him, through whom he has been glorified. And so if anything is
+   rightly done and rightly decreed by us, if anything is won from the
+   mercy of God by our daily supplications, it is of his work and
+   merits whose power lives and whose authority prevails in his
+   see....[90]
+
+     [Sidenote: Leo claims to be only Peter's representative]
+
+   And so, dearly beloved, with becoming obedience we celebrate
+   to-day's festival[91] by such methods, that in my humble person he
+   may be recognized and honored, in whom abides the care of all the
+   shepherds, together with the charge of the sheep commended to him,
+   and whose dignity is not belittled even in so unworthy an heir. And
+   hence the presence of my venerable brothers and fellow-priests, so
+   much desired and valued by me, will be the more sacred and
+   precious, if they will transfer the chief honor of this service in
+   which they have deigned to take part to him whom they know to be
+   not only the patron of this see, but also the primate of all
+   bishops. When therefore we utter our exhortations in your ears,
+   holy brethren, believe that he is speaking whose representative we
+   are. Because it is his warning that we give, and nothing else but
+   his teaching that we preach, beseeching you to "gird up the loins
+   of your mind," and lead a chaste and sober life in the fear of God,
+   and not to let your mind forget his supremacy and consent to the
+   lusts of the flesh.
+
+     [Sidenote: An exhortation to Christian constancy]
+
+     [Sidenote: The peculiar privilege of the church at Rome]
+
+   Short and fleeting are the joys of this world's pleasures which
+   endeavor to turn aside from the path of life those who are called
+   to eternity. The faithful and religious spirit, therefore, must
+   desire the things which are heavenly and, being eager for the
+   divine promises, lift itself to the love of the incorruptible Good
+   and the hope of the true Light. But be assured, dearly-beloved,
+   that your labor, whereby you resist vices and fight against carnal
+   desires, is pleasing and precious in God's sight, and in God's
+   mercy will profit not only yourselves but me also, because the
+   zealous pastor makes his boast of the progress of the Lord's flock.
+   "For ye are my crown and joy," as the Apostle says, if your faith,
+   which from the beginning of the Gospel has been preached in all the
+   world, has continued in love and holiness. For though the whole
+   Church, which is in all the world, ought to abound in all virtues,
+   yet you especially, above all people, it becomes to excel in deeds
+   of piety, because, founded as you are on the very citadel of the
+   Apostolic Rock, not only has our Lord Jesus Christ redeemed you in
+   common with all men, but the blessed Apostle Peter has instructed
+   you far beyond all men.
+
+
+11. The Rule of St. Benedict
+
+A very important feature of the church life of the early Middle Ages
+was the tendency of devout men to withdraw from the active affairs of
+the world and give themselves up to careers of self-sacrificing piety.
+Sometimes such men went out to live alone in forests or other obscure
+places and for this reason were called anchorites or hermits; but more
+often they settled in groups and formed what came to be known as
+monasteries. The idea that seclusion is helpful to the religious life
+was not peculiar to Christianity, for from very early times Brahmins
+and Buddhists and other peoples of the Orient had cherished the same
+view; and in many cases they do so still. Monasticism among Christians
+began naturally in the East and at first took the form almost wholly
+of hermitage, just as it had done among the adherents of other
+Oriental religions, though by the fourth century the Christian monks
+of Syria and Egypt and Asia Minor had come in many cases to dwell in
+established communities. In general the Eastern monks were prone to
+extremes in the way of penance and self-torture which the more
+practical peoples of the West were not greatly disposed to imitate.
+Monasticism spread into the West, but not until comparatively
+late--beginning in the second half of the fourth century--and the
+character which it there assumed was quite unlike that prevailing in
+the East. The Eastern ideal was the life of meditation with as little
+activity as possible, except perhaps such as was necessary in order to
+impose hardships upon one's self. The Western ideal, on the other
+hand, while involving a good deal of meditation and prayer, put much
+emphasis on labor and did not call for so complete an abstention of
+the monk from the pursuits and pleasures of other men.
+
+In the later fifth century, and earlier sixth, several monasteries of
+whose history we know little were established in southern Gaul,
+especially in the pleasant valley of the Rhone. Earliest of all,
+apparently, and destined to become the most influential was the abbey
+of St. Martin at Tours, founded soon after St. Martin was made bishop
+of Tours in 372. But the development of Western monasticism is
+associated most of all with the work of St. Benedict of Nursia, who
+died in 543. Benedict was the founder of several monasteries in the
+vicinity of Rome, the most important being that of Monte Cassino, on
+the road from Rome to Naples, which exists to this day. One should
+guard, however, against the mistake of looking upon St. Benedict as
+the introducer of monasticism in the West, of even as the founder of a
+new monastic _order_ in the strict sense of the word. The great
+service which he rendered to European monasticism consisted in his
+working out for his monasteries in Italy an elaborate system of
+government which was found so successful in practice that, in the form
+of the Benedictine Rule (_regula_), it came to be the constitution
+under which for many centuries practically all the monks of Western
+countries lived. That it was so widely adopted was due mainly to its
+definite, practical, common-sense character. Its chief injunctions
+upon the monks were poverty, chastity, obedience, piety, and labor.
+All these were to be attained by methods which, although they may seem
+strange to us to-day, were at least natural and wholesome when judged
+by the ideas and standards prevailing in early mediæval times. Granted
+the ascetic principle upon which the monastic system rested, the Rule
+of St. Benedict must be regarded as eminently moderate and sensible.
+It sprang from an acute perception of human nature and human needs no
+less than from a lofty ideal of religious perfection. The following
+extracts will serve to show its character.
+
+     Source--Text in Jacques Paul Migne, _Patrologiæ Cursus
+     Completus_, First Series, Vol. LXVI., cols. 245-932 _passim_.
+     Adapted from translation in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select
+     Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp.
+     274-314.
+
+   _Prologue...._ We are about to found, therefore, a school for the
+   Lord's service, in the organization of which we trust that we shall
+   ordain nothing severe and nothing burdensome. But even if, the
+   demands of justice dictating it, something a trifle irksome shall
+   be the result, for the purpose of amending vices or preserving
+   charity, thou shalt not therefore, struck by fear, flee the way of
+   salvation, which cannot be entered upon except through a narrow
+   entrance.
+
+     [Sidenote: Responsibility of the abbot for the character and deeds
+   of the monks]
+
+     [Sidenote: He must teach by example as well as by precept]
+
+   =2.= _What the abbot should be like._ An abbot who is worthy to
+   preside over a monastery ought always to remember what he is
+   called, and carry out with his deeds the name of a Superior. For he
+   is believed to be Christ's representative, since he is called by
+   His name, the apostle saying: "Ye have received the spirit of
+   adoption of sons, whereby we call Abba, Father" [Romans viii. 15].
+   And so the abbot should not (grant that he may not) teach, or
+   decree, or order, anything apart from the precept of the Lord; but
+   his order or teaching should be characterized by the marks of
+   divine justice in the minds of his disciples. Let the abbot always
+   be mindful that, at the terrible judgment of God, both things will
+   be weighed in the balance, his teaching and the obedience of his
+   disciples. And let the abbot know that whatever of uselessness the
+   father of the family finds among the sheep is laid to the fault of
+   the shepherd. Only in a case where the whole diligence of their
+   pastor shall have been bestowed on an unruly and disobedient flock,
+   and his whole care given to their wrongful actions, shall that
+   pastor, absolved in the judgment of the Lord, be free to say to the
+   Lord with the prophet: "I have not hid Thy righteousness within my
+   heart; I have declared Thy faithfulness and Thy salvation, but
+   they, despising, have scorned me" [Psalms xl. 10]. And then let the
+   punishment for the disobedient sheep under his care be that death
+   itself shall prevail against them. Therefore, when any one receives
+   the name of abbot, he ought to rule over his disciples with a
+   double teaching; that is, let him show forth all good and holy
+   things by deeds more than by words. So that to ready disciples he
+   may set forth the commands of God in words; but to the hard-hearted
+   and the more simple-minded, he may show forth the divine precepts
+   by his deeds.
+
+     [Sidenote: His duty to encourage, to admonish, and to punish]
+
+   He shall make no distinction of persons in the monastery. One shall
+   not be more cherished than another, unless it be the one whom he
+   finds excelling in good works or in obedience. A free-born man
+   shall not be preferred to one coming from servitude, unless there
+   be some other reasonable cause. But if, by the demand of justice,
+   it seems good to the abbot, he shall do this, no matter what the
+   rank shall be. But otherwise they shall keep their own places. For
+   whether we be bond or free, we are all one in Christ; and, under
+   one God, we perform an equal service of subjection. For God is no
+   respecter of persons. Only in this way is a distinction made by Him
+   concerning us, if we are found humble and surpassing others in good
+   works. Therefore let him [the abbot] have equal charity for all.
+   Let the same discipline be administered in all cases according to
+   merit.... He should, that is, rebuke more severely the unruly and
+   the turbulent. The obedient, moreover, and the gentle and the
+   patient, he should exhort, that they may progress to higher things.
+   But the negligent and scorners, we warn him to admonish and
+   reprove. Nor let him conceal the sins of the erring; but, in order
+   that he may prevail, let him pluck them out by the roots as soon as
+   they begin to spring up.
+
+   And let him know what a difficult and arduous thing he has
+   undertaken--to rule the souls and uplift the morals of many. And in
+   one case indeed with blandishments, in another with rebukes, in
+   another with persuasion--according to the quality or intelligence
+   of each one--he shall so conform and adapt himself to all that not
+   only shall he not allow injury to come to the flock committed to
+   him, but he shall rejoice in the increase of a good flock. Above
+   all things, let him not, deceiving himself or undervaluing the
+   safety of the souls committed to him, give more heed to temporary
+   and earthly and passing things; but let him always reflect that he
+   has undertaken to rule souls for which he is to render account.
+
+     [Sidenote: The monks to be consulted by the abbot]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Rule to be followed by every one as a guide]
+
+   =3.= _About calling in the brethren to take counsel._ Whenever
+   anything of importance is to be done in the monastery, the abbot
+   shall call together the whole congregation,[92] and shall himself
+   explain the matter in question. And, having heard the advice of the
+   brethren, he shall think it over by himself, and shall do what he
+   considers most advantageous. And for this reason, moreover, we have
+   said that all ought to be called to take counsel, because often it
+   is to a younger person that God reveals what is best. The brethren,
+   moreover, with all subjection of humility, ought so to give their
+   advice that they do not presume boldly to defend what seems good to
+   them; but it should rather depend on the judgment of the abbot, so
+   that, whatever he decides to be best, they should all agree to it.
+   But even as it behooves the disciples to obey the master, so it is
+   fitting that he should arrange all matters with care and justice.
+   In all things, indeed, let every one follow the Rule as his guide;
+   and let no one rashly deviate from it. Let no one in the monastery
+   follow the inclination of his own heart. And let no one boldly
+   presume to dispute with his abbot, within or without the monastery.
+   But, if he should so presume, let him be subject to the discipline
+   of the Rule.
+
+     [Sidenote: No property to be owned by the monks individually]
+
+   =33.= _Whether the monks should have anything of their own._ More
+   than anything else is this special vice to be cut off root and
+   branch from the monastery, that one should presume to give or
+   receive anything without the order of the abbot, or should have
+   anything of his own. He should have absolutely not anything,
+   neither a book, nor tablets, nor a pen--nothing at all. For indeed
+   it is not allowed to the monks to have their own bodies or wills in
+   their own power. But all things necessary they must expect from the
+   Father of the monastery; nor is it allowable to have anything which
+   the abbot has not given or permitted. All things shall be held in
+   common; as it is written, "Let not any man presume to call anything
+   his own." But if any one shall have been discovered delighting in
+   this most evil vice, being warned once and again, if he do not
+   amend, let him be subjected to punishment.[93]
+
+     [Sidenote: Daily schedule for the summer season]
+
+   =48.= _Concerning the daily manual labor._ Idleness is the enemy of
+   the soul.[94] And therefore, at fixed times, the brothers ought to
+   be occupied in manual labor; and again, at fixed times, in sacred
+   reading.[95] Therefore we believe that both seasons ought to be
+   arranged after this manner,--so that, from Easter until the Calends
+   of October,[96] going out early, from the first until the fourth
+   hour they shall do what labor may be necessary. From the fourth
+   hour until about the sixth, they shall be free for reading. After
+   the meal of the sixth hour, rising from the table, they shall rest
+   in their beds with all silence; or, perchance, he that wishes to
+   read may read to himself in such a way as not to disturb another.
+   And the _nona_ [the second meal] shall be gone through with more
+   moderately about the middle of the eighth hour; and again they
+   shall work at what is to be done until Vespers.[97] But, if the
+   emergency or poverty of the place demands that they be occupied in
+   picking fruits, they shall not be grieved; for they are truly monks
+   if they live by the labors of their hands, as did also our fathers
+   and the apostles. Let all things be done with moderation, however,
+   on account of the faint-hearted.
+
+     [Sidenote: Reading during Lent]
+
+   In days of Lent they shall all receive separate books from the
+   library, which they shall read entirely through in order. These
+   books are to be given out on the first day of Lent. Above all there
+   shall be appointed without fail one or two elders, who shall go
+   round the monastery at the hours in which the brothers are engaged
+   in reading, and see to it that no troublesome brother be found who
+   is given to idleness and trifling, and is not intent on his
+   reading, being not only of no use to himself, but also stirring up
+   others. If such a one (may it not happen) be found, he shall be
+   reproved once and a second time. If he do not amend, he shall be
+   subject under the Rule to such punishment that the others may have
+   fear. Nor shall brother join brother at unsuitable hours. Moreover,
+   on Sunday all shall engage in reading, excepting those who are
+   assigned to various duties. But if any one be so negligent and lazy
+   that he will not or can not read, some task shall be imposed upon
+   him which he can do, so that he be not idle. On feeble or delicate
+   brothers such a task or art is to be imposed, that they shall
+   neither be idle nor so oppressed by the violence of labor as to be
+   driven to take flight. Their weakness is to be taken into
+   consideration by the abbot.
+
+     [Sidenote: Hospitality enjoined]
+
+   =53.= _Concerning the reception of guests._ All guests who come
+   shall be received as though they were Christ. For He Himself said,
+   "I was a stranger and ye took me in" [Matt. xxv. 35]. And to all
+   fitting honor shall be shown; but, most of all, to servants of the
+   faith and to pilgrims. When, therefore, a guest is announced, the
+   prior or the brothers shall run to meet him, with every token of
+   love. And first they shall pray together, and thus they shall be
+   joined together in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: Power of abbot to dispose of articles sent to the monks]
+
+   =54.= _Whether a monk should be allowed to receive letters or
+   anything._ By no means shall it be allowed to a monk--either from
+   his relatives, or from any man, or from one of his fellows--to
+   receive or to give, without order of the abbot, letters, presents,
+   or any gift, however small. But even if, by his relatives, anything
+   has been sent to him, he shall not presume to receive it, unless
+   it has first been shown to the abbot. But if the latter order it to
+   be received, it shall be in the power of the abbot to give it to
+   whomsoever he wishes. And the brother to whom it happened to have
+   been sent shall not be displeased; that an opportunity be not given
+   to the devil. Whoever, moreover, presumes to do otherwise shall be
+   subject to the discipline of the Rule.
+
+
+12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor
+
+Gregory the Great, whose papacy extended from 590 to 604, was a Roman
+of noble and wealthy family, and in many ways the ablest man who had
+yet risen to the papal office. The date of his birth is not recorded,
+but it was probably about 540, some ten years after St. Benedict of
+Nursia had established his monastery at Monte Cassino. He was
+therefore a contemporary of the historian Gregory of Tours [see p.
+47]. The education which he received was that which was usual with
+young Romans of his rank in life, and it is said that in grammar,
+rhetoric, logic, and law he became well versed, though without any
+claim to unusual scholarship. He entered public life and in 570 was
+made prætor of the city of Rome. All the time, however, he was
+struggling with the strange attractiveness which the life of the monk
+had for him, and in the end, upon the death of his father, he decided
+to forego the career to which his wealth and rank entitled him and to
+seek the development of his higher nature in seclusion. With the money
+obtained from the sale of his great estates he established six
+monasteries in Sicily and that of St. Andrew at Rome. In Gregory's
+case, however, retirement to monastic life did not mean oblivion, for
+soon he was selected by Pope Pelagius II., as resident minister
+(_apocrisiarius_) at Constantinople and in this important position he
+was maintained for five or six years. After returning to Rome he
+became abbot of St. Andrews, and in 590, as the records say, he was
+"demanded" as pope.
+
+Gregory was a man of very unusual ability and the force of his strong
+personality made his reign one of the great formative epochs in papal
+history. Besides his activity in relation to the affairs of the world
+in general, he has the distinction of being a literary pope. His
+letters and treatises were numerous and possessed a quality of thought
+and style which was exceedingly rare in his day. The most famous of
+his writings, and justly so, is the _Liber Regulæ Pastoralis_, known
+commonly to English readers as the "Pastoral Care," or the "Pastoral
+Rule." This book was written soon after its author became pope (590)
+and was addressed to John, bishop of Ravenna, in reply to inquiries
+received from him respecting the duties and obligations of the clergy.
+Though thus put into form for a special purpose, there can be no doubt
+that it was the product of long thought, and in fact in his _Magna
+Moralia_, or "Commentary on the Book of Job," written during his
+residence at Constantinople, Gregory declared his purpose some day to
+write just such a book. Everywhere throughout Europe the work was
+received with the favor it deserved, and in Spain, Gaul, and Italy its
+influence upon the life and manners of the clergy was beyond estimate.
+Even in Britain, after King Alfred's paraphrase of it in the Saxon
+tongue had been made, three hundred years later [see p. 193], it was a
+real power for good. The permanent value of Gregory's instructions
+regarding the life of the clergy arose not only from the lofty spirit
+in which they were conceived and the clear-cut manner in which they
+were expressed, but from their breadth and adaptation to all times and
+places. There are few books which the modern pastor can read with
+greater profit. The work is in four parts: (1) on the selection of men
+for the work of the Church; (2) on the sort of life the pastor ought
+to live; (3) on the best methods of dealing with the various types of
+people which every pastor will be likely to encounter; and (4) on the
+necessity that the pastor guard himself against egotism and personal
+ambition. The passages below are taken from the second and third
+parts.
+
+     Source--Gregorius Magnus, _Liber Regulæ Pastoralis_ [Gregory
+     the Great, "The Book of the Pastoral Rule"]. Text in Jacques
+     Paul Migne, _Patroligiæ Cursus Completus_, First Series, Vol.
+     LXXVII., cols. 12-127 _passim_. Adapted from translation in
+     Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, _Select Library of Nicene and
+     Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church_ (New York, 1895),
+     Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 9-71 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The qualities which ought to be united in the
+     pastor]
+
+   The conduct of a prelate[98] ought so far to be superior to the
+   conduct of the people as the life of a shepherd is accustomed to
+   exalt him above the flock. For one whose position is such that the
+   people are called his flock ought anxiously to consider how great a
+   necessity is laid upon him to maintain uprightness. It is
+   necessary, then, that in thought he should be pure, in action firm;
+   discreet in keeping silence, profitable in speech; a near neighbor
+   to every one in sympathy, exalted above all in contemplation; a
+   familiar friend of good livers through humility, unbending against
+   the vices of evil-doers through zeal for righteousness; not
+   relaxing in his care for what is inward by reason of being occupied
+   in outward things, nor neglecting to provide for outward things in
+   his anxiety for what is inward.
+
+     [Sidenote: Purity of heart essential]
+
+   The ruler should always be pure in thought, inasmuch as no impurity
+   ought to pollute him who has undertaken the office of wiping away
+   the stains of pollution in the hearts of others also; for the hand
+   that would cleanse from dirt must needs be clean, lest, being
+   itself sordid with clinging mire, it soil all the more whatever it
+   touches.
+
+     [Sidenote: He must teach by example]
+
+   The ruler should always be a leader in action, that by his living
+   he may point out the way of life to those who are put under him,
+   and that the flock, which follows the voice and manners of the
+   shepherd, may learn how to walk rather through example than through
+   words. For he who is required by the necessity of his position to
+   _speak_ the highest things is compelled by the same necessity to
+   _do_ the highest things. For that voice more readily penetrates the
+   hearer's heart, which the speaker's life commends, since what he
+   commands by speaking he helps the doing by showing.
+
+   The ruler should be discreet in keeping silence, profitable in
+   speech; lest he either utter what ought to be suppressed or
+   suppress what he ought to utter. For, as incautious speaking leads
+   into error, so indiscreet silence leaves in error those who might
+   have been instructed.
+
+     [Sidenote: He must be able to distinguish virtues and vices]
+
+   The ruler ought also to understand how commonly vices pass
+   themselves off as virtues. For often niggardliness excuses itself
+   under the name of frugality, and on the other hand extravagance
+   conceals itself under the name of liberality. Often inordinate
+   carelessness is believed to be loving-kindness, and unbridled wrath
+   is accounted the virtue of spiritual zeal. Often hasty action is
+   taken for promptness, and tardiness for the deliberation of
+   seriousness. Whence it is necessary for the ruler of souls to
+   distinguish with vigilant care between virtues and vices, lest
+   stinginess get possession of his heart while he exults in seeming
+   frugality in expenditure; or, while anything is recklessly wasted,
+   he glory in being, as it were, compassionately liberal; or, in
+   overlooking what he ought to have smitten, he draw on those that
+   are under him to eternal punishment; or, in mercilessly smiting an
+   offense, he himself offend more grievously; or, by rashly
+   anticipating, mar what might have been done properly and gravely;
+   or, by putting off the merit of a good action, change it to
+   something worse.
+
+     [Sidenote: No one kind of teaching adapted to all men]
+
+   Since, then, we have shown what manner of man the pastor ought to
+   be, let us now set forth after what manner he should teach. For, as
+   long before us Gregory Nazianzen,[99] of reverend memory, has
+   taught, one and the same exhortation does not suit all, inasmuch as
+   all are not bound together by similarity of character. For the
+   things that profit some often hurt others; seeing that also, for
+   the most part, herbs which nourish some animals are fatal to
+   others; and the gentle hissing that quiets horses incites whelps;
+   and the medicine which abates one disease aggravates another; and
+   the food which invigorates the life of the strong kills little
+   children. Therefore, according to the quality of the hearers ought
+   the discourse of teachers to be fashioned, so as to suit all and
+   each for their several needs, and yet never deviate from the art
+   of common edification. For what are the intent minds of hearers
+   but, so to speak, a kind of harp, which the skilful player, in
+   order to produce a tune possessing harmony, strikes in various
+   ways? And for this reason the strings render back a melodious
+   sound, because they are struck indeed with one quill, but not with
+   one kind of stroke. Whence every teacher also, that he may edify
+   all in the one virtue of charity, ought to touch the hearts of his
+   hearers out of one doctrine, but not with one and the same
+   exhortation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Various classes of hearers to be distinguished]
+
+   Differently to be admonished are these that follow:
+
+   Men and women.
+
+   The poor and the rich.
+
+   The joyful and the sad.
+
+   Prelates and subordinates.
+
+   Servants and masters.
+
+   The wise of this world and the dull.
+
+   The impudent and the bashful.
+
+   The forward and the faint-hearted.
+
+   The impatient and the patient.
+
+   The kindly disposed and the envious.
+
+   The simple and the insincere.
+
+   The whole and the sick.
+
+   Those who fear scourges, and therefore live innocently; and those
+   who have grown so hard in iniquity as not to be corrected even by
+   scourges.
+
+   The too silent, and those who spend time in much speaking.
+
+   The slothful and the hasty.
+
+   The meek and the passionate.
+
+   The humble and the haughty.
+
+   The obstinate and the fickle.
+
+   The gluttonous and the abstinent.
+
+   Those who mercifully give of their own, and those who would fain
+   seize what belongs to others.
+
+   Those who neither seize the things of others nor are bountiful
+   with their own; and those who both give away the things they have,
+   and yet cease not to seize the things of others.
+
+   Those who are at variance, and those who are at peace.
+
+   Lovers of strife and peacemakers.
+
+   Those who understand not aright the words of sacred law; and those
+   who understand them indeed aright, but speak them without humility.
+
+   Those who, though able to preach worthily, are afraid through
+   excessive humility; and those whom imperfection or age debars from
+   preaching, and yet rashness impels to it.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the wise and the dull are to be admonished]
+
+   (Admonition 7)[100]. Differently to be admonished are the wise of
+   this world and the dull. For the wise are to be admonished that
+   they leave off knowing what they know[101]; the dull also are to be
+   admonished that they seek to know what they know not. In the former
+   this thing first, that they think themselves wise, is to be
+   overcome; in the latter, whatsoever is already known of heavenly
+   wisdom is to be built up; since, being in no wise proud, they have,
+   as it were, prepared their hearts for supporting a building. With
+   those we should labor that they become more wisely foolish[102],
+   leave foolish wisdom, and learn the wise foolishness of God: to
+   these we should preach that from what is accounted foolishness
+   they should pass, as from a nearer neighborhood, to true wisdom.
+
+     [Sidenote: Emphasis on the importance of setting a right example]
+
+   But in the midst of these things we are brought back by the earnest
+   desire of charity to what we have already said above; that every
+   preacher should give forth a sound more by his deeds than by his
+   words, and rather by good living imprint footsteps for men to
+   follow than by speaking show them the way to walk in. For that
+   cock, too, whom the Lord in his manner of speech takes to represent
+   a good preacher, when he is now preparing to crow, first shakes his
+   wings, and by smiting himself makes himself more awake; since it is
+   surely necessary that those who give utterance to words of holy
+   preaching should first be well awake in earnestness of good living,
+   lest they arouse others with their voice while themselves torpid in
+   performance; that they should first shake themselves up by lofty
+   deeds, and then make others solicitous for good living; that they
+   should first smite themselves with the wings of their thoughts;
+   that whatsoever in themselves is unprofitably torpid they should
+   discover by anxious investigation, and correct by strict
+   self-discipline, and then at length set in order the life of others
+   by speaking; that they should take heed to punish their own faults
+   by bewailings, and then denounce what calls for punishment in
+   others; and that, before they give voice to words of exhortation,
+   they should proclaim in their deeds all that they are about to
+   speak.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[88] John Alzog. _Manual of Universal Church History_ (trans, by F. J.
+Pabisch and T. S. Byrne), Cincinnati, 1899, Vol. I., p. 668.
+
+[89] That is, the passage of Scripture read just before the sermon.
+
+[90] "See" is a term employed to designate a bishop's jurisdiction.
+According to common belief Peter had been bishop of Rome; his see was
+therefore that which Leo now held.
+
+[91] The anniversary of Leo's elevation to the papal office.
+
+[92] That is, the body of monks residing in the monastery.
+
+[93] The vow of poverty which must be taken by every Benedictine monk
+meant only that he must not acquire property individually. By gifts of
+land and by their own labor the monks became in many cases immensely
+rich, but their wealth was required to be held in common. No one man
+could rightfully call any part of it his own.
+
+[94] The converse of this principle was often affirmed by Benedictines
+in the saying, "To work is to pray."
+
+[95] The Bible and the writings of such Church fathers as Lactantius,
+Tertullian, Origen, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, Eusebius, and St.
+Jerome.
+
+[96] The first day of the month.
+
+[97] Thus the ordinary daily programme during the spring and summer
+months would be: from six o'clock until ten, manual labor; from ten
+until twelve, reading; at twelve, the midday meal; after this meal
+until the second one about half past two, rest and reading; and from
+the second meal until evening, labor. Manual labor was principally
+agricultural.
+
+[98] Gregory's remarks and instructions in the _Pastoral Rule_ were
+intended to apply primarily to the local priests--the humble pastors
+of whom we hear little, but upon whose piety and diligence ultimately
+depended the whole influence of the Church upon the masses of the
+people. The general principles laid down, however, were applicable to
+all the clergy, of whatever rank.
+
+[99] Gregory, bishop of Nazianzus (in Cappadocia), was a noted
+churchman of the fourth century.
+
+[100] After enumerating quite a number of other contrasted groups in
+the foregoing fashion Gregory proceeds in a series of "admonitions" to
+take up each pair and tell how persons belonging to it should be dealt
+with by the pastor. One of these admonitions is here given as a
+specimen.
+
+[101] Gregory's attitude toward the "learning of the world,"
+especially the classical languages and literatures, was that of the
+typical Christian ascetic. He had no use for it personally and
+regarded its influence as positively harmful. It must be said that
+there was little such learning in his day, for the old Latin and Greek
+culture had now reached a very low stage. Gregory took the ground that
+the churches should have learned bishops, but their learning was to
+consist exclusively in a knowledge of the Scriptures, the writings of
+the Church fathers, and the stories of the martyrs. As a matter of
+fact not only were the people generally quite unable to understand the
+Latin services of the Church, but great numbers of the clergy
+themselves stumbled blindly through the ritual without knowing what
+they were saying; and this condition of things prevailed for centuries
+after Gregory's day. [See Charlemagne's letter _De Litteris Colendis_,
+p. 146.]
+
+[102] That is, more simple and less self-satisfied in their own
+knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM
+
+
+13. Selections from the Koran
+
+The Koran comprises all of the recorded speeches and sayings of the
+prophet Mohammed and it has for nearly fifteen centuries been the
+absolute law and gospel of the Mohammedan religion. The teachings and
+revelations which are contained in it are believed by Mohammedans to
+have proceeded directly from God. They were delivered orally by
+Mohammed from time to time in the presence of his followers and until
+after the prophet's death in 632 no attempt was made to put them in
+organized written form. Many of the disciples, however, remembered the
+words their master had uttered, at least until they could inscribe
+them on palm leaves, bits of wood, bleached bones, or other such
+articles as happened to be at hand. In the reign of Abu-Bekr
+(632-634), Mohammed's successor, it became apparent that unless some
+measure was adopted to bring these scattered sayings together they
+were in a fair way to be lost for all time to come. Hence the caliph
+intrusted to a certain young man by the name of Zaid the task of
+collecting and putting in some sort of system all the teachings that
+had survived, whether in written form or merely in the minds of men.
+Zaid had served Mohammed in a capacity which we should designate
+perhaps as that of secretary, and so should have been well qualified
+for the work. In later years (about 660) the Koran, or "the reading,"
+as the collection began to be called, was again thoroughly revised.
+Thereafter all older copies were destroyed and no farther changes in
+any respect were ever made.
+
+The Koran is made up of one hundred and fourteen chapters, called
+_surahs_, arranged loosely in the order of their length, beginning
+with the longest. This arrangement does not correspond either to the
+dates at which the various passages were uttered by the prophet or to
+any sequence of thought and meaning, so that when one takes up the
+book to read it as it is ordinarily printed it seems about as confused
+as anything can well be. Scholars, however, have recently discovered
+the chronological order of the various parts and this knowledge has
+already come to be of no little assistance in the work of
+interpretation. Like all sacred books, the Koran abounds in
+repetitions; yet, taken all in all, it contains not more than
+two-thirds as many verses as the New Testament, and, as one writer has
+rather curiously observed, it is not more than one-third as lengthy as
+the ordinary Sunday edition of the New York _Herald_. The teachings
+which are most emphasized are (1) the unity and greatness of God, (2)
+the sin of worshipping idols, (3) the certainty of the resurrection of
+the body and the last judgment, (4) the necessity of a belief in the
+Scriptures as revelations from God communicated through angels to the
+line of prophets, (5) the luxuries of heaven and the torments of hell,
+(6) the doctrine of predestination, (7) the authoritativeness of
+Mohammed's teachings, and (8) the four cardinal obligations of worship
+(including purification and prayer), fasting, pilgrimages, and
+alms-giving. Intermingled with these are numerous popular legends and
+sayings of the Arabs before Mohammed's day, stories from the Old and
+New Testaments derived from Jewish and Christian settlers in Arabia,
+and certain definite and practical rules of everyday conduct. The book
+is not only thus haphazard in subject-matter but it is also very
+irregular in interest and elegance. Portions of it abound in splendid
+imagery and lofty conceptions, and represent the literary quality of
+the Arabian language at its best, though of course this quality is
+very largely lost in translation. The later surahs--those which appear
+first in the printed copy--are largely argumentative and legislative
+in character and naturally fall into a more prosaic and monotonous
+strain. From an almost inexhaustible maze of precepts, exhortations,
+and revelations, the following widely separated passages have been
+selected in the hope that they will serve to show something of the
+character of the Koran itself, as well as the nature of some of the
+more important Mohammedan beliefs and ideals. It will be found
+profitable to make a comparison of Christian beliefs on the same
+points as drawn from the New Testament.
+
+     Source--Text in Edward William Lane, _Selections from the
+     Kur-án_, edited by Stanley Lane-Poole (London, 1879),
+     _passim_.
+
+   In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
+
+     [Sidenote: The opening prayer[103]]
+
+     Praise be to God, the Lord of the Worlds,
+     The Compassionate, the Merciful,
+     The King of the day of judgment.
+     Thee do we worship, and of Thee seek we help.
+     Guide us in the right way,
+     The way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious,
+     Not of those with whom Thou art wroth, nor of the erring.[104]
+
+         Say, He is God, One [God];
+         God, the Eternal.
+         He begetteth not nor is begotten,
+         And there is none equal unto Him.[105]
+
+     [Sidenote: The "throne verse"]
+
+   God! There is no God but He, the _Ever_-living, the
+   Ever-Subsisting. Slumber seizeth Him not, nor sleep. To Him
+   belongeth whatsoever is in the Heavens and whatsoever is in the
+   Earth. Who is he that shall intercede with Him, unless by His
+   permission? He knoweth what [hath been] before them and what [shall
+   be] after them, and they shall not compass aught of His knowledge
+   save what He willeth. His Throne comprehendeth the Heavens and the
+   Earth, and the care of them burdeneth Him not. And He is the High,
+   The Great.[106]
+
+     [Sidenote: The day of resurrection]
+
+     When the earth is shaken with her shaking,
+     And the earth hath cast forth her dead,
+     And man shall say, 'What aileth her?'
+     On that day shall she tell out her tidings,
+     Because thy Lord hath inspired her,
+     On that day shall men come one by one to behold their works,
+     And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of good shall
+       behold it,
+     And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of ill shall
+       behold it.
+
+     [Sidenote: The coming judgment]
+
+     When the heaven shall be cloven asunder,
+     And when the stars shall be scattered,
+     And when the seas shall be let loose,
+     And when the graves shall be turned upside-down,[107]
+     _Every_ soul shall know what it hath done and left undone.
+     O man! what hath seduced thee from thy generous Lord,
+     Who created thee and fashioned thee and disposed thee aright?
+     In the form which pleased Him hath He fashioned thee.
+     Nay, but ye treat the Judgment as a lie.
+     Verily there are watchers over you,
+     Worthy recorders,
+     Knowing what ye do.
+     Verily in delight shall the righteous dwell;
+     And verily the wicked in Hell [-Fire];
+     They shall be burnt at it on the day of doom,
+     And they shall not be hidden from it.
+     And what shall teach thee what the Day of Judgment is?
+     Again: What shall teach thee what is the Day of Judgment?
+     _It is_ a day when one soul shall be powerless for another soul;
+       and all on that day shall be in the hands of God.
+
+     [Sidenote: The reward of the righteous]
+
+     When one blast shall be blown on the trumpet,
+     And the earth shall be raised and the mountains, and be broken to
+       dust with one breaking,
+     On that day the Calamity shall come to pass:
+     And the heavens shall cleave asunder, being frail on that day,
+     And the angels on the sides thereof; and over them on that day
+       eight _of the angels_ shall bear the throne of thy Lord.
+     On that day ye shall be presented _for the reckoning_; none of
+       your secrets shall be hidden.
+     And as to him who shall have his book[108] given to him in his
+       right hand, he shall say, 'Take ye, read my book;'
+     Verily I was sure I should come to my reckoning.
+     And his [shall be] a pleasant life
+     In a lofty garden,
+     Whose clusters [shall be] near at hand.
+     'Eat ye and drink with benefit on account of that which ye paid
+       beforehand in the past days.'
+
+     [Sidenote: The fate of the wicked]
+
+     But as to him who shall have his book given to him in his left
+       hand, he shall say, 'O would that I had not had my book given
+       to me,
+     Nor known what [was] my reckoning!
+     O would that _my death_ had been the ending _of me_!
+     My wealth hath not profited me!
+     My power is passed from me!'
+     'Take him and chain him,
+     Then cast him into hell to be burnt,
+     Then in a chain of seventy cubits bind him:
+     For he believed not in God, the Great,
+     Nor urged to feed the poor;
+     Therefore he shall not have here this day a friend,
+     Nor any food save filth
+     Which none but the sinners shall eat.'
+
+     [Sidenote: "The preceders"]
+
+     When the Calamity shall come to pass
+     There shall not be _a soul_ that will deny its happening,
+     [It will be] an abaser _of some_, an exalter _of others_;
+     When the earth shall be shaken with a _violent_ shaking,
+     And the mountains shall be crumbled with a violent crumbling,
+     And shall become fine dust scattered abroad;
+     And ye shall be three classes.[109]
+     And the people of the right hand, what shall be the people of the
+       right hand!
+     And the people of the left hand, what the people of the left hand!
+     And the Preceders, the Preceders![110]
+     These [shall be] the brought-nigh [unto God]
+     In the gardens of delight,--
+     A crowd of the former generations,
+     And a few of the latter generations,
+     Upon inwrought couches,
+     Reclining thereon, face to face.
+     Youths ever-young shall go unto them round about
+     With goblets and ewers and a cup of flowing wine,
+     Their [heads] shall ache not with it, neither shall they be
+       drunken;
+     And with fruits of the [sorts] which they shall choose,
+     And the flesh of birds of the [kinds] which they shall desire.
+     And damsels with eyes like pearls laid up
+     _We will give them_ as a reward for that which they have done.
+     Therein shall they hear no vain discourse nor accusation of sin,
+     But [only] the saying, 'Peace! Peace!'
+
+     [Sidenote: The pleasures of paradise]
+
+     And the people of the right hand--what [shall be] the people of
+       the right hand!
+     [They shall dwell] among lote-trees without thorns
+     And bananas loaded with fruit,
+     And a shade _ever-spread_,
+     And water _ever_-flowing,
+     And fruits abundant
+     Unstayed and unforbidden,[111]
+     And couches raised.[112]
+     Verily we have created them[113] by a [peculiar] creation,
+     And have made them virgins,
+     Beloved of their husbands, of equal age [with them],
+     For the people of the right hand,
+     A crowd of the former generations
+     And a crowd of the latter generations.
+
+     [Sidenote: The torments of hell]
+
+     And the people of the left hand--what [shall be] the people of
+       the left hand!
+     [They shall dwell] amidst burning wind and scalding water,
+     And a shade of blackest smoke,
+     Not cool and not grateful.
+     For before this they were blest with worldly goods,
+     And they persisted in heinous sin,
+     And said, 'When we shall have died and become dust and bones,
+       shall we indeed be raised to life,
+     And our fathers the former generations?'
+     Say, verily the former and the latter generations
+     Shall be gathered together for the appointed time of a known day.
+     Then ye, O ye erring, belying [people],
+     Shall surely eat of the tree of Ez-Zakkoom,[114]
+     And fill therewith [your] stomachs,
+     And drink thereon boiling water,
+     And ye shall drink as thirsty camels drink.--
+     This [shall be] their entertainment on the day of retribution.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[103] This prayer of the Mohammedans corresponds in a way to the
+Lord's Prayer of Christian peoples. It is recited several times in
+each of the five daily prayers, and on numerous other occasions.
+
+[104] The petition is for guidance in the "right way" of the
+Mohammedan, marked out in the Koran. By those with whom God is
+"wroth," and by the "erring," is meant primarily the Jews. Mohammed
+regarded the Jews and Christians as having corrupted the true
+religion.
+
+[105] "This chapter is held in particular veneration by the
+Mohammedans and is declared, by a tradition of their prophet, to be
+equal in value to a third part of the whole Koran."--Sale, quoted in
+Lane, _Selections from the Kur-án_, p. 5.
+
+[106] This passage, known as the "throne verse," is regarded by
+Mohammedans as one of the most precious in the Koran and is often
+recited at the end of the five daily prayers. It is sometimes engraved
+on a precious stone or an ornament of gold and worn as an amulet.
+
+[107] These are all to be signs of the day of judgment.
+
+[108] The record of his deeds during life on earth.
+
+[109] The three classes are: (1) the "preceeders," (2) the people of
+the right hand, i.e., the good, and (3) the people of the left hand,
+i.e., the evil. The future state of each of the three is described in
+the lines that follow.
+
+[110] "Either the first converts to Mohammedanism, or the prophets,
+who were the respective leaders of their people, or any persons who
+have been eminent examples of piety and virtue, may be here intended.
+The original words literally rendered are, _The Leaders, The Leaders_:
+which repetition, as some suppose, was designed to express the dignity
+of these persons and the certainty of their future glory and
+happiness."--Sale, quoted in Wherry, _Comprehensive Commentary on the
+Qur-án_, Vol. IV., pp. 109-110.
+
+[111] The luxuries of paradise--the flowing rivers, the fragrant
+flowers, the delicious fruits--are sharply contrasted with the
+conditions of desert life most familiar to Mohammed's early converts.
+Such a description of the land of the blessed must have appealed
+strongly to the imaginative Arabs. It should be said that in the
+modern Mohammedan idea of heaven the spiritual element has a rather
+more prominent place.
+
+[112] Lofty beds.
+
+[113] The "damsels of paradise."
+
+[114] A scrubby bush bearing fruit like almonds, and extremely bitter.
+It was familiar to Arabs and hence was made to stand as a type of the
+tree whose fruit the wicked must eat in the lower world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF FRANKISH KINGS
+
+
+14. Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)
+
+During the seventh and eighth centuries the Merovingian line of
+Frankish kings degenerated to a condition of weakness both pitiable
+and ridiculous. As the royal family became less worthy, the powers of
+government gradually slipped from its hands into those of a series of
+ministers commonly known by the title of Mayor of the Palace (_Maior
+Domus_). The most illustrious of these uncrowned sovereigns was
+Charles Martel, the victor over the Saracens near Poitiers, in whose
+time the Frankish throne for four years had no occupant at all. Martel
+contrived to make his peculiar office hereditary, and at his death in
+741 left it to be filled jointly by his two elder sons, Karlmann and
+Pepin the Short. They decided that it would be to their interest to
+keep up the show of Merovingian royalty a little longer and in 743
+allowed Childeric III. to mount the throne--a weakling destined to be
+the last of his family to wear the Frankish crown. Four years later
+Karlmann renounced his office and withdrew to the monastery of Monte
+Cassino, southeast of Rome, leaving Pepin sole "mayor" and the only
+real ruler of the Franks. Before many more years had passed, the utter
+uselessness of keeping up a royal line whose members were notoriously
+unfit to govern had impressed itself upon the nation to such an extent
+that when Pepin proceeded to put young Childeric in a monastery and
+take the title of king for himself, nobody offered the slightest
+objection. The sanction of the Pope was obtained for the act because
+Pepin thought that his course would thus be made to appear less like
+an outright usurpation. The Pope's reward came four years later when
+Pepin bestowed upon him the lands in northern and central Italy which
+eventually constituted, in the main, the so-called States of the
+Church. In later times, after the reign of Pepin's famous son
+Charlemagne, the new dynasty established by Pepin's elevation to the
+throne came to be known as the Carolingian (from _Karolus_, or
+Charles).
+
+The following account of the change from the Merovingian to the
+Carolingian line is taken from the so-called _Lesser Annals of
+Lorsch_. At the monastery of Lorsch, as at nearly every other such
+place in the Middle Ages, records or "annals" of one sort or another
+were pretty regularly kept. They were often very inaccurate and their
+writers had a curious way of filling up space with matters of little
+importance, but sometimes, as in the present instance, we can get from
+them some very interesting information. The monastery of Lorsch was
+about twelve miles distant from Heidelberg, in southern Germany.
+
+     Source--_Annales Laurissenses Minores_ ["Lesser Annals of
+     Lorsch"]. Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 116.
+
+   In the year 750[115] of the Lord's incarnation Pepin sent
+   ambassadors to Rome to Pope Zacharias,[116] to inquire concerning
+   the kings of the Franks who, though they were of the royal line and
+   were called kings, had no power in the kingdom, except that
+   charters and privileges were drawn up in their names. They had
+   absolutely no kingly authority, but did whatever the Major Domus of
+   the Franks desired.[117] But on the first day of March in the
+   Campus Martius,[118] according to ancient custom, gifts were
+   offered to these kings by the people, and the king himself sat in
+   the royal seat with the army standing round him and the Major Domus
+   in his presence, and he commanded on that day whatever was decreed
+   by the Franks; but on all other days thenceforward he remained
+   quietly at home. Pope Zacharias, therefore, in the exercise of his
+   apostolic authority, replied to their inquiry that it seemed to him
+   better and more expedient that the man who held power in the
+   kingdom should be called king and be king, rather than he who
+   falsely bore that name. Therefore the aforesaid pope commanded the
+   king and people of the Franks that Pepin, who was exercising royal
+   power, should be called king, and should be established on the
+   throne. This was therefore done by the anointing of the holy
+   archbishop Boniface in the city of Soissons. Pepin was proclaimed
+   king, and Childeric, who was falsely called king, was shaved and
+   sent into a monastery.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[115] The date is almost certainly wrong. Pepin was first acknowledged
+king by the Frankish nobles assembled at Soissons in November, 751. It
+was probably in 751 (possibly 752) that Pope Zacharias was consulted.
+In 754 Pepin was crowned king by Pope Stephen III., successor of
+Zacharias, who journeyed to France especially for the purpose.
+
+[116] Zacharias was pope from 741 to 752.
+
+[117] Einhard, the secretary of Charlemagne [see p. 108], in writing a
+biography of his master, described the condition of Merovingian
+kingship as follows: "All the resources and power of the kingdom had
+passed into the control of the prefects of the palace, who were called
+the 'mayors of the palace,' and who exercised the supreme authority.
+Nothing was left to the king. He had to content himself with his royal
+title, his flowing locks, and long beard. Seated in a chair of state,
+he was wont to display an appearance of power by receiving foreign
+ambassadors on their arrival, and, on their departure, giving them, as
+if on his own authority, those answers which he had been taught or
+commanded to give. Thus, except for his empty title, and an uncertain
+allowance for his sustenance, which the prefect of the palace used to
+furnish at his pleasure, there was nothing that the king could call
+his own, unless it were the income from a single farm, and that a very
+small one, where he made his home, and where such servants as were
+needful to wait on him constituted his scanty household. When he went
+anywhere he traveled in a wagon drawn by a yoke of oxen, with a rustic
+oxherd for charioteer. In this manner he proceeded to the palace, and
+to the public assemblies of the people held every year for the
+dispatch of the business of the kingdom, and he returned home again in
+the same sort of state. The administration of the kingdom, and every
+matter which had to be undertaken and carried through, both at home
+and abroad, was managed by the mayor of the palace."--Einhard, _Vita
+Caroli Magni_, Chap. 1.
+
+[118] See p. 52, note 1.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE
+
+
+15. Charlemagne the Man
+
+Biographical writings make up a not inconsiderable part of mediæval
+literature, but unfortunately the greater portion of them are to be
+trusted in only a limited degree by the student of history. Many
+biographies, especially the lives of the saints and other noted
+Christian leaders, were prepared expressly for the purpose of giving
+the world concrete examples of how men ought to live. Their authors,
+therefore, were apt to relate only the good deeds of the persons about
+whom they wrote, and these were often much exaggerated for the sake of
+effect. The people of the time generally were superstitious and easily
+appealed to by strange stories and the recital of marvelous events.
+They were not critical, and even such of them as were able to read at
+all could be made to believe almost anything that the writers of books
+cared to say. And since these writers themselves shared in the
+superstition and credulousness of the age, naturally such biographies
+as were written abounded in tales which anybody to-day would know at a
+glance could not be true. To all this Einhard's _Life of Charles the
+Great_ stands as a notable exception. It has its inaccuracies, but it
+still deserves to be ranked almost in a class of its own as a
+trustworthy biographical contribution to our knowledge of the earlier
+Middle Ages.
+
+Einhard (or Eginhard) was a Frank, born about 770 near the Odenwald in
+Franconia. After being educated at the monastery of Fulda he was
+presented at the Frankish court, some time between 791 and 796, where
+he remained twenty years as secretary and companion of the king, and
+later emperor, Charlemagne. He was made what practically corresponds
+to a modern minister of public works and in that capacity is thought
+to have supervised the building of the palace and basilica of the
+temple at Aachen, the palace of Ingelheim, the bridge over the Rhine
+at Mainz, and many other notable constructions of the king, though
+regarding the precise work of this sort which he did there is a
+general lack of definite proof. Despite the fact that he was a layman,
+he was given charge of a number of abbeys. His last years were spent
+at the Benedictine monastery of Seligenstadt, where he died about 840.
+There is a legend that Einhard's wife, Emma, was a daughter of
+Charlemagne, but this is to be regarded as merely a twelfth-century
+invention.
+
+The _Vita Caroli Magni_ was written as an expression of the author's
+gratitude to his royal friend and patron, though it did not appear
+until shortly after the latter's death in 814. "It contains the
+history of a very great and distinguished man," says Einhard in his
+preface, "but there is nothing in it to wonder at, besides his deeds,
+except the fact that I, who am a barbarian, and very little versed in
+the Roman language, seem to suppose myself capable of writing
+gracefully and respectably in Latin." It is considered ordinarily that
+Einhard endeavored to imitate the style of the Roman Suetonius, the
+biographer of the first twelve Cæsars, though in reality his writing
+is perhaps superior to that of Suetonius and there are scholars who
+hold that if he really followed a classical model at all that model
+was Julius Cæsar. Aside from the matter of literary style, there can
+be no reasonable doubt that the idea of writing a biography of his
+master was suggested to Einhard by the biographies of Suetonius,
+particularly that of the Emperor Augustus. Despite his limitations,
+says Mr. Hodgkin, the fact remains that "almost all our real,
+vivifying knowledge of Charles the Great is derived from Einhard, and
+that the _Vita Caroli_ is one of the most precious literary bequests
+of the early Middle Ages."[119] Certainly few mediæval writers had so
+good an opportunity as did Einhard to know the truth about the persons
+and events they undertook to describe.
+
+     Source--Einhard, _Vita Caroli Magni_ ["Life of Charles the
+     Great"], Chaps. 22-27. Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica,
+     Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 455-457. Adapted from
+     translation by Samuel Epes Turner in "Harper's School
+     Classics" (New York, 1880), pp. 56-65.
+
+     [Sidenote: Personal appearance]
+
+   =22.= Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though
+   not excessively tall. The upper part of his head was round, his
+   eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair auburn, and
+   face laughing and merry. His appearance was always stately and
+   dignified, whether he was standing or sitting, although his neck
+   was thick and somewhat short and his abdomen rather prominent. The
+   symmetry of the rest of his body concealed these defects. His gait
+   was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so
+   strong as his size led one to expect. His health was excellent,
+   except during the four years preceding his death, when he was
+   subject to frequent fevers; toward the end of his life he limped a
+   little with one foot. Even in his later years he lived rather
+   according to his own inclinations than the advice of physicians;
+   the latter indeed he very much disliked, because they wanted him to
+   give up roasts, to which he was accustomed, and to eat boiled meat
+   instead. In accordance with the national custom, he took frequent
+   exercise on horseback and in the chase, in which sports scarcely
+   any people in the world can equal the Franks. He enjoyed the vapors
+   from natural warm springs, and often indulged in swimming, in which
+   he was so skilful that none could surpass him; and hence it was
+   that he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and lived there
+   constantly during his later years....[120]
+
+     [Sidenote: Manner of dress]
+
+   =23.= His custom was to wear the national, that is to say, the
+   Frankish, dress--next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches,
+   and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by
+   bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet. In winter he
+   protected his shoulders and chest by a close-fitting coat of otter
+   or marten skins. Over all he flung a blue cloak, and he always had
+   a sword girt about him, usually one with a gold or silver hilt and
+   belt. He sometimes carried a jeweled sword, but only on great
+   feast-days or at the reception of ambassadors from foreign nations.
+   He despised foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed
+   himself to be robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned
+   the Roman tunic, chlamys,[121] and shoes; the first time at the
+   request of Pope Hadrian,[122] the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian's
+   successor.[123] On great feast-days he made use of embroidered
+   clothes, and shoes adorned with precious stones; his cloak was
+   fastened with a golden buckle, and he appeared crowned with a
+   diadem of gold and gems; but on other days his dress differed
+   little from that of ordinary people.
+
+     [Sidenote: Every-day life]
+
+   =24.= Charles was temperate in eating, and especially so in
+   drinking, for he abhorred drunkenness in anybody, much more in
+   himself and those of his household; but he could not easily abstain
+   from food, and often complained that fasts injured his health. He
+   gave entertainments but rarely, only on great feast-days, and then
+   to large numbers of people. His meals consisted ordinarily of four
+   courses, not counting the roast, which his huntsmen were accustomed
+   to bring in on the spit; he was more fond of this than of any other
+   dish. While at table, he listened to reading or music. The subjects
+   of the readings were the stories and deeds of olden time. He was
+   fond, too, of St. Augustine's books, and especially of the one
+   entitled _The City of God_.[124] He was so moderate in the use of
+   wine and all sorts of drink that he rarely allowed himself more
+   than three cups in the course of a meal. In summer, after the
+   midday meal, he would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off
+   his clothes and shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for
+   two or three hours. While he was dressing and putting on his shoes,
+   he not only gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the
+   Palace[125] told him of any suit in which his judgment was
+   necessary, he had the parties brought before him forthwith, heard
+   the case, and gave his decision, just as if he were sitting in the
+   judgment-seat. This was not the only business that he transacted at
+   this time, but he performed any duty of the day whatever, whether
+   he had to attend to the matter himself, or to give commands
+   concerning it to his officers.
+
+     [Sidenote: Education and accomplishments]
+
+   =25.= Charles had the gift of ready and fluent speech, and could
+   express whatever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He was
+   not satisfied with ability to use his native language merely, but
+   gave attention to the study of foreign ones, and in particular was
+   such a master of Latin that he could speak it as well as his native
+   tongue; but he could understand Greek better than he could speak
+   it. He was so eloquent, indeed, that he might have been taken for a
+   teacher of oratory. He most zealously cherished the liberal arts,
+   held those who taught them in great esteem, and conferred great
+   honors upon them. He took lessons in grammar of the deacon Peter of
+   Pisa, at that time an aged man.[126] Another deacon, Albin of
+   Britain, surnamed Alcuin, a man of Saxon birth, who was the
+   greatest scholar of the day, was his teacher in other branches of
+   learning.[127] The king spent much time and labor with him studying
+   rhetoric, dialectic, and especially astronomy. He learned to make
+   calculations, and used to investigate with much curiosity and
+   intelligence the motions of the heavenly bodies. He also tried to
+   write, and used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under his pillow,
+   that at leisure hours he might accustom his hand to form the
+   letters; however, as he began his efforts late in life, and not at
+   the proper time, they met with little success.
+
+     [Sidenote: Interest in religion and the Church]
+
+   =26.= He cherished with the greatest fervor and devotion the
+   principles of the Christian religion, which had been instilled into
+   him from infancy. Hence it was that he built the beautiful basilica
+   at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he adorned with gold and silver and
+   lamps, and with rails and doors of solid brass. He had the columns
+   and marbles for this structure brought from Rome and Ravenna, for
+   he could not find such as were suitable elsewhere.[128] He was a
+   constant worshipper at this church as long as his health permitted,
+   going morning and evening, even after nightfall, besides attending
+   mass. He took care that all the services there conducted should be
+   held in the best possible manner, very often warning the sextons
+   not to let any improper or unclean thing be brought into the
+   building, or remain in it. He provided it with a number of sacred
+   vessels of gold and silver, and with such a quantity of clerical
+   robes that not even the door-keepers, who filled the humblest
+   office in the church, were obliged to wear their everyday clothes
+   when in the performance of their duties. He took great pains to
+   improve the church reading and singing, for he was well skilled in
+   both, although he neither read in public nor sang, except in a low
+   tone and with others.
+
+     [Sidenote: Generosity and charities]
+
+   =27.= He was very active in aiding the poor, and in that open
+   generosity which the Greeks call alms; so much so, indeed, that he
+   not only made a point of giving in his own country and his own
+   kingdom, but when he discovered that there were Christians living
+   in poverty in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexandria,
+   and Carthage, he had compassion on their wants, and used to send
+   money over the seas to them. The reason that he earnestly strove to
+   make friends with the kings beyond seas was that he might get help
+   and relief to the Christians living under their rule. He cared for
+   the Church Of St. Peter the Apostle at Rome above all other holy
+   and sacred places, and heaped high its treasury with a vast wealth
+   of gold, silver, and precious stones. He sent great and countless
+   gifts to the popes;[129] and throughout his whole reign the wish
+   that he had nearest his heart was to re-establish the ancient
+   authority of the city of Rome under his care and by his influence,
+   and to defend and protect the Church of St. Peter, and to beautify
+   and enrich it out of his own store above all other churches.
+   Nevertheless, although he held it in such veneration, only four
+   times[130] did he repair to Rome to pay his vows and make his
+   supplications during the whole forty-seven years that he
+   reigned.[131]
+
+
+16. The War with the Saxons (772-803)
+
+When Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Franks, in 771, he found his
+kingdom pretty well hemmed in by a belt of kindred, though more or
+less hostile, Germanic peoples. The most important of these were the
+Visigoths in northern Spain, the Lombards in the Po Valley, the
+Bavarians in the region of the upper Danube, and the Saxons between
+the Rhine and the Elbe. The policy of the new king, perhaps only dimly
+outlined at the beginning of the reign but growing ever more definite
+as time went on, was to bring all of these neighboring peoples under
+the Frankish dominion, and so to build up a great state which should
+include the whole Germanic race of western and northern continental
+Europe. Most of the king's time during the first thirty years, or
+two-thirds, of the reign was devoted to this stupendous task. The
+first great step was taken in the conquest of the Lombards in 774,
+after which Charlemagne assumed the title of King of the Lombards. In
+787 Bavaria was annexed to the Frankish kingdom, the settlement in
+this case being in the nature of a complete absorption rather than a
+mere personal union such as followed the Lombard conquest. The next
+year an expedition across the Pyrenees resulted in the annexation of
+the Spanish March--a region in which the Visigoths had managed to
+maintain some degree of independence against the Saracens. In all
+these directions little fighting was necessary and for one reason or
+another the sovereignty of the Frankish king was recognized without
+much delay or resistance.
+
+The problem of reducing the Saxons was, however, a very different one.
+The Saxons of Charlemagne's day were a people of purest Germanic stock
+dwelling in the land along the Rhine, Ems, Weser, and Elbe, and inland
+as far as the low mountains of Hesse and Thuringia--the regions which
+now bear the names of Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg, and Westphalia.
+The Saxons, influenced as yet scarcely at all by contact with the
+Romans, retained substantially the manner of life described seven
+centuries earlier by Tacitus in the _Germania_. They lived in small
+villages, had only the loosest sort of government, and clung
+tenaciously to the warlike mythology of their ancestors. Before
+Charlemagne's time they had engaged in frequent border wars with the
+Franks and had shown capacity for making very obstinate resistance.
+And when Charlemagne himself undertook to subdue them he entered upon
+a task which kept him busy much of the time for over thirty years,
+that is, from 772 to 803. In all not fewer than eighteen distinct
+campaigns were made into the enemy's territory. The ordinary course
+of events was that Charlemagne would lead his army across the Rhine in
+the spring, the Saxons would make some little resistance and then
+disperse or withdraw toward the Baltic, and the Franks would leave a
+garrison and return home for the winter. As soon as the enemy's back
+was turned the Saxons would rally, expel or massacre the garrison, and
+assert their complete independence of Frankish authority. The next
+year the whole thing would have to be done over again. There were not
+more than two great battles in the entire contest; the war consisted
+rather of a monotonous series of "military parades," apparent
+submissions, revolts, and re-submissions. As Professor Emerton puts
+it, "From the year 772 to 803, a period of over thirty years, this war
+was always on the programme of the Frankish policy, now resting for a
+few years, and now breaking out with increased fury, until finally the
+Saxon people, worn out with the long struggle against a superior foe,
+gave it up and became a part of the Frankish Empire."[132]
+
+It is to be regretted that we have no Saxon account of the great
+contest except the well-meant, but very inadequate, history by
+Widukind, a monk of Corbie, written about the middle of the tenth
+century. However, the following passage from Einhard, the secretary
+and biographer of Charlemagne, doubtless describes with fair accuracy
+the conditions and character of the struggle. A few of the writer's
+strongest statements regarding Saxon perfidy should be accepted only
+with some allowance for Frankish prejudice.
+
+     Source--Einhard, _Vita Caroli Magni_, Chap. 7. Text in
+     _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol.
+     II., pp. 446-447. Adapted from translation by Samuel Epes
+     Turner in "Harper's School Classics" (New York, 1880), pp.
+     26-28.
+
+     [Sidenote: Lack of a natural frontier]
+
+   No war ever undertaken by the Frankish nation was carried on with
+   such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labor, because the
+   Saxons, like almost all the tribes of Germany, were a fierce
+   people, given to the worship of devils and hostile to our religion,
+   and did not consider it dishonorable to transgress and violate all
+   law, human and divine. Then there were peculiar circumstances that
+   tended to cause a breach of peace every day. Except in a few
+   places, where large forests or mountain-ridges intervened and made
+   the boundaries certain, the line between ourselves and the Saxons
+   passed almost in its whole extent through an open country, so that
+   there was no end to the murders, thefts, and arsons on both sides.
+   In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last
+   resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war with
+   the Saxons.
+
+     [Sidenote: Faithlessness of the Saxons]
+
+     [Sidenote: Charlemagne's settlement of Saxons in Gaul and Germany]
+
+     [Sidenote: The terms of peace]
+
+   Accordingly, war was begun against them, and was waged for
+   thirty-three successive years[133] with great fury; more, however,
+   to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could
+   doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been for
+   the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often they
+   were conquered, and, humbly submitting to the king, promised to do
+   what was enjoined upon them, gave without hesitation the required
+   hostages, and received the officers sent them from the king. They
+   were sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised to
+   renounce the worship of devils and to adopt Christianity; but they
+   were no less ready to violate these terms than prompt to accept
+   them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to them to
+   do; scarcely a year passed from the beginning of the war without
+   such changes on their part. But the king did not suffer his high
+   purpose and steadfastness--firm alike in good and evil fortune--to
+   be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be turned from
+   the task that he had undertaken; on the contrary, he never allowed
+   their faithless behavior to go unpunished, but either took the
+   field against them in person, or sent his counts with an army to
+   wreak vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction.[134] At last,
+   after conquering and subduing all who had offered resistance, he
+   took ten thousand of those who lived on the banks of the Elbe, and
+   settled them, with their wives and children, in many different
+   bodies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had lasted
+   so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms
+   offered by the king; which were renunciation of their national
+   religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the
+   sacraments of the Christian religion,[135] and union with the
+   Franks to form one people.
+
+
+17. The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)
+
+Just as the Saxons were the most formidable of Charlemagne's foes to
+meet and defeat in open battle, so were they the most difficult to
+maintain in anything like orderly allegiance after they had been
+tentatively conquered. This was true in part because of their untamed,
+freedom-loving character, but also in no small measure because of the
+thoroughgoing revolution which the Frankish king sought to work in
+their conditions of life, and especially in their religion. Before the
+Saxon war was far advanced it had very clearly assumed the character
+of a crusade of the Christian Franks against the "pagans of the
+north." And when the Saxon had been brought to give sullen promise of
+submission, it was his dearest possession--his fierce, heroic
+mythology--that was first to be swept away. By the stern decree of the
+conqueror Woden and Thor and Freya must go. In their stead was to be
+set up the Christian religion with its churches, its priests, its
+fastings, its ceremonial observances. Death was to be the penalty for
+eating meat during Lent, if done "out of contempt for Christianity,"
+and death also for "causing the body of a dead man to be burned in
+accordance with pagan rites." Even for merely scorning "to come to
+baptism," or "wishing to remain a pagan," a man was to forfeit his
+life. The selections which follow are taken from the capitulary _De
+Partibus Saxoniæ_, which was issued by Charlemagne probably at the
+Frankish assembly held at Paderborn in 780. If this date is correct
+(and it cannot be far wrong) the regulations embodied in the
+capitulary were established for the Saxon territories when there
+perhaps seemed to be a good prospect of peace but when, as later
+events showed, there yet remained twenty-three years of war before the
+final subjugation. From the beginning of the struggle the Church had
+been busy setting up new centers of influence--some abbeys and
+especially the great bishoprics of Bremen, Minden, Paderborn, Verden,
+Osnabrück, and Halberstadt--among the Saxon pagans, and the primary
+object of Charlemagne in this capitulary was to give to these
+ecclesiastical foundations the task of civilizing the country and to
+protect them, together with his counts or governing agents, while they
+should be engaged in this work. The severity of the Saxon war was
+responsible for the unusually stringent character of this body of
+regulations. In 797, at a great assembly at Aix-la-Chapelle, another
+capitulary for the Saxons was issued, known as the _Capitulum
+Saxonicum_, and in this the harsh features of the earlier capitulary
+were considerably relaxed. By 797 the resistance of the Saxons was
+pretty well broken, and it had become Charlemagne's policy to give his
+conquered subjects a government as nearly as possible like that the
+Franks themselves enjoyed. The chief importance of Charlemagne's
+conquests toward the east lies in the fact that by them broad
+stretches of German territory were brought for the first time within
+the pale of civilization.
+
+These capitularies, like the hundreds of others that were issued by
+the various kings of the Franks, were edicts or decrees drawn up under
+the king's direction, discussed and adopted in the assembly of the
+people, and published in the local districts of the kingdom by the
+counts and bishops. They were of a less permanent and fixed character
+than the so-called "leges," or laws established by long usage and
+custom.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 26, pp. 68-70. Translated by Dana
+     C. Munro in _University of Pennsylvania Translations and
+     Reprints_, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 2-5.
+
+   First, concerning the greater chapters it has been enacted:[136]
+
+   It is pleasing to all that the churches of Christ, which are now
+   being built in Saxony and consecrated to God, should not have less,
+   but greater and more illustrious honor than the shrines of the
+   idols have had.
+
+     [Sidenote: The churches as a place of refuge]
+
+   =2.= If any one shall have fled to a church for refuge, let no one
+   presume to expel him from the church by violence, but he shall be
+   left in peace until he shall be brought to the judicial assemblage;
+   and on account of the honor due to God and the saints, and the
+   reverence due to the church itself, let his life and all his
+   members be granted to him. Moreover, let him plead his cause as
+   best he can and he shall be judged; and so let him be led to the
+   presence of the lord king, and the latter shall send him where it
+   shall seem fitting to his clemency.
+
+   =3.= If any one shall have entered a church by violence and shall
+   have carried off anything in it by force or theft, or shall have
+   burned the church itself, let him be punished by death.[137]
+
+     [Sidenote: Offenses against the Church]
+
+   =4.= If any one, out of contempt for Christianity, shall have
+   despised the holy Lenten feast and shall have eaten flesh, let him
+   be punished by death. But, nevertheless, let it be taken into
+   consideration by a priest, lest perchance any one from necessity
+   has been led to eat flesh.[138]
+
+   =5.= If any one shall have killed a bishop or priest or deacon let
+   him likewise be punished capitally.
+
+   =6.= If any one, deceived by the devil, shall have believed, after
+   the manner of the pagans, that any man or woman is a witch and eats
+   men, and on this account shall have burned the person, or shall
+   have given the person's flesh to others to eat, or shall have eaten
+   it himself, let him be punished by a capital sentence.
+
+   =7.= If any one, in accordance with pagan rites, shall have caused
+   the body of a dead man to be burned, and shall have reduced his
+   bones to ashes, let him be punished capitally.
+
+     [Sidenote: Refusal to be baptized]
+
+   =8.= If any one of the race of the Saxons hereafter, concealed
+   among them, shall have wished to hide himself unbaptized, and shall
+   have scorned to come to baptism, and shall have wished to remain a
+   pagan, let him be punished by death.
+
+   =9.= If any one shall have sacrificed a man to the devil, and,
+   after the manner of the pagans, shall have presented him as a
+   victim to the demons, let him be punished by death.
+
+     [Sidenote: Conspiracy against Christians]
+
+   =10.= If any one shall have formed a conspiracy with the pagans
+   against the Christians, or shall have wished to join with them in
+   opposition to the Christians, let him be punished by death; and
+   whosoever shall have consented fraudulently to this same against
+   the king and the Christian people, let him be punished by death.
+
+   =11.= If any one shall have shown himself unfaithful to the lord
+   king, let him be punished with a capital sentence.
+
+   =13.= If any one shall have killed his lord or lady, let him be
+   punished in a like manner.
+
+   =14.= If, indeed, for these mortal crimes secretly committed any
+   one shall have fled of his own accord to a priest, and after
+   confession shall have wished to do penance, let him be freed by the
+   testimony of the priest from death....[139]
+
+     [Sidenote: Observance of the Sabbath and of festival days]
+
+   =18.= On the Lord's day no meetings or public judicial assemblages
+   shall be held, unless perchance in a case of great necessity, or
+   when war compels it, but all shall go to church to hear the word of
+   God, and shall be free for prayers or good works. Likewise, also,
+   on the special festivals they shall devote themselves to God and to
+   the services of the Church, and shall refrain from secular
+   assemblies.
+
+     [Sidenote: Baptism of infants]
+
+   =19.= Likewise, it has been pleasing to insert in these decrees
+   that all infants shall be baptized within a year; and we have
+   decreed this, that if any one shall have refused to bring his
+   infant to baptism within the course of a year, without the advice
+   or permission of the priest, if he is a noble he shall pay 120
+   _solidi_[140] to the treasury; if a freeman, 60; if a _litus_,
+   30.[141]
+
+   =20.= If any one shall have contracted a prohibited or illegal
+   marriage, if a noble, 60 _solidi_; if a freeman, 30; if a _litus_,
+   15.
+
+     [Sidenote: Keeping up heathen rites]
+
+   =21.= If any one shall have made a vow at springs or trees or
+   groves,[142] or shall have made an offering after the manner of the
+   heathen and shall have partaken of a repast in honor of the demons,
+   if he shall be a noble, 60 _solidi_; if a freeman, 30; if a
+   _litus_, 15. If, indeed, they have not the means of paying at once,
+   they shall be given into the service of the Church until the
+   _solidi_ are paid.
+
+   =22.= We command that the bodies of Saxon Christians shall be
+   carried to the church cemeteries, and not to the mounds of the
+   pagans.
+
+   =23.= We have ordered that diviners and soothsayers shall be handed
+   over to the churches and priests.
+
+     [Sidenote: Fugitive criminals]
+
+   =24.= Concerning robbers and malefactors who shall have fled from
+   one county to another, if any one shall receive them into his
+   protection and shall keep them with him for seven nights,[143]
+   except for the purpose of bringing them to justice, let him pay our
+   ban.[144] Likewise, if a count[145] shall have concealed them, and
+   shall be unwilling to bring them forward so that justice may be
+   done, and is not able to excuse himself for this, let him lose his
+   office.
+
+   =26.= No one shall presume to impede any man coming to us to seek
+   justice; and if anyone shall have attempted to do this, he shall
+   pay our ban.
+
+     [Sidenote: Public assemblies]
+
+   =34.= We have forbidden that Saxons shall hold public assemblies in
+   general, unless perchance our _missus_[146] shall have caused them
+   to come together in accordance with our command; but each count
+   shall hold judicial assemblies and administer justice in his
+   jurisdiction. And this shall be cared for by the priests, lest it
+   be done otherwise.[147]
+
+
+18. The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)
+
+The revenues which came into Charlemagne's treasury were derived
+chiefly from his royal domains. There was no system of general
+taxation, such as modern nations maintain, and the funds realized from
+gifts, fines, rents, booty, and tribute money, were quite insufficient
+to meet the needs of the court, modest though they were. Charlemagne's
+interest in his villas, or private farms, was due therefore not less
+to his financial dependence upon them than to his personal liking for
+thrifty agriculture and thoroughgoing administration. The royal
+domains of the Frankish kingdom, already extensive at Charlemagne's
+accession, were considerably increased during his reign. It has been
+well said that Charlemagne was doubtless the greatest landed
+proprietor of the realm and that he "supervised the administration of
+these lands as a sovereign who knows that his power rests partly on
+his riches."[148] He gave the closest personal attention to his
+estates and was always watchful lest he be defrauded out of even the
+smallest portion of their products which was due him. The capitulary
+_De Villis_, from which the following passages have been selected, is
+a lengthy document in which Charlemagne sought to prescribe clearly
+and minutely the manifold duties of the stewards in charge of these
+estates. We may regard it, however, as in the nature of an ideal
+catalogue of what the king would like to have on his domains rather
+than as a definite statement of what was always actually to be found
+there. From it may be gleaned many interesting facts regarding rural
+life in western Europe during the eighth and ninth centuries. Its date
+is uncertain, but it was about 800--possibly somewhat earlier.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 32, pp. 82-91. Translated by
+     Roland P. Falkner in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_,
+     Vol. III., No. 2, pp. 2-4.
+
+     [Sidenote: Report to be made to the king by his stewards each
+     Christmas-tide]
+
+   =62.=[149] We desire that each steward shall make an annual
+   statement of all our income, with an account of our lands
+   cultivated by the oxen which our plowmen drive, and of our lands
+   which the tenants of farms ought to plow;[150] an account of the
+   pigs, of the rents,[151] of the obligations and fines; of the game
+   taken in our forests without our permission; of the various
+   compositions;[152] of the mills, of the forest, of the fields, and
+   of the bridges and ships; of the freemen and the districts under
+   obligations to our treasury; of markets, vineyards, and those who
+   owe wine to us; of the hay, fire-wood, torches, planks, and other
+   kinds of lumber; of the waste-lands; of the vegetables, millet, and
+   panic;[153] and of the wool, flax, and hemp; of the fruits of the
+   trees; of the nut trees, larger and smaller; of the grafted trees
+   of all kinds; of the gardens; of the turnips; of the fish-ponds; of
+   the hides, skins, and horns; of the honey and wax; of the fat,
+   tallow and soap; of the mulberry wine, cooked wine, mead, vinegar,
+   beer, wine new and old; of the new grain and the old; of the hens
+   and eggs; of the geese; of the number of fishermen, smiths,
+   sword-makers, and shoe-makers; of the bins and boxes; of the
+   turners and saddlers; of the forges and mines, that is iron and
+   other mines; of the lead mines; of the colts and fillies. They
+   shall make all these known to us, set forth separately and in
+   order, at Christmas, in order that we may know what and how much of
+   each thing we have.
+
+     [Sidenote: Domestic animals]
+
+   =23.= On each of our estates our stewards are to have as many
+   cow-houses, pig-sties, sheep-folds, stables for goats, as possible,
+   and they ought never to be without these. And let them have in
+   addition cows furnished by our serfs[154] for performing their
+   service, so that the cow-houses and plows shall be in no way
+   diminished by the service on our demesne. And when they have to
+   provide meat, let them have steers lame, but healthy, and cows and
+   horses which are not mangy, or other beasts which are not diseased
+   and, as we have said, our cow-houses and plows are not to be
+   diminished for this.
+
+     [Sidenote: Cleanliness enjoined]
+
+   =34.= They must provide with the greatest care that whatever is
+   prepared or made with the hands, that is, lard, smoked meat, salt
+   meat, partially salted meat, wine, vinegar, mulberry wine, cooked
+   wine, _garns_,[155] mustard, cheese, butter, malt, beer, mead,
+   honey, wax, flour, all should be prepared and made with the
+   greatest cleanliness.
+
+   =40.= That each steward on each of our domains shall always have,
+   for the sake of ornament, swans, peacocks, pheasants, ducks,
+   pigeons, partridges, turtle-doves.
+
+     [Sidenote: Household furniture]
+
+   =42.= That in each of our estates, the chambers shall be provided
+   with counterpanes, cushions, pillows, bed-clothes, coverings for
+   the tables and benches; vessels of brass, lead, iron and wood;
+   andirons, chains, pot-hooks, adzes, axes, augers, cutlasses, and
+   all other kinds of tools, so that it shall never be necessary to go
+   elsewhere for them, or to borrow them. And the weapons, which are
+   carried against the enemy, shall be well-cared for, so as to keep
+   them in good condition; and when they are brought back they shall
+   be placed in the chamber.
+
+   =43.= For our women's work they are to give at the proper time, as
+   has been ordered, the materials, that is the linen, wool,
+   woad,[156] vermilion, madder,[157] wool-combs, teasels,[158] soap,
+   grease, vessels, and the other objects which are necessary.
+
+     [Sidenote: Supplies to be furnished the king]
+
+   =44.= Of the food products other than meat, two-thirds shall be
+   sent each year for our own use, that is of the vegetables, fish,
+   cheese, butter, honey, mustard, vinegar, millet, panic, dried and
+   green herbs, radishes, and in addition of the wax, soap and other
+   small products; and they shall tell us how much is left by a
+   statement, as we have said above; and they shall not neglect this
+   as in the past; because from those two-thirds, we wish to know how
+   much remains.
+
+     [Sidenote: Workmen on the estates]
+
+   =45.= That each steward shall have in his district good workmen,
+   namely, blacksmiths, gold-smith, silver-smith, shoe-makers,
+   turners, carpenters, sword-makers, fishermen, foilers, soap-makers,
+   men who know how to make beer, cider, berry, and all the other
+   kinds of beverages, bakers to make pastry for our table, net-makers
+   who know how to make nets for hunting, fishing and fowling, and the
+   others who are too numerous to be designated.
+
+
+19. An Inventory of One of Charlemagne's Estates
+
+In the following inventory we have a specimen of the annual statements
+required by Charlemagne from the stewards on his royal domains. The
+location of Asnapium is unknown, but it is evident that this estate
+was one of the smaller sort. Like all the rest, it was liable
+occasionally to become the temporary abiding place of the king. The
+detailed character of the inventory is worthy of note, as is also the
+number of industries which must have been engaged in by the
+inhabitants of the estate and its dependent villas.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_ (Pertz
+     ed.), Vol. I., pp. 178-179.
+
+     [Sidenote: Buildings on the estate of Asnapium]
+
+   We found in the imperial estate of Asnapium a royal house built of
+   stone in the very best manner, having 3 rooms. The entire house was
+   surrounded with balconies and it had 11 apartments for women.
+   Underneath was 1 cellar. There were 2 porticoes. There were 17
+   other houses built of wood within the court-yard, with a similar
+   number of rooms and other fixtures, all well constructed. There was
+   1 stable, 1 kitchen, 1 mill, 1 granary, and 3 barns.
+
+   The yard was enclosed with a hedge and a stone gateway, and above
+   was a balcony from which distributions can be made. There was also
+   an inner yard, surrounded by a hedge, well arranged, and planted
+   with various kinds of trees.
+
+   Of vestments: coverings for 1 bed, 1 table-cloth, and 1 towel.
+
+   Of utensils: 2 brass kettles; 2 drinking cups; 2 brass cauldrons; 1
+   iron cauldron; 1 frying-pan; 1 gramalmin; 1 pair of andirons; 1
+   lamp; 2 hatchets; 1 chisel; 2 augers; 1 axe; 1 knife; 1 large
+   plane; 1 small plane; 2 scythes; 2 sickles; 2 spades edged with
+   iron; and a sufficient supply of utensils of wood.
+
+     [Sidenote: Supplies of various sorts]
+
+   Of farm produce: old spelt[159] from last year, 90 baskets which
+   can be made into 450 weight[160] of flour; and 100 measures[161] of
+   barley. From the present year, 110 baskets of spelt, of which 60
+   baskets had been planted, but the rest we found; 100 measures of
+   wheat, 60 sown, the rest we found; 98 measures of rye all sown;
+   1,800 measures of barley, 1,100 sown, the rest we found; 430
+   measures of oats; 1 measure of beans; 12 measures of peas. At 5
+   mills were found 800 measures of small size. At 4 breweries, 650
+   measures of small size, 240 given to the prebendaries,[162] the
+   rest we found. At 2 bridges, 60 measures of salt and 2 shillings.
+   At 4 gardens, 11 shillings. Also honey, 3 measures; about 1 measure
+   of butter; lard, from last year 10 sides; new sides, 200, with
+   fragments and fats; cheese from the present year, 43 weights.
+
+     [Sidenote: Kinds and number of animals]
+
+   Of cattle: 51 head of larger cattle; 5 three-year olds; 7 two-year
+   olds; 7 yearlings; 10 two-year old colts; 8 yearlings; 3
+   stallions; 16 cows; 2 asses; 50 cows with calves; 20 young bulls;
+   38 yearling calves; 3 bulls; 260 hogs; 100 pigs; 5 boars; 150 sheep
+   with lambs; 200 yearling lambs; 120 rams; 30 goats with kids; 30
+   yearling kids; 3 male goats; 30 geese; 80 chickens; 22 peacocks.
+
+   Also concerning the manors[163] which belong to the above mansion.
+   In the villa of Grisio we found domain buildings, where there are 3
+   barns and a yard enclosed by a hedge. There were, besides, 1 garden
+   with trees, 10 geese, 8 ducks, 30 chickens.
+
+   In another villa we found domain buildings and a yard surrounded by
+   a hedge, and within 3 barns; 1 arpent[164] of vines; 1 garden with
+   trees; 15 geese; 20 chickens.
+
+   In a third villa, domain buildings, with 2 barns; 1 granary; 1
+   garden and 1 yard well enclosed by a hedge.
+
+   We found all the dry and liquid measures just as in the palace. We
+   did not find any goldsmiths, silversmiths, blacksmiths, huntsmen,
+   or persons engaged in other services.
+
+     [Sidenote: Vegetables and trees]
+
+   The garden herbs which we found were lily, putchuck,[165] mint,
+   parsley, rue, celery, libesticum, sage, savory, juniper, leeks,
+   garlic, tansy, wild mint, coriander, scullions, onions, cabbage,
+   kohlrabi,[166] betony.[167] Trees: pears, apples, medlars, peaches,
+   filberts, walnuts, mulberries, quinces.[168]
+
+
+20. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)
+
+The occasion of Charlemagne's presence in Rome in 800 was a conflict
+between Pope Leo III. and a faction of the populace led by two nephews
+of the preceding pope, Hadrian I. It seems that in 799 Leo had been
+practically driven out of the papal capital and imprisoned in a
+neighboring monastery, but that through the planning of a subordinate
+official he had soon contrived to escape. At any rate he got out of
+Italy as speedily as he could and made his way across the Alps to seek
+aid at the court of Charlemagne. The Frankish king was still busy with
+the Saxon war and did not allow the prospect of a papal visit to
+interfere with his intended campaign; but at Paderborn, in the very
+heart of the Saxon country, where he could personally direct the
+operations of his troops, he established his headquarters and awaited
+the coming of the refugee pope. The meeting of the two dignitaries
+resulted in a pledge of the king once more to take up the burden of
+defending the Roman Church and the Vicar of Christ, this time not
+against outside foes but against internal disturbers. After about a
+year Charlemagne repaired to Rome and called upon the Pope and his
+adversaries to appear before him for judgment. When the leaders of the
+hostile faction refused to comply, they were summarily condemned to
+death, though it is said that through the generous advice of Leo they
+were afterwards released on a sentence of exile. During the ceremonies
+which followed in celebration of Christmas occurred the famous
+coronation which is described in the two passages given below.
+
+Although the coronation has been regarded as so important as to have
+been called "the central event of the Middle Ages,"[169] it is by no
+means an easy task to determine precisely what significance it was
+thought to have at the time. We can look back upon it now and see
+that it marked the beginning of the so-called "Holy Roman Empire"--a
+creation that endured in _fact_ only a very short time but whose name
+and theory survived all the way down to Napoleon's reorganization of
+the German states in 1806. One view of the matter is that
+Charlemagne's coronation meant that a Frankish king had become the
+successor of Emperor Constantine VI., just deposed at Constantinople,
+and that therefore the universal Roman Empire was again to be ruled
+from a western capital as it had been before the time of the first
+Constantine. It will be observed that extract (a), taken from the
+Annals of Lauresheim, and therefore of German origin, at least
+suggests this explanation. But, whether or not precisely this idea was
+in the mind of those who took part in the ceremony, in actual fact no
+such transfer of universal sovereignty from Constantinople to the
+Frankish capital ever took place. The Eastern Empire lived right on
+under its own line of rulers and, so far as we know, aside from some
+rather vague negotiations for a marriage of Charlemagne and the
+Empress Irene, the new western Emperor seems never to have
+contemplated the extension of his authority over the East. His great
+aspiration had been to consolidate all the Germanic peoples of western
+continental Europe under the leadership of the Franks; that, by 800,
+he had practically done; he had no desire to go farther. His dominion
+was always limited strictly to the West, and at the most he can be
+regarded after 800 as not more than the reviver of the old western
+half of the Empire, and hence as the successor of Romulus Augustulus.
+But even this view is perhaps somewhat strained. The chroniclers of
+the time liked to set up fine theories of the sort, and later it came
+to be to the interest of papal and imperial rivals to make large use,
+in one way or another, of such theories. But we to-day may look upon
+the coronation as nothing more than a formal recognition of a
+condition of things already existing. By his numerous conquests
+Charlemagne had drawn under his control such a number of peoples and
+countries that his position had come to be that which we think of as
+an emperor's rather than that of simple king of the Franks. The Pope
+did not give Charlemagne his empire; the energetic king had built it
+for himself. At the most, what Leo did was simply to bestow a title
+already earned and to give with it presumably the blessing and favor
+of the Church, whose devoted servant Charlemagne repeatedly professed
+to be. That the idea of imperial unity still survived in the West is
+certain, and without doubt many men looked upon the ceremony of 800 as
+re-establishing such unity; but as events worked out it was not so
+much Charlemagne's empire as the papacy itself that was the real
+continuation of the power of the Cæsars. Conditions had so changed
+that it was impossible in the nature of things for Charlemagne to be a
+Roman emperor in the old sense. The coronation gave him a new title
+and new prestige, but no new subjects, no larger army, no more
+princely income. The basis of his power continued to be, in every
+sense, his Frankish kingdom. The structural element in the revived
+empire was Frankish; the Roman was merely ornamental.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Annales Laureshamensis_ ["Annals of
+     Lauresheim"], Chap. 34. Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica,
+     Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 38.
+
+     (b) _Vitæ Pontificorum Romanorum_ ["Lives of the Roman
+     Pontiffs"]. Text in Muratori, _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_,
+     Vol. III., pp. 284-285.
+
+   (a)
+
+   And because the name of emperor had now ceased among the Greeks,
+   and their empire was possessed by a woman,[170] it seemed both to
+   Leo the pope himself, and to all the holy fathers who were present
+   in the self-same council,[171] as well as to the rest of the
+   Christian people, that they ought to take to be emperor Charles,
+   king of the Franks, who held Rome herself, where the Cæsars had
+   always been wont to sit, and all the other regions which he ruled
+   through Italy and Gaul and Germany; and inasmuch as God had given
+   all these lands into his hand, it seemed right that with the help
+   of God, and at the prayer of the whole Christian people, he should
+   have the name of emperor also. [The Pope's] petition King Charles
+   willed not to refuse,[172] but submitting himself with all humility
+   to God, and at the prayer of the priests, and of the whole
+   Christian people, on the day of the nativity of our Lord Jesus
+   Christ, he took on himself the name of emperor, being consecrated
+   by the Pope Leo.... For this also was done by the will of God ...
+   that the heathen might not mock the Christians if the name of
+   emperor should have ceased among them.
+
+   (b)
+
+   After these things, on the day of the birth of our Lord Jesus
+   Christ, when all the people were assembled in the Church of the
+   blessed St. Peter,[173] the venerable and gracious Pope with his
+   own hands crowned him [Charlemagne] with an exceedingly precious
+   crown. Then all the faithful Romans, beholding the choice of such a
+   friend and defender of the holy Roman Church, and of the pontiff,
+   did by the will of God and of the blessed Peter, the key-bearer of
+   the heavenly kingdom, cry with a loud voice, "To Charles, the most
+   pious Augustus, crowned of God, the great and peace-giving Emperor,
+   be life and victory." While he, before the altar of the church, was
+   calling upon many of the saints, it was proclaimed three times, and
+   by the common voice of all he was chosen to be emperor of the
+   Romans. Then the most holy high priest and pontiff anointed Charles
+   with holy oil, and also his most excellent son to be king,[174]
+   upon the very day of the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ.
+
+
+21. The General Capitulary for the Missi (802)
+
+Throughout the larger part of Charlemagne's dominion the chief local
+unit of administration was the county, presided over by the count. The
+count was appointed by the Emperor, generally from among the most
+important landed proprietors of the district. His duties included the
+levy of troops, the publication of the royal decrees or capitularies,
+the administration of justice, and the collection of revenues. On the
+frontiers, where the need of defense was greatest, these local
+officers exercised military functions of a special character and were
+commonly known as "counts of the march," or dukes, or sometimes as
+margraves. In order that these royal officials, in whatever part of
+the country, might not abuse their authority as against their
+fellow-subjects, or engage in plots against the unity of the empire,
+Charlemagne devised a plan of sending out at stated intervals men who
+were known as _missi dominici_ ("the lord's messengers") to visit the
+various counties, hear complaints of the people, inquire into the
+administration of the counts, and report conditions to the Emperor.
+They were to serve as connecting links between the central and local
+governments and as safeguards against the ever powerful forces of
+disintegration. Such itinerant royal agents had not been unknown in
+Merovingian times, and they had probably been made use of pretty
+frequently by Charles Martel and Pepin the Short. But it was
+Charlemagne who reduced the employment of _missi_ to a system and made
+it a fixed part of the governmental machinery of the Frankish kingdom.
+This he did mainly by the _Capitulare Missorum Generale_, promulgated
+early in 802 at an assembly at the favorite capital Aix-la-Chapelle.
+The whole empire was divided into districts, or _missaticæ_, and each
+of these was to be visited annually by two of the _missi_. A churchman
+and a layman were usually sent out together, probably because they
+were to have jurisdiction over both the clergy and the laity, and also
+that they might restrain each other from injustice or other
+misconduct. They were appointed by the Emperor, at first from his
+lower order of vassals, but after a time from the leading bishops,
+abbots, and nobles of the empire. They were given power to depose
+minor officials for misdemeanors, and to summon higher ones before the
+Emperor. By 812, at least, they were required to make four rounds of
+inspection each year.
+
+In the capitulary for the _missi_ Charlemagne took occasion to include
+a considerable number of regulations and instructions regarding the
+general character of the local governments, the conduct of local
+officers, the manner of life of the clergy, the management of the
+monasteries, and other things of vital importance to the strength of
+the empire and the well-being of the people. The capitulary may be
+regarded as a broad outline of policy and conduct which its author,
+lately become emperor, wished to see realized throughout his vast
+dominion.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 33, pp. 91-99. Translated by Dana
+     C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol.
+     VI., No. 5, pp. 16-27.
+
+     [Sidenote: The missi sent out]
+
+   =1.= Concerning the embassy sent out by the lord emperor.
+
+   Therefore, the most serene and most Christian lord emperor Charles
+   has chosen from his nobles the wisest and most prudent men, both
+   archbishops and some of the other bishops also, and venerable
+   abbots and pious laymen, and has sent them throughout his whole
+   kingdom, and through them he would have all the various classes of
+   persons mentioned in the following chapters live in accordance
+   with the correct law. Moreover, where anything which is not right
+   and just has been enacted in the law, he has ordered them to
+   inquire into this most diligently and to inform him of it. He
+   desires, God granting, to reform it. And let no one, through his
+   cleverness or craft, dare to oppose or thwart the written law, as
+   many are wont to do, or the judicial sentence passed upon him, or
+   to do injury to the churches of God, or the poor, or the widows, or
+   the wards, or any Christian. But all shall live entirely in
+   accordance with God's precept, honestly and under a just rule, and
+   each one shall be admonished to live in harmony with his fellows in
+   his business or profession; the canonical clergy[175] ought to
+   observe in every respect a canonical life without heeding base
+   gain; nuns ought to keep diligent watch over their lives; laymen
+   and the secular clergy[176] ought rightly to observe their laws
+   without malicious fraud; and all ought to live in mutual charity
+   and perfect peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The duties of the missi]
+
+   And let the _missi_ themselves make a diligent investigation
+   whenever any man claims that an injustice has been done him by any
+   one, just as they desire to deserve the grace of omnipotent God and
+   to keep their fidelity promised to Him, so that in all cases, in
+   accordance with the will and fear of God, they shall administer the
+   law fully and justly in the case of the holy churches of God and of
+   the poor, of wards and widows, and of the whole people. And if
+   there be anything of such a nature that they, together with the
+   provincial counts, are not able of themselves to correct it and to
+   do justice concerning it, they shall, without any reservation,
+   refer it, together with their reports, to the judgment of the
+   emperor; and the straight path of justice shall not be impeded by
+   any one on account of flattery or gifts, or on account of any
+   relationship, or from fear of the powerful.[177]
+
+     [Sidenote: Oath to be taken to Charlemagne as emperor]
+
+   =2.= Concerning the fidelity to be promised to the lord emperor.
+
+   He has commanded that every man in his whole kingdom, whether
+   ecclesiastic or layman, and each one according to his vow and
+   occupation, should now promise to him as emperor the fidelity which
+   he had previously promised to him as king; and all of those who had
+   not yet made that promise should do likewise, down to those who
+   were twelve years old. And that it shall be announced to all in
+   public, so that each one might know, how great and how many things
+   are comprehended in that oath; not merely, as many have thought
+   hitherto, fidelity to the lord emperor as regards his life, and not
+   introducing any enemy into his kingdom out of enmity, and not
+   consenting to or concealing another's faithlessness to him; but
+   that all may know that this oath contains in itself the following
+   meaning:
+
+     [Sidenote: What the new oath was to mean]
+
+   =3.= First, that each one voluntarily shall strive, in accordance
+   with his knowledge and ability, to live completely in the holy
+   service of God, in accordance with the precept of God and in
+   accordance with his own promise, because the lord emperor is unable
+   to give to all individually the necessary care and discipline.
+
+   =4.= Secondly, that no man, either through perjury or any other
+   wile or fraud, or on account of the flattery or gift of any one,
+   shall refuse to give back or dare to take possession of or conceal
+   a serf of the lord emperor, or a district, or land, or anything
+   that belongs to him; and that no one shall presume, through perjury
+   or other wile, to conceal or entice away his fugitive fiscaline
+   serfs[178] who unjustly and fraudulently say that they are free.
+
+   =5.= That no one shall presume to rob or do any injury fraudulently
+   to the churches of God, or widows, or orphans, or pilgrims;[179]
+   for the lord emperor himself, under God and His saints, has
+   constituted himself their protector and defender.
+
+   =6.= That no one shall dare to lay waste a benefice[180] of the
+   lord emperor, or to make it his own property.
+
+   =7.= That no one shall presume to neglect a summons to war from the
+   lord emperor; and that no one of the counts shall be so
+   presumptuous as to dare to excuse any one of those who owe military
+   service, either on account of relationship, or flattery, or gifts
+   from any one.
+
+   =8.= That no one shall presume to impede at all in any way a
+   ban[181] or command of the lord emperor, or to tamper with his
+   work, or to impede, or to lessen, or in any way to act contrary to
+   his will or commands. And that no one shall dare to neglect to pay
+   his dues or tax.
+
+     [Sidenote: Justice to be rendered in the courts]
+
+   =9.= That no one, for any reason, shall make a practice in court of
+   defending another unjustly, either from any desire of gain when the
+   cause is weak, or by impeding a just judgment by his skill in
+   reasoning, or by a desire of oppressing when the cause is weak. But
+   each one shall answer for his own cause or tax or debt, unless any
+   one is infirm or ignorant of pleading;[182] for these the _missi_,
+   or the chiefs who are in the court, or the judge who knows the case
+   in question, shall plead before the court; or, if it is necessary,
+   such a person may be allowed as is acceptable to all and knows the
+   case well; but this shall be done wholly according to the
+   convenience of the chiefs or _missi_ who are present. But in every
+   case it shall be done in accordance with justice and the law; and
+   no one shall have the power to impede justice by a gift, reward, or
+   any kind of evil flattery, or from any hindrance of relationship.
+   And no one shall unjustly consent to another in anything, but with
+   all zeal and good-will all shall be prepared to carry out justice.
+
+   For all the above mentioned ought to be observed by the imperial
+   oath.[183]
+
+   =10.= [We ordain] that bishops and priests shall live according to
+   the canons[184] and shall teach others to do the same.
+
+     [Sidenote: Obligations of the clergy]
+
+   =11.= That bishops, abbots, and abbesses who are in charge of
+   others, with the greatest veneration shall strive to surpass their
+   subjects in this diligence and shall not oppress their subjects
+   with a harsh rule or tyranny, but with a sincere love shall
+   carefully guard the flock committed to them with mercy and charity,
+   or by the examples of good works.
+
+   =14.= That bishops, abbots and abbesses, and counts shall be
+   mutually in accord, following the law in order to render a just
+   judgment with all charity and unity of peace, and that they shall
+   live faithfully in accordance with the will of God, so that always
+   everywhere through them and among them a just judgment shall be
+   rendered. The poor, widows, orphans, and pilgrims shall have
+   consolation and defense from them; so that we, through the
+   good-will of these, may deserve the reward of eternal life rather
+   than punishment.
+
+   =19.= That no bishops, abbots, priests, deacons, or other members
+   of the clergy shall presume to have dogs for hunting, or hawks,
+   falcons, and sparrow-hawks, but each shall observe fully the
+   canons or rule of his order.[185] If any one shall presume to do
+   so, let him know that he shall lose his office. And in addition he
+   shall suffer such punishment for his misconduct that the others
+   will be afraid to possess such things for themselves.
+
+   =27.= And we command that no one in our whole kingdom shall dare to
+   deny hospitality to rich, or poor, or pilgrims; that is, let no one
+   deny shelter and fire and water to pilgrims traversing our country
+   in God's name, or to any one traveling for the love of God, or for
+   the safety of his own soul.
+
+     [Sidenote: The missi to be helped on their way]
+
+   =28.= Concerning embassies coming from the lord emperor. That the
+   counts and _centenarii_[186] shall provide most carefully, as they
+   desire the good-will of the lord emperor, for the _missi_ who are
+   sent out, so that they may go through their territories without any
+   delay; and the emperor commands all everywhere that they see to it
+   that no delay is encountered anywhere, but they shall cause the
+   _missi_ to go on their way in all haste and shall provide for them
+   in such a manner as they may direct.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crime of murder]
+
+   =32.= Murders, by which a multitude of the Christian people perish,
+   we command in every way to be shunned and to be forbidden....
+   Nevertheless, lest sin should also increase, in order that the
+   greatest enmities may not arise among Christians, when by the
+   persuasions of the devil murders happen, the criminal shall
+   immediately hasten to make amends and with all speed shall pay to
+   the relatives of the murdered man the fitting composition for the
+   evil done. And we forbid firmly that the relatives of the murdered
+   man shall dare in any way to continue their enmities on account of
+   the evil done, or shall refuse to grant peace to him who asks it,
+   but, having given their pledges, they shall receive the fitting
+   composition and shall make a perpetual peace; moreover, the guilty
+   one shall not delay to pay the composition....[187] But if any one
+   shall have scorned to make the fitting composition, he shall be
+   deprived of his property until we shall render our decision.[188]
+
+     [Sidenote: Theft of game from the royal forests]
+
+   =39.= That in our forests no one shall dare to steal our game,
+   which we have already many times forbidden to be done; and now we
+   again strictly forbid that any one shall do so in the future; just
+   as each one desires to preserve the fidelity promised to us, so let
+   him take heed to himself....
+
+   =40.= Lastly, therefore, we desire all our decrees to be known in
+   the whole kingdom through our _missi_ now sent out, either among
+   the men of the Church, bishops, abbots, priests, deacons, canons,
+   all monks or nuns, so that each one in his ministry or profession
+   may keep our ban or decree, or where it may be fitting to thank the
+   citizens for their good-will, or to furnish aid, or where there may
+   be need still of correcting anything.... Where we believe there is
+   anything unpunished, we shall so strive to correct it with all our
+   zeal and will that with God's aid we may bring it to correction,
+   both for our own eternal glory and that of all our faithful.
+
+
+22. A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad
+
+In Charlemagne's governmental and military system the clergy, both
+regular and secular, had a place of large importance. From early
+Frankish times the bishoprics and monasteries had been acquiring
+large landed estates on which they enjoyed peculiar political and
+judicial privileges. These lands came to the church authorities partly
+by purchase, largely by gift, and not infrequently through concessions
+by small land-holders who wished to get the Church's favor and
+protection without actually moving off the little farms they had been
+accustomed to cultivate. However acquired, the lands were administered
+by the clergy with larger independence than was apt to be allowed the
+average lay owner. Still, they were as much a part of the empire as
+before and the powerful bishops and abbots were expected to see that
+certain services were forthcoming when the Emperor found himself in
+need of them. Among these was the duty of leading, or sending, a quota
+of troops under arms to the yearly assembly. In the selection below we
+have a letter written by Charlemagne some time between 804 and 811 to
+Fulrad, abbot of St. Quentin (about sixty miles northeast of Paris),
+respecting the fulfilment of this important obligation. The closing
+sentence indicates very clearly the price exacted by the Emperor in
+return for concessions of temporal authority to ecclesiastical
+magnates.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 75, p. 168.
+
+     [Sidenote: The troops to be brought: their equipment]
+
+   In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Charles, most
+   serene, august, crowned of God, great pacific Emperor, who, by
+   God's mercy, is King of the Franks and Lombards, to Abbot Fulrad.
+
+   Let it be known to you that we have determined to hold our general
+   assembly[189] this year in the eastern part of Saxony, on the River
+   Bode, at the place which is known as Strassfurt.[190] Therefore,
+   we enjoin that you come to this meeting-place, with all your men
+   well armed and equipped, on the fifteenth day before the Kalends of
+   July, that is, seven days before the festival of St. John the
+   Baptist.[191] Come, therefore, so prepared with your men to the
+   aforesaid place that you may be able to go thence well equipped in
+   any direction in which our command shall direct; that is, with arms
+   and accoutrements also, and other provisions for war in the way of
+   food and clothing. Each horseman will be expected to have a shield,
+   a lance, a sword, a dagger, a bow, and quivers with arrows; and in
+   your carts shall be implements of various kinds, that is, axes,
+   planes, augers, boards, spades, iron shovels, and other utensils
+   which are necessary in an army. In the wagons also should be
+   supplies of food for three months, dating from the time of the
+   assembly, together with arms and clothing for six months. And
+   furthermore we command that you see to it that you proceed
+   peacefully to the aforesaid place, through whatever part of our
+   realm your journey shall be made; that is, that you presume to take
+   nothing except fodder, wood, and water. And let the followers of
+   each one of your vassals march along with the carts and horsemen,
+   and let the leader always be with them until they reach the
+   aforesaid place, so that the absence of a lord may not give to his
+   men an opportunity to do evil.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gifts for the Emperor]
+
+   Send your gifts,[192] which you ought to present to us at our
+   assembly in the middle of the month of May, to the place where we
+   then shall be. If it happens that your journey shall be such that
+   on your march you are able in person to present these gifts of
+   yours to us, we shall be greatly pleased. Be careful to show no
+   negligence in the future if you care to have our favor.
+
+
+23. The Carolingian Revival of Learning
+
+One of Charlemagne's chief claims to distinction is that his reign,
+largely through his own influence, comprised the most important period
+of the so-called Carolingian renaissance, or revival of learning. From
+the times of the Frankish conquest of Gaul until about the middle of
+the eighth century, education in western Europe, except in Ireland and
+Britain, was at a very low ebb and literary production quite
+insignificant. The old Roman intellectual activity had nearly ceased,
+and two or three centuries of settled life had been required to bring
+the Franks to the point of appreciating and encouraging art and
+letters. Even by Charlemagne's time people generally were far from
+being awake to the importance of education, though a few of the more
+far-sighted leaders, and especially Charlemagne himself, had come to
+lament the gross ignorance which everywhere prevailed and were ready
+to adopt strong measures to overcome it. Charlemagne was certainly no
+scholar, judged even by the standards of his own time; but had he been
+the most learned man in the world his interest in education could not
+have been greater. Before studying the selection given below, it would
+be well to read what Einhard said about his master's zeal for learning
+and the amount of progress he made personally in getting an education
+[see pp. 112--113].
+
+The most conspicuous of Charlemagne's educational measures was his
+enlarging and strengthening of the Scola Palatina, or Palace School.
+This was an institution which had existed in the reign of his father
+Pepin, and probably even earlier. It consisted of a group of scholars
+gathered at the Frankish court for the purpose of studying and writing
+literature, educating the royal household, and stimulating learning
+throughout the country. It formed what we to-day might call an academy
+of sciences. Under Charlemagne's care it came to include such men of
+distinction as Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards, Paulinus of
+Aquileia, a theologian, Peter of Pisa, a grammarian, and above all
+Alcuin, a skilled teacher and writer from the school of York in
+England. Its history falls into three main periods: (1) from the
+middle of the eighth century to the year 782--the period during which
+it was dominated by Paul the Deacon and his Italian colleagues; (2)
+from 782 to about 800, when its leading spirit was Alcuin; and (3)
+from 800 to the years of its decadence in the later ninth century,
+when Frankish rather than foreign names appear most prominently in its
+annals.
+
+It was Charlemagne's ideal that throughout his entire dominion
+opportunity should be open to all to obtain at least an elementary
+education and to carry their studies as much farther as they liked. To
+this end a regular system of schools was planned, beginning with the
+village school, in charge of the parish priest for the most elementary
+studies, and leading up through monastic and cathedral schools to the
+School of the Palace. In the intermediate stages, corresponding to our
+high schools and academies to-day, the subjects studied were
+essentially the same as those which received attention in the Scola
+Palatina. They were divided into two groups: (1) the _trivium_,
+including grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic (or philosophy), and (2)
+the _quadrivium_, including geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and
+music. The system thus planned was never fully put in operation
+throughout Frankland, for after Charlemagne's death the work which he
+had so well begun was seriously interfered with by the falling off in
+intellectual aggressiveness of the sovereigns, by civil war, and by
+the ravages of the Hungarian and Norse invaders [see p. 163]. A
+capitulary of Louis the Pious in 817, for example, forbade the
+continuance of secular education in monastic schools. Still, much of
+what had been done remained, and never thereafter did learning among
+the Frankish people fall to quite so low a stage as it had passed
+through in the sixth and seventh centuries.
+
+Charlemagne's interest in education may be studied best of all in his
+capitularies. In the extract below we have the so-called letter _De
+Litteris Colendis_, written some time between 780 and 800, which,
+though addressed personally to Abbot Baugulf, of the monastery of
+Fulda, was in reality a capitulary establishing certain regulations
+regarding education in connection with the work of the monks. To the
+Church was intrusted the task of raising the level of intelligence
+among the masses, and the clergy were admonished to bring together the
+children of both freemen and serfs in schools in which they might be
+trained, even as the sons of the nobles were trained at the royal
+court.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 29, pp. 78-79. Adapted from
+     translation by Dana C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+     Reprints_, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 12-14.
+
+   Charles, by the grace of God, king of the Franks and Lombards and
+   Patrician of the Romans.[193] To Abbot Baugulf, and to all the
+   congregation--also to the faithful placed under your care--we have
+   sent loving greetings by our ambassadors in the name of
+   all-powerful God.
+
+     [Sidenote: Men of the Church charged with the work of education]
+
+     [Sidenote: Even the clergy often unable to speak and write
+   correctly]
+
+   Be it known, therefore, to you, devoted and acceptable to God, that
+   we, together with our faithful, have deemed it expedient that the
+   bishoprics and monasteries intrusted by the favor of Christ to our
+   control, in addition to the order of monastic life and the
+   relationships of holy religion, should be zealous also in the
+   cherishing of letters, and in teaching those who by the gift of God
+   are able to learn, according as each has capacity. So that, just as
+   the observance of the rule[194] adds order and grace to the
+   integrity of morals, so also zeal in teaching and learning may do
+   the same for sentences, to the end that those who wish to please
+   God by living rightly should not fail to please Him also by
+   speaking correctly. For it is written, "Either from thy words thou
+   shall be justified or from thy words thou shalt be condemned"
+   [Matt., xii. 37]. Although right conduct may be better than
+   knowledge, nevertheless knowledge goes before conduct. Therefore
+   each one ought to study what he desires to accomplish, in order
+   that so much the more fully the mind may know what ought to be
+   done. as the tongue speeds in the praises of all-powerful God
+   without the hindrances of mistakes. For while errors should be
+   shunned by all men, so much the more ought they to be avoided, as
+   far as possible, by those who are chosen for this very purpose
+   alone.[195] They ought to be the specially devoted servants of
+   truth. For often in recent years when letters have been written to
+   us from monasteries, in which it was stated that the brethren who
+   dwelt there offered up in our behalf sacred and pious prayers, we
+   have recognized, in most cases, both correct thoughts and uncouth
+   expressions; because what pious devotion dictated faithfully to the
+   mind, the tongue, uneducated on account of the neglect of study,
+   was not able to express in the letter without error. Whence it
+   happened that we began to fear lest perchance, as the skill in
+   writing was less, so also the wisdom for understanding the Holy
+   Scriptures might be much less than it rightly ought to be. And we
+   all know well that, although errors of speech are dangerous, far
+   more dangerous are errors of the understanding.
+
+     [Sidenote: Education essential to an understanding of the
+   Scriptures]
+
+   Therefore, we exhort you not only not to neglect the study of
+   letters, but also with most humble mind, pleasing to God, to study
+   earnestly in order that you may be able more easily and more
+   correctly to penetrate the mysteries of the divine Scriptures.
+   Since, moreover, images [similes], tropes[196] and like figures are
+   found in the sacred pages, nobody doubts that each one in reading
+   these will understand the spiritual sense more quickly if
+   previously he shall have been fully instructed in the mastery of
+   letters. Such men truly are to be chosen for this work as have both
+   the will and the ability to learn and a desire to instruct others.
+   And may this be done with a zeal as great as the earnestness with
+   which we command it. For we desire you to be, as the soldiers of
+   the Church ought to be, devout in mind, learned in discourse,
+   chaste in conduct, and eloquent in speech, so that when any one
+   shall seek to see you, whether out of reverence for God or on
+   account of your reputation for holy conduct, just as he is edified
+   by your appearance, he may also be instructed by the wisdom which
+   he has learned from your reading or singing, and may go away
+   gladly, giving thanks to Almighty God.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[119] Thomas Hodgkin, _Charles the Great_ (London, 1903), p. 222.
+
+[120] The German name for Aix-la-Chapelle was Aachen. From Roman times
+the place was noted throughout Europe for its warm sulphur springs and
+for centuries before Charlemagne's day it had been a favorite resort
+for health-seekers. It was about the middle of his reign that
+Charlemagne determined to have the small palace already existing
+rebuilt, together with its accompanying chapel. Marbles and mosaics
+were obtained at Rome and Ravenna, and architects and artisans were
+brought together for the work from all Christendom. The chapel was
+completed in 805 and was dedicated by Pope Leo III. Both palace and
+chapel were destroyed a short time before the Emperor's death,
+probably as the result of an earthquake. The present town-house of
+Aix-la-Chapelle has been constructed on the ruins of this palace. The
+chapel, rebuilt on the ancient octagonal plan in 983, contains the
+tomb of Charlemagne, marked by a stone bearing the inscription "Carolo
+Magno." Besides Aachen, Charlemagne had many other residences, as
+Compiègne, Worms, Attigny, Mainz, Paderborn, Ratisbon, Heristal, and
+Thionville.
+
+[121] A loose, flowing outer garment, or cloak. It was a feature of
+ancient Greek dress.
+
+[122] Hadrian I., 772-775. Charlemagne's first visit to Rome was in
+774.
+
+[123] Leo III., 795-816. The Roman dress was donned by Charlemagne
+during his visit in 800 [see p. 130].
+
+[124] St. Augustine, the greatest of the Church fathers, was born in
+Numidia in 354. He spent a considerable part of his early life
+studying in Rome and other Italian cities. The _De Civitate Dei_
+("City of God"), generally regarded as his most important work, was
+completed in 426, its purpose being to convince the Romans that even
+though the supposedly eternal city of Rome had recently been sacked by
+the barbarian Visigoths, the true "city of God" was in the hearts of
+men beyond the reach of desecrating invaders. When he wrote the book
+Augustine was bishop of Hippo, an important city of northern Africa.
+His death occurred in 430, during the siege of Hippo by Gaiseric and
+his horde of Vandals.
+
+[125] The Count of the Palace was one of the coterie of officials by
+whose aid Charlemagne managed the affairs of the state. He was
+primarily an officer of justice, corresponding in a way to the old
+Mayor of the Palace, but with very much less power.
+
+[126] When Charlemagne captured Pavia, the Lombard capital, in 774, he
+found Peter the Pisan teaching in that city. With characteristic zeal
+for the advancement of education among his own people he proceeded to
+transfer the learned deacon to the Frankish Palace School [see p.
+144].
+
+[127] Alcuin was born at York in 735. He took up his residence at
+Charlemagne's court about 782, and died in the office of abbot of St.
+Martin of Tours in 804.
+
+[128] During the Napoleonic period many of these columns were taken
+possession of by the French and transported to Paris. Only recently
+have they been replaced in the Aix-la-Chapelle cathedral. Most of them
+came originally from the palace of the Exarch of Ravenna.
+
+[129] These statements of Einhard respecting the lavishness of
+Charlemagne's gifts must be taken with some allowance. They were
+doubtless considerable for the day, but Charlemagne's revenues were
+not such as to enable him to display wealth which in modern times
+would be regarded as befitting a monarch of so exalted rank.
+
+[130] In 774, 781, 787, and 800.
+
+[131] Charlemagne became joint ruler of the Franks with his brother
+Karlmann in 768; hence when he died, in 814, he had reigned only
+forty-six years instead of forty-seven.
+
+[132] Ephraim Emerton, _Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_
+(Boston, 1903), p. 189.
+
+[133] The war really lasted only thirty, or at the most thirty-one,
+years.
+
+[134] The only notable act of vengeance during the war was the
+beheading of 4,500 Saxons in a single day at Verden, on the Weser. It
+was occasioned by a great Saxon revolt in 782, led by the chieftain
+Widukind.
+
+[135] The formula of renunciation and confession generally employed in
+the Christianizing of the Germans, and therefore in all probability in
+the conversion of the Saxons, was as follows:
+
+     Question. Forsakest thou the devil?
+
+     Answer. I forsake the devil.
+
+     Ques. And all the devil's service?
+
+     Ans. And I forsake all the devil's service.
+
+     Ques. And all the devil's works?
+
+     Ans. And I forsake all the devil's works and words. Thor and Woden and
+     Saxnot and all the evil spirits that are their companions.
+
+     Ques. Believest thou in God the Almighty Father?
+
+     Ans. I believe in God the Almighty Father.
+
+     Ques. Believest thou in Christ the Son of God?
+
+     Ans. I believe in Christ the Son of God.
+
+     Ques. Believest thou in the Holy Ghost?
+
+     Ans. I believe in the Holy Ghost.
+
+"Accepting Christianity was to the German very much like changing of
+allegiance from one political sovereign to another. He gave up Thor
+and Woden (Odin) and Saxnot, and in their place took the Father, the
+Son, and the Holy Ghost."--Emerton, _Introduction to the Study of the
+Middle Ages_, pp. 155-156. Text of these "Interrogationes et
+Responsiones Baptismales" is in the _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica,
+Leges_ (Boretius ed.), Vol. II., No. 107.
+
+[136] That is, the more important offenses, involving capital
+punishment, as contrasted with the later "lesser chapters" dealing
+with minor misdemeanors.
+
+[137] The Saxons were to be won to the Church through the protection
+it afforded, but they were likewise to be made to stand in awe of the
+sanctity of its property.
+
+[138] The apparent harshness of this whole body of regulations was
+considerably diminished in practice by the large discretion left to
+the priests, as in this case. They were exhorted to exercise care and
+to take circumstances into account in judging a man's guilt or
+innocence.
+
+[139] From this point the capitulary deals with the "lesser chapters,"
+i.e., non-capital offenses.
+
+[140] For the value of the _solidus_, see p. 61.
+
+[141] Three classes of society are distinguished--nobles, freemen, and
+serfs. The ordinary freeman pays half as much as the noble, and the
+serf half as much as the freeman.
+
+[142] A prominent characteristic of the early Teutonic religion was
+that its ceremonies were invariably conducted out of doors. Tacitus,
+in the _Germania_ (Chap. 9), tells us that the Germans had no temples
+or other buildings for religious purposes, but worshipped in sacred
+groves. The "Irmensaule," probably a giant tree-trunk, was the central
+shrine of the Saxon people, and Charlemagne's destruction of it in 772
+was the most serious offense that could have been committed against
+them.
+
+[143] The Germans reckoned by nights rather than by days, as explained
+by Tacitus, _Germania_, Chap. 11 [see p. 27].
+
+[144] A sum assessed by the king, in this case against the illegal
+harboring of criminals.
+
+[145] The counts, together with the bishops, were the local
+representatives or agents of the king. They presided over judicial
+assemblies, collected revenues, and preserved order. There were about
+three hundred of them in Charlemagne's empire when at its greatest
+extent.
+
+[146] An officer sent out by the king to investigate the
+administration of the counts and render judgment in certain cases. As
+a rule two were sent together, a layman and an ecclesiastic [see p.
+134].
+
+[147] Under ordinary circumstances the priests were thus charged with
+the responsibility of seeing that local government in their various
+communities was just and legal.
+
+[148] Bémont and Monod, _Mediæval Europe_ (New York, 1902), p. 202.
+
+[149] Chapter 62 is here given out of order because it contains a
+comprehensive survey of the products and activities upon which the
+royal stewards were expected to report. The other chapters are more
+specific. It is likely that they have not come down to us in their
+original order.
+
+[150] The ordinary estate in this period, whether royal or not,
+consisted of two parts. One was the demesne, which the owner kept
+under his immediate control; the other was the remaining lands, which
+were divided among tenants who paid certain rentals for their use and
+also performed stated services on the lord's demesne. Charlemagne
+instructs his stewards to report upon both sorts of land.
+
+[151] Probably payments for the right to keep pigs in the woods. The
+most common meat in the Middle Ages was pork and the use of the oak
+forests as hog pasture was a privilege of considerable value.
+
+[152] Fines imposed upon offenders to free them from crime or to
+repair damages done.
+
+[153] Panic was a kind of grass, the seeds of which were not
+infrequently used for food.
+
+[154] The serfs were a semi-free class of country people. They did not
+own the land on which they lived and were not allowed to move off it
+without the owner's consent. They cultivated the soil and paid rents
+of one kind or another to their masters--in the present case, to the
+agents of the king.
+
+[155] A variety of fermented liquor made of salt fish.
+
+[156] A blue coloring matter derived from the leaves of a plant of the
+same name.
+
+[157] A red coloring matter derived from a plant of the same name.
+
+[158] Burrs of the teasel plant, stiff and prickly, with hooked
+bracts; used in primitive manufacturing for raising a nap on woolen
+cloth.
+
+[159] A kind of grain still widely cultivated for food in Germany and
+Switzerland; sometimes known as German wheat.
+
+[160] The unit of weight was the pound. Charlemagne replaced the old
+Gallic pound by the Roman, which was a tenth less.
+
+[161] The unit of measure was the _muid_. Charlemagne had a standard
+measure (_modius publicus_) constructed and in a number of his
+capitularies enjoined that it be taken as a model by all his subjects.
+It contained probably a little less than six pecks. A smaller measure
+was the _setier_, containing about five and two-thirds pints.
+
+[162] Clergymen attached to the church on or near the estate.
+
+[163] "Attached to the royal villa, in the center of which stood the
+palace or manse, were numerous dependent and humbler dwellings,
+occupied by mechanics, artisans, and tradesmen, or rather
+manufacturers and craftsmen, in great numbers. The dairy, the bakery,
+the butchery, the brewery, the flour-mill were there.... The villa was
+a city in embryo, and in due course it grew into one, for as it
+supplied in many respects the wants of the surrounding country, so it
+attracted population and became a center of commerce."--Jacob I.
+Mombert, _Charles the Great_ (New York, 1888), pp. 401-402.
+
+[164] An ancient Gallic land measure, equivalent to about half a Roman
+_jugerum_ (the _jugerum_ was about two-thirds of an acre). The arpent
+in modern France has varied greatly in different localities. In Paris
+it is 4,088 square yards.
+
+[165] The same as "pachak." The fragrant roots of this plant are still
+exported from India to be used for burning as incense.
+
+[166] A kind of cabbage. The edible part is a large turnip-like
+swelling of the stem above the surface of the ground.
+
+[167] A plant used both as a medicine and as a dye.
+
+[168] "All the cereals grown in the country were cultivated. The
+flower gardens were furnished with the choicest specimens for beauty
+and fragrance, the orchards and kitchen gardens produced the richest
+and best varieties of fruit and vegetables. Charles specified by name
+not less than seventy-four varieties of herbs which he commanded to be
+cultivated; all the vegetables still raised in Central Europe,
+together with many herbs now found in botanical gardens only, bloomed
+on his villas; his orchards yielded a rich harvest in cherries,
+apples, pears, prunes, peaches, figs, chestnuts, and mulberries. The
+hill-sides were vineyards laden with the finest varieties of
+grapes."--Mombert, _Charles the Great_, p. 400.
+
+[169] James Bryce, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904),
+p. 50.
+
+[170] Irene, the wife of Emperor Leo IV. After the death of her
+husband in 780 she became regent during the minority of her son,
+Constantine VI., then only nine years of age. In 790 Constantine
+succeeded in taking the government out of her hands; but seven years
+afterwards she caused him to be blinded and shut up in a dungeon,
+where he soon died. The revolting crimes by which Irene established
+her supremacy at Constantinople were considered, even in her day, a
+disgrace to Christendom.
+
+[171] This expression has given rise to a view which will be found in
+some books that Pope Leo convened a general council of Frankish and
+Italian clergy to consider the advisability of giving the imperial
+title to Charlemagne. The whole matter is in doubt, but it does not
+seem likely that there was any such formal deliberation. Leo certainly
+ascertained that the leading lay and ecclesiastical magnates would
+approve the contemplated step, but that a definite election in council
+took place may be pretty confidently denied. The writer of the Annals
+of Lauresheim was interested in making the case of Charlemagne, and
+therefore of the later emperors, as strong as possible.
+
+[172] Einhard, Charlemagne's biographer, says that the king at first
+had such aversion to the titles of Emperor and Augustus "that he
+declared he would not have set foot in the church the day that they
+were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have
+foreseen the design of the Pope" (_Vita Caroli Magni_, Chap. 28).
+Despite this statement, however, we are not to regard the coronation
+as a genuine surprise to anybody concerned. In all probability there
+had previously been a more or less definite understanding between the
+king and the Pope that in due time the imperial title should be
+conferred. It is easy to believe, though, that Charlemagne had had no
+idea that the ceremony was to be performed on this particular occasion
+and it is likely enough that he had plans of his own as to the proper
+time and place for it, plans which Leo rather rudely interfered with,
+but which the manifest good-will of everybody constrained the king to
+allow to be sacrificed. It may well be that Charlemagne had decided
+simply to assume the imperial crown without a papal coronation at all,
+in order that the whole question of papal supremacy, which threatened
+to be a troublesome one, might be kept in the background.
+
+[173] The celebration of the Nativity was by far the greatest festival
+of the Church. At this season the basilica of St. Peter at Rome was
+the scene of gorgeous ceremonials, and to its sumptuous shrine
+thronged the devout of all Christendom. Its magnificence on the famous
+Christmas of 800 was greater than ever, for only recently Charlemagne
+had bestowed the most costly of all his gifts upon it--the spoils of
+the Avar wars.
+
+[174] Charles, the eldest son, since 789 king of Maine. In reality, of
+course, he was but an under-king, since Maine was an integral part of
+Charlemagne's dominion. He was anointed by Pope Leo in 800 as
+heir-apparent to the new imperial dignity of his father.
+
+[175] The term "canonical" was applied more particularly to the clergy
+attached to a cathedral church, the clergy being known individually as
+"canons," collectively as a "chapter." In the present connection,
+however, it probably refers to the monks, who, living as they did by
+"canons" or rules, were in that sense "canonical clergy."
+
+[176] The secular clergy were the bishops, priests, deacons, and other
+church officers, who lived with the people in the _sæculum_, or world,
+as distinguished from the monks, ascetics, cenobites, anchorites, and
+others, who dwelt in monasteries or other places of seclusion.
+
+[177] This is really as splendid a guarantee of equality before the
+law as is to be found in Magna Charta or the Constitution of the
+United States. Unfortunately there was not adequate machinery in the
+Frankish government to enforce it, though we may suppose that while
+the _missi_ continued efficient (which was not more than a hundred
+years) considerable progress was made in this direction.
+
+[178] Serfs who worked on the fiscal lands, or, in other words, on the
+royal estates.
+
+[179] Compare chapters 14 and 27.
+
+[180] A benefice, as the term is here used, was land granted by the
+Emperor to a friend or dependent. The holder was to use such land on
+stated terms for his own and the Emperor's gain, but was in no case to
+claim ownership of it.
+
+[181] The word has at least three distinct meanings--a royal edict, a
+judicial fine, and a territorial jurisdiction. It is here used in the
+first of these senses.
+
+[182] There was little room under Charlemagne's system for
+professional lawyers or advocates.
+
+[183] In other words, when the oath of allegiance is taken, as it must
+be by every man and boy above the age of twelve, all the obligations
+mentioned from Chap. 3 to Chap. 9 are to be considered as assumed
+along with that of fidelity to the person and government of the
+Emperor.
+
+[184] That is, the laws of the Church.
+
+[185] One of the greatest temptations of the mediæval clergy was to
+spend time in hunting, to the neglect of religious duties. Apparently
+this evil was pretty common in Charlemagne's day.
+
+[186] The _centenarii_ were minor local officials, subordinate to the
+counts, and confined in authority to their particular district or
+"hundred."
+
+[187] In the Frankish kingdom, as commonly among Germanic peoples of
+the period, murder not only might be, but was expected to be, atoned
+for by a money payment to the slain man's relatives. The payment,
+known as the _wergeld_, would vary according to the rank of the man
+killed. If it were properly made, such "composition" was bound to be
+accepted as complete reparation for the injury. In this regulation we
+can discern a distinct advance over the old system of blood-feud under
+which a murder almost invariably led to family and clan wars. Plainly
+the Franks were becoming more civilized.
+
+[188] If a murderer refused to pay the required composition his
+property was to be taken possession of by the Emperor's officers and
+the case must be laid before the Emperor himself. If the latter chose,
+he might order the restoration of the property, but this he was not
+likely to do.
+
+[189] Beginning with the reign of Charlemagne there were really two
+assemblies each year--one in the spring, the other in the autumn; but
+the one in the spring, the so-called "May-field," was much the more
+important. All the nobles and higher clergy attended, and if a
+campaign was in prospect all who owed military service would be called
+upon to bring with them their portion of the war-host, with specified
+supplies. Charlemagne proposed all measures, the higher magnates
+discussed them with him, and the lower ones gave a perfunctory
+sanction to acts already determined upon. The meeting place was
+changed from year to year, being rotated irregularly among the royal
+residences, as Aix-la-Chapelle, Paderborn, Ingelheim, and Thionville;
+occasionally they were held, as in this instance, in places otherwise
+almost unknown.
+
+[190] Strassfurt was some distance south of Magdeburg.
+
+[191] The date of the festival of St. John the Baptist was June 22.
+
+[192] From earliest Germanic times we catch glimpses of this practice
+of requiring gifts from a king's subjects. By Charlemagne's day it had
+crystallized into an established custom and was a very important
+source of revenue, though other sources had been opened up which were
+quite unknown to the German sovereigns of three or four hundred years
+before. Ordinarily these gifts, in money, jewels, or provisions, were
+presented to the sovereign each year at the May assembly.
+
+[193] The title "Patricius of Rome" was conferred on Charlemagne by
+Pope Hadrian I., in 774. Its bestowal was a token of papal
+appreciation of the king's renewal of Pepin's grant of lands to the
+papacy. In practice the title had little or no meaning. It was dropped
+in 800 when Charlemagne was crowned emperor [see p. 130].
+
+[194] That is, the law of the Church; in case of the monasteries, more
+especially the regulations laid down for their order, e.g., the
+Benedictine Rule.
+
+[195] In the Middle Ages it was assumed that churchmen were educated;
+few other men had any claim to learning. Charlemagne here says that it
+is bad indeed when men who have been put in ecclesiastical positions
+because of their supposed education fall into errors which ought to be
+expected only from ordinary people.
+
+[196] In rhetoric a trope is ordinarily defined as the use of a word
+or expression in a different sense from that which properly belongs to
+it. The most common varieties are metaphor, metonomy, synechdoche, and
+irony.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE ERA OF THE LATER CAROLINGIANS
+
+
+24. The Oaths of Strassburg (842)
+
+The broad empire of Germanic peoples built up by Charlemagne was
+extremely difficult to hold together. Even before the death of its
+masterful creator, in 814, it was already showing signs of breaking
+up, and after that event the process of dissolution set in rapidly. It
+will not do to look upon this falling to pieces as caused entirely by
+the weakness of Charlemagne's successors. The trouble lay deeper, in
+the natural love of independence common to all the Germans, in the
+wide differences that had come to exist among Saxons, Lombards,
+Bavarians, Franks, and other peoples in the empire, and finally in the
+prevailing ill-advised principle of royal succession by which the
+territories making up the empire, like those composing the old
+Frankish kingdom, were regarded as personal property to be divided
+among the sovereign's sons, just as was the practice respecting
+private possessions. As a consequence of these things the generation
+following the death of Charlemagne was a period of much confusion in
+western Europe. The trouble first reached an acute stage in 817 when
+Emperor Louis the Pious, Charlemagne's son and successor, was
+constrained to make a division of the empire among his three sons,
+Lothair, Pepin, and Louis. The Emperor expressly stipulated that
+despite this arrangement there was to be still "one sole empire, and
+not three"; but it is obvious that the imperial unity was at least
+pretty seriously threatened, and when, in 823, Louis's second wife,
+Judith of Bavaria, gave birth to a son and immediately set up in his
+behalf an urgent demand for a share of the empire, civil war among the
+rival claimants could not be averted. In the struggle that followed
+the distracted Emperor completely lost his throne for a time (833).
+Thereafter he was ready to accept almost any arrangement that would
+enable him to live out his remaining days in peace. When he died, in
+840, two of the sons, Louis the German and Judith's child, who came to
+be known as Charles the Bald, combined against their brother Lothair
+(Pepin had died in 838) with the purpose of wresting from him the
+imperial crown, which the father, shortly before his death, had
+bestowed upon him. At least they were determined that this mark of
+favor from the father should not give the older brother any
+superiority over them. In the summer of 841 the issue was put to the
+test in a great battle at Fontenay, a little distance east of Orleans,
+with the result that Lothair was badly defeated. In February of the
+following year Louis and Charles, knowing that Lothair was still far
+from regarding himself as conquered, bound themselves by oath at
+Strassburg, in the valley of the Rhine, to keep up their joint
+opposition until they should be entirely successful.
+
+The pledges exchanged on this occasion are as interesting to the
+student of language as to the historian. The army which accompanied
+Louis was composed of men of almost pure Germanic blood and speech,
+while that with Charles was made up of men from what is now southern
+and western France, where the people represented a mixture of Frankish
+and old Roman and Gallic stocks. As a consequence Louis took the oath
+in the _lingua romana_ for the benefit of Charles's soldiers, and
+Charles reciprocated by taking it in the _lingua teudisca_, in order
+that the Germans might understand it. Then the followers of the two
+kings took oath, each in his own language, that if their own king
+should violate his agreement they would not support him in acts of
+hostility against the other brother, provided the latter had been true
+to his word. The _lingua romana_ employed marks a stage in the
+development of the so-called Romance languages of to-day--French,
+Spanish, and Italian--just as the _lingua teudisca_ approaches the
+character of modern Teutonic languages--German, Dutch, and English.
+The oaths and the accompanying address of the kings are the earliest
+examples we have of the languages used by the common people of the
+early Middle Ages. Latin was of course the language of literature,
+records, and correspondence, matters with which ordinary people had
+little or nothing to do. The necessity under which the two kings found
+themselves of using two quite different modes of speech in order to be
+understood by all the soldiers is evidence that already by the middle
+of the ninth century the Romance and Germanic languages were becoming
+essentially distinct. It was prophetic, too, of the fast approaching
+cleavage of the northern and southern peoples politically.
+
+Nithardus, whose account of the exchange of oaths at Strassburg is
+translated below, was an active participant in the events of the first
+half of the ninth century. He was born about 790, his mother being
+Charlemagne's daughter Bertha and his father the noted courtier and
+poet Angilbert. In the later years of Charlemagne's reign, and
+probably under Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald, he was in charge
+of the defense of the northwest coasts against the Northmen. He fought
+for Charles the Bald at Fontenay and was frequently employed in those
+troublous years between 840 and 843 in the fruitless negotiations
+among the rival sons of Louis. Neither the date nor the manner of his
+death is known. There are traditions that he was killed in 858 or 859
+while fighting the Northmen; but other stories just as well founded
+tell us that he became disgusted with the turmoil of the world,
+retired to a monastery, and there died about 853. His history of the
+wars of the sons of Louis the Pious (covering the period 840-843) was
+undertaken at the request of Charles the Bald. The first three books
+were written in 842, the fourth in 843. Aside from a rather too
+favorable attitude toward Charles, the work is very trustworthy, and
+the claim is even made by some that among all of the historians of the
+Carolingian period, not even Einhard excepted, no one surpassed
+Nithardus in spirit, method, and insight. It may further be noted that
+Nithardus was the first historical writer of any importance in the
+Middle Ages who was not some sort of official in the Church.
+
+     Source--Nithardus, _Historiarum Libri IV._ ["Four Books of
+     Histories"], Bk. III., Chaps. 4-5. Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ
+     Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 665-666.
+
+     [Sidenote: Movements of the hostile parties in 841-842]
+
+   Lothair was given to understand that Louis and Charles were
+   supporting each other with considerable armies.[197] Seeing that
+   his plans were crushed in every direction, he made a long but
+   profitless expedition and abandoned the country about Tours. At
+   length he returned into France,[198] worn out with fatigue, as was
+   also his army. Pepin,[199] bitterly repenting that he had been on
+   Lothair's side, withdrew into Aquitaine. Charles, learning that
+   Otger, bishop of Mainz, objected to the proposed passage of Louis
+   by way of Mainz to join his brother, set out by way of the city of
+   Toul[200] and entered Alsace at Saverne. When Otger heard of this,
+   he and his supporters abandoned the river and sought places where
+   they might hide themselves as speedily as possible. On the
+   fifteenth of February Louis and Charles came together in the city
+   formerly called Argentoratum, now known as Strassburg, and there
+   they took the mutual oaths which are given herewith, Louis in the
+   _lingua romana_ and Charles in the _lingua teudisca_. Before the
+   exchange of oaths they addressed the assembled people, each in his
+   own language, and Louis, being the elder, thus began:
+
+     [Sidenote: The speech of Louis the German]
+
+   "How often, since the death of our father, Lothair has pursued my
+   brother and myself and tried to destroy us, is known to you all.
+   So, then, when neither brotherly love, nor Christian feeling, nor
+   any reason whatever could bring about a peace between us upon fair
+   conditions, we were at last compelled to bring the matter before
+   God, determined to abide by whatever issue He might decree. And we,
+   as you know, came off victorious;[201] our brother was beaten, and
+   with his followers got away, each as best he could. Then we, moved
+   by brotherly love and having compassion on our Christian people,
+   were not willing to pursue and destroy them; but, still, as before,
+   we begged that justice might be done to each. He, however, after
+   all this, not content with the judgment of God, has not ceased to
+   pursue me and my brother with hostile purpose, and to harass our
+   peoples with fire, plunder, and murder. Wherefore we have been
+   compelled to hold this meeting, and, since we feared that you might
+   doubt whether our faith was fixed and our alliance secure, we have
+   determined to make our oaths thereto in your presence. And we do
+   this, not from any unfair greed, but in order that, if God, with
+   your help, shall grant us peace, we may the better provide for the
+   common welfare. But if, which God forbid, I shall dare to violate
+   the oath which I shall swear to my brother, then I absolve each one
+   of you from your allegiance and from the oath which you have sworn
+   to me."
+
+   After Charles had made the same speech in the _lingua romana_,
+   Louis, as the elder of the two, swore first to be faithful to his
+   alliance:
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of Louis]
+
+   _Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament,
+   dist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si
+   salvaraeio cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha et in cadhuna cosa,
+   si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi
+   fazet; et ab Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist
+   meon fradre Karle in damno sit._[202]
+
+   When Louis had taken this oath, Charles swore the same thing in the
+   _lingua teudisca_:
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of Charles]
+
+   _In Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero
+   gealtnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mir Got gewizci
+   indi madh furgibit, so haldih tesan minan bruodher, soso man mit
+   rehtu sinan bruodher scal, in thiu, thaz er mig sosoma duo; indi
+   mit Ludheren in nohheiniu thing ne gegango, the minan willon imo
+   ce scadhen werhen._
+
+   The oath which the subjects of the two kings then took, each
+   [people] in its own language, reads thus in the _lingua romana_:
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath taken by the subjects of the two kings]
+
+   _Si Lodhwigs sagrament qua son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat, et
+   Karlus meos sendra, de suo part, non lo stanit, si io returnar non
+   lint pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla aiudha
+   contra Lodhuwig nun li iver._[203]
+
+   And in the _lingua teudisca_:
+
+   _Oba Karl then eid then, er sineno bruodher Ludhuwige gesuor,
+   geleistit, indi Ludhuwig min herro then er imo gesuor, forbrihchit,
+   obih ina es irwenden ne mag, noh ih no thero nohhein then ih es
+   irwended mag, widhar Karle imo ce follusti ne wirdhic._
+
+
+25. The Treaty of Verdun (843)
+
+After the meeting at Strassburg, Charles and Louis advanced against
+Lothair, who now abandoned Aachen and retreated southward past
+Châlons-sur-Marne toward Lyons. When the brothers had come into the
+vicinity of Châlons-sur-Saône, they were met by ambassadors from
+Lothair who declared that he was weary of the struggle and was ready
+to make peace if only his imperial dignity should be properly
+recognized and the share of the kingdom awarded to him should be
+somewhat the largest of the three. Charles and Louis accepted their
+brother's overtures and June 15, 842, the three met on an island in
+the Saône and signed preliminary articles of peace. It was agreed that
+a board of a hundred and twenty prominent men should assemble October
+1 at Metz, on the Moselle, and make a definite division of the
+kingdom. This body, with the three royal brothers, met at the
+appointed time, but adjourned to Worms, and subsequently to Verdun, on
+the upper Meuse, in order to have the use of maps at the latter
+place. The treaty which resulted during the following year was one of
+the most important in all mediæval times. Unfortunately the text of it
+has not survived, but all its more important provisions are well known
+from the writings of the chroniclers of the period. Two such accounts
+of the treaty, brief but valuable, are given below.
+
+Louis had been the real sovereign of Bavaria for sixteen years and to
+his kingdom were now added all the German districts on the right bank
+of the Rhine (except Friesland), together with Mainz, Worms, and
+Speyer on the left bank, under the general name of _Francia
+Orientalis_. Charles retained the western countries--Aquitaine,
+Gascony, Septimania, the Spanish March, Burgundy west of the Saône,
+Neustria, Brittany, and Flanders--designated collectively as _Francia
+Occidentalis_.[204] The intervening belt of lands, including the two
+capitals Rome and Aachen, and extending from Terracina in Italy to the
+North Sea, went to Lothair.[205] With it went the more or less nominal
+imperial dignity. In general, Louis's portion represented the coming
+Germany and Charles's the future France. But that of Lothair was
+utterly lacking in either geographical or racial unity and was
+destined not long to be held together. Parts of it, particularly
+modern Alsace and Lorraine, have remained to this day a bone of
+contention between the states on the east and west. "The partition of
+843," says Professor Emerton, "involved, so far as we know, nothing
+new in the relations of the three brothers to each other. The theory
+of the empire was preserved, but the meaning of it disappeared. There
+is no mention of any actual superiority of the Emperor (Lothair) over
+his brothers, and there is nothing to show that the imperial name was
+anything but an empty title, a memory of something great which men
+could not quite let die, but which for a hundred years to come was to
+be powerless for good or evil."[206] The empire itself was never
+afterwards united under the rule of one man, except for two years
+(885-887) in the time of Charles the Fat.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Annales Bertiniani_ ["Annals of Saint Bertin"].
+     Translated from text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica,
+     Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 440.
+
+     (b) _Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales_ ["Annals of Rudolph of
+     Fulda"]. Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 362.
+
+     [Sidenote: A statement from the annals of Saint Bertin]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Charles set out to find his brothers, and they met at Verdun. By
+   the division there made Louis received for his share all the
+   country beyond the Rhine,[207] and on this side Speyer, Worms,
+   Mainz, and the territories belonging to these cities. Lothair
+   received that which is between the Scheldt and the Rhine toward the
+   sea, and that lying beyond Cambrésis, Hainault, and the counties
+   adjoining on this side of the Meuse, down to the confluence of the
+   Saône and Rhone, and thence along the Rhone to the sea, together
+   with the adjacent counties. Charles received all the remainder,
+   extending to Spain. And when the oath was exchanged they went their
+   several ways.
+
+     [Sidenote: Another from those of Rudolph of Fulda]
+
+   (b)
+
+   The realm had from early times been divided in three portions, and
+   in the month of August the three kings, coming together at Verdun
+   in Gaul, redivided it among themselves. Louis received the eastern
+   part, Charles the western. Lothair, who was older than his
+   brothers, received the middle portion. After peace was firmly
+   established and oaths exchanged, each brother returned to his
+   dominion to control and protect it. Charles, presuming to regard
+   Aquitaine as belonging properly to his share, was given much
+   trouble by his nephew Pepin,[208] who annoyed him by frequent
+   incursions and caused great loss.
+
+
+26. A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century
+
+The following passages from the Annals of Xanten are here given for
+two purposes--to show something of the character of the period of the
+Carolingian decline, and to illustrate the peculiar features of the
+mediæval chronicle. Numerous names, places, and events neither very
+clearly understood now, nor important if they were understood, occur
+in the text, and some of these it is not deemed worth while to attempt
+to explain in the foot-notes. The selection is valuable for the
+general impressions it gives rather than for the detailed facts which
+it contains, though some of the latter are interesting enough.
+
+Annals as a type of historical writing first assumed considerable
+importance in western Europe in the time of Charles Martel and
+Charlemagne. Their origin, like that of most forms of mediæval
+literary production, can be traced directly to the influence of the
+Church. The annals began as mere occasional notes jotted down by the
+monks upon the "Easter tables," which were circulated among the
+monasteries so that the sacred festival might not fail to be observed
+at the proper date. The Easter tables were really a sort of calendar,
+and as they were placed on parchment having a broad margin it was very
+natural that the monks should begin to write in the margin opposite
+the various years some of the things that had happened in those years.
+An Easter table might pass through a considerable number of hands and
+so have events recorded upon it by a good many different men. All
+sorts of things were thus made note of--some important, some
+unimportant--and of course it is not necessary to suppose that
+everything written down was actually true. Many mistakes were
+possible, especially as the writer often had only his memory, or
+perhaps mere hearsay, to rely upon. And when, as frequently happened,
+these scattered Easter tables were brought together in some monastery
+and there revised, fitted together, and written out in one continuous
+chronicle, there were chances at every turn for serious errors to
+creep in. The compilers were sometimes guilty of wilful
+misrepresentation, but more often their fault was only their
+ignorance, credulity, and lack of critical discernment. In these
+annals there was no attempt to write history as we now understand it;
+that is, the chroniclers did not undertake to work out the causes and
+results and relations of things. They merely recorded year by year
+such happenings as caught their attention--the succession of a new
+pope, the death of a bishop, the coronation of a king, a battle, a
+hail-storm, an eclipse, the birth of a two-headed calf--all sorts of
+unimportant, and from our standpoint ridiculous, items being thrown in
+along with matters of world-wide moment. Heterogeneous as they are,
+however, the large collections of annals that have come down to us
+have been used by modern historians with the greatest profit, and but
+for them we should know far less than we do about the Middle Ages, and
+especially about the people and events of the ninth, tenth, and
+eleventh centuries.
+
+The Annals of Xanten here quoted are the work originally of a number
+of ninth century monks. The fragments from which they were ultimately
+compiled are thought to have been brought together at Cologne, or at
+least in that vicinity. They cover especially the years 831-873.
+
+     Source--_Annales Xantenses_ ["Annals of Xanten"]. Text in
+     _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol.
+     II., p. 227. Adapted from translation in James H. Robinson,
+     _Readings in European History_ (New York, 1904), Vol. I., pp.
+     158-162.
+
+   =844.= Pope Gregory departed this world and Pope Sergius followed
+   in his place.[209] Count Bernhard was killed by Charles. Pepin,
+   king of Aquitaine, together with his son and the son of Bernhard,
+   routed the army of Charles,[210] and there fell the abbot Hugo. At
+   the same time King Louis advanced with his army against the
+   Wends,[211] one of whose kings, Gestimus by name, was killed; the
+   rest came to Louis and pledged him their fidelity, which, however,
+   they broke as soon as he was gone. Thereafter Lothair, Louis, and
+   Charles came together for council in Diedenhofen, and after a
+   conference they went their several ways in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen in Frisia and Gaul]
+
+   =845.= Twice in the canton of Worms there was an earthquake; the
+   first in the night following Palm Sunday, the second in the holy
+   night of Christ's Resurrection. In the same year the heathen[212]
+   broke in upon the Christians at many points, but more than twelve
+   thousand of them were killed by the Frisians. Another party of
+   invaders devastated Gaul; of these more than six hundred men
+   perished. Yet, owing to his indolence, Charles agreed to give them
+   many thousand pounds of gold and silver if they would leave Gaul,
+   and this they did. Nevertheless the cloisters of most of the saints
+   were destroyed and many of the Christians were led away captive.
+
+   After this had taken place King Louis once more led a force against
+   the Wends. When the heathen had learned this they sent ambassadors,
+   as well as gifts and hostages, to Saxony, and asked for peace.
+   Louis then granted peace and returned home from Saxony. Thereafter
+   the robbers were afflicted by a terrible pestilence, during which
+   the chief sinner among them, by the name of Reginheri, who had
+   plundered the Christians and the holy places, was struck down by
+   the hand of God. They then took counsel and threw lots to determine
+   from which of their gods they should seek safety; but the lots did
+   not fall out happily, and on the advice of one of their Christian
+   prisoners that they should cast their lot before the God of the
+   Christians, they did so, and the lot fell happily. Then their king,
+   by the name of Rorik, together with all the heathen people,
+   refrained from meat and drink for fourteen days, when the plague
+   ceased, and they sent back all their Christian prisoners to their
+   country.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen again in Frisia]
+
+   =846.= According to their custom, the Northmen plundered eastern
+   and western Frisia and burned the town of Dordrecht, with two other
+   villages, before the eyes of Lothair, who was then in the castle of
+   Nimwegen, but could not punish the crime. The Northmen, with their
+   boats filled with immense booty, including both men and goods,
+   returned to their own country.
+
+   In the same year Louis sent an expedition from Saxony against the
+   Wends across the Elbe. He personally, however, went with his army
+   against the Bohemians, whom we call Beuwinitha, but with great
+   risk.... Charles advanced against the Britons, but accomplished
+   nothing.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rome attacked by the Saracens]
+
+   At this same time, as no one can mention or hear without great
+   sadness, the mother of all churches, the basilica of the apostle
+   Peter, was taken and plundered by the Moors, or Saracens, who had
+   already occupied the region of Beneventum.[213] The Saracens,
+   moreover, slaughtered all the Christians whom they found outside
+   the walls of Rome, either within or without this church. They also
+   carried men and women away prisoners. They tore down, among many
+   others, the altar of the blessed Peter, and their crimes from day
+   to day bring sorrow to Christians. Pope Sergius departed life this
+   year.
+
+   =847.= After the death of Sergius no mention of the apostolic see
+   has come in any way to our ears. Rabanus [Maurus], master and abbot
+   of Fulda,[214] was solemnly chosen archbishop as the successor of
+   Bishop Otger, who had died. Moreover, the Northmen here and there
+   plundered the Christians and engaged in a battle with the counts
+   Sigir and Liuthar. They continued up the Rhine as far as Dordrecht,
+   and nine miles farther to Meginhard, when they turned back, having
+   taken their booty.
+
+     [Sidenote: An outbreak of heresy repressed]
+
+   =848.= On the fourth of February, towards evening, it lightened and
+   there was thunder heard. The heathen, as was their custom,
+   inflicted injury on the Christians. In the same year King Louis
+   held an assembly of the people near Mainz. At this synod a heresy
+   was brought forward by a few monks in regard to predestination.
+   These were convicted and beaten, to their shame, before all the
+   people. They were sent back to Gaul whence they had come, and,
+   thanks be to God, the condition of the Church remained uninjured.
+
+   =849.= While King Louis was ill, his army of Bavaria took its way
+   against the Bohemians. Many of these were killed and the remainder
+   withdrew, much humiliated, into their own country. The heathen from
+   the North wrought havoc in Christendom as usual and grew greater in
+   strength; but it is painful to say more of this matter.
+
+     [Sidenote: Further ravages by the Northmen and the Saracens]
+
+   =850.= On January 1st of that season, in the octave of the
+   Lord,[215] towards evening, a great deal of thunder was heard and a
+   mighty flash of lightning seen; and an overflow of water afflicted
+   the human race during this winter. In the following summer an all
+   too great heat of the sun burned the earth. Leo, pope of the
+   apostolic see, an extraordinary man, built a fortification around
+   the church of St. Peter the apostle. The Moors, however, devastated
+   here and there the coast towns in Italy. The Norman Rorik, brother
+   of the above-mentioned younger Heriold, who earlier had fled
+   dishonored from Lothair, again took Dordrecht and did much evil
+   treacherously to the Christians. In the same year so great a peace
+   existed between the two brothers--Emperor Lothair and King
+   Louis--that they spent many days together in Osning [Westphalia]
+   and there hunted, so that many were astonished thereat; and they
+   went each his way in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen again in Frisia and Saxony]
+
+   =851.= The bodies of certain saints were sent from Rome to
+   Saxony--that of Alexander, one of seven brethren, and those of
+   Romanus and Emerentiana. In the same year the very noble Empress,
+   Irmingard by name, wife of the Emperor Lothair, departed this
+   world. The Normans inflicted much harm in Frisia and about the
+   Rhine. A mighty army of them collected by the River Elbe against
+   the Saxons, and some of the Saxon towns were besieged, others
+   burned, and most terribly did they oppress the Christians. A
+   meeting of our kings took place on the Maas [Meuse].
+
+   =852.= The steel of the heathen glistened; excessive heat; a famine
+   followed. There was not fodder enough for the animals. The
+   pasturage for the swine was more than sufficient.
+
+   =853.= A great famine in Saxony, so that many were forced to live
+   on horse meat.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen burn the church of St. Martin at Tours]
+
+   =854.= The Normans, in addition to the very many evils which they
+   were everywhere inflicting upon the Christians, burned the church
+   of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, where his body rests.
+
+   =855.= In the spring Louis, the eastern king, sent his son of the
+   same name to Aquitaine to obtain possession of the heritage of his
+   uncle Pepin.
+
+   =856.= The Normans again chose a king of the same name as the
+   preceding one, and related to him, and the Danes made a fresh
+   incursion by sea, with renewed forces, against the Christians.
+
+   =857.= A great sickness prevailed among the people. This produced a
+   terrible foulness, so that the limbs were separated from the body
+   even before death came.
+
+   =858.= Louis, the eastern king, held an assembly of the people of
+   his territory in Worms.
+
+   =859.= On the first of January, as the early Mass was being said, a
+   single earthquake occurred in Worms and a triple one in Mainz
+   before daybreak.
+
+   =860.= On the fifth of February thunder was heard. The king
+   returned from Gaul after the whole empire had gone to destruction,
+   and was in no way bettered.
+
+     [Sidenote: Sacred relics brought together at the Freckenhorst]
+
+   =861.= The holy bishop Luitbert piously furnished the cloister
+   which is called the Freckenhorst with many relics of the saints,
+   namely, of the martyrs Boniface and Maximus, and of the confessors
+   Eonius and Antonius, and added a portion of the manger of the Lord
+   and of His grave, and likewise of the dust of the Lord's feet as He
+   ascended to heaven. In this year the winter was long and the
+   above-mentioned kings again had a secret consultation on the island
+   near Coblenz, and they laid waste everything round about.
+
+
+27. The Northmen in the Country of the Franks.
+
+Under the general name of Northmen in the ninth and tenth centuries
+were included all those peoples of pure Teutonic stock who inhabited
+the two neighboring peninsulas of Denmark and Scandinavia. In this
+period, and after, they played a very conspicuous part in the history
+of western Europe--at first as piratical invaders along the Atlantic
+coast, and subsequently as settlers in new lands and as conquerors and
+state-builders. _Northmen_ was the name by which the people of the
+continent generally knew them, but to the Irish they were known as
+_Ostmen_ or _Eastmen_, and to the English as _Danes_, while the name
+which they applied to themselves was _Vikings_ ["Creekmen"]. Their
+prolonged invasions and plunderings, which fill so large a place in
+the ninth and tenth century chronicles of England and France, were the
+result of several causes and conditions: (1) their natural love of
+adventure, common to all early Germanic peoples; (2) the fact that the
+population of their home countries had become larger than the limited
+resources of these northern regions would support; (3) the proximity
+of the sea on every side, with its fiords and inlets inviting the
+adventurer to embark for new shores; and (4) the discontent of the
+nobles, or jarls, with the growing rigor of kingly government. In
+consequence of these and other influences large numbers of the people
+became pirates, with no other occupation than the plundering of the
+more civilized and wealthier countries to the east, west, and south.
+Those from Sweden visited most commonly the coasts of Russia, those
+from Norway went generally to Scotland and Ireland, and those from
+Denmark to England and France. In fast-sailing vessels carrying sixty
+or seventy men, and under the leadership of "kings of the sea" who
+never "sought refuge under a roof, nor emptied their drinking-horns at
+a fireside," they darted along the shores, ascended rivers, converted
+islands into temporary fortresses, and from thence sallied forth in
+every direction to burn and pillage and carry off all the booty upon
+which they could lay hands. So swift and irresistible were their
+operations that they frequently met with not the slightest show of
+opposition from the terrified inhabitants.
+
+It was natural that Frankland, with its numerous large rivers flowing
+into the ocean and leading through fertile valleys dotted with towns
+and rich abbeys, should early have attracted the marauders; and in
+fact they made their appearance there as early as the year 800. Before
+the end of Charlemagne's reign they had pillaged Frisia, and a monkish
+writer of the time tells us that upon one occasion the great Emperor
+burst into tears and declared that he was overwhelmed with sorrow as
+he looked forward and saw what evils they would bring upon his
+offspring and people. Whether or not this story is true, certain it is
+that before the ninth century was far advanced incursions of the
+barbarians--"the heathen," as the chroniclers generally call them--had
+come to be almost annual events. In 841 Rouen was plundered and
+burned; in 843 Nantes was besieged, the bishop killed, and many
+captives carried off; in 845 the invaders appeared at Paris and were
+prevented from attacking the place only by being bribed; and so the
+story goes, until by 846 we find the annalists beginning their
+melancholy record of the year's events with the matter-of-course
+statement that, "according to their custom," the Northmen plundered
+such and such a region [see p. 159]. Below are a few passages taken
+from the Annals of Saint-Bertin, the poem of Abbo on the siege of
+Paris, and the Chronicle of Saint-Denys, which show something of the
+character of the Northmen's part in early French history, first as
+mere invaders and afterwards as permanent settlers.
+
+The Annals of Saint-Bertin are so called because they have been copied
+from an old manuscript found in the monastery of that name. The period
+which they cover is 741-882. Several writers evidently had a hand in
+their compilation. The portion between the dates 836 and 861 is
+attributed to Prudence, bishop of Troyes, and that between 861 and 882
+to Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims.
+
+Abbo, the author of the second selection given below, was a monk of
+St. Germain des Prés, at Paris. He wrote a poem in which he undertook
+to give an account of the siege of Paris by the Northmen in 885 and
+886, and of the struggles of the Frankish people with the invaders to
+the year 896. As literature the poem has small value, but for the
+historian it possesses some importance.
+
+The account of Rollo's conversion comes from a history of the Normans
+written in the twelfth century by William of Jumièges. The work covers
+the period 851-1137, its earlier portions (to 996) being based on an
+older history written by Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, in the eleventh
+century. The Chronicle of St.-Denys was composed at a later time and
+served to preserve most of the history recorded by Dudo and William of
+Jumièges.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Annales Bertiniani_ ["Annals of St. Bertin"].
+     Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.),
+     Vol. I., pp. 439-454.
+
+     (b) Abbonis Monachi S. Germani Parisiensis, _De Bellis
+     Parisiacæ Urbis, et Odonis Comitis, post Regis, adversus
+     Northmannos urbem ipsam obsidentes, sub Carolo Crasso Imp. ac
+     Rege Francorum_ [Abbo's "Wars of Count Odo with the Northmen
+     in the Reign of Charles the Fat"]. Text in Bouquet, _Recueil
+     des Historiens des Gaules et de la France_, Vol. VIII., pp.
+     4-26.
+
+     (c) _Chronique de Saint-Denys d'après Dudo et Guillaume de
+     Jumièges_ ["Chronicle of St. Denys based on Dudo and William
+     of Jumièges"], Vol. III., p. 105.
+
+   (a) THE EARLIER RAVAGES OF THE NORTHMEN
+
+   =843=. Pirates of the Northmen's race came to Nantes, killed the
+   bishop and many of the clergy and laymen, both men and women, and
+   pillaged the city. Thence they set out to plunder the lands of
+   lower Aquitaine. At length they arrived at a certain island[216]
+   and carried materials thither from the mainland to build themselves
+   houses; and they settled there for the winter, as if that were to
+   be their permanent dwelling-place.
+
+   =844.= The Northmen ascended the Garonne as far as Toulouse and
+   pillaged the lands along both banks with impunity. Some, after
+   leaving this region went into Galicia[217] and perished, part of
+   them by the attacks of the cross-bowmen who had come to resist
+   them, part by being overwhelmed by a storm at sea. But others of
+   them went farther into Spain and engaged in long and desperate
+   combats with the Saracens; defeated in the end, they withdrew.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen bought off at Paris]
+
+   =845.= The Northmen with a hundred ships entered the Seine on the
+   twentieth of March and, after ravaging first one bank and then the
+   other, came without meeting any resistance to Paris. Charles[218]
+   resolved to hold out against them; but seeing the impossibility of
+   gaining a victory, he made with them a certain agreement and by a
+   gift of 7,000 livres he bought them off from advancing farther and
+   persuaded them to return.
+
+   Euric, king of the Northmen, advanced, with six hundred vessels,
+   along the course of the River Elbe to attack Louis of Germany.[219]
+   The Saxons prepared to meet him, gave battle, and with the aid of
+   our Lord Jesus Christ won the victory.
+
+   The Northmen returned [from Paris] down the Seine and coming to the
+   ocean pillaged, destroyed, and burned all the regions along the
+   coast.
+
+   =846.= The Danish pirates landed in Frisia.[220] They were able to
+   force from the people whatever contributions they wished and, being
+   victors in battle, they remained masters of almost the entire
+   province.
+
+   =847.= The Northmen made their appearance in the part of Gaul
+   inhabited by the Britons[221] and won three victories.
+   Noménoé,[222] although defeated, at length succeeded in buying
+   them off with presents and getting them out of his country.
+
+     [Sidenote: The burning of Tours]
+
+   =853-854.= The Danish pirates, making their way into the country
+   eastward from the city of Nantes, arrived without opposition,
+   November eighth, before Tours. This they burned, together with the
+   church of St. Martin and the neighboring places. But that incursion
+   had been foreseen with certainty and the body of St. Martin had
+   been removed to Cormery, a monastery of that church, and from there
+   to the city of Orleans. The pirates went on to the château of
+   Blois[223] and burned it, proposing then to proceed to Orleans and
+   destroy that city in the same fashion. But Agius, bishop of
+   Orleans, and Burchard, bishop of Chartres,[224] had gathered
+   soldiers and ships to meet them; so they abandoned their design and
+   returned to the lower Loire, though the following year [855] they
+   ascended it anew to the city of Angers.[225]
+
+   =855.= They left their ships behind and undertook to go overland to
+   the city of Poitiers;[226] but the Aquitanians came to meet them
+   and defeated them, so that not more than 300 escaped.
+
+     [Sidenote: Orleans pillaged]
+
+   =856.= On the eighteenth of April, the Danish pirates came to the
+   city of Orleans, pillaged it, and went away without meeting
+   opposition. Other Danish pirates came into the Seine about the
+   middle of August and, after plundering and ruining the towns on the
+   two banks of the river, and even the monasteries and villages
+   farther back, came to a well located place near the Seine called
+   Jeufosse, and, there quietly passed the winter.
+
+   =859.= The Danish pirates having made a long sea-voyage (for they
+   had sailed between Spain and Africa) entered the Rhone, where they
+   pillaged many cities and monasteries and established themselves on
+   the island called Camargue.... They devastated everything before
+   them as far as the city of Valence.[227] Then after ravaging all
+   these regions they returned to the island where they had fixed
+   their habitation. Thence they went on toward Italy, capturing and
+   plundering Pisa and other cities.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen arrive at the city]
+
+   (b) THE SIEGE OF PARIS
+
+   =885.= The Northmen came to Paris with 700 sailing ships, not
+   counting those of smaller size which are commonly called barques.
+   At one stretch the Seine was lined with the vessels for more than
+   two leagues, so that one might ask in astonishment in what cavern
+   the river had been swallowed up, since it was not to be seen. The
+   second day after the fleet of the Northmen arrived under the walls
+   of the city, Siegfred, who was then king only in name[228] but who
+   was in command of the expedition, came to the dwelling of the
+   illustrious bishop. He bowed his head and said: "Gauzelin, have
+   compassion on yourself and on your flock. We beseech you to listen
+   to us, in order that you may escape death. Allow us only the
+   freedom of the city. We will do no harm and we will see to it that
+   whatever belongs either to you or to Odo shall be strictly
+   respected." Count Odo, who later became king, was then the defender
+   of the city.[229] The bishop replied to Siegfred, "Paris has been
+   entrusted to us by the Emperor Charles, who, after God, king and
+   lord of the powerful, rules over almost all the world. He has put
+   it in our care, not at all that the kingdom may be ruined by our
+   misconduct, but that he may keep it and be assured of its peace.
+   If, like us, you had been given the duty of defending these walls,
+   and if you should have done that which you ask us to do, what
+   treatment do you think you would deserve?" Siegfred replied, "I
+   should deserve that my head be cut off and thrown to the dogs.
+   Nevertheless, if you do not listen to my demand, on the morrow our
+   war machines will destroy you with poisoned arrows. You will be the
+   prey of famine and of pestilence and these evils will renew
+   themselves perpetually every year." So saying, he departed and
+   gathered together his comrades.
+
+     [Sidenote: The attack upon the tower]
+
+     [Sidenote: Fierce fighting]
+
+     [Sidenote: The bravery of Count Odo]
+
+   In the morning the Northmen, boarding their ships, approached the
+   tower and attacked it.[230] They shook it with their engines and
+   stormed it with arrows. The city resounded with clamor, the people
+   were aroused, the bridges trembled. All came together to defend the
+   tower. There Odo, his brother Robert,[231] and the Count Ragenar
+   distinguished themselves for bravery; likewise the courageous Abbot
+   Ebolus,[232] the nephew of the bishop. A keen arrow wounded the
+   prelate, while at his side the young warrior Frederick was struck
+   by a sword. Frederick died, but the old man, thanks to God,
+   survived. There perished many Franks; after receiving wounds they
+   were lavish of life. At last the enemy withdrew, carrying off their
+   dead. The evening came. The tower had been sorely tried, but its
+   foundations were still solid, as were also the narrow _baies_ which
+   surmounted them. The people spent the night repairing it with
+   boards. By the next day, on the old citadel had been erected a new
+   tower of wood, a half higher than the former one. At sunrise the
+   Danes caught their first glimpse of it. Once more the latter
+   engaged with the Christians in violent combat. On every side arrows
+   sped and blood flowed. With the arrows mingled the stones hurled
+   by slings and war-machines; the air was filled with them. The tower
+   which had been built during the night groaned under the strokes of
+   the darts, the city shook with the struggle, the people ran hither
+   and thither, the bells jangled. The warriors rushed together to
+   defend the tottering tower and to repel the fierce assault. Among
+   these warriors two, a count and an abbot [Ebolus], surpassed all
+   the rest in courage. The former was the redoubtable Odo who never
+   experienced defeat and who continually revived the spirits of the
+   worn-out defenders. He ran along the ramparts and hurled back the
+   enemy. On those who were secreting themselves so as to undermine
+   the tower he poured oil, wax, and pitch, which, being mixed and
+   heated, burned the Danes and tore off their scalps. Some of them
+   died; others threw themselves into the river to escape the awful
+   substance....[233]
+
+   Meanwhile Paris was suffering not only from the sword outside but
+   also from a pestilence within which brought death to many noble
+   men. Within the walls there was not ground in which to bury the
+   dead.... Odo, the future king, was sent to Charles, emperor of the
+   Franks,[234] to implore help for the stricken city.
+
+     [Sidenote: Odo's mission to Emperor Charles the Fat]
+
+   One day Odo suddenly appeared in splendor in the midst of three
+   bands of warriors. The sun made his armor glisten and greeted him
+   before it illuminated the country around. The Parisians saw their
+   beloved chief at a distance, but the enemy, hoping to prevent his
+   gaining entrance to the tower, crossed the Seine and took up their
+   position on the bank. Nevertheless Odo, his horse at a gallop, got
+   past the Northmen and reached the tower, whose gates Ebolus opened
+   to him. The enemy pursued fiercely the comrades of the count who
+   were trying to keep up with him and get refuge in the tower. [The
+   Danes were defeated in the attack.]
+
+     [Sidenote: Terms of peace arranged by Charles]
+
+   Now came the Emperor Charles, surrounded by soldiers of all
+   nations, even as the sky is adorned with resplendent stars. A great
+   throng, speaking many languages, accompanied him. He established
+   his camp at the foot of the heights of Montmartre, near the tower.
+   He allowed the Northmen to have the country of Sens to
+   plunder;[235] and in the spring he gave them 700 pounds of silver
+   on condition that by the month of March they leave France for their
+   own kingdom.[236] Then Charles returned, destined to an early
+   death.[237]
+
+     [Sidenote: Rollo receives Normandy from Charles the Simple]
+
+   (c) THE BAPTISM OF ROLLO AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NORMANS IN
+   FRANCE[238]
+
+   The king had at first wished to give to Rollo the province of
+   Flanders, but the Norman rejected it as being too marshy. Rollo
+   refused to kiss the foot of Charles when he received from him the
+   duchy of Normandy. "He who receives such a gift," said the bishops
+   to him, "ought to kiss the foot of the king." "Never," replied he,
+   "will I bend the knee to any one, or kiss anybody's foot."
+   Nevertheless, impelled by the entreaties of the Franks, he ordered
+   one of his warriors to perform the act in his stead. This man
+   seized the foot of the king and lifted it to his lips, kissing it
+   without bending and so causing the king to tumble over backwards.
+   At that there was a loud burst of laughter and a great commotion in
+   the crowd of onlookers. King Charles, Robert, Duke of the
+   Franks,[239] the counts and magnates, and the bishops and abbots,
+   bound themselves by the oath of the Catholic faith to Rollo,
+   swearing by their lives and their bodies and by the honor of all
+   the kingdom, that he might hold the land and transmit it to his
+   heirs from generation to generation throughout all time to come.
+   When these things had been satisfactorily performed, the king
+   returned in good spirits into his dominion, and Rollo with Duke
+   Robert set out for Rouen.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rollo becomes a Christian]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 912 Rollo was baptized in holy water in the
+   name of the sacred Trinity by Franco, archbishop of Rouen. Duke
+   Robert, who was his godfather, gave to him his name. Rollo
+   devotedly honored God and the Holy Church with his gifts.... The
+   pagans, seeing that their chieftain had become a Christian,
+   abandoned their idols, received the name of Christ, and with one
+   accord desired to be baptized. Meanwhile the Norman duke made ready
+   for a splendid wedding and married the daughter of the king
+   [Gisela] according to Christian rites.
+
+     [Sidenote: His work in Normandy]
+
+   Rollo gave assurance of security to all those who wished to dwell
+   in his country. The land he divided among his followers, and, as it
+   had been a long time unused, he improved it by the construction of
+   new buildings. It was peopled by the Norman warriors and by
+   immigrants from outside regions. The duke established for his
+   subjects certain inviolable rights and laws, confirmed and
+   published by the will of the leading men, and he compelled all his
+   people to live peaceably together. He rebuilt the churches, which
+   had been entirely ruined; he restored the temples, which had been
+   destroyed by the ravages of the pagans; he repaired and added to
+   the walls and fortifications of the cities; he subdued the Britons
+   who rebelled against him; and with the provisions obtained from
+   them he supplied all the country that had been granted to him.
+
+
+28. Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order
+
+The ninth century is chiefly significant in Frankish history as an era
+of decline of monarchy and increase of the powers and independence of
+local officials and magnates. Already by Charlemagne's death, in 814,
+the disruptive forces were at work, and under the relatively weak
+successors of the great Emperor the course of decentralization went on
+until by the death of Charles the Bald, in 877, the royal authority
+had been reduced to a condition of insignificance. This century was
+the formative period _par excellence_ of the feudal system--a type of
+social and economic organization which the conditions of the time
+rendered inevitable and under which great monarchies tended to be
+dissolved into a multitude of petty local states. Large landholders
+began to regard themselves as practically independent; royal
+officials, particularly the counts, refused to be parted from their
+positions and used them primarily to enhance their own personal
+authority; the churches and monasteries stretched their royal grants
+of immunity so far as almost to refuse to acknowledge any obligations
+to the central government. In these and other ways the Carolingian
+monarchy was shorn of its powers, and as it was quite lacking in
+money, lands, and soldiers who could be depended on, there was little
+left for it to do but to legislate and ordain without much prospect of
+being able to enforce its laws and ordinances. The rapidity with which
+the kings of the period were losing their grip on the situation comes
+out very clearly from a study of the capitularies which they issued
+from time to time. In general these capitularies, especially after
+about 840, testify to the disorder everywhere prevailing, the
+usurpations of the royal officials, and the popular contempt of the
+royal authority, and reiterate commands for the preservation of order
+until they become fairly wearisome to the reader. Royalty was at a bad
+pass and its weakness is reflected unmistakably in its attempts to
+govern by mere edict without any backing of enforcing power. In 843,
+853, 856, 857, and many other years of Charles the Bald's reign,
+elaborate decrees were issued prohibiting brigandage and lawlessness,
+but with the tell-tale provision that violators were to be "admonished
+with Christian love to repent," or that they were to be punished "as
+far as the local officials could remember them," or that the royal
+agents were themselves to take oath not to become highway robbers!
+Sometimes the king openly confessed his weakness and proceeded to
+implore, rather than to command, his subjects to obey him.
+
+The capitulary quoted below belongs to the last year of the short
+reign of Carloman (882-884), son of Louis the Stammerer and grandson
+of Charles the Bald. It makes a considerable show of power, ordaining
+the punishment of criminals as confidently as if there had really been
+means to assure its enforcement. But in truth all the provisions in it
+had been embodied in capitularies of Carloman's predecessors with
+scarcely perceptible effect, and there was certainly no reason to
+expect better results now. With the nobles practicing, if not
+asserting, independence, the churches and monasteries heeding the
+royal authority hardly at all, the country being ravaged by Northmen
+and the people turning to the great magnates for the protection they
+could no longer get from the king, and the counts and _missi dominici_
+making their lands and offices the basis for hereditary local
+authority, the king had come to be almost powerless in the great realm
+where less than a hundred years before Charlemagne's word, for all
+practical purposes, was law. Even Charlemagne himself, however, could
+have done little to avert the state of anarchy which conditions too
+strong for any sovereign to cope with had brought about.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. II., pp. 371-375.
+
+     [Sidenote: The keeping of the peace enjoined]
+
+   =1.= According to the custom of our predecessors, we desire that in
+   our palace shall prevail the worship of God, the honor of the king,
+   piety, concord, and a condition of peace; and that that peace
+   established in our palace by the sanction of our predecessors shall
+   extend to, and be observed throughout, our entire kingdom.
+
+   =2.= We desire that all those who live at our court, and all who
+   come there, shall live peaceably. If any one, in breach of the
+   peace, is guilty of violence, let him be brought to a hearing at
+   our palace, by the authority of the king and by the order of our
+   _missus_, as it was ordained by the capitularies of our
+   predecessors, that he may be punished according to a legal judgment
+   and may pay a triple composition with the royal ban.[240]
+
+   =3.= If the offender has no lord, or if he flees from our court,
+   our _missus_ shall go to find him and shall order him, in our name,
+   to appear at the palace.[241] If he should be so rash as to disdain
+   to come, let him be brought by force. If he spurns both us and our
+   _missus_, and while refusing to obey summons is killed in
+   resisting, and any of his relatives or friends undertake to
+   exercise against our agents who have killed him the right of
+   vengeance,[242] we will oppose them there and will give our agents
+   all the aid of our royal authority.
+
+     [Sidenote: The bishop's part in repressing crime]
+
+   =5.= The bishop of the diocese in which the crime shall have been
+   committed ought, through the priest of the place, to give three
+   successive invitations to the offender to repent and to make
+   reparation for his fault in order to set himself right with God and
+   the church that he has injured. If he scorns and rejects this
+   summons and invitation, let the bishop wield upon him the pastoral
+   rod, that is to say, the sentence of excommunication; and let him
+   separate him from the communion of the Holy Church until he shall
+   have given the satisfaction that is required.
+
+     [Sidenote: Obligations of lay officials to restrain violence]
+
+   =9.= In order that violence be entirely brought to an end and order
+   restored, it is necessary that the bishop's authority should be
+   supplemented by that of the public officials. Therefore we and our
+   faithful have judged it expedient that the _missi dominici_ should
+   discharge faithfully the duties of their office.[243] The count
+   shall enjoin to the viscount,[244] to his _vicarii_ and
+   _centenarii_,[245] and to all the public officials, as well as to
+   all Franks who have a knowledge of the law, that all should give as
+   much aid as they can to the Church, both on their own account and
+   in accord with the requests of the clergy, every time they shall be
+   called upon by the bishop, the officers of the bishop, or even by
+   the needy. They should do this for the love of God, the peace of
+   the Holy Church, and the fidelity that they owe to us.
+
+
+29. The Election of Hugh Capet (987).
+
+The election of Hugh Capet as king of France in 987 marked the
+establishment of the so-called Capetian line of monarchs, which
+occupied the French throne in all not far from eight centuries--a
+record not equaled by any other royal house in European history. The
+circumstances of the election were interesting and significant. For
+more than a hundred years there had been keen rivalry between the
+Carolingian kings and one of the great ducal houses of the Franks,
+known as the Robertians. In the disorder which so generally prevailed
+in France in the ninth and tenth centuries, powerful families
+possessing extensive lands and having large numbers of vassals and
+serfs were able to make themselves practically independent of the
+royal power. The greatest of these families was the Robertians, the
+descendants of Robert the Strong, father of the Odo who distinguished
+himself at the siege of Paris in 885-886 [see p. 170]. Between 888 and
+987 circumstances brought it about three different times that members
+of the Robertian house were elevated to the Frankish throne (Odo,
+888-898; Robert I., 922-923; and Rudolph--related to the Robertians by
+marriage only,--923-936). The rest of the time the throne was occupied
+by Carolingians (Charles the Simple, 898-922; Louis IV., 936-954;
+Lothair, 954-986; and Louis V., 986-987). With the death of the young
+king Louis V., in 987, the last direct descendant of Charlemagne
+passed away and the question of the succession was left for solution
+by the nobles and higher clergy of the realm. As soon as the king was
+dead, such of these magnates as were assembled at the court to attend
+the funeral bound themselves by oath to take no action until a general
+meeting could be held at Senlis (a few miles north of Paris) late in
+May, 987. The proceedings of this general meeting are related in the
+passage below. Apparently it had already been pretty generally agreed
+that the man to be elected was Hugh Capet, great-grandson of Robert
+the Strong and the present head of the famous Robertian house, and the
+speech of Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, of which Richer gives a
+resumé, was enough to ensure this result. There was but one other
+claimant of importance. That was the late king's uncle, Charles of
+Lower Lorraine. He was not a man of force and Adalbero easily disposed
+of his candidacy, though the rejected prince was subsequently able to
+make his successful rival a good deal of trouble. Hugh owed his
+election to his large material resources, the military prestige of
+his ancestors, the active support of the Church, and the lack of
+direct heirs of the Carolingian dynasty.
+
+Richer, the chronicler whose account of the election is given below,
+was a monk living at Rheims at the time when the events occurred which
+he describes. His "Four Books of Histories," discovered only in 1833,
+is almost our only considerable source of information on Frankish
+affairs in the later tenth century. In his writing he endeavored to
+round out his work into a real history and to give more than the bare
+outline of events characteristic of the mediæval annalists. In this he
+was only partially successful, being at fault mainly in indulging in
+too much rhetoric and in allowing partisan motives sometimes to guide
+him in what he said. His partisanship was on the side of the fallen
+Carolingians. The period covered by the "Histories" is 888-995; they
+are therefore roughly continuous chronologically with the Annals of
+Saint Bertin [see p. 164].
+
+     Source--Richer, _Historiarum Libri IV._ ["Four Books of
+     Histories"], Bk. IV., Chaps. 11-12. Text in _Monumenta
+     Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. III., pp.
+     633-634.
+
+   Meanwhile, at the appointed time the magnates of Gaul who had taken
+   the oath came together at Senlis. When they had all taken their
+   places in the assembly and the duke[246] had given the sign, the
+   archbishop[247] spoke to them as follows:[248]
+
+     [Sidenote: Adalbero's speech at Senlis]
+
+   "King Louis, of divine memory, having been removed from the world,
+   and having left no heirs, it devolves upon us to take serious
+   counsel as to the choice of a successor, so that the state may not
+   suffer any injury through neglect and the lack of a leader. On a
+   former occasion[249] we thought it advisable to postpone that
+   deliberation in order that each of you might be able to come here
+   and, in the presence of the assembly, voice the sentiment which God
+   should have inspired in you, and that from all these different
+   expressions of opinion we might be able to find out what is the
+   general will.
+
+     [Sidenote: Election, not heredity, the true basis of Frankish
+   kingship]
+
+   "Here we are assembled. Let us see to it, by our prudence and
+   honor, that hatred shall not destroy reason, that love shall not
+   interfere with truth. We are aware that Charles[250] has his
+   partisans, who claim that the throne belongs to him by right of
+   birth. But if we look into the matter, the throne is not acquired
+   by hereditary right, and no one ought to be placed at the head of
+   the kingdom unless he is distinguished, not only by nobility of
+   body, but also by strength of mind--only such a one as honor and
+   generosity recommend.[251] We read in the annals of rulers of
+   illustrious descent who were deposed on account of their
+   unworthiness and replaced by others of the same, or even lesser,
+   rank.[252]
+
+     [Sidenote: Objections to Charles of Lorraine]
+
+     [Sidenote: Election of Hugh Capet urged]
+
+   "What dignity shall we gain by making Charles king? He is not
+   guided by honor, nor is he possessed of strength. Then, too, he has
+   compromised himself so far as to have become the dependent of a
+   foreign king[253] and to have married a girl taken from among his
+   own vassals. How could the great duke endure that a woman of the
+   low rank of vassal should become queen and rule over him? How could
+   he tender services to this woman, when his equals, and even his
+   superiors, in birth bend the knee before him and place their hands
+   under his feet? Think of this seriously and you will see that
+   Charles must be rejected for his own faults rather than on account
+   of any wrong done by others. Make a decision, therefore, for the
+   welfare rather than for the injury of the state. If you wish ill to
+   your country, choose Charles to be king; if you have regard for its
+   prosperity, choose Hugh, the illustrious duke.... Elect, then, the
+   duke, a man who is recommended by his conduct, by his nobility, and
+   by his military following. In him you will find a defender, not
+   only of the state, but also of your private interests. His
+   large-heartedness will make him a father to you all. Who has ever
+   fled to him for protection without receiving it? Who that has been
+   deserted by his friends has he ever failed to restore to his
+   rights?"
+
+     [Sidenote: The beginning of his reign]
+
+   This speech was applauded and concurred in by all, and by unanimous
+   consent the duke was raised to the throne. He was crowned at
+   Noyon[254] on the first of June[255] by the archbishop and the
+   other bishops as king of the Gauls, the Bretons, the Normans, the
+   Aquitanians, the Goths, the Spaniards and the Gascons.[256]
+   Surrounded by the nobles of the king, he issued decrees and made
+   laws according to royal custom, judging and disposing of all
+   matters with success.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[197] After the battle of Fontenay, June 25, 841, Charles and Louis
+had separated and Lothair had formed the design of attacking and
+conquering first one and then the other. He made an expedition against
+Charles, but was unable to accomplish anything before his two enemies
+again drew together at Strassburg.
+
+[198] The name "Francia" was as yet confined to the country lying
+between the Loire and the Scheldt.
+
+[199] This Pepin was a son of Pepin, the brother of Charles, Louis,
+and Lothair. Upon the death of the elder Pepin in 838 his part of the
+empire--the great region between the Loire and the Pyrenees, known as
+Aquitaine--had been taken possession of by Charles, without regard for
+the two surviving sons. It was natural, therefore, that in the
+struggle which ensued between Charles and Louis on the one side and
+Lothair on the other, young Pepin should have given such aid as he
+could to the latter.
+
+[200] On the upper Moselle.
+
+[201] This refers to the battle of Fontenay.
+
+[202] The translation of this oath is as follows: "For the love of
+God, and for the sake as well of our peoples as of ourselves, I
+promise that from this day forth, as God shall grant me wisdom and
+strength, I will treat this my brother as one's brother ought to be
+treated, provided that he shall do the same by me. And with Lothair I
+will not willingly enter into any dealings which may injure this my
+brother."
+
+[203] This oath, taken by the followers of the two kings, may be thus
+translated: "If Louis [or Charles] shall observe the oath which he has
+sworn to his brother Charles [or Louis], and Charles [or Louis], our
+lord, on his side, should be untrue to his oath, and we should be
+unable to hold him to it, neither we nor any whom we can deter, shall
+give him any support." The oath taken by the two armies was the same,
+with only the names of the kings interchanged.
+
+[204] This name in the course of time became simply "Francia," then
+"France." In the eastern kingdom, "Francia" gradually became
+restricted to the region about the Main, or "Franconia."
+
+[205] It was commonly known as "Lotharii regnum," later as
+"Lotharingia," and eventually (a fragment of the kingdom only) as
+"Lorraine."
+
+[206] Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_ (Boston, 1903), p. 30.
+
+[207] This statement is only approximately true. In reality Friesland
+(Frisia) and a strip up the east bank of the Rhine almost to the mouth
+of the Moselle went to Lothair.
+
+[208] See p. 152, note 2.
+
+[209] Gregory IV. (827-844) was succeeded in the papal office by
+Sergius II. (844-847).
+
+[210] By the treaty of Verdun in 843 Charles the Bald had been given
+Aquitaine, along with the other distinctively Frankish regions of
+western Europe. His nephew Pepin, however, who had never been
+reconciled to Charles's taking possession of Aquitaine in 838, called
+himself king of that country and made stubborn resistance to his
+uncle's claims of sovereignty [see p. 156].
+
+[211] The Wends were a Slavonic people living in the lower valley of
+the Oder.
+
+[212] By "the heathen" are meant the Norse pirates from Denmark and
+the Scandinavian peninsula. On their invasions see p. 163.
+
+[213] This Saracen attack upon Rome was made by some Arab pirates who
+in the Mediterranean were playing much the same rôle of destruction as
+were the Northmen on the Atlantic coasts. A league of Naples, Gaeta,
+and Amalfi defeated the pirates in 849, and delivered Rome from her
+oppressors long enough for new fortifications to be constructed. Walls
+were built at this time to include the quarter of St. Peter's--a
+district known to this day as the "Leonine City" in memory of Leo IV.,
+who in 847 succeeded Sergius as pope [see above text under date 850].
+
+[214] Fulda was an important monastery on one of the upper branches of
+the Weser, northeast of Mainz.
+
+[215] An octave, in the sense here meant, is the week (strictly eight
+days) following a church festival; in this case, the eight days
+following the anniversary of Christ's birth, or Christmas.
+
+[216] The isle of Rhé, near Rochelle, north of the mouth of the
+Garonne.
+
+[217] Galicia was a province in the extreme northwest of the Spanish
+peninsula.
+
+[218] Charles the Bald, who by the treaty of Verdun in 843, had
+obtained the western part of the empire built up by Charlemagne [see
+p. 154].
+
+[219] Louis, a half-brother of Charles the Bald, who had received the
+eastern portion of Charlemagne's empire by the settlement of 843.
+
+[220] Frisia, or Friesland, was the northernmost part of the kingdom
+of Lothair.
+
+[221] That is, in Brittany.
+
+[222] Noménoé was a native chief of the Britons. Charles the Bald made
+many efforts to reduce him to obedience, but with little success. In
+848 or 849 he took the title of king. During his brief reign (which
+ended in 851) he invaded Charles's dominions and wrought almost as
+much destruction as did the Northmen themselves.
+
+[223] Tours, Blois, and Orleans were all situated within a range of a
+hundred miles along the lower Loire.
+
+[224] Chartres was some eighty miles northwest of Orleans.
+
+[225] About midway between Nantes and Tours.
+
+[226] Poitiers was about seventy miles southwest of Tours.
+
+[227] Valence was on the Rhone, nearly a hundred and fifty miles back
+from the Mediterranean coast.
+
+[228] The Northmen who ravaged France really had no kings, but only
+military chieftains.
+
+[229] Odo, or Eudes, was chosen king by the Frankish nobles and clergy
+in 888, to succeed the deposed Charles the Fat. He was not of the
+Carolingian family but a Robertian (son of Robert the Strong), and
+hence a forerunner of the Capetian line of kings regularly established
+on the French throne in 987 [see p. 177]. His election to the kingship
+was due in a large measure to his heroic conduct during the siege of
+Paris by the Northmen.
+
+[230] The tower blocked access to the city by the so-called "Great
+Bridge," which connected the right bank of the Seine with the island
+on which the city was built. The tower stood on the present site of
+the Châtelet.
+
+[231] In time Robert also became king. He reigned only from 922 to
+923.
+
+[232] Abbot Ebolus was head of the monastery of St. Germain des Prés.
+
+[233] The Northmen were finally compelled to abandon their efforts
+against the tower. They then retired to the bank of the Seine near the
+abbey of Saint-Denys and from that place as a center ravaged all the
+country lying about Paris. In a short time they renewed the attack
+upon the city itself.
+
+[234] Charles the Fat, under whom during the years 885-887 the old
+empire of Charlemagne was for the last time united under a single
+sovereign. When Odo went to find him in 886 he was at Metz in Germany.
+German and Italian affairs interested him more than did those of the
+Franks.
+
+[235] Sens was about a hundred miles southeast of Paris. Charles
+abandoned the region about Sens to the Northmen to plunder during the
+winter of 886-887. His very lame excuse for doing this was that the
+people of the district did not properly recognize his authority and
+were deserving of such punishment.
+
+[236] The twelve month siege of Paris thus brought to an end had many
+noteworthy results. Chief among these was the increased prestige of
+Odo as a national leader and of Paris as a national stronghold. Prior
+to this time Paris had not been a place of importance, even though
+Clovis had made it his capital. In the period of Charlemagne it was
+distinctly a minor city and it gained little in prominence under Louis
+the Pious and Charles the Bald. The great Carolingian capitals were
+Laon and Compiègne. The siege of 885-886, however, made it apparent
+that Paris occupied a strategic position, commanding the valley of the
+Seine, and that the inland city was one of the true bulwarks of the
+kingdom. Thereafter the place grew rapidly in population and prestige,
+and when Odo became king (in 888) it was made his capital. As time
+went on it grew to be the heart of the French kingdom and came to
+guide the destinies of France as no other city of modern times has
+guided a nation.
+
+[237] He was deposed in 887, largely because of his utter failure to
+take any active measures to defend the Franks against their Danish
+enemies. From Paris he went to Germany where he died, January 13, 888,
+at a small town on the Danube.
+
+[238] After the famous siege of Paris in 885-886 the Northmen, or
+Normans as they may now be called, continued to ravage France just as
+they had done before that event. In 910 one of their greatest
+chieftains, Rollo, appeared before Paris and prepared to take the
+city. In this project he was unsuccessful, but his warriors caused so
+much devastation in the surrounding country that Charles the Simple,
+who was now king, decided to try negotiations. A meeting was held at
+Saint-Clair-sur-Epte where, in the presence of the Norman warriors and
+the Frankish magnates, Charles and Rollo entered into the first treaty
+looking toward a permanent settlement of Northmen on Frankish
+territory. Rollo promised to desist from his attacks upon Frankland
+and to become a Christian. Charles agreed to give over to the Normans
+a region which they in fact already held, with Rouen as its center,
+and extending from the Epte River on the east to the sea on the west.
+The arrangement was dictated by good sense and proved a fortunate one
+for all parties concerned.
+
+[239] Robert was Odo's brother. "Duke of the Franks" was a title, at
+first purely military, but fast developing to the point where it was
+to culminate in its bearer becoming the first Capetian king [see p.
+177].
+
+[240] See p. 138, note 4.
+
+[241] If the offender had a lord, this lord would be expected to
+produce his accused vassal at court.
+
+[242] That is, the old blood-feud of the Germans.
+
+[243] The office of _missus_ had by this time fallen pretty much into
+decay. Many of the _missi_ were at the same time counts--a combination
+of authority directly opposed to the earlier theory of the
+administrative system. The _missus_ had been supposed to supervise the
+counts and restrain them from disloyalty to the king and from
+indulgence in arbitrary or oppressive measures of local government.
+
+[244] The viscount (_vicecomes_) was the count's deputy. By Carloman's
+time there were sometimes several of these in a county. They were at
+first appointed by the count, but toward the end of the ninth century
+they became hereditary.
+
+[245] The _vicarii_ and _centenarii_ were local assistants of the
+count in administrative and judicial affairs. In Merovingian times
+their precise duties are not clear, but under the Carolingians the two
+terms tended to become synonyms. The _centenarius_, or hundredman, was
+charged mainly with the administration of justice in the smallest
+local division, i.e., the hundred. In theory he was elected by the
+people of the hundred, but in practice he was usually appointed by the
+count.
+
+[246] Hugh Capet, whose title prior to 987 was "Duke of the Franks."
+
+[247] Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims.
+
+[248] We are not to suppose that Richer here gives a literal
+reproduction of Adalbero's speech, but so far as we can tell the main
+points are carefully stated.
+
+[249] At the funeral of Louis.
+
+[250] Charles of Lower Lorraine, uncle of Louis V.
+
+[251] The elective principle here asserted had prevailed in the choice
+of French and German kings for nearly a century. The kings chosen,
+however, usually came from one family, as the Carolingians in France.
+
+[252] Almost exactly a century earlier there had been such a case
+among the Franks, when Charles the Fat was deposed and Odo, the
+defender of Paris, elevated to the throne (888).
+
+[253] Charles had been made duke of Lower Lorraine by the German
+emperor. This passage in Adalbero's speech looks like something of an
+appeal to Frankish pride, or as we would say in these days, to
+national sentiment. Still it must be remembered that while a sense of
+common interest was undoubtedly beginning to develop among the peoples
+represented in the assembly at Senlis, these peoples were still far
+too diverse to be spoken of accurately as making up a unified
+nationality. Adalbero was indulging in a political harangue and piling
+up arguments for effect, without much regard for their real weight.
+
+[254] Noyon was a church center about fifty miles north of Paris. That
+the coronation really occurred at this place has been questioned by
+some, but there seems to be small reason for doubting Richer's
+statement in the matter.
+
+[255] M. Pfister in Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, Vol. II., p. 412,
+asserts that the coronation occurred July 3, 987.
+
+[256] This method of describing the extent of the new king's dominion
+shows how far from consolidated the so-called Frankish kingdom really
+was. The royal domain proper, that is, the land over which the king
+had immediate control, was limited to a long fertile strip extending
+from the Somme to a point south of Orléans, including the important
+towns of Paris, Orléans, Étampes, Senlis, and Compiègne. Even this was
+not continuous, but was cut into here and there by the estates of
+practically independent feudal lords. By far the greater portion of
+modern France (the name in 987 was only beginning to be applied to the
+whole country) consisted of great counties and duchies, owing
+comparatively little allegiance to the king and usually rendering even
+less than they owed. Of these the most important was the county (later
+duchy) of Normandy, the county of Bretagne (Brittany), the county of
+Flanders, the county of Anjou, the county of Blois, the duchy of
+Burgundy, the duchy of Aquitaine, the county of Toulouse, the county
+of Gascony, and the county of Barcelona (south of the Pyrenees). The
+"Goths" referred to by Richer were the inhabitants of the "march," or
+border county, of Gothia along the Mediterranean coast between the
+lower Rhone and the Pyrenees (old Septimania).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND IN PEACE
+
+
+30. The Danes in England
+
+The earliest recorded visit of the Danes, or Northmen, to England
+somewhat antedates the appearance of these peoples on the Frankish
+coast in the year 800. In 787 three Danish vessels came to shore at
+Warham in Dorset and their sailors slew the unfortunate reeve who
+mistook them for ordinary foreign merchants and tried to collect port
+dues from them. Thereafter the British coasts were never free for many
+years at a time from the depredations of the marauders. In 793 the
+famous church at Lindisfarne, in Northumberland, was plundered; in 795
+the Irish coasts began to suffer; in 833 a fleet of twenty-five
+vessels appeared at the mouth of the Thames; in 834 twelve hundred
+pillagers landed in Dorset; in 842 London and Rochester were sacked
+and their population scattered; in 850 a fleet of 350 ships carrying
+perhaps ten or twelve thousand men, wintered at the mouth of the
+Thames and in the spring caused London again to suffer; and from then
+on until the accession of King Alfred, in 871, destructive raids
+followed one another with distressing frequency.
+
+The account of the Danish invasions given below is taken from a
+biography of King Alfred commonly attributed to Asser, a monk of Welsh
+origin connected with the monastery of St. David (later bishop of
+Sherborne) and a close friend and adviser of the great king. It gives
+us some idea of the way in which Alfred led his people through the
+darkest days in their history, and of the settlement known as the
+"Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" by which the Danish leader became a
+Christian and the way was prepared for the later division of the
+English country between the two contending peoples.
+
+     Source--Johannes Menevensis Asserius, _De rebus gestis Ælfredi
+     Magni_ [Asser, "The Deeds of Alfred the Great"], Chaps. 42-55
+     _passim_. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles in _Six Old
+     English Chronicles_ (London, 1866), pp. 56-63.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred becomes king (871)]
+
+     [Sidenote: The struggle with the Danes]
+
+   In the year 871 Alfred, who up to that time had been of only
+   secondary rank, while his brothers were alive, by God's permission,
+   undertook the government of the whole kingdom, welcomed by all the
+   people. Indeed, if he had cared to, he might have done so earlier,
+   even while his brother was still alive;[257] for in wisdom and
+   other qualities he excelled all of his brothers, and, moreover, he
+   was courageous and victorious in all his wars. He became king
+   almost against his will, for he did not think that he could alone
+   withstand the numbers and the fierceness of the pagans, though even
+   during the lifetime of his brothers he had carried burdens enough
+   for many men. And when he had ruled one month, with a small band of
+   followers and on very unequal terms, he fought a battle with the
+   entire army of the pagans. This was at a hill called Wilton, on the
+   south bank of the River Wily, from which river the whole of that
+   district is named.[258] And after a long and fierce engagement the
+   pagans, seeing the danger they were in, and no longer able to meet
+   the attacks of their enemies, turned their backs and fled. But, oh,
+   shame to say, they deceived the English, who pursued them too
+   boldly, and, turning swiftly about, gained the victory. Let no one
+   be surprised to learn that the Christians had only a small number
+   of men, for the Saxons had been worn out by eight battles with the
+   pagans in one year. In these they had slain one king, nine dukes,
+   and innumerable troops of soldiers. There had also been numberless
+   skirmishes, both by day and by night, in which Alfred, with his
+   ministers and chieftains and their men, were engaged without rest
+   or relief against the pagans. How many thousands of pagans fell in
+   these skirmishes God only knows, over and above the numbers slain
+   in the eight battles before mentioned. In the same year the Saxons
+   made peace with the invaders, on condition that they should take
+   their departure, and they did so.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred's plan to meet the pagans on the sea]
+
+   In the year 877 the pagans, on the approach of autumn, partly
+   settled in Exeter[259] and partly marched for plunder into
+   Mercia.[260] The number of that disorderly horde increased every
+   day, so that, if thirty thousand of them were slain in one battle,
+   others took their places to double the number. Then King Alfred
+   commanded boats and galleys, i.e., long ships, to be built
+   throughout the kingdom, in order to offer battle by sea to the
+   enemy as they were coming.[261] On board these he placed sailors,
+   whom he commanded to keep watch on the seas. Meanwhile he went
+   himself to Exeter, where the pagans were wintering and, having shut
+   them up within the walls, laid siege to the town. He also gave
+   orders to his sailors to prevent the enemy from obtaining any
+   supplies by sea. In a short time the sailors were encountered by a
+   fleet of a hundred and twenty ships full of armed soldiers, who
+   were on their way to the relief of their countrymen. As soon as the
+   king's men knew that the ships were manned by pagan soldiers they
+   leaped to their arms and bravely attacked those barbaric tribes.
+   The pagans, who had now for almost a month been tossed and almost
+   wrecked among the waves of the sea, fought vainly against them.
+   Their bands were thrown into confusion in a very short time, and
+   all were sunk and drowned in the sea, at a place called
+   Swanwich.[262]
+
+   In 878, which was the thirtieth year of King Alfred's life, the
+   pagan army left Exeter and went to Chippenham. This latter place
+   was a royal residence situated in the west of Wiltshire, on the
+   eastern bank of the river which the Britons called the Avon. They
+   spent the winter there and drove many of the inhabitants of the
+   surrounding country beyond the sea by the force of their arms, and
+   by the want of the necessities of life. They reduced almost
+   entirely to subjection all the people of that country.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred in refuge at Athelney]
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle of Ethandune and the establishment of peace
+   (878)]
+
+   The same year, after Easter, King Alfred, with a few followers,
+   made for himself a stronghold in a place called Athelney,[263] and
+   from thence sallied, with his companions and the nobles of
+   Somersetshire, to make frequent assaults upon the pagans. Also, in
+   the seventh week after Easter, he rode to Egbert's stone, which is
+   in the eastern part of the wood that is called Selwood.[264] Here
+   he was met by all the folk of Somersetshire and Wiltshire and
+   Hampshire, who had not fled beyond the sea for fear of the pagans;
+   and when they saw the king alive after such great tribulation they
+   received him, as he deserved, with shouts of joy, and encamped
+   there for one night. At dawn on the following day the king broke
+   camp and went to Okely, where he encamped for one night. The next
+   morning he moved to Ethandune[265] and there fought bravely and
+   persistently against the whole army of the pagans. By the help of
+   God he defeated them with great slaughter and pursued them flying
+   to their fortification. He at once slew all the men and carried off
+   all the booty that he could find outside the fortress, which he
+   immediately laid siege to with his entire army. And when he had
+   been there fourteen days the pagans, driven by famine, cold, fear,
+   and finally by despair, asked for peace on the condition that they
+   should give the king as many hostages as he should ask, but should
+   receive none from him in return. Never before had they made a
+   treaty with any one on such terms. The king, hearing this, took
+   pity upon them and received such hostages as he chose. Then the
+   pagans swore that they would immediately leave the kingdom, and
+   their king, Guthrum, promised to embrace Christianity and receive
+   baptism at Alfred's hands. All of these pledges he and his men
+   fulfilled as they had promised.[266]
+
+
+31. Alfred's Interest in Education
+
+As an epoch of literary and educational advancement the reign of
+Alfred in England (871-901) was in many respects like that of
+Charlemagne among the Franks (768-814). Like Charlemagne, Alfred grew
+up with very slight education, at least of a literary sort; but both
+sovereigns were strongly dissatisfied with their ignorance, and both
+made earnest efforts to overcome their own defects and at the same
+time to raise the standard of intelligence among their people at
+large. When one considers how crowded were the reigns of both with
+wars and the pressing business of administration, such devotion to the
+interests of learning appears the more deserving of praise.
+
+In the first passage below, taken from Asser's life of Alfred, the
+anxiety of the king for the promotion of his own education and that of
+his children is clearly and strongly stated. We find him following
+Charlemagne's plan of bringing scholars from foreign countries. He
+brought them, too, from parts of Britain not under his direct control,
+and used them at the court, or in bishoprics, to perform the work of
+instruction. Curiously enough, whereas Charlemagne had found the chief
+of his Palace School, Alcuin, in England, Alfred was glad to secure
+the services of two men (Grimbald and John) who had made their
+reputations in monasteries situated within the bounds of the old
+Frankish empire.
+
+Aside from some native songs and epic poems, all the literature known
+to the Saxon people was in Latin, and but few persons in the kingdom
+knew Latin well enough to read it. The king himself did not, until
+about 887. It was supposed, of course, that the clergy were able to
+use the Latin Bible and the Latin ritual of the Church, but when
+Alfred came to investigate he found that even these men were often
+pretty nearly as ignorant as the people they were charged to instruct.
+What the king did, then, was to urge more study on the part of the
+clergy, under the direction of such men as Plegmund, Asser, Grimbald,
+John, and Werfrith. The people in general could not be expected to
+master a foreign language; hence, in order that they might not be shut
+off entirely from the first-hand use of books, Alfred undertook the
+translation of certain standard works from the Latin into the Saxon.
+Those thus translated were Boethius's _Consolations of Philosophy_,
+Orosius's _Universal History of the World_, Bede's _Ecclesiastical
+History of England_, and Pope Gregory the Great's _Pastoral Rule_. The
+second passage given below is Alfred's preface to his Saxon edition of
+the last-named book, taking the form of a letter to the scholarly
+Bishop Werfrith of Worcester. The _Pastoral Rule_ [see p. 90] was
+written by Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) as a body of instructions
+in doctrine and conduct for the clergy. Alfred's preface, as a picture
+of the ruin wrought by the long series of Danish wars, is of the
+utmost importance in the study of ninth and tenth century England, as
+well as a most interesting revelation of the character of the great
+king.
+
+     Sources--(a) Asser, _De rebus gestis Ælfredi Magni_, Chaps.
+     75-78. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles in _Six Old
+     English Chronicles_ (London, 1866), pp. 68-70.
+
+     (b) King Alfred's West-Saxon Version of Pope Gregory's
+     _Pastoral Rule_. Edited by Henry Sweet in the Publications of
+     the Early English Text Society (London, 1871), p. 2.
+
+     [Sidenote: The education of Alfred's children]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Ethelwerd, the youngest [of Alfred's children],[267] by the divine
+   counsels and the admirable prudence of the king, was consigned to
+   the schools of learning, where, with the children of almost all the
+   nobility of the country, and many also who were not noble, he
+   prospered under the diligent care of his teachers. Books in both
+   languages, namely, Latin and Saxon, were read in the school.[268]
+   They also learned to write, so that before they were of an age to
+   practice manly arts, namely, hunting and such pursuits as befit
+   noblemen, they became studious and clever in the liberal arts.
+   Edward[269] and Ælfthryth[270] were reared in the king's court and
+   received great attention from their attendants and nurses; nay,
+   they continue to this day with the love of all about them, and
+   showing friendliness, and even gentleness, towards all, both
+   natives and foreigners, and in complete subjection to their father.
+   Nor, among their other studies which pertain to this life and are
+   fit for noble youths, are they suffered to pass their time idly and
+   unprofitably without learning the liberal arts; for they have
+   carefully learned the Psalms and Saxon books, especially the Saxon
+   poems, and are continually in the habit of making use of books.
+
+     [Sidenote: The varied activities of the king]
+
+     [Sidenote: His devout character]
+
+   In the meantime the king, during the frequent wars and other
+   hindrances of this present life, the invasions of the pagans, and
+   his own infirmities of body, continued to carry on the government,
+   and to practice hunting in all its branches; to teach his workers
+   in gold and artificers of all kinds, his falconers, hawkers and
+   dog-keepers; to build houses, majestic and splendid, beyond all the
+   precedents of his ancestors, by his new mechanical inventions; to
+   recite the Saxon books, and especially to learn by heart the Saxon
+   poems, and to make others learn them.[271] And he alone never
+   desisted from studying most diligently to the best of his ability.
+   He attended the Mass and other daily services of religion. He was
+   diligent in psalm-singing and prayer, at the hours both of the day
+   and of the night. He also went to the churches, as we have already
+   said, in the night-time to pray, secretly and unknown to his
+   courtiers. He bestowed alms and gifts on both natives and
+   foreigners of all countries. He was affable and pleasant to all,
+   and curiously eager to investigate things unknown. Many Franks,
+   Frisians, Gauls, pagans, Britons, Scots, and Armoricans,[272] noble
+   and low-born, came voluntarily to his domain; and all of them,
+   according to their nation and deserving, were ruled, loved, honored
+   and enriched with money and power.[273] Moreover, the king was in
+   the habit of hearing the divine Scriptures read by his own
+   countrymen, or, if by any chance it so happened, in company with
+   foreigners, and he attended to it with care and solicitude. His
+   bishops, too, and all ecclesiastics, his earls and nobles,
+   ministers[274] and friends, were loved by him with wonderful
+   affection, and their sons, who were reared in the royal household,
+   were no less dear to him than his own. He had them instructed in
+   all kinds of good morals, and, among other things, never ceased to
+   teach them letters night and day.
+
+     [Sidenote: Regret at his lack of education]
+
+   But, as if he had no consolation in all these things, and though
+   he suffered no other annoyance, either from within or without, he
+   was harassed by daily and nightly affliction, so that he complained
+   to God and to all who were admitted to his intimate fondness, that
+   Almighty God had made him ignorant of divine wisdom, and of the
+   liberal arts--in this emulating the pious, the wise, and wealthy
+   Solomon, king of the Hebrews, who at first, despising all present
+   glory and riches, asked wisdom of God and found both, namely,
+   wisdom and worldly glory; as it is written: "Seek first the kingdom
+   of God and his righteousness, and all these things shall be added
+   unto you." But God, who is always the observer of the thoughts of
+   the mind within and the author of all good intentions, and a most
+   plentiful helper that good desires may be formed (for He would not
+   prompt a man to good intentions, unless He also amply supplied that
+   which the man justly and properly wishes to have) stimulated the
+   king's mind within: as it is written, "I will hearken what the Lord
+   God will say concerning me." He would avail himself of every
+   opportunity to procure co-workers in his good designs, to aid him
+   in his strivings after wisdom that he might attain to what he aimed
+   at. And, like a prudent bee, which, going forth in summer with the
+   early morning from its cell, steers its rapid flight through the
+   uncertain tracks of ether and descends on the manifold and varied
+   flowers of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, discovering that which
+   pleases most, that it may bear it home, so did he direct his eyes
+   afar and seek without that which he had not within, that is, in his
+   own kingdom.[275]
+
+     [Sidenote: Learned men from Mercia brought to the English court]
+
+   But God at that time, as some relief to the king's anxiety,
+   yielding to his complaint, sent certain lights to illuminate him,
+   namely, Werfrith, bishop of the church of Worcester, a man well
+   versed in divine Scripture, who, by the king's command, first
+   turned the books of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory and Peter, his
+   disciple, from Latin into Saxon, and sometimes putting sense for
+   sense, interpreted them with clearness and elegance. After him was
+   Plegmund,[276] a Mercian by birth, archbishop of the church of
+   Canterbury, a venerable man, and endowed with wisdom; Ethelstan
+   also,[277] and Werwulf,[278] his priests and chaplains,[279]
+   Mercians by birth and learned. These four had been invited from
+   Mercia by King Alfred, who exalted them with many honors and powers
+   in the kingdom of the West Saxons, besides the privileges which
+   Archbishop Plegmund and Bishop Werfrith enjoyed in Mercia. By their
+   teaching and wisdom the king's desires increased unceasingly, and
+   were gratified. Night and day, whenever he had leisure, he
+   commanded such men as these to read books to him, for he never
+   suffered himself to be without one of them; wherefore he possessed
+   a knowledge of every book, though of himself he could not yet
+   understand anything of books, for he had not yet learned to read
+   anything.[280]
+
+     [Sidenote: Grimbald and John brought from the continent]
+
+   But the king's commendable desire could not be gratified even in
+   this; wherefore he sent messengers beyond the sea to Gaul, to
+   procure teachers, and he invited from thence Grimbald,[281] priest
+   and monk, a venerable man and good singer, adorned with every kind
+   of ecclesiastical training and good morals, and most learned in
+   holy Scripture. He also obtained from thence John,[282] also priest
+   and monk, a man of most energetic talents, and learned in all kinds
+   of literary science, and skilled in many other arts. By the
+   teaching of these men the king's mind was much enlarged, and he
+   enriched and honored them with much influence.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred writes to Bishop Werfrith on the state of
+   learning in England]
+
+   (b)
+
+   King Alfred greets Bishop Werfrith with loving words and with
+   friendship.
+
+   I let it be known to thee that it has very often come into my mind
+   what wise men there formerly were throughout England, both within
+   the Church and without it; also what happy times there were then
+   and how the kings who had power over the nation in those days
+   obeyed God and His ministers; how they cherished peace, morality,
+   and order at home, and at the same time enlarged their territory
+   abroad; and how they prospered both in war and in wisdom. Often
+   have I thought, also, of the sacred orders, how zealous they were
+   both in teaching and learning, and in all the services they owed to
+   God; and how foreigners came to this land in search of wisdom and
+   instruction, which things we should now have to get from abroad if
+   we were to have them at all.
+
+   So general became the decay of learning in England that there were
+   very few on this side of the Humber[283] who could understand the
+   rituals[284] in English, or translate a letter from Latin into
+   English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber
+   who could do these things. There were so few, in fact, that I
+   cannot remember a single person south of the Thames when I came to
+   the throne. Thanks be to Almighty God that we now have some
+   teachers among us. And therefore I enjoin thee to free thyself, as
+   I believe thou art ready to do, from worldly matters, that thou
+   mayst apply the wisdom which God has given thee wherever thou
+   canst. Consider what punishments would come upon us if we neither
+   loved wisdom ourselves nor allowed other men to obtain it. We
+   should then care for the name only of Christian, and have regard
+   for very few of the Christian virtues.
+
+     [Sidenote: Learning in the days before the Danish invasions]
+
+   When I thought of all this I remembered also how I saw the country
+   before it had been all ravaged and burned; how the churches
+   throughout the whole of England stood filled with treasures and
+   books. There was also a great multitude of God's servants, but they
+   had very little knowledge of books, for they could not understand
+   anything in them because they were not written in their own
+   language.[285] When I remembered all this I wondered extremely that
+   the good and wise men who were formerly all over England and had
+   learned perfectly all the books, did not wish to translate them
+   into their own language. But again I soon answered myself and said:
+   "Their own desire for learning was so great that they did not
+   suppose that men would ever become so indifferent and that learning
+   would ever so decay; and they wished, moreover, that wisdom in this
+   land might increase with our knowledge of languages." Then I
+   remembered how the law was first known in Hebrew and when the
+   Greeks had learned it how they translated the whole of it into
+   their own tongue,[286] and all other books besides. And again the
+   Romans, when they had learned it, translated the whole of it into
+   their own language.[287] And also all other Christian nations
+   translated a part of it into their languages.
+
+     [Sidenote: Plan to translate Latin books into English]
+
+   Therefore it seems better to me, if you agree, for us also to
+   translate some of the books which are most needful for all men to
+   know into the language which we can all understand. It shall be
+   your duty to see to it, as can easily be done if we have
+   tranquility enough,[288] that all the free-born youth now in
+   England, who are rich enough to be able to devote themselves to it,
+   be set to learn as long as they are not fit for any other
+   occupation, until they are well able to read English writing. And
+   let those afterwards be taught more in the Latin language who are
+   to continue learning and be promoted to a higher rank.
+
+     [Sidenote: The translation of Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care]
+
+   When I remembered how the knowledge of Latin had decayed through
+   England, and yet that many could read English writing, I began,
+   among other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom, to
+   translate into English the book which is called in Latin
+   _Pastoralis_, and in English _The Shepherd's Book_, sometimes word
+   for word, and sometimes according to the sense, as I had learned it
+   from Plegmund, my archbishop, and Asser, my bishop, and Grimbald,
+   my mass-priest, and John, my mass-priest. And when I had learned
+   it, as I could best understand it and most clearly interpret it, I
+   translated it into English.
+
+   I will send a copy of this book to every bishopric in my kingdom,
+   and on each copy there shall be a clasp worth fifty mancuses.[289]
+   And I command in God's name that no man take the clasp from the
+   book, or the book from the minster.[290] It is uncertain how long
+   there may be such learned bishops as, thanks be to God, there now
+   are almost everywhere; therefore, I wish these copies always to
+   remain in their places, unless the bishop desires to take them with
+   him, or they be loaned out anywhere, or any one wishes to make a
+   copy of them.
+
+
+32. Alfred's Laws
+
+Here are a few characteristic laws included by Alfred in the code
+which he drew up on the basis of old customs and the laws of some of
+the earlier Saxon kings. On the nature of the law of the early
+Germanic peoples, see p. 59.
+
+     Source--Text in Benjamin Thorpe, _The Ancient Laws and
+     Institutes of England_ (London, 1840), pp. 20-44 _passim_.
+
+   If any one smite his neighbor with a stone, or with his fist, and
+   he nevertheless can go out with a staff, let him get him a
+   physician and do his work as long as he himself cannot.
+
+   If an ox gore a man or a woman, so that they die, let it be stoned,
+   and let not its flesh be eaten. The owner shall not be liable if
+   the ox were wont to push with its horns for two or three days
+   before, and he knew it not; but if he knew it, and would not shut
+   it in, and it then shall have slain a man or a woman, let it be
+   stoned; and let the master be slain, or the person killed be paid
+   for, as the "witan"[291] shall decree to be right.
+
+   Injure ye not the widows and the stepchildren, nor hurt them
+   anywhere; for if ye do otherwise they will cry unto me and I will
+   hear them, and I will slay you with my sword; and I will cause that
+   your own wives shall be widows, and your children shall be
+   stepchildren.
+
+   If a man strike out another's eye, let him pay sixty shillings,
+   and six shillings, and six pennies, and a third part of a penny, as
+   'bot.'[292] If it remain in the head, and he cannot see anything
+   with it, let one-third of the 'bot' be remitted.
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for various crimes of violence]
+
+   If a man strike out another's tooth in the front of his head, let
+   him make 'bot' for it with eight shillings; if it be the canine
+   tooth, let four shillings be paid as 'bot.' A man's grinder is
+   worth fifteen shillings.
+
+   If the shooting finger be struck off, the 'bot' is fifteen
+   shillings; for its nail it is four shillings.
+
+   If a man maim another's hand outwardly, let twenty shillings be
+   paid him as 'bot,' if he can be healed; if it half fly off, then
+   shall forty shillings be paid as 'bot.'
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[257] That is, Ethelred I., whom Alfred succeeded.
+
+[258] Wiltshire, on the southern coast, west of the Isle of Wight.
+
+[259] The same as the modern city of the name.
+
+[260] Mercia was one of the seven old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It lay
+east of Wales.
+
+[261] This marked a radical departure in methods of fighting the
+invaders. On the continent, and hitherto in England, there had been no
+effort to prevent the enemy from getting into the country they
+proposed to plunder. Alfred's creation of a navy was one of his wisest
+acts. Although the English had by this time grown comparatively
+unaccustomed to seafaring life they contrived to win their first naval
+encounter with the enemy.
+
+[262] In Dorsetshire.
+
+[263] Athelney was in Somersetshire, northeast of Exeter, in the
+marshes at the junction of the Tone and the Parret.
+
+[264] The modern Brixton Deverill, in Wiltshire, near Warminster.
+
+[265] In Wiltshire, a little east of Westbury. In January the Danes
+had removed from Exeter to Chippenham. Edington (or Ethandune) was
+eight miles from the camp at the latter place. The Danes were first
+defeated in an open battle at Edington, and then forced to surrender
+after a fourteen days' siege at Chippenham.
+
+[266] This so-called "Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" in 878 provided
+only for the acceptance of Christianity by the Danish leader. It is
+sometimes known as the treaty of Chippenham and is not to be confused
+with the treaty of Wedmore, of a few weeks later, by which Alfred and
+Guthrum divided the English country between them. The text of this
+second treaty will be found in Lee's _Source-Book of English History_
+(pp. 98-99), though the introductory statement there given is somewhat
+misleading. This assignment of the Danelaw to Guthrum's people may
+well be compared with the yielding of Normandy to Rollo by Charles the
+Simple in 911 [see p. 172].
+
+[267] Ethelwerd was Alfred's fifth living child.
+
+[268] This was, of course, not a school in the modern sense of the
+word. All that is meant is simply that young Ethelwerd, along with
+sons of nobles and non-nobles, received instruction from the learned
+men at the court. It had been customary before Alfred's day for the
+young princes and sons of nobles to receive training at the court, but
+not in letters.
+
+[269] This was Edward the Elder who succeeded Alfred as king and
+reigned from 901 to 925. He was Alfred's eldest son.
+
+[270] Ælfthryth was Alfred's fourth child. She became the wife of
+Baldwin II. of Flanders.
+
+[271] Among other labors in behalf of learning, Alfred made a
+collection of the ancient epics and lyrics of the Saxon people.
+Unfortunately, except in the case of the epic Beowulf, only fragments
+of these have survived. Beowulf was, so far as we know, the earliest
+of the Saxon poems, having originated before the migration to Britain,
+though it was probably put in its present form by a Christian monk of
+the eighth century.
+
+[272] Armorica was the name applied in Alfred's time to the region
+southward from the mouth of the Seine to Brittany.
+
+[273] There is a good deal of independent evidence that Alfred was
+peculiarly hospitable to foreigners. He delighted in learning from
+them about their peoples and experiences.
+
+[274] The word in the original is _ministeriales_. It is not Saxon but
+Franco-Latin and is an instance of the Frankish element in Asser's
+vocabulary. Here, as among the Franks, the _ministeriales_ were the
+officials of second-rate importance surrounding the king, the highest
+being known as the _ministri_.
+
+[275] This comparison of the gathering of learning to the operations
+of a bee in collecting honey is very common among classical writers
+and also among those of the Carolingian renaissance. It occurs in
+Lucretius, Seneca, Macrobius, Alcuin, and the poet Candidus.
+
+[276] Plegmund became archbishop of Canterbury in 890, but it is
+probable that he was with Alfred some time before his election to the
+primacy.
+
+[277] This Ethelstan was probably the person of that name who was
+consecrated bishop of Ramsbury in 909.
+
+[278] From another document it appears that Werwulf was a friend of
+Bishop Werfrith in Mercia before either took up residence at Alfred's
+court.
+
+[279] In Chap. 104 of Asser's biography the _capellani_ are described
+as supplying the king with candles, by whose burning he measured time.
+The word _capellanus_ is of pure Frankish origin and was originally
+applied to the clerks (_clerici capellani_) who were charged with the
+custody of the cope (_cappa_) of St. Martin, which was kept in the
+_capella_. From this the term _capella_ came to mean a room especially
+devoted to religious uses, that is, a chapel. It was used in this
+sense as early as 829 in Frankland. Whether by _capellanus_ Asser
+meant mere clerks, or veritable "chaplains" in the later sense, cannot
+be known, though his usage was probably the latter.
+
+[280] Chapter 87 of Asser informs us that Alfred mastered the art of
+reading in the year 887.
+
+[281] Grimbald came from the Flemish monastery of St. Bertin at St.
+Omer. He was recommended to Alfred by Fulco, archbishop of Rheims, who
+had once been abbot of St. Bertin. We do not know in what year
+Grimbald went to England, though there is some evidence that it was
+not far from 887.
+
+[282] John the Old Saxon is mentioned by Alfred as his mass-priest. It
+is probable that he came from the abbey of Corbei on the upper Weser.
+Not much is known about the man, but if he was as learned as Asser
+says he was, he must have been a welcome addition to Alfred's group of
+scholars particularly as the language which he used was very similar
+to that of the West Saxons in England.
+
+[283] That is, south of the Humber.
+
+[284] The service of the Church.
+
+[285] They were written, of course, in Latin.
+
+[286] By the middle of the third century A.D. as many as three
+different translations of the Old Testament into Greek had been
+made--those of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmochus. These eventually
+took fixed shape in the so-called Septuagint version of the Old
+Testament.
+
+[287] About the year 385 St. Jerome revised the older Latin
+translation of the New Testament and translated the Old Testament
+directly from the Hebrew. This complete version gradually superseded
+all others for the whole Latin-reading Church, being known as the
+"Vulgate," that is, the version commonly accepted. It was in the form
+of the Vulgate that the Scriptures were known to the Saxons and all
+other peoples of western Europe.
+
+[288] In other words, sufficient relief from the Danish incursions.
+
+[289] The _mancus_ was a Saxon money value equivalent to a mark.
+
+[290] A minster was a church attached to a monastery.
+
+[291] The witan was the gathering of "wisemen"--members of the royal
+family, high officials in the Church, and leading nobles--about the
+Anglo-Saxon king to assist in making ordinances and supervising the
+affairs of state.
+
+[292] Compensation rendered to an injured person.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE ORDEAL
+
+
+33. Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire
+
+Among the early Germans the settling of disputes and the testing of
+the guilt or innocence of an accused person were generally
+accomplished through the employment of one or both of two very
+interesting judicial practices--compurgation and the ordeal. According
+to the German conception of justice, when one person was accused of
+wrongdoing by another and chose to defend himself, he was not under
+obligation to prove directly that he did not commit the alleged
+misdeed; rather it was his business to produce, if he could, a
+sufficient number of persons who would take oath that they believed
+the accused to be a trustworthy man and that he was telling the truth
+when he denied that he was guilty. The persons brought forward to take
+this oath were known as compurgators, or "co-swearers," and the legal
+act thus performed was called compurgation. The number of compurgators
+required to free a man was usually from seven to twelve, though it
+varied greatly among different tribes and according to the rank of the
+parties involved. Naturally they were likely to be relatives or
+friends of the accused man, though it was not essential that they be
+such. It was in no wise expected that they be able to give facts or
+evidence regarding the case; in other words, they were not to serve at
+all as witnesses, such as are called in our courts to-day.
+
+If the accused succeeded in producing the required number of
+compurgators, and they took the oath in a satisfactory manner, the
+defendant was usually declared to be innocent and the case was
+dropped. If, however, the compurgators were not forthcoming, or there
+appeared some irregularity in their part of the procedure, resort
+would ordinarily be had to the ordeal. The ordeal was essentially an
+appeal to the gods for decision between two contending parties. It
+was based on the belief that the gods would not permit an innocent
+person to suffer by reason of an unjust accusation and that when the
+opportunity was offered under certain prescribed conditions the divine
+power would indicate who was in the right and who in the wrong. The
+ordeal, having its origin far back in the times when the Germans were
+pagans and before their settlements in the Roman Empire, was retained
+in common usage after the Christianizing and civilizing of the
+barbarian tribes. The administering of it simply passed from the old
+pagan priests to the Christian clergy, and the appeals were directed
+to the Christian's God instead of to Woden and Thor. Under Christian
+influence, the wager of battle (or personal combat to settle judicial
+questions), which had been exceedingly common, was discouraged as much
+as possible, and certain new modes of appeal to divine authority were
+introduced. Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the chief forms of the
+ordeal were: (1) the ordeal by walking through fire; (2) the ordeal by
+hot iron, in which the accused either carried a piece of hot iron a
+certain distance in his hands or walked barefoot over pieces of the
+same material; (3) the ordeal by hot water, in which the accused was
+required to plunge his bared arm into boiling water and bring forth a
+stone or other object from the bottom; (4) the ordeal by cold water,
+in which the accused was thrown, bound hand and foot, into a pond or
+stream, to sink if he were innocent, to float if he were guilty; (5)
+the ordeal of the cross, in which the accuser and accused stood with
+arms outstretched in the form of a cross until one of them could
+endure the strain of the unnatural attitude no longer; (6) the ordeal
+of the sacrament, in which the accused partook of the sacrament, the
+idea being that divine vengeance would certainly fall upon him in so
+doing if he were guilty; (7) the ordeal of the bread and cheese, in
+which the accused, made to swallow morsels of bread and cheese, was
+expected to choke if he were guilty; and (8) the judicial combat,
+which was generally reserved for freemen, and which, despite the
+opposition of the Church, did not die out until the end of the
+mediæval period.
+
+The three passages quoted below illustrate, respectively, the ordeal
+by hot water, by cold water, and by fire. The first (a) is a story
+told by the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours [see p. 46]. The
+second (b) is an explanation of the cold water ordeal written by
+Hincmar, an archbishop of Rheims in the ninth century. The third (c)
+is an account, by Raymond of Agiles, of how Peter Bartholomew was put
+to the test by the ordeal of fire. This incident occurred at Antioch
+during the first crusade. Peter Bartholomew had just discovered a
+lance which he claimed was the one thrust into the side of Christ at
+the crucifixion and, some of the crusaders being skeptical as to the
+genuineness of the relic, the discoverer was submitted to the ordeal
+by fire to test the matter.
+
+     Sources--(a) Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, _Libri
+     Miraculorum_ [Gregory of Tours, "Books of Miracles"], Chap.
+     80. Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores
+     Merovingicarum_, Vol. I., p. 542. Translated by Arthur C.
+     Howland in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV.,
+     No. 4, pp. 10-11.
+
+     (b) Hincmari Archiepiscopi Rhemensis, _De divortio Lotharii
+     regis et Tetbergæ reginæ_ [Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, "The
+     Divorce of King Lothair and Queen Teutberga"], Chap. 6. Text
+     in Migne, _Patroligiæ Cursus Completus_, Second Series, Vol.
+     CXXV., cols. 668-669. Translated by Arthur C. Howland, _ibid_.
+
+     (c) Raimundus de Agiles, _Historia Francorum qui ceperunt
+     Jerusalem_ [Raimond of Agiles, "History of the Franks who
+     captured Jerusalem"], Chap. 18. Text in Migne, _Patrologiæ
+     Cursus Completus_, Second Series, Vol. CLV., cols. 619-621.
+
+     [Sidenote: A challenge to the ordeal by hot water]
+
+     [Sidenote: Preparations for the ordeal]
+
+     [Sidenote: Result of the ordeal]
+
+   An Arian presbyter, disputing with a deacon of our religion, made
+   venomous assertions against the Son of God and the Holy Ghost, as
+   is the habit of that sect.[293] But when the deacon had discoursed
+   a long time concerning the reasonableness of our faith, and the
+   heretic, blinded by the fog of unbelief, continued to reject the
+   truth (according as it is written, "Wisdom shall not enter the
+   mind of the wicked") the former said: "Why weary ourselves with
+   long discussions? Let acts demonstrate the truth. Let a kettle be
+   heated over the fire and some one's ring be thrown into the boiling
+   water. Let him who shall take it from the heated liquid be approved
+   as a follower of the truth, and afterwards let the other party be
+   converted to the knowledge of this truth. And do thou understand, O
+   heretic, that this our party will fulfill the conditions with the
+   aid of the Holy Ghost; thou shalt confess that there is no
+   inequality, no dissimilarity, in the Holy Trinity." The heretic
+   consented to the proposition and they separated, after appointing
+   the next morning for the trial. But the fervor of faith in which
+   the deacon had first made this suggestion began to cool through the
+   instigation of the enemy [i.e., Satan]. Rising with the dawn, he
+   bathed his arm in oil and smeared it with ointment. But
+   nevertheless he made the round of the sacred places and called in
+   prayer on the Lord. What more shall I say? About the third hour
+   they met in the market place. The people came together to see the
+   show. A fire was lighted, the kettle was placed upon it, and when
+   it grew very hot the ring was thrown into the boiling water. The
+   deacon invited the heretic to take it out of the water first. But
+   he promptly refused, saying, "Thou who didst propose this trial art
+   the one to take it out." The deacon, all of a tremble, bared his
+   arm. And when the heretic presbyter saw it besmeared with ointment
+   he cried out: "With magic arts thou hast thought to protect
+   thyself, that thou hast made use of these salves, but what thou
+   hast done will not avail." While they were thus quarreling, there
+   came up a deacon from Ravenna named Iacinthus, who inquired what
+   the trouble was about. When he learned the truth, he drew his arm
+   out from under his robe at once and plunged his right hand into the
+   kettle. Now the ring that had been thrown in was a little thing and
+   very light, so that it was tossed about by the water as chaff would
+   be blown about by the wind; and, searching for it a long time, he
+   found it after about an hour. Meanwhile the flame beneath the
+   kettle blazed up mightily, so that the greater heat might make it
+   difficult for the ring to be followed by the hand; but the deacon
+   extracted it at length and suffered no harm, protesting rather that
+   at the bottom the kettle was cold while at the top it was just
+   pleasantly warm. When the heretic beheld this, he was greatly
+   confused and audaciously thrust his hand into the kettle saying,
+   "My faith will aid me." As soon as his hand had been thrust in, all
+   the flesh was boiled off the bones clear up to the elbow. And so
+   the dispute ended.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the ordeal of cold water is to be conducted]
+
+   (b)
+
+   Now the one about to be examined is bound by a rope and cast into
+   the water because, as it is written, "each one shall be holden with
+   the cords of his iniquity." And it is manifest that he is bound for
+   two reasons, namely, that he may not be able to practice any fraud
+   in connection with the judgment, and that he may be drawn out at
+   the right time if the water should receive him as innocent, so that
+   he perish not. For as we read that Lazarus, who had been dead four
+   days (by whom is signified each one buried under a load of crimes),
+   was buried wrapped in bandages and, bound by the same bands, came
+   forth from the sepulchre at the word of the Lord and was loosed by
+   the disciples at His command; so he who is to be examined by this
+   judgment is cast into the water bound, and is drawn forth again
+   bound, and is either immediately set free by the decree of the
+   judges, being purged, or remains bound until the time of his
+   purgation and is then examined by the court.... And in this ordeal
+   of cold water whoever, after the invocation of God, who is the
+   Truth, seeks to hide the truth by a lie, cannot be submerged in the
+   waters above which the voice of the Lord God has thundered; for the
+   pure nature of the water recognizes as impure, and therefore
+   rejects as inconsistent with itself, such human nature as has once
+   been regenerated by the waters of baptism and is again infected by
+   falsehood.
+
+     [Sidenote: Preparations for the ordeal by fire]
+
+   (c)
+
+   All these things were pleasing to us and, having enjoined on him a
+   fast, we declared that a fire should be prepared upon the day on
+   which the Lord was beaten with stripes and put upon the cross for
+   our salvation. And the fourth day thereafter was the day before the
+   Sabbath. So when the appointed day came round, a fire was prepared
+   after the noon hour. The leaders and the people to the number of
+   60,000 came together. The priests were there also with bare feet,
+   clothed in ecclesiastical garments. The fire was made of dry olive
+   branches, covering a space thirteen feet long; and there were two
+   piles, with a space about a foot wide between them. The height of
+   these piles was four feet. Now when the fire had been kindled so
+   that it burned fiercely, I, Raimond, in the presence of the whole
+   multitude, said: "If Omnipotent God has spoken to this man face to
+   face, and the blessed Andrew has shown him our Lord's lance while
+   he was keeping his vigil,[294] let him go through the fire
+   unharmed. But if it is false, let him be burned, together with the
+   lance, which he is to carry in his hand." And all responded on
+   bended knees, "Amen."
+
+     [Sidenote: Peter Bartholomew passes through the flames]
+
+   The fire was growing so hot that the flames shot up thirty cubits
+   high into the air and scarcely any one dared approach it. Then
+   Peter Bartholomew, clothed only in his tunic and kneeling before
+   the bishop of Albar,[295] called God to witness that "he had seen
+   Him face to face on the cross, and that he had heard from Him those
+   things above written."... Then, when the bishop had placed the
+   lance in his hand, he knelt and made the sign of the cross and
+   entered the fire with the lance, firm and unterrified. For an
+   instant's time he paused in the midst of the flames, and then by
+   the grace of God passed through.... But when Peter emerged from the
+   fire so that neither his tunic was burned nor even the thin cloth
+   with which the lance was wrapped up had shown any sign of damage,
+   the whole people received him, after he had made over them the sign
+   of the cross with the lance in his hand and had cried, "God help
+   us!" All the people, I say, threw themselves upon him and dragged
+   him to the ground and trampled on him, each one wishing to touch
+   him, or to get a piece of his garment, and each thinking him near
+   some one else. And so he received three or four wounds in the legs
+   where the flesh was torn away, his back was injured, and his sides
+   bruised. Peter had died on the spot, as we believe, had not Raimond
+   Pelet, a brave and noble soldier, broken through the wild crowd
+   with a band of friends and rescued him at the peril of their
+   lives.... After this, Peter died in peace at the hour appointed to
+   him by God, and journeyed to the Lord; and he was buried in the
+   place where he had carried the lance of the Lord through the
+   fire.[296]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[293] The principal difference between Arian and orthodox Christians
+arose out of the much discussed problem as to whether Jesus was of the
+same substance as God and co-eternal with Him. The Arians maintained
+that while Jesus was truly the Son of God, He must necessarily have
+been inferior to the Father, else there would be two gods. Arianism
+was formally condemned by the Council of Nicaea in 325, but it
+continued to be the prevalent belief in many parts of the Roman
+Empire; and when the Germans became Christians, it was Christianity of
+the Arian type (except in the case of the Franks) that they
+adopted--because it happened to be this creed that the missionaries
+carried to them. The Franks became orthodox Christians, which in part
+explains their close relations with the papacy in the earlier Middle
+Ages [see p. 50]. Of course Gregory of Tours, who relates the story of
+the Arian presbyter, as a Frank, was a hater of Arianism, and
+therefore we need not be surprised at the expressions of contempt
+which he employs in referring to "the heretic."
+
+[294] The story as told by Raimond of Agiles was that Peter
+Bartholomew had been visited by Andrew the Apostle, who had revealed
+to him the spot where the lance lay buried beneath the Church of St.
+Peter in Antioch.
+
+[295] Albar, or Albara, was a town southeast of Antioch, beyond the
+Orontes.
+
+[296] Owing to Peter's early death after undergoing the ordeal, a
+serious controversy arose as to whether he had really passed through
+it without injury from the fire. His friends ascribed his death to the
+wounds he had received from the enthusiastic crowd, but his enemies
+declared that he died from burns.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+
+34. Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism
+
+The history of the feudal system in Europe makes up a very large part
+of the history of the Middle Ages, particularly of the period between
+the ninth and the fourteenth centuries. This is true because
+feudalism, in one way or another, touched almost every phase of the
+life of western Europe during this long era. More than anything else,
+it molded the conditions of government, the character and course of
+war, the administration of justice, the tenure of land, the manner of
+everyday life, and even the relations of the Church with sovereigns
+and people. "Coming into existence," says a French historian, "in the
+obscure period that followed the dissolution of the Carolingian
+empire, the feudal régime developed slowly, without the intervention
+of a government, without the aid of a written law, without any general
+understanding among individuals; rather only by a gradual
+transformation of customs, which took place sooner or later, but in
+about the same way, in France, Italy, Christian Spain, and Germany.
+Then, toward the end of the eleventh century, it was transplanted into
+England and into southern Italy, in the twelfth and thirteenth into
+the Latin states of the East, and beginning with the fourteenth into
+the Scandinavian countries. This régime, established thus not
+according to a general plan but by a sort of natural growth, never had
+forms and usages that were everywhere the same. It is impossible to
+gather it up into a perfectly exact picture, which would not be in
+contradiction to several cases."[297]
+
+The country in which feudalism reached its fullest perfection was
+France and most of the passages here given to illustrate the subject
+have to do with French life and institutions. In France, speaking
+generally, feudalism took shape during the ninth and tenth centuries,
+developed steadily until the thirteenth, and then slowly declined,
+leaving influences on society which have not yet all disappeared. When
+the system was complete--say by the tenth century--we can see in it
+three essential elements which may be described as the personal, the
+territorial, and the governmental. The personal element, in brief, was
+the relation between lord and vassal under which the former gave
+protection in return for the latter's fidelity. The territorial
+element was the benefice, or fief, granted to the vassal by the lord
+to be used on certain conditions by the former while the title to it
+remained with the latter. The governmental element was the rights of
+jurisdiction over his fief usually given by a lord to his vassal,
+especially if the fief were an important one. At one time it was
+customary to trace back all these features of the feudal system to the
+institutions of Rome. Later it became almost as customary to trace
+them to the institutions of the early Germans. But recent scholarship
+shows that it is quite unnecessary, in fact very misleading, to
+attempt to ascribe them wholly to either Roman or German sources, or
+even to both together. All that we can say is that in the centuries
+preceding the ninth these elements all existed in the society of
+western Europe and that, while something very like them ran far back
+into old Roman and German times, they existed in sixth and seventh
+century Europe primarily because conditions were then such as to
+_demand_ their existence. Short extracts to illustrate the most
+important of these old feudal elements are given below. It should
+constantly be borne in mind that no one of these things--whether
+vassalage, the benefice, or the immunity--was in itself feudalism.
+Most of them could, and did, exist separately, and it was only when
+they were united, as commonly became the case in the ninth and tenth
+centuries, that the word feudalism can properly be brought into use,
+and then only as applied to the complete product.
+
+(1) VASSALAGE
+
+For the personal element in feudalism it is possible to find two
+prototypes, one Roman and the other German. The first was the
+institution of the later Empire known as the _patrocinium_--the
+relation established between a powerful man (patron) and a weak one
+(client) when the latter pledged himself to perform certain services
+for the former in return for protection. The second was the German
+_comitatus_--a band of young warriors who lived with a prince or noble
+and went on campaigns under his leadership. The _patrocinium_
+doubtless survived in Roman Gaul long after the time of the Frankish
+invasion, but it is not likely that the _comitatus_ ever played much
+part in that country. It seems that, with the exception of the king,
+the Frankish men of influence did not have bands of personal followers
+after the settlement on Roman soil. But, wholly aside from earlier
+practices, the conditions which the conquest, and the later struggles
+of the rival kings, brought about made it still necessary for many men
+who could not protect themselves or their property to seek the favor
+of some one who was strong enough to give them aid. The name which
+came to be applied to the act of establishing this personal relation
+was _commendation_. The man who promised the protection was the lord,
+and the man who pledged himself to serve the lord and be faithful to
+him was the _homo_, after the eighth century known as the vassal
+(_vassus_). In the eighth century, when the power of the Merovingian
+kings was ebbing away and the people were left to look out for
+themselves, large numbers entered into the vassal relation; and in the
+ninth century, when Carolingian power was likewise running low and the
+Northmen, Hungarians, and Saracens were ravaging the country, scarcely
+a free man was left who did not secure for himself the protection of a
+lord. The relation of vassalage was first recognized as legal in the
+capitularies of Charlemagne. Here is a Frankish formula of
+commendation dating from the seventh century--practically a blank
+application in which the names of the prospective lord and vassal
+could be inserted as required.
+
+     Source--Eugene de Rozière, _Recueil Général des Formules
+     usitées dans l'Empire des Francs du Ve au Xe siècle_
+     ["General Collection of Formulae employed in the Frankish
+     Empire from the Fifth to the Tenth Century"], Vol. I., p. 69.
+     Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in _Univ. of Pa. Translations
+     and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 3-4.
+
+   To that magnificent lord ----, I, ----. Since it is well known to
+   all how little I have wherewith to feed and clothe myself, I have
+   therefore petitioned your piety, and your good-will has decreed to
+   me, that I should hand myself over, or commend myself, to your
+   guardianship, which I have thereupon done; that is to say, in this
+   way, that you should aid and succor me, as well with food as with
+   clothing, according as I shall be able to serve you and deserve it.
+
+   And so long as I shall live I ought to provide service and honor to
+   you, compatible with my free condition;[298] and I shall not,
+   during the time of my life, have the right to withdraw from your
+   control or guardianship; but must remain during the days of my life
+   under your power or defense. Wherefore it is proper that if either
+   of us shall wish to withdraw himself from these agreements, he
+   shall pay ---- shillings to the other party, and this agreement
+   shall remain unbroken.[299]
+
+   (Wherefore it is fitting that they should make or confirm between
+   themselves two letters drawn up in the same form on this matter;
+   which they have thus done.)
+
+(2) THE BENEFICE
+
+The benefice, or grant of land to a vassal by a lord, by the Church,
+or by the king, had its origin among the Franks in what were known as
+the _precaria_ of the Church. At the time of the Frankish settlement
+in Gaul, it was quite customary for the Church to grant land to men in
+answer to _preces_ ("prayers," or requests), on condition that it
+might be recalled at any time and that the temporary holder should be
+unable to enforce any claims as against the owner. For the use of such
+land a small rent in money, in produce, or in service was usually
+paid. This form of tenure among the Franks was at first restricted to
+church lands, but by the eighth century lay owners, even the king
+himself, had come to employ it. The term _precarium_ dropped out of
+use and all such grants, by whomsoever made, came to be known as
+benefices ("benefits," or "favors"). The ordinary vassal might or
+might not once have had land in his own name, but if he had such he
+was expected to give over the ownership of it to his lord and receive
+it back as a benefice to be used on certain prescribed conditions. In
+time it became common, too, for lords to grant benefices out of their
+own lands to landless vassals. A man could be a vassal without having
+a benefice, but rarely, at least after the eighth century, could he
+have a benefice without entering into the obligations of vassalage.
+Benefices were at first granted by the Church with the understanding
+that they might be recalled at any time; later they were granted by
+Church, kings, and seigniors for life, or for a certain term of years;
+and finally, in the ninth and tenth centuries, they came generally to
+be regarded as hereditary. By the time the hereditary principle had
+been established, the name "fief" (_feodum_, _feudum_--whence our word
+feudal) had supplanted the older term "benefice." The tendency of the
+personal element of vassalage and the territorial element of the
+benefice, or fief, to merge was very strong, and by the tenth century
+nearly every vassal was also a fief-holder. The following formulæ
+belong to the seventh century. The first (a) is for the grant of lands
+to a church or monastery; the second (b) for their return to the
+grantor as a _precarium_--or what was known a century later as a
+benefice.
+
+     Source--Eugène de Rozière, _Recueil Général des Formules_,
+     Vol. I., p. 473. Translated by E. P. Cheyney in _Univ. of Pa.
+     Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 6-8.
+
+     [Sidenote: Description of property yielded to a church or
+   monastery]
+
+     [Sidenote: Terms of the contract]
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalty for faithlessness]
+
+   (a)
+
+   I, ----, in the name of God. I have settled in my mind that I
+   ought, for the good of my soul, to make a gift of something from my
+   possessions, which I have therefore done. And this is what I hand
+   over, in the district named ----, in the place of which the name is
+   ----, all those possessions of mine which there my father left me
+   at his death, and which, as against my brothers, or as against my
+   co-heirs, the lot legitimately brought me in the division,[300] or
+   those which I was able afterward to add to them in any way, in
+   their whole completeness, that is to say, the courtyard with its
+   buildings, with slaves, houses, lands (cultivated and
+   uncultivated), meadows, woods, waters, mills, etc. These, as I have
+   said before, with all the things adjacent or belonging to them, I
+   hand over to the church, which was built in honor of Saint ----, to
+   the monastery which is called ----, where the Abbot ---- is
+   acknowledged to rule regularly over God's flock. On these
+   conditions: that so long as life remains in my body, I shall
+   receive from you as a benefice for usufruct the possessions above
+   described, and the due payment I will make to you and your
+   successors each year, that is ---- [amount named]. And my son shall
+   have the same possessions for the days of his life, and shall make
+   the above-named payment; and if my children should survive me, they
+   shall have the same possessions during the days of their lives and
+   shall make the same payment; and if God shall give me a son from a
+   legitimate wife, he shall have the same possessions for the days of
+   his life only, after the death of whom the same possessions, with
+   all their improvements, shall return to your hands to be held
+   forever; and if it should be my chance to beget sons from a
+   legitimate marriage, these shall hold the same possessions after my
+   death, making the above-named payment, during the time of their
+   lives. If not, however, after my death, without subterfuge of any
+   kind, by right of your authority, the same possessions shall revert
+   to you, to be retained forever. If any one, however (which I do not
+   believe will ever occur)--if I myself, or any other person--shall
+   wish to violate the firmness and validity of this grant, the order
+   of truth opposing him, may his falsity in no degree succeed; and
+   for his bold attempt may he pay to the aforesaid monastery double
+   the amount which his ill-ordered cupidity has been prevented from
+   abstracting; and moreover let him be indebted to the royal
+   authority for ---- solidi of gold; and, nevertheless, let the
+   present charter remain inviolate with all that it contains, with
+   the witnesses placed below.
+
+   Done in ----, publicly, those who are noted below being present, or
+   the remaining innumerable multitude of people.
+
+     [Sidenote: The property again described]
+
+     [Sidenote: Returned to the original owner to be used by him]
+
+   (b)
+
+   In the name of God, I, Abbot ----, with our commissioned brethren.
+   Since it is not unknown how you, ----, by the suggestion of divine
+   exhortation, did grant to ---- [monastery named], to the church
+   which is known to be constructed in honor of Saint ----, where we
+   by God's authority exercise our pastoral care, all your possessions
+   which you seemed to have in the district named, in the vill
+   [village] named, which your father on his death bequeathed to you
+   there, or which by your own labor you were able to gain there, or
+   which, as against your brother or against ----, a co-heir, a just
+   division gave you, with courtyard and buildings, gardens and
+   orchards, with various slaves, ---- by name, houses, lands,
+   meadows, woods (cultivated and uncultivated), or with all the
+   dependencies and appurtenances belonging to it, which it would be
+   extremely long to enumerate, in all their completeness; but
+   afterwards, at your request, it has seemed proper to us to cede to
+   you the same possessions to be held for usufruct; and you will not
+   neglect to pay at annual periods the due _census_ [i.e., the
+   rental] hence, that is ---- [amount named]. And if God should give
+   you a son by your legal wife, he shall have the same possessions
+   for the days of his life only, and shall not presume to neglect the
+   above payment, and similarly your sons which you are seen to have
+   at present, shall do for the days of their lives; after the death
+   of whom, all the possessions above-named shall revert to us and
+   our successors perpetually. Moreover, if no sons shall have been
+   begotten by you, immediately after your death, without any harmful
+   contention, the possessions shall revert to the rulers or guardians
+   of the above-named church, forever. Nor may any one, either
+   ourselves or our successors, be successful in a rash attempt
+   inordinately to destroy these agreements, but just as the time has
+   demanded in the present _precaria_, may that be sure to endure
+   unchanged which we, with the consent of our brothers, have decided
+   to confirm.
+
+   Done in ----, in the presence of ---- and of others whom it is not
+   worth while to enumerate. [Seal of the same abbot who has ordered
+   this _precaria_ to be made.]
+
+(3) THE IMMUNITY
+
+The most important element in the governmental phase of feudalism was
+what was known as the immunity. In Roman law immunity meant exemption
+from taxes and public services and belonged especially to the lands
+owned personally by the emperors. Such exemptions were, however,
+sometimes allowed to the lands of imperial officers and of men in
+certain professions, and in later times to the lands held by the
+Church. How closely this Roman immunity was connected with the feudal
+immunity of the Middle Ages is not clear. Doubtless the institution
+survived in Gaul, especially on church lands, long after the Frankish
+conquest. It is best, however, to look upon the typical Frankish
+immunity as of essentially independent origin. From the time of
+Clovis, the kings were accustomed to make grants of the sort to
+land-holding abbots and bishops, and by the time of Charlemagne nearly
+all such prelates had been thus favored. But such grants were not
+confined to ecclesiastics. Even in the seventh and eighth centuries
+lay holders of royal benefices often received the privileges of the
+immunity also. Speaking generally, the immunity exempted the lands to
+which it applied from the jurisdiction of the local royal officials,
+especially of the counts. The lands were supposed to be none the less
+ultimately subject to the royal authority, but by the grant of
+immunity the sovereign took their financial and judicial
+administration from the counts, who would ordinarily have charge, and
+gave it to the holders of the lands. The counts were forbidden to
+enter the specified territories to collect taxes or fines, hold
+courts, and sometimes even to arrange for military service. The
+layman, or the bishop, or the abbot, who held the lands performed
+these services and was responsible only to the crown for them. The
+king's chief object in granting the immunity was to reward or win the
+support of the grantees and to curtail the authority of his local
+representatives, who in many cases threatened to become too powerful
+for the good of the state; but by every such grant the sovereign
+really lost some of his own power, and this practice came to be in no
+small measure responsible for the weakness of monarchy in feudal
+times.
+
+The first of the extracts below (a) is a seventh-century formula for
+the grant of an immunity by the king to a bishop. The second (b) is a
+grant made by Charlemagne, in 779, confirming an old immunity enjoyed
+by the monastery at Châlons-sur-Saône.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Legum
+     Sectio V., Formulæ_, Part I., pp. 43-44.
+
+     (b) Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_ (Pertz ed.),
+     Vol. II., p. 287. Adapted from translation in Ephraim Emerton,
+     _Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_ (new ed.,
+     Boston, 1903), p. 246.
+
+     [Sidenote: A formula for a grant of immunity]
+
+   (a)
+
+   We believe that we give our royal authority its full splendor if,
+   with benevolent intentions, we bestow upon churches--or upon any
+   persons--the favors which they merit, and if, with the aid of God,
+   we give a written assurance of the continuance of these favors. We
+   wish, then, to make known that at the request of a prelate, lord of
+   ---- [the estate named] and bishop of ---- [the church named], we
+   have accorded to him, for the sake of our eternal salvation, the
+   following benefits: that in the domains of the bishop's church,
+   both those which it possesses to-day and those which by God's grace
+   it may later acquire, no public official shall be permitted to
+   enter, either to hold courts or to exact fines, on any account; but
+   let these prerogatives be vested in full in the bishop and his
+   successors. We ordain therefore that neither you nor your
+   subordinates,[301] nor those who come after you, nor any person
+   endowed with a public office, shall ever enter the domains of that
+   church, in whatever part of our kingdom they may be situated,
+   either to hold trials or to collect fines. All the taxes and other
+   revenues which the royal treasury has a right to demand from the
+   people on the lands of the said church, whether they be freemen or
+   slaves, Romans or barbarians, we now bestow on the said church for
+   our future salvation, to be used by the officials of the church
+   forever for the best interests of the church.
+
+   (b)
+
+   Charles, by the grace of God King of the Franks and Lombards and
+   Patrician of the Romans, to all having charge of our affairs, both
+   present and to come:
+
+   By the help of the Lord, who has raised us to the throne of this
+   kingdom, it is the chief duty of our clemency to lend a gracious
+   ear to the need of all, and especially ought we devoutly to regard
+   that which we are persuaded has been granted by preceding kings to
+   church foundations for the saving of souls, and not to deny fitting
+   benefits, in order that we may deserve to be partakers of the
+   reward, but to confirm them in still greater security.
+
+     [Sidenote: The old immunity enjoyed by the monastery at Châlons]
+
+   Now the illustrious Hubert, bishop and ruler of the church of St.
+   Marcellus, which lies below the citadel of Châlons,[302] where the
+   precious martyr of the Lord himself rests in the body, has brought
+   it to the attention of our Highness that the kings who preceded us,
+   or our lord and father of blessed memory, Pepin, the preceding
+   king, had by their charters granted complete immunities to that
+   monastery, so that in the towns or on the lands belonging to it no
+   public judge, nor any one with power of hearing cases or exacting
+   fines, or raising sureties, or obtaining lodging or entertainment,
+   or making requisitions of any kind, should enter.
+
+   Moreover, the aforesaid bishop, Hubert, has presented the original
+   charters of former kings, together with the confirmations of them,
+   to be read by us, and declares the same favors to be preserved to
+   the present day; but desiring the confirmation of our clemency, he
+   prays that our authority may confirm this grant anew to the
+   monastery.
+
+     [Sidenote: =The immunity confirmed=]
+
+   Wherefore, having inspected the said charters of former kings, we
+   command that neither you, nor your subordinates, nor your
+   successors, nor any person having judicial powers, shall presume to
+   enter into the villages which may at the present time be in
+   possession of that monastery, or which hereafter may have been
+   bestowed by God-fearing men [or may be about to be so
+   bestowed].[303] Let no public officer enter for the hearing of
+   cases, or for exacting fines, or procuring sureties, or obtaining
+   lodging or entertainment, or making any requisitions; but in full
+   immunity, even as the favor of former kings has been continued down
+   to the present day, so in the future also shall it, through our
+   authority, remain undiminished. And if in times past, through any
+   negligence of abbots, or luke-warmness of rulers, or the
+   presumption of public officers, anything has been changed or taken
+   away, removed or withdrawn, from these immunities, let it, by our
+   authority and favor, be restored. And, further, let neither you nor
+   your subordinates presume to infringe upon or violate what we have
+   granted.
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for its violation]
+
+   But if there be any one, _dominus_,[304] _comes_ [count],
+   _domesticus_,[305] _vicarius_,[306] or one vested with any judicial
+   power whatsoever, by the indulgence of the good or by the favor of
+   pious Christians or kings, who shall have presumed to infringe upon
+   or violate these immunities, let him be punished with a fine of six
+   hundred _solidi_,[307] two parts to go to the library of this
+   monastery, and the third part to be paid into our treasury, so that
+   impious men may not rejoice in violating that which our ancestors,
+   or good Christians, may have conceded or granted. And whatever our
+   treasury may have had a right to expect from this source shall go
+   to the profit of the men of this church of St. Marcellus the
+   martyr, to the better establishment of our kingdom and the good of
+   those who shall succeed us.
+
+   And that this decree may firmly endure we have ordered it to be
+   confirmed with our own hand under our seal.
+
+
+35. The Granting of Fiefs
+
+The most obvious feature of feudalism was a peculiar divided tenure of
+land under which the title was vested in one person and the use in
+another. The territorial unit was the fief, which in extent might be
+but a few acres, a whole county, or even a vast region like Normandy
+or Burgundy. Fiefs were granted to vassals by contracts which bound
+both grantor and grantee to certain specific obligations. The two
+extracts below are examples of the records of such feudal grants,
+bearing the dates 1167 and 1200 respectively. It should be remembered,
+however, that fiefs need not necessarily be land. Offices, payments of
+money, rights to collect tolls, and many other valuable things might
+be given by one man to another as fiefs in just the same way that land
+was given. Du Cange, in his _Glossarium Mediæ et Infimæ Latinitatis_,
+mentions eighty-eight different kinds of fiefs, and it has been said
+that this does not represent more than one-fourth of the total number.
+Nevertheless, the typical fief consisted of land. The term might
+therefore be defined in general as the land for which the vassal, or
+hereditary possessor, rendered to the lord, or hereditary proprietor,
+services of a special character which were considered honorable, such
+as military aid and attendance at courts.
+
+     Sources--(a) Nicolas Brussel, _Nouvel Examen de l'Usage
+     général des Fiefs en France pendant le XI, le XII, le XIII, et
+     le XIVe Siècle_ ["New Examination of the Customs of Fiefs in
+     the 11th, the 12th, the 13th, and the 14th Century"], Paris,
+     1727, Vol. I., p. 3, note. Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in
+     _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp.
+     15-16.
+
+     (b) Maximilien Quantin, _Recueil de Pièces du XIIIe Siècle_
+     ["Collection of Documents of the Thirteenth Century"],
+     Auxerre, 1873, No. 2, pp. 1-2. Translated by Cheyney, _ibid._
+
+     [Sidenote: The count of Champagne grants a fief to the bishop of
+   Beauvais]
+
+   (a)
+
+   In the name of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, Amen. I, Louis,[308]
+   by the grace of God king of the French, make known to all present
+   as well as to come, that at Mante in our presence, Count Henry of
+   Champagne[309] conceded the fief of Savigny to Bartholomew, bishop
+   of Beauvais,[310] and his successors. And for that fief the said
+   bishop has made promise and engagement for one knight and justice
+   and service to Count Henry;[311] and he also agreed that the
+   bishops who shall come after him will do likewise. In order that
+   this may be understood and known to posterity we have caused the
+   present charter to be attested by our seal. Done at Mante, in the
+   year of the Incarnate Word, 1167; present in our palace those whose
+   names and seals are appended: seal of Thiebault, our steward; seal
+   of Guy, the butler; seal of Matthew, the chamberlain; seal of
+   Ralph, the constable. Given by the hand of Hugh, the chancellor.
+
+     [Sidenote: A grant by Count Thiebault]
+
+   (b)
+
+   I, Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes,[312] make known to those
+   present and to come that I have given in fee[313] to Jocelyn
+   d'Avalon and his heirs the manor which is called Gillencourt,[314]
+   which is of the castellanerie[315] of La Ferté-sur-Aube; and
+   whatever the same Jocelyn shall be able to acquire in the same
+   manor I have granted to him and his heirs in enlargement of that
+   fief. I have granted, moreover, to him that in no free manor of
+   mine will I retain men who are of this gift.[316] The same Jocelyn,
+   moreover, on account of this has become my liege man, saving,
+   however, his allegiance to Gerad d'Arcy, and to the lord duke of
+   Burgundy, and to Peter, count of Auxerre.[317] Done at Chouaude, by
+   my own witness, in the year of the Incarnation of our Lord 1200, in
+   the month of January. Given by the hand of Walter, my chancellor.
+
+
+36. The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty
+
+The personal relation between lord and vassal was established by the
+double ceremony of homage and fealty. Homage was the act by which the
+vassal made himself the man (_homo_) of the lord, while fealty was the
+oath of fidelity to the obligations which must ordinarily be assumed
+by such a man. The two were really distinct, though because they
+almost invariably went together they finally became confounded in the
+popular mind. The details of the ceremonies varied much in different
+times and places, but, in general, when homage was to be performed,
+the prospective vassal presented himself before his future seigneur
+bareheaded and without arms; knelt, placed his hands in those of the
+seigneur, and declared himself his man; then he was kissed by the
+seigneur and lifted to his feet. In the act of fealty, the vassal
+placed his hand upon sacred relics, or upon the Bible, and swore
+eternal faithfulness to his seigneur. The so-called "act of
+investiture" generally followed, the seigneur handing over to the
+vassal a bit of turf, a stick, or some other object symbolizing the
+transfer of the usufruct of the property in question. The whole
+process was merely a mode of establishing a binding contract between
+the two parties. Below we have: (_a_) a mediæval definition of homage,
+taken from the customary law of Normandy; (_b_) an explanation of
+fealty, given in an old English law-book; (_c_) a French chronicler's
+account of the rendering of homage and fealty to the count of Flanders
+in the year 1127; and (_d_) a set of laws governing homage and fealty,
+written down in a compilation of the ordinances of Saint Louis (king
+of France, 1226-1270), but doubtless showing substantially the
+practice in France for a long time before King Louis's day.
+
+     Sources--(a) _L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_ ["The Old
+     Custom of Normandy"], Chap. 29.
+
+     (b) Sir Thomas Lyttleton, _Treatise of Tenures in French and
+     English_ (London, 1841), Bk. II., Chap. 2, p. 123.
+
+     (c) Galbert de Bruges, _De Multro, Traditione, et Occisione
+     gloriosi Karoli comitis Flandriarum_ ["Concerning the Murder,
+     Betrayal, and Death of the glorious Charles, Count of
+     Flanders"]. Text in Henri Pirenne, _Histoire du Meurtre de
+     Charles le Bon, comte de Flandre, par Galbert de Bruges_
+     (Paris, 1891). Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in _Univ. of
+     Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, p. 18.
+
+     (d) _Les Établissements de Saint Louis_ ["The Ordinances of
+     St. Louis"], Bk. II., Chap. 19. Text in Paul Viollet's edition
+     (Paris, 1881), Vol. II., pp. 395-398.
+
+     [Sidenote: A Norman definition of homage]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Homage is a pledge to keep faith in respect to matters that are
+   right and necessary, and to give counsel and aid. He who would do
+   homage ought to place his hands between those of the man who is to
+   be his lord, and speak these words: "I become your man, to keep
+   faith with you against all others, saving my allegiance to the duke
+   of Normandy."
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of fealty]
+
+   (b)
+
+   And when a free tenant shall swear fealty to his lord, let him
+   place his right hand on the book[318] and speak thus: "Hear thou
+   this, my lord, that I will be faithful and loyal to you and will
+   keep my pledges to you for the lands which I claim to hold of you,
+   and that I will loyally perform for you the services specified, so
+   help me God and the saints." Then he shall kiss the book; but he
+   shall not kneel when he swears fealty, nor take so humble a posture
+   as is required in homage.
+
+   (c)
+
+   Through the whole remaining part of the day those who had been
+   previously enfeoffed by the most pious count Charles, did homage to
+   the count,[319] taking up now again their fiefs and offices and
+   whatever they had before rightfully and legitimately obtained. On
+   Thursday, the seventh of April, homages were again made to the
+   count, being completed in the following order of faith and
+   security:
+
+     [Sidenote: The rendering of homage and fealty to the count of
+   Flanders]
+
+   First they did their homage thus. The count asked if he was willing
+   to become completely his man, and the other replied, "I am
+   willing"; and with clasped hands, surrounded by the hands of the
+   count, they were bound together by a kiss. Secondly, he who had
+   done homage gave his fealty to the representative of the count in
+   these words, "I promise on my faith that I will in future be
+   faithful to Count William, and will observe my homage to him
+   completely, against all persons, in good faith and without deceit."
+   Thirdly, he took his oath to this upon the relics of the saints.
+   Afterwards, with a little rod which the count held in his hand, he
+   gave investitures to all who by this agreement had given their
+   security and homage and accompanying oath.
+
+     [Sidenote: An ordinance of St. Louis on homage and fealty]
+
+   (d)
+
+   If any one would hold from a lord in fee, he ought to seek his lord
+   within forty days. And if he does not do it within forty days, the
+   lord may and ought to seize his fief for default of homage, and the
+   things which are found there he should seize without compensation;
+   and yet the vassal should be obliged to pay to his lord the
+   redemption.[320] When any one wishes to enter into the fealty of a
+   lord, he ought to seek him, as we have said above, and should speak
+   as follows: "Sir, I request you, as my lord, to put me in your
+   fealty and in your homage for such and such a thing situated in
+   your fief, which I have bought." And he ought to say from what man,
+   and this one ought to be present and in the fealty of the
+   lord;[321] and whether it is by purchase or by escheat[322] or by
+   inheritance he ought to explain; and with his hands joined, to
+   speak as follows: "Sir, I become your man and promise to you fealty
+   for the future as my lord, towards all men who may live or die,
+   rendering to you such service as the fief requires, making to you
+   your relief as you are the lord." And he ought to say whether for
+   guardianship,[323] or as an escheat, or as an inheritance, or as a
+   purchase.
+
+   The lord should immediately reply to him: "And I receive you and
+   take you as my man, and give you this kiss as a sign of faith,
+   saving my right and that of others," according to the usage of the
+   various districts.
+
+
+37. The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals
+
+The feudal relation was essentially one of contract involving
+reciprocal relations between lord and vassal. In the following letter,
+written in the year 1020 by Bishop Fulbert of Chartres[324] to the
+duke of Aquitaine, we find laid down the general principles which
+ought to govern the discharge of these mutual obligations. It is
+affirmed that there were six things that no loyal vassal could do, and
+these are enumerated and explained. Then comes the significant
+statement that these negative duties must be supplemented with
+positive acts for the service and support of the lord. What some of
+these acts were will appear in the extracts in §38. Bishop Fulbert
+points out also that the lord is himself bound by feudal law not to do
+things detrimental to the safety, honor, or prosperity of his vassal.
+The letter is an admirable statement of the spirit of the feudal
+system at its best. Already by 1020 a considerable body of feudal
+customs having the force of law had come into existence and it appears
+that Fulbert had made these customs the subject of some special study
+before answering the questions addressed to him by Duke William.
+
+     Source--Text in Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des Historiens des
+     Gaules et de la France_ ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul
+     and of France"], Vol. X., p. 463.
+
+   To William, most illustrious duke of the Aquitanians, Bishop
+   Fulbert, the favor of his prayers:
+
+     [Sidenote: What the vassal owes the lord]
+
+   Requested to write something regarding the character of fealty, I
+   have set down briefly for you, on the authority of the books, the
+   following things. He who takes the oath of fealty to his lord ought
+   always to keep in mind these six things: what is harmless, safe,
+   honorable, useful, easy, and practicable.[325] _Harmless_, which
+   means that he ought not to injure his lord in his body; _safe_,
+   that he should not injure him by betraying his confidence or the
+   defenses upon which he depends for security; _honorable_, that he
+   should not injure him in his justice, or in other matters that
+   relate to his honor; _useful_, that he should not injure him in his
+   property; _easy_, that he should not make difficult that which his
+   lord can do easily; and _practicable_, that he should not make
+   impossible for the lord that which is possible.
+
+   However, while it is proper that the faithful vassal avoid these
+   injuries, it is not for doing this alone that he deserves his
+   holding: for it is not enough to refrain from wrongdoing, unless
+   that which is good is done also. It remains, therefore, that in the
+   same six things referred to above he should faithfully advise and
+   aid his lord, if he wishes to be regarded as worthy of his benefice
+   and to be safe concerning the fealty which he has sworn.
+
+     [Sidenote: The obligations of the lord]
+
+   The lord also ought to act toward his faithful vassal in the same
+   manner in all these things. And if he fails to do this, he will be
+   rightfully regarded as guilty of bad faith, just as the former, if
+   he should be found shirking, or willing to shirk, his obligations
+   would be perfidious and perjured.[326]
+
+   I should have written to you at greater length had I not been busy
+   with many other matters, including the rebuilding of our city and
+   church, which were recently completely destroyed by a terrible
+   fire. Though for a time we could not think of anything but this
+   disaster, yet now, by the hope of God's comfort, and of yours also,
+   we breathe more freely again.
+
+
+38. Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord
+
+The obligations of vassals to lords outlined in the preceding
+selection were mainly of a moral character--such as naturally grew out
+of the general idea of loyalty and fidelity to a benefactor. They were
+largely negative and were rather vague and indefinite. So far as they
+went, they were binding upon lords and vassals alike. There were,
+however, several very definite and practical rights which the lords
+possessed with respect to the property and persons of their
+dependents. Some of these were of a financial character, some were
+judicial, and others were military. Five of the most important are
+illustrated by the passages given below.
+
+(_a_) AIDS
+
+Under the feudal system the idea prevailed that the vassal's purse as
+well as his body was to be at the lord's service. Originally the right
+to draw upon his vassals for money was exercised by the lord whenever
+he desired, but by custom this ill-defined power gradually became
+limited to three sorts of occasions when the need of money was likely
+to be especially urgent, i.e., when the eldest son was knighted, when
+the eldest daughter was married, and when the lord was to be ransomed
+from captivity. In the era of the crusades, the starting of the lord
+on an expedition to the Holy Land was generally regarded as another
+emergency in which an aid might rightfully be demanded. The following
+extract from the old customary law of Normandy represents the practice
+in nearly all feudal Europe.
+
+     Source--_L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_, Chap. 35.
+
+     [Sidenote: The three aids]
+
+   In Normandy there are three chief aids. The first is to help make
+   the lord's eldest son a knight; the second is to marry his eldest
+   daughter; the third is to ransom the body of the lord from prison
+   when he shall be taken captive during a war for the duke.[327] By
+   this it appears that the _aide de chevalerie_ [knighthood-aid] is
+   due when the eldest son of the lord is made a knight. The eldest
+   son is he who has the dignity of primogeniture.[328] The _aide de
+   mariage_ [marriage-aid] is due when the eldest daughter is
+   married. The _aide de rançon_ [ransom-aid] is due when it is
+   necessary to deliver the lord from the prisons of the enemies of
+   the duke. These aids are paid in some fiefs at the rate of half a
+   relief, and in some at the rate of a third.[329]
+
+(_b_) MILITARY SERVICE
+
+From whatever point of view feudalism is regarded--whether as a system
+of land tenure, as a form of social organization, or as a type of
+government--the military element in it appears everywhere important.
+The feudal period was the greatest era of war the civilized world has
+ever known. Few people between the tenth and fourteenth centuries,
+except in the peasant classes, were able to live out their lives
+entirely in peace. Of greatest value to kings and feudal magnates,
+greater even than money itself, was a goodly following of soldiers;
+hence the almost universal requirement of military service by lords
+from their vassals. Fiefs were not infrequently granted out for no
+other purpose than to get the military service which their holders
+would owe. The amount of such service varied greatly in different
+times and places, but the following arrangement represents the most
+common practice.
+
+     Source--_Les Établissements de Saint Louis_, Bk. I., Chap. 65.
+     Text in Paul Viollet's edition (Paris, 1881), Vol. II., pp.
+     95-96.
+
+     [Sidenote: The conditions of military service]
+
+   The baron and the vassals of the king ought to appear in his army
+   when they shall be summoned, and ought to serve at their own
+   expense for forty days and forty nights, with whatever number of
+   knights they owe.[330] And he possesses the right to exact from
+   them these services when he wishes and when he has need of them.
+   If, however, the king shall wish to keep them more than forty days
+   and forty nights at their own expense, they need not remain unless
+   they desire.[331] But if he shall wish to retain them at his cost
+   for the defense of the kingdom, they ought lawfully to remain. But
+   if he shall propose to lead them outside of the kingdom, they need
+   not go unless they are willing, for they have already served their
+   forty days and forty nights.
+
+(_c_) WARDSHIP AND MARRIAGE
+
+Very important among the special prerogatives of the feudal lord was
+his right to manage, and enjoy the profits of, fiefs inherited by
+minors. When a vassal died, leaving an heir who was under age, the
+lord was charged with the care of the fief until the heir reached his
+or her majority. On becoming of age, a young man was expected to take
+control of his fief at once. But a young woman remained under wardship
+until her marriage, though if she married under age she could get
+possession of her fief immediately, just as she would had she waited
+until older. The control of the marriage of heiresses was largely in
+the hands of their lords, for obviously it was to the lord's interest
+that no enemy of his, nor any shiftless person, should become the
+husband of his ward. The lord could compel a female ward to marry and
+could oblige her to accept as a husband one of the candidates whom he
+offered her; but it was usually possible for the woman to purchase
+exemption from this phase of his jurisdiction. After the thirteenth
+century the right of wardship gradually declined in France, though it
+long continued in England. The following extract from the customs of
+Normandy sets forth the typical feudal law on the subject.
+
+     Source--_L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_, Chap. 33.
+
+   Heirs should be placed in guardianship until they reach the age of
+   twenty years; and those who hold them as wards should give over to
+   them all the fiefs which came under their control by reason of
+   wardship, provided they have not lost anything by judicial
+   process.... When the heirs pass out of the condition of wardship,
+   their lords shall not impose upon them any reliefs for their fiefs,
+   for the profits of wardship shall be reckoned in place of the
+   relief.
+
+     [Sidenote: The marriage of a female ward]
+
+   When a female ward reaches the proper age to marry, she should be
+   married by the advice and consent of her lord, and by the advice
+   and consent of her relatives and friends, according as the nobility
+   of her ancestry and the value of her fief may require; and upon her
+   marriage the fief which has been held in guardianship should be
+   given over to her. A woman cannot be freed from wardship except by
+   marriage; and let it not be said that she is of age until she is
+   twenty years old. But if she be married at the age at which it is
+   allowable for a woman to marry, the fact of her marriage makes her
+   of age and delivers her fief from wardship.
+
+     [Sidenote: The lord's obligation to care for the fief of his ward]
+
+   The fiefs of those who are under wardship should be cared for
+   attentively by their lords, who are entitled to receive the produce
+   and profits.[332] And in this connection let it be known that the
+   lord ought to preserve in their former condition the buildings, the
+   manor-houses, the forests and meadows, the gardens, the ponds, the
+   mills, the fisheries, and the other things of which he has the
+   profits. And he should not sell, destroy, or remove the woods, the
+   houses, or the trees.
+
+(_d_) RELIEFS
+
+A relief was a payment made to the lord by an heir before entering
+upon possession of his fief. The history of reliefs goes back to the
+time when benefices were not hereditary and when, if a son succeeded
+his father in the usufruct of a piece of property, it was regarded as
+an unusual thing--a special favor on the part of the owner to be paid
+for by the new tenant. Later, when fiefs had become almost everywhere
+hereditary, the custom of requiring reliefs still survived. The amount
+was at first arbitrary, being arranged by individual bargains; but in
+every community, especially in France, the tendency was toward a fixed
+custom regarding it. Below are given some brief extracts from English
+Treasury records which show how men in England between the years 1140
+and 1230 paid the king for the privilege of retaining the fiefs held
+by their fathers.
+
+     Source--Thomas Madox, _History and Antiquities of the
+     Exchequer of the Kings of England_ (London, 1769), Vol. I.,
+     pp. 312-322 _passim_.
+
+   Walter Hait renders an account of 5 marks of silver for the relief
+   of the land of his father.
+
+   Walter Brito renders an account of £66, 13s. and 4d. for the relief
+   of his land.
+
+   Richard of Estre renders an account of £15 for the relief for 3
+   knights' fees which he holds from the honor of Mortain.
+
+   Walter Fitz Thomas, of Newington, owes 28s. 4d. for having a fourth
+   part of one knight's fee which had been seized into the hand of the
+   king for default of relief.
+
+   John of Venetia renders an account of 300 marks for the fine of his
+   land and for the relief of the land which was his father's which he
+   held from the king _in capite_.[333]
+
+   John de Balliol owes £150 for the relief of 30 knights' fees which
+   Hugh de Balliol, his father, held from the king _in capite_, that
+   is 100s. for each fee.
+
+   Peter de Bruce renders an account of £100 for his relief for the
+   barony which was of Peter his father.
+
+(_e_) FORFEITURE
+
+The lord's most effective means of compelling his vassals to discharge
+their obligations was his right to take back their fiefs for breach of
+feudal contract. Such a breach, or felony, as it was technically
+called, might consist in refusal to render military service or the
+required aids, ignoring the sovereign authority of the lord, levying
+war against the lord, dishonoring members of the lord's family, or, as
+in the case below, refusing to obey the lord's summons to appear in
+court. In practice the lords generally found it difficult to enforce
+the penalty of forfeiture and after the thirteenth century the
+tendency was to substitute money fines for dispossession, except in
+the most aggravated cases. The following is an account of the
+condemnation of Arnold Atton, a nobleman of south France, by the
+feudal court of Raymond, count of Toulouse, in the year 1249. The
+penalty imposed was the loss of the valuable château of Auvillars.
+
+     Source--Teulet, _Layettes du Trésor des Cartes_ ["Bureau of
+     Treasury Accounts "], No. 3778, Vol. III., p. 70. Translated
+     by Edward P. Cheyney in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+     Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3. pp. 33-34.
+
+   Raymond, by the grace of God count of Toulouse, marquis of
+   Provence, to the nobleman Arnold Atton, viscount of Lomagne,
+   greeting:
+
+     [Sidenote: The court's sentence upon Arnold Atton]
+
+   Let it be known to your nobility by the tenor of these presents
+   what has been done in the matter of the complaints which we have
+   made about you before the court of Agen; that you have not taken
+   the trouble to keep or fulfill the agreements sworn by you to us,
+   as is more fully contained in the instrument drawn up there, sealed
+   with our seal by the public notary; and that you have refused
+   contemptuously to appear before the said court for the purpose of
+   doing justice, and have otherwise committed multiplied and great
+   delinquencies against us. As your faults have required, the
+   aforesaid court of Agen has unanimously and concordantly pronounced
+   sentence against you, and for these matters have condemned you to
+   hand over and restore to us the château of Auvillars and all that
+   land which you hold from us in fee, to be had and held by us by
+   right of the obligation by which you have bound it to us for
+   fulfilling and keeping the said agreements.
+
+   Likewise it has declared that we are to be put into possession of
+   the said land and that it is to be handed over to us, on account of
+   your contumacy, because you have not been willing to appear before
+   the same court on the days which were assigned to you. Moreover, it
+   has declared that you shall be held and required to restore the
+   said land in whatsoever way we wish to receive it, with few or
+   many, in peace or in anger, in our own person, by right of
+   lordship. Likewise it has declared that you shall restore to us all
+   the expenses which we have incurred, or the court itself has
+   incurred, on those days which were assigned to you, or because of
+   those days, and has condemned you to repay these to us.[334]
+
+   Moreover, it has declared that the nobleman Gerald d'Armagnac, whom
+   you hold captive, you shall liberate, and deliver him free to us.
+   We demand, moreover, by right of our lordship that you liberate
+   him.
+
+   We call, therefore, upon your discretion in this matter, strictly
+   enjoining you and commanding that you obey the aforesaid sentences
+   in all things and fulfill them in all respects and in no way delay
+   the execution of them.
+
+
+39. The Peace and the Truce of God
+
+War rather than peace was the normal condition of feudal society.
+Peasants were expected to settle their disputes in the courts of law,
+but lords and seigneurs possessed a legal right to make war upon their
+enemies and were usually not loath to exercise it. Private warfare was
+indeed so common that it all the time threatened seriously the lives
+and property of the masses of the people and added heavily to the
+afflictions which flood, drought, famine, and pestilence brought
+repeatedly upon them. The first determined efforts to limit, if not to
+abolish, the ravages of private war were made by the Church, partly
+because the Church itself often suffered by reason of them, partly
+because its ideal was that of peace and security, and partly because
+it recognized its duty as the protector of the poor and oppressed.
+Late in the tenth century, under the influence of the Cluniacs [see p.
+245], the clergy of France, both secular and regular, began in their
+councils to promulgate decrees which were intended to establish what
+was known as the Peace of God. These decrees, which were enacted by so
+many councils between 989 and 1050 that they came to cover pretty
+nearly all France, proclaimed generally that any one who should use
+violence toward women, peasants, merchants, or members of the clergy
+should be excommunicated. The principle was to exempt certain classes
+of people from the operations of war and violence, even though the
+rest of the population should continue to fight among themselves. It
+must be said that these decrees, though enacted again and again, had
+often little apparent effect.
+
+Effort was then made in another direction. From about 1027 the
+councils began to proclaim what was known as the Truce of God,
+sometimes alone and sometimes in connection with the Peace. The
+purport of the Truce of God was that all men should abstain from
+warfare and violence during a certain portion of each week, and during
+specified church festivals and holy seasons. At first only Sunday was
+thus designated; then other days, until the time from Wednesday night
+to Monday morning was all included; then extended periods, as Lent,
+were added, until finally not more than eighty days remained of the
+entire year on which private warfare was allowable. As one writer has
+stated it, "the Peace of God was intended to protect certain classes
+at all times and the Truce to protect all classes at certain times."
+It was equally difficult to secure the acquiescence of the lawless
+nobles in both, and though the efforts of the Church were by no means
+without result, we are to think of private warfare as continuing quite
+common until brought gradually to an end by the rise of strong
+monarchies, by the turning of men to commerce and trade, and by the
+drawing off of military energies into foreign and international wars.
+
+The decree given below, which combines features of both the Peace and
+the Truce, was issued by the Council of Toulouges (near Perpignan) in
+1041, or, as some scholars think, in 1065. Its substance was many
+times reënacted, notably by the Council of Clermont, in 1095, upon the
+occasion of the proclamation of the first Crusade. It should have
+procured about 240 days of peace in every year and reduced war to
+about 120 days, but, like the others, it was only indifferently
+observed.
+
+     Source--Text in Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des Historiens des
+     Gaules et de la France_ ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul
+     and of France"], Paris, 1876, Vol. XI., pp. 510-511.
+
+     [Sidenote: Acts of violence forbidden in or near churches]
+
+   =1.= This Peace has been confirmed by the bishops, by the abbots,
+   by the counts and viscounts and the other God-fearing nobles in
+   this bishopric, to the effect that in the future, beginning with
+   this day, no man may commit an act of violence in a church, or in
+   the space which surrounds it and which is covered by its
+   privileges, or in the burying-ground, or in the dwelling-houses
+   which are, or may be, within thirty paces of it.
+
+   =2.= We do not include in this measure the churches which have
+   been, or which shall be, fortified as châteaux, or those in which
+   plunderers and thieves are accustomed to store their ill-gotten
+   booty, or which give them a place of refuge. Nevertheless we desire
+   that such churches be under this protection until complaint of them
+   shall be made to the bishop, or to the chapter. If the bishop or
+   chapter[335] act upon such information and lay hold of the
+   malefactors, and if the latter refuse to give themselves up to the
+   justice of the bishop or chapter, the malefactors and all their
+   possessions shall not be immune, even within the church. A man who
+   breaks into a church, or into the space within thirty paces around
+   it, must pay a fine for sacrilege, and double this amount to the
+   person wronged.
+
+     [Sidenote: Attacks upon the clergy prohibited]
+
+   =3.= Furthermore, it is forbidden that any one attack the clergy,
+   who do not bear arms, or the monks and religious persons, or do
+   them any wrong; likewise it is forbidden to despoil or pillage the
+   communities of canons, monks, and religious persons, the
+   ecclesiastical lands which are under the protection of the Church,
+   or the clergy, who do not bear arms; and if any one shall do such
+   a thing, let him pay a double composition.[336]
+
+     [Sidenote: Protection extended to the peasantry]
+
+   =5.= Let no one burn or destroy the dwellings of the peasants and
+   the clergy, the dove-cotes and the granaries. Let no man dare to
+   kill, to beat, or to wound a peasant or serf, or the wife of
+   either, or to seize them and carry them off, except for
+   misdemeanors which they may have committed; but it is not forbidden
+   to lay hold of them in order to bring them to justice, and it is
+   allowable to do this even before they shall have been summoned to
+   appear. Let not the raiment of the peasants be stolen; let not
+   their ploughs, or their hoes, or their olive-fields be burned.
+
+   =6.= ... Let any one who has broken the peace, and has not paid his
+   fines within a fortnight, make amends to him whom he has injured by
+   paying a double amount, which shall go to the bishop and to the
+   count who shall have had charge of the case.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Truce of God confirmed]
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for violations of the Truce]
+
+   =7.= The bishops of whom we have spoken have solemnly confirmed the
+   Truce of God, which has been enjoined upon all Christians, from the
+   setting of the sun of the fourth day of the week, that is to say,
+   Wednesday, until the rising of the sun on Monday, the second
+   day.... If any one during the Truce shall violate it, let him pay a
+   double composition and subsequently undergo the ordeal of cold
+   water.[337] When any one during the Truce shall kill a man, it has
+   been ordained, with the approval of all Christians, that if the
+   crime was committed intentionally the murderer shall be condemned
+   to perpetual exile, but if it occurred by accident the slayer shall
+   be banished for a period of time to be fixed by the bishops and
+   the canons. If any one during the Truce shall attempt to seize a
+   man or to carry him off from his château, and does not succeed in
+   his purpose, let him pay a fine to the bishop and to the chapter,
+   just as if he had succeeded. It is likewise forbidden during the
+   Truce, in Advent and Lent, to build any château or fortification,
+   unless it was begun a fortnight before the time of the Truce. It
+   has been ordained also that at all times disputes and suits on the
+   subject of the Peace and Truce of God shall be settled before the
+   bishop and his chapter, and likewise for the peace of the churches
+   which have before been enumerated. When the bishop and the chapter
+   shall have pronounced sentences to recall men to the observance of
+   the Peace and the Truce of God, the sureties and hostages who show
+   themselves hostile to the bishop and the chapter shall be
+   excommunicated by the chapter and the bishop, with their protectors
+   and partisans, as guilty of violating the Peace and the Truce of
+   the Lord; they and their possessions shall be excluded from the
+   Peace and the Truce of the Lord.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[297] Charles Seignobos, _The Feudal Régime_ (translated in
+"Historical Miscellany" series), New York, 1904, p. 1.
+
+[298] A man was not supposed in any way to sacrifice his freedom by
+becoming a vassal and the lord's right to his service would be
+forfeited if this principle were violated.
+
+[299] The relation of lord and vassal was, at this early time, limited
+to the lifetime of the two parties. When one died, the other was
+liberated from his contract. But in the ninth and tenth centuries
+vassalage became generally hereditary.
+
+[300] Casting lots for the property of a deceased father was not
+uncommon among the Franks. All sons shared in the inheritance, but
+particular parts of the property were often assigned by lot.
+
+[301] The grant of immunity was thus brought to the attention of the
+count in whose jurisdiction the exempted lands lay.
+
+[302] Châlons-sur-Saône was about eighty miles north of the junction
+of the Saône with the Rhone. It should not be confused with
+Châlons-sur-Marne where the battle was fought with Attila's Huns in
+451.
+
+[303] There is some doubt at this point as to the correct translation.
+That given seems best warranted.
+
+[304] _Dominus_ was a common name for a lord.
+
+[305] A member of the king's official household.
+
+[306] A subordinate officer under the count [see p. 176, note 3].
+
+[307] See p. 61. note 2.
+
+[308] Louis VII., king of France, 1137-1180.
+
+[309] The county of Champagne lay to the east of Paris. It was
+established by Charlemagne and, while at first insignificant, grew
+until by the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was one of the most
+important in France.
+
+[310] Beauvais was about sixty miles northwest of Paris.
+
+[311] That is, the bishop of Beauvais was bound to furnish his lord,
+the count of Champagne, the service of one knight for his army,
+besides ordinary feudal obligations.
+
+[312] The county of Troyes centered about the city of that name on the
+upper Seine. It was eventually absorbed by Champagne.
+
+[313] As a fief.
+
+[314] A manor, in the general sense, was a feudal estate.
+
+[315] A castellanerie was a feudal holding centering about a castle.
+
+[316] That is, Count Thiebault promises Jocelyn not to deprive him of
+the services of men who rightfully belong on the manor which is being
+granted.
+
+[317] Here is an illustration of the complexity of the feudal system.
+Count Thiebault is Jocelyn's _fourth_ lord, and loyalty and service
+are owed to all of the four at the same time. Accordingly, Thiebault
+must be content with only such allegiance of his new vassal as will
+not involve a breach of the contracts which Jocelyn has already
+entered into with his other lords. For example, Thiebault could not
+expect Jocelyn to aid him in war against the duke of Burgundy, for
+Jocelyn is pledged to fidelity to that duke. In general, when a man
+had only one lord he owed him full and unconditional allegiance
+(_liege homage_), but when he became vassal to other lords he could
+promise them allegiance only so far as would not conflict with
+contracts already entered into. It was by no means unusual for a man
+to have several lords, and it often happened that A was B's vassal for
+a certain piece of land while at the same time B was A's vassal for
+another piece. Not infrequently the king himself was thus a vassal of
+one or more of his own vassals.
+
+[318] The Bible. Sometimes only the Gospels were used.
+
+[319] Charles, count of Flanders, had just died and had been succeeded
+by his son William. All persons who had received fiefs from the
+deceased count were now brought together to renew their homage and
+fealty to the new count.
+
+[320] Such a case as this would be most apt to arise when a lord died
+and a vassal failed to renew his homage to the successor; or when a
+vassal died and his heir failed to do homage as was required.
+
+[321] This law would apply also to a case where a man who is already a
+vassal of a lord should acquire from another vassal of the same lord
+some additional land and so become indebted to the lord for a new
+measure of fealty.
+
+[322] Reversion to the original proprietor because of failure of
+heirs.
+
+[323] Such land might be acquired for temporary use only i.e., for
+guardianship, during the absence or disability of its proprietor.
+
+[324] Chartres was somewhat less than twenty miles southwest of Paris.
+
+[325] The terms used in the original are _incolume_, _tutum_,
+_honestum_, _utile_, _facile_, _et possibile_.
+
+[326] In the English customary law of the twelfth century we read
+that, "it is allowable to any one, without punishment, to support his
+lord if any one assails him, and to obey him in all legitimate ways,
+except in theft, murder, and in all such things as are not conceded to
+any one to do and are reckoned infamous by the laws;" also that, "the
+lord ought to do likewise equally with counsel and aid, and he may
+come to his man's assistance in his vicissitudes in all
+ways."--Thorpe, _Ancient Laws and Institutes_, Vol. I., p. 590.
+
+[327] The duke of Normandy. Outside of Normandy, of course, other
+feudal princes would be substituted.
+
+[328] It was the feudal system that first gave the eldest son in
+France a real superiority over his brothers. This may be seen most
+clearly in the change wrought by feudalism whereby the old Frankish
+custom of allowing all the sons to inherit their father's property
+equally was replaced by the mediæval rule of primogeniture
+(established by the eleventh century) under which the younger sons
+were entirely, or almost entirely, excluded from the inheritance.
+
+[329] Relief is the term used to designate the payment made to the
+lord by the son of the deceased vassal before taking up the
+inheritance [see p. 225]. The "custom" says that sometimes the amount
+paid as an aid to the lord was equal to half that paid as relief and
+sometimes it was only a third.
+
+[330] The number of men brought by a vassal to the royal army depended
+on the value of his fief and the character of his feudal contract.
+Greater vassals often appeared with hundreds of followers.
+
+[331] This provision rendered the ordinary feudal army much more
+inefficient than an army made up of paid soldiers. Under ordinary
+circumstances, when their forty days of service had expired, the
+feudal troops were free to go home, even though their doing so might
+force the king to abandon a siege or give up a costly campaign only
+partially completed. By the thirteenth century it had become customary
+for the king to accept extra money payments instead of military
+service from his vassals. With the revenues thus obtained, soldiers
+could be hired who made war their profession and who were willing to
+serve indefinitely.
+
+[332] Every fief-holder was supposed to render some measure of
+military service. As neither a minor nor a woman could do this
+personally, it was natural that the lord should make up for the
+deficiency by appropriating the produce of the estate during the
+period of wardship.
+
+[333] Tenants _in capite_ in England were those who held their land by
+direct royal grant.
+
+[334] Apparently the king's court had been assembled several times to
+consider the charges against Viscount Atton, but had been prevented
+from taking action because of the latter's failure to appear. At last
+the court decided that it was useless to delay longer and proceeded to
+condemn the guilty noble and send him a statement of what had been
+done. He was not only to lose his château of Auvillars but also to
+reimburse the king for the expenses which the court had incurred on
+his account.
+
+[335] The chapter was the body of clergy attached to a cathedral
+church. Its members were known as canons.
+
+[336] That is, the penalty for using violence against peaceful
+churchmen, or despoiling their property was to be twice that demanded
+by the law in case of similar offenses committed against laymen.
+
+[337] The ordeal of cold water was designed to test a man's guilt or
+innocence. The accused person was thrown into a pond and if he sank he
+was considered innocent; if he floated, guilty, on the supposition
+that the pure water would refuse to receive a person tainted with
+crime [see p. 200].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE NORMAN CONQUEST
+
+
+40. The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans
+
+The Northmen, under the leadership of the renowned Rollo, got their
+first permanent foothold in that important part of France since known
+as Normandy in the year 911 [see p. 171]. Almost from the beginning
+the new county (later duchy) increased rapidly both in territorial
+extent and in political influence. The Northmen, or Normans, were a
+vigorous, ambitious, and on the whole very capable people, and they
+needed only the polishing which peaceful contact with the French could
+give to make them one of the most virile elements in the population of
+western Europe. They gave up their old gods and accepted Christianity,
+ceased to speak their own language and began the use of French, and to
+a considerable extent became ordinary soldiers and traders instead of
+the wild pirates their forefathers had been. The spirit of unrest,
+however, and the love of adventure so deeply ingrained in their
+natures did not die out, and we need not be surprised to learn that
+they continued still to enjoy nothing quite so much as war, especially
+if it involved hazardous expeditions across seas. Some went to help
+the Christians of Spain against the Saracens; some went to aid the
+Eastern emperors against the Turks; others went to Sicily and southern
+Italy, where they conquered weak rulers and set up principalities of
+their own; and finally, under the leadership of Duke William the
+Bastard, in 1066, they entered upon the greatest undertaking of all,
+i.e., the conquest of England and the establishment of a Norman
+chieftain upon the throne of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom.
+
+Duke William was one of the greatest and most ambitious feudal lords
+of France--more powerful really than the French king himself. He had
+overcome practically all opposition among his unruly vassals in
+Normandy, and by 1066, when the death of King Edward the Confessor
+occurred in England, he was ready to engage in great enterprises
+which gave promise of enhanced power and renown. He had long cherished
+a claim to the English throne, and when he learned that in utter
+disregard of this claim the English witan had chosen Harold, son of
+the West Saxon Earl Godwin, to be Edward's successor, he prepared to
+invade the island kingdom and force an acknowledgment of what he
+pretended at least to believe were his rights. Briefly stated, William
+claimed the English throne on the ground (1) that through his wife
+Matilda, a descendant of Emma, Edward the Confessor's mother, he was a
+nearer heir than was Harold, who was only the late king's
+brother-in-law; (2) that on the occasion of a visit to England in 1051
+Edward had promised him the inheritance; and (3) that Harold himself,
+when some years before he had been shipwrecked on the coast of
+Normandy, had sworn on sacred relics to help him gain the crown. There
+is some doubt as to the actual facts in connection with both of these
+last two points, but the truth is that all of William's claims taken
+together were not worth much, since the recognized principle of the
+English government was that the king should be chosen by the wisemen,
+or witan. Harold had been so chosen and hence was in every way the
+legitimate sovereign.
+
+William, however, was determined to press his claims and, after
+obtaining the blessing of the Pope (Alexander II.), he gathered an
+army of perhaps 65,000 Normans and adventurers from all parts of
+France and prepared a fleet of some 1,500 transports at the mouth of
+the Dive to carry his troops across the Channel. September 28, 1066,
+the start was made and the following day the host landed at Pevensey
+in Sussex. Friday, the 29th, Hastings was selected and fortified to
+serve as headquarters. The English were taken at great disadvantage.
+Only two days before the Normans crossed the Channel Harold with all
+the troops he could muster had been engaged in a great battle at
+Stamford Bridge, in Northumberland, with Harold Hardrada, king of
+Norway, who was making an independent invasion. The English had won
+the fight, but they were not in a position to meet the Normans as they
+might otherwise have been. With admirable energy, however, Harold
+marched his weary army southward to Senlac, a hill near the town of
+Hastings, and there took up his position to await an attack by the
+duke's army. The battle came on Saturday, October 14, and after a very
+stubborn contest, in which Harold was slain, it resulted in a
+decisive victory for the Normans. Thereafter the conquest of the
+entire kingdom, while by no means easy, was inevitable.
+
+William of Malmesbury, from whose _Chronicle of the Kings of England_
+our account of the battle and of the two contending peoples is taken,
+was a Benedictine monk, born of a Norman father and an English mother.
+He lived about 1095-1150 and hence wrote somewhat over half a century
+after the Conquest. While thus not strictly a contemporary, he was a
+man of learning and discretion and there is every reason to believe
+that he made his history as accurate as he was able, with the
+materials at his command. His parentage must have enabled him to
+understand both combatants in an unusual degree and, though his
+sympathies were with the conquerors, we may take his characterizations
+of Saxon and Norman alike to be at least fairly reliable. His
+_Chronicle_ covers the period 449-1135, and for the years after 1066
+it is the fullest, most carefully written, and most readable account
+of English affairs that we have.
+
+     Source--Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, _De gestis regum
+     Anglorum_ [William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the Kings of
+     England"], Bk. III. Adapted from translation by John Sharpe
+     (London, 1815), pp. 317-323.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the English prepared for battle]
+
+   The courageous leaders mutually prepared for battle, each according
+   to his national custom. The English passed the night[338] without
+   sleep, in drinking and singing, and in the morning proceeded
+   without delay against the enemy. All on foot, armed with
+   battle-axes, and covering themselves in front by joining their
+   shields, they formed an impenetrable body which would assuredly
+   have secured their safety that day had not the Normans, by a
+   pretended flight, induced them to open their ranks, which until
+   that time, according to their custom, had been closely knit
+   together. King Harold himself, on foot, stood with his brothers
+   near the standard in order that, so long as all shared equal
+   danger, none could think of retreating. This same standard William
+   sent, after his victory, to the Pope. It was richly embroidered
+   with gold and precious stones, and represented the figure of a man
+   fighting.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the Normans prepared]
+
+   On the other hand, the Normans passed the whole night in confessing
+   their sins, and received the communion of the Lord's body in the
+   morning. Their infantry, with bows and arrows, formed the vanguard,
+   while their cavalry, divided into wings, was placed in the rear.
+   The duke, with serene countenance, declaring aloud that God would
+   favor his as being the righteous side, called for his arms; and
+   when, through the haste of his attendants, he had put on his
+   hauberk[339] the rear part before, he corrected the mistake with a
+   laugh, saying, "The power of my dukedom shall be turned into a
+   kingdom." Then starting the song of Roland,[340] in order that the
+   warlike example of that hero might stimulate the soldiers, and
+   calling on God for assistance, the battle commenced on both sides,
+   and was fought with great ardor, neither side yielding ground
+   during the greater part of the day.
+
+     [Sidenote: William's strategem]
+
+   Observing this, William gave a signal to his troops, that,
+   pretending flight, they should withdraw from the field.[341] By
+   means of this device the solid phalanx of the English opened for
+   the purpose of cutting down the fleeing enemy and thus brought upon
+   itself swift destruction; for the Normans, facing about, attacked
+   them, thus disordered, and compelled them to fly. In this manner,
+   deceived by stratagem, they met an honorable death in avenging
+   their country; nor indeed were they at all without their own
+   revenge, for, by frequently making a stand, they slaughtered their
+   pursuers in heaps. Getting possession of a higher bit of ground,
+   they drove back the Normans, who in the heat of pursuit were
+   struggling up the slope, into the valley beneath, where, by hurling
+   their javelins and rolling down stones on them as they stood below,
+   the English easily destroyed them to a man. Besides, by a short
+   passage with which they were acquainted, they avoided a deep ditch
+   and trod underfoot such a multitude of their enemies in that place
+   that the heaps of bodies made the hollow level with the plain. This
+   alternating victory, first of one side and then of the other,
+   continued as long as Harold lived to check the retreat; but when he
+   fell, his brain pierced by an arrow, the flight of the English
+   ceased not until night.[342]
+
+     [Sidenote: The valor of Harold]
+
+   In the battle both leaders distinguished themselves by their
+   bravery. Harold, not content with the duties of a general and with
+   exhorting others, eagerly assumed himself the work of a common
+   soldier. He was constantly striking down the enemy at close
+   quarters, so that no one could approach him with impunity, for
+   straightway both horse and rider would be felled by a single blow.
+   So it was at long range, as I have said, that the enemy's deadly
+   arrow brought him to his death. One of the Norman soldiers gashed
+   his thigh with a sword, as he lay prostrate; for which shameful and
+   cowardly action he was branded with ignominy by William and
+   expelled from the army.
+
+     [Sidenote: William's bravery and ardor]
+
+   William, too, was equally ready to encourage his soldiers by his
+   voice and by his presence, and to be the first to rush forward to
+   attack the thickest of the foe. He was everywhere fierce and
+   furious. He lost three choice horses, which were that day killed
+   under him. The dauntless spirit and vigor of the intrepid general,
+   however, still held out. Though often called back by the thoughtful
+   remonstrance of his bodyguard, he still persisted until approaching
+   night crowned him with complete victory. And no doubt the hand of
+   God so protected him that the enemy could draw no blood from his
+   person, though they aimed so many javelins at him.
+
+   This was a fatal day to England, and melancholy havoc was wrought
+   in our dear country during the change of its lords.[343] For it had
+   long before adopted the manners of the Angles, which had indeed
+   altered with the times; for in the first years of their arrival
+   they were barbarians in their look and manner, warlike in their
+   usages, heathen in their rites.
+
+     [Sidenote: Religious zeal of the Saxons before the Conquest]
+
+   After embracing the faith of Christ, by degrees and, in process of
+   time, in consequence of the peace which they enjoyed, they
+   consigned warfare to a secondary place and gave their whole
+   attention to religion. I am not speaking of the poor, the meanness
+   of whose fortune often restrains them from overstepping the bounds
+   of justice; I omit, too, men of ecclesiastical rank, whom sometimes
+   respect for their profession and sometimes the fear of shame
+   suffers not to deviate from the true path; I speak of princes, who
+   from the greatness of their power might have full liberty to
+   indulge in pleasure. Some of these in their own country, and others
+   at Rome, changing their habit, obtained a heavenly kingdom and a
+   saintly fellowship. Many others during their whole lives devoted
+   themselves in outward appearance to worldly affairs, but in order
+   that they might expend their treasures on the poor or divide them
+   amongst monasteries.
+
+   What shall I say of the multitudes of bishops, hermits, and abbots?
+   Does not the whole island blaze with such numerous relics of its
+   own people that you can scarcely pass a village of any consequence
+   without hearing the name of some new saint? And of how many more
+   has all remembrance perished through the want of records?
+
+     [Sidenote: Recent decline of learning and religion]
+
+   Nevertheless, the attention to literature and religion had
+   gradually decreased for several years before the arrival of the
+   Normans. The clergy, contented with a little confused learning,
+   could scarcely stammer out the words of the sacraments; and a
+   person who understood grammar was an object of wonder and
+   astonishment.[344] The monks mocked the rule of their order by fine
+   vestments and the use of every kind of food. The nobility, given up
+   to luxury and wantonness, went not to church in the morning after
+   the manner of Christians, but merely, in a careless manner, heard
+   matins and masses from a hurrying priest in their chambers, amid
+   the blandishments of their wives. The community, left unprotected,
+   became a prey to the most powerful, who amassed fortunes, either by
+   seizing on their property or by selling their persons into foreign
+   countries; although it is characteristic of this people to be more
+   inclined to reveling than to the accumulation of wealth.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English people described]
+
+   Drinking in parties was an universal practice, in which occupation
+   they passed entire nights as well as days. They consumed their
+   whole substance in mean and despicable houses, unlike the Normans
+   and French, who live frugally in noble and splendid mansions. The
+   vices attendant on drunkenness, which enervate the human mind,
+   followed; hence it came about that when they resisted William, with
+   more rashness and precipitate fury than military skill, they doomed
+   themselves and their country to slavery by a single, and that an
+   easy, victory.[345] For nothing is less effective than rashness;
+   and what begins with violence quickly ceases or is repelled. The
+   English at that time wore short garments, reaching to the mid-knee;
+   they had their hair cropped, their beards shaven, their arms laden
+   with golden bracelets, their skin adorned with tattooed designs.
+   They were accustomed to eat until they became surfeited, and to
+   drink until they were sick. These latter qualities they imparted to
+   their conquerors; as for the rest, they adopted their manners. I
+   would not, however, have these bad characteristics ascribed to the
+   English universally; I know that many of the clergy at that day
+   trod the path of sanctity by a blameless life. I know that many of
+   the laity, of all ranks and conditions, in this nation were
+   well-pleasing to God. Be injustice far from this account; the
+   accusation does not involve the whole, indiscriminately. But as in
+   peace the mercy of God often cherishes the bad and the good
+   together, so, equally, does His severity sometimes include them
+   both in captivity.
+
+     [Sidenote: A description of the Normans]
+
+   The Normans--that I may speak of them also--were at that time, and
+   are even now, exceedingly particular in their dress and delicate in
+   their food, but not so to excess. They are a race accustomed to
+   war, and can hardly live without it; fierce in rushing against the
+   enemy, and, where force fails to succeed, ready to use stratagem or
+   to corrupt by bribery. As I have said, they live in spacious houses
+   with economy, envy their superiors, wish to excel their equals, and
+   plunder their subjects, though they defend them from others; they
+   are faithful to their lords, though a slight offense alienates
+   them. They weigh treachery by its chance of success, and change
+   their sentiments for money. The most hospitable, however, of all
+   nations, they esteem strangers worthy of equal honor with
+   themselves; they also intermarry with their vassals. They revived,
+   by their arrival, the rule of religion which had everywhere grown
+   lifeless in England.[346] You might see churches rise in every
+   village, and monasteries in the towns and cities, built after a
+   style unknown before; you might behold the country flourishing with
+   renewed rites; so that each wealthy man accounted that day lost to
+   him which he had neglected to signalize by some beneficent act.
+
+
+41. William the Conqueror as Man and as King
+
+In the following passage, taken from the Saxon Chronicle, we have an
+interesting summary of the character of the Conqueror and of his
+conduct as king of England. Both the good and bad sides of the picture
+are clearly brought out and perhaps it is not quite easy to say which
+is given the greater prominence. On the one hand there is William's
+devotion to the Church, his establishment of peace and order, his
+mildness in dealing with all but those who had antagonized him, and
+the virtue of his personal life; on the other is his severity,
+rapacity, and pride, his heavy taxes and his harsh forest laws. As one
+writer says, "the Conquest was bad as well as good for England; but
+the harm was only temporary, the good permanent." It is greatly to the
+credit of the English chronicler that he was able to deal so fairly
+with the character of one whom he had not a few patriotic reasons for
+maligning.
+
+     Source--_The Saxon Chronicle._ Translated by J. A. Giles
+     (London, 1847), pp. 461-462.
+
+     [Sidenote: William's religious zeal]
+
+   If any one would know what manner of man King William was, the
+   glory that he obtained, and of how many lands he was lord, then
+   will we describe him as we have known him, we who have looked upon
+   him and who once lived at his court. This King William, of whom we
+   are speaking, was a very wise and a great man, and more honored and
+   more powerful than any of his predecessors. He was mild to those
+   good men who loved God, but severe beyond measure towards those who
+   withstood his will. He founded a noble monastery on the spot where
+   God permitted him to conquer England, and he established monks in
+   it, and he made it very rich.[347] In his days the great monastery
+   at Canterbury was built,[348] and many others also throughout
+   England; moreover, this land was filled with monks who lived after
+   the rule of St. Benedict; and such was the state of religion in his
+   days that all who would might observe that which was prescribed by
+   their respective orders.
+
+     [Sidenote: His strong government]
+
+   King William was also held in much reverence. He wore his crown
+   three times every year when he was in England: at Easter he wore it
+   at Winchester,[349] at Pentecost at Westminster,[350] and at
+   Christmas at Gloucester.[351] And at these times all the men of
+   England were with him, archbishops, bishops, abbots and earls,
+   thanes[352] and knights.[353] So also was he a very stern and a
+   wrathful man, so that none durst do anything against his will, and
+   he kept in prison those earls who acted against his pleasure. He
+   removed bishops from their sees[354] and abbots from their offices,
+   and he imprisoned thanes, and at length he spared not his own
+   brother Odo. This Odo was a very powerful bishop in Normandy. His
+   see was that of Bayeux,[355] and he was foremost to serve the king.
+   He had an earldom in England, and when William was in Normandy he
+   [Odo] was the first man in this country [England], and him did
+   William cast into prison.[356]
+
+     [Sidenote: The extent of his power]
+
+   Amongst other things, the good order that William established is
+   not to be forgotten. It was such that any man, who was himself
+   aught, might travel over the kingdom with a bosom full of gold
+   unmolested; and no man durst kill another, however great the injury
+   he might have received from him. He reigned over England, and being
+   sharp-sighted to his own interest, he surveyed the kingdom so
+   thoroughly that there was not a single hide of land throughout the
+   whole of which he knew not the possessor, and how much it was
+   worth, and this he afterwards entered in his register.[357] The
+   land of the Britons [Wales] was under his sway, and he built
+   castles therein; moreover he had full dominion over the Isle of
+   Man;[358] Scotland also was subject to him, from his great
+   strength; the land of Normandy was his by inheritance, and he
+   possessed the earldom of Maine;[359] and had he lived two years
+   longer, he would have subdued Ireland by his prowess, and that
+   without a battle.[360]
+
+     [Sidenote: His faults as a ruler]
+
+   Truly there was much trouble in these times, and very great
+   distress. He caused castles to be built and oppressed the poor. The
+   king was also of great sternness, and he took from his subjects
+   many marks of gold, and many hundred pounds of silver, and this,
+   either with or without right, and with little need. He was given to
+   avarice, and greedily loved gain.[361] He made large forests for
+   the deer, and enacted laws therewith, so that whoever killed a hart
+   or a hind should be blinded. As he forbade killing the deer, so
+   also the boars; and he loved the tall stags as if he were their
+   father. He also commanded concerning the hares, that they should go
+   free.[362] The rich complained and the poor murmured, but he was so
+   sturdy that he recked nought of them; they must will all that the
+   king willed, if they would live, or would keep their lands, or
+   would hold their possessions, or would be maintained in their
+   rights. Alas that any man should so exalt himself, and carry
+   himself in his pride over all! May Almighty God show mercy to his
+   soul, and grant him the forgiveness of his sins! We have written
+   concerning him these things, both good and bad, that virtuous men
+   may follow after the good, and wholly avoid the evil, and may go in
+   the way that leadeth to the kingdom of heaven.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[338] Friday night, October 13.
+
+[339] A long coat of mail made of interwoven metal rings.
+
+[340] Roland, count of Brittany, was slain at the pass of Roncesvalles
+in the famous attack of the Gascons upon Charlemagne's retreating army
+in 778. One of the chronicles says simply, "In this battle Roland,
+count of Brittany, was slain," and we have absolutely no other
+historical knowledge of the man. His career was taken up by the
+singers of the Middle Ages, however, and employed to typify all that
+was brave and daring and romantic. It was some one of the many "songs
+of Roland" that William used at Hastings to stimulate his men.
+
+[341] In a battle so closely contested this was a dangerous stratagem
+and its employment seems to indicate that William despaired of
+defeating the English by direct attack. His main object, in which he
+was altogether successful, was to entice the English into abandoning
+their advantageous position on the hilltop.
+
+[342] After the Norman victory was practically assured, William sought
+to bring the battle to an end by having his archers shoot into the
+air, that their arrows might fall upon the group of soldiers,
+including the king, who were holding out in defense of the English
+standard. It was in this way that Harold was mortally wounded; he died
+immediately from the blows inflicted by Norman knights at close hand.
+
+[343] The victory at Hastings did not at once make William king, but
+it revealed to both himself and the English people that the crown was
+easily within his grasp. After the battle he advanced past London into
+the interior of the country. Opposition melted before him and on
+Christmas day, 1066, the Norman duke, having already been regularly
+elected by the witan, was crowned at London by the archbishop of York.
+In the early years of his reign he succeeded in making his power
+recognized in the more turbulent north.
+
+[344] The work of Alfred had not been consistently followed up during
+the century and a half since his death [see p. 185].
+
+[345] The conquest of England by the Normans was really far from an
+enslavement. Norman rule was strict, but hardly more so than
+conditions warranted.
+
+[346] It seems to be true, as William of Malmesbury says, that the
+century preceding the Norman Conquest had been an era of religious as
+well as literary decline among the English. After 1066 the native
+clergy, ignorant and often grossly immoral, were gradually replaced by
+Normans, who on the whole were better men. By 1088 there remained only
+one bishop of English birth in the entire kingdom. One should be
+careful, however, not to exaggerate the moral differences between the
+two peoples.
+
+[347] The story goes that just before entering the battle of Hastings
+in 1066 William made a vow that if successful he would establish a
+monastery on the site where Harold's standard stood. The vow was
+fulfilled by the founding of the Abbey of St. Martin, or Battle Abbey,
+in the years 1070-1076. The monastery was not ready for consecration
+until 1094.
+
+[348] Christchurch. This cathedral monastery had been organized before
+the Conqueror's day, but it was much increased in size and in
+importance by Lanfranc, William's archbishop of Canterbury; and the
+great building which it occupied in the later Middle Ages was
+constructed at this time.
+
+[349] In Hampshire, in the southern part of the kingdom.
+
+[350] In Middlesex, near London.
+
+[351] On the Severn, in the modern county of Gloucester.
+
+[352] A thane (or thegn) was originally a young warrior; then one who
+became a noble by serving the king in arms; then the possessor of five
+hides of land. A hide was a measure of arable ground varying in extent
+at the time of William the Conqueror, but by Henry II.'s reign
+(1154-1189) fixed at about 100 acres. The thane before the Conquest
+occupied nearly the same position socially as the knight after it.
+
+[353] This assembly of dignitaries, summoned by the king three times a
+year, was the so-called Great Council, which in Norman times
+superseded the old Saxon witan. Its duties were mainly judicial. It
+acted also as an advisory body, but the king was not obliged to
+consult it or to carry out its recommendations [see p. 307, note 2].
+
+[354] The _see_ of a bishop is his ecclesiastical office; the area
+over which his authority extends is more properly known as his
+diocese.
+
+[355] On the Orne River, near the English Channel.
+
+[356] Odo, though a churchman, was a man of brutal instincts and evil
+character. Through his high-handed course, both as a leading
+ecclesiastical dignitary in Normandy and as earl of Kent and
+vicegerent in England, he gave William no small amount of trouble. The
+king finally grew tired of his brother's conduct and had him
+imprisoned in the town of Rouen where he was left for four years, or
+until the end of the reign (1087).
+
+[357] This was the famous Domesday Survey, begun in 1085.
+
+[358] In the Irish Sea.
+
+[359] Maine lay directly to the south of Normandy.
+
+[360] This statement is doubtful, though it is true that Lanfranc made
+a beginning by consecrating a number of bishops in Ireland.
+
+[361] All of the early Norman kings were greedy for money and apt to
+bear heavily upon the people in their efforts to get it. Englishmen
+were not accustomed to general taxation and felt the new régime to be
+a serious burden. There was consequently much complaint, but, as our
+historian says, William was strong enough to be able to ignore it.
+
+[362] Most of William's harsh measures can be justified on the ground
+that they were designed to promote the ultimate welfare of his people.
+This is not true, however, of his elaborate forest laws, which
+undertook to deprive Englishmen of their accustomed freedom of hunting
+when and where they pleased. William's love of the chase amounted to a
+passion and he was not satisfied with merely enacting such stringent
+measures as that the slayer of a hart or a hind in his forests should
+be blinded, but also set apart a great stretch of additional country,
+the so-called New Forest, as his own exclusive hunting grounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE MONASTIC REFORMATION OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH CENTURIES
+
+
+42. The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)
+
+Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the Benedictine Rule [see p. 83]
+was the code under which were governed practically all the monastic
+establishments of western Europe. There was a natural tendency,
+however, for the severe and exacting features of the Rule to be
+softened considerably in actual practice. As one writer puts it, "the
+excessive abstinence and many other of the mechanical observances of
+the rule were soon found to have little real utility when simply
+enforced by a rule, and not practiced willingly for the sake of
+self-discipline." The obligation of manual labor, for example, was
+frequently dispensed with in order that the monks might occupy
+themselves with the studies for which the Benedictines have always
+been famous. Too often such relaxation was but a pretext for the
+indulgence of idleness or vice. The disrepute into which such
+tendencies brought the monastics in the tenth and eleventh centuries
+gave rise to numerous attempts to revive the primitive discipline, the
+most notable of which was the so-called "Cluniac movement."
+
+The monastery of Cluny, on the borders of Aquitaine and Burgundy, was
+established under the terms of a charter issued by William the Pious,
+duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, September 11, 910. The
+conditions of its foundation, set forth in the text of the charter
+given below, were in many ways typical. The history of the monastery
+was, however, quite exceptional. During the invasions and civil wars
+of the latter half of the ninth century, many of the monasteries of
+western Europe had fallen under the control of unscrupulous laymen who
+used them mainly to satisfy their greed or ambition, and in
+consequence by the time that Cluny was founded the standard of
+monastic life and service had been seriously impaired. The monks had
+grown worldly, education was neglected, and religious services had
+become empty formalities. Powerful nobles used their positions of
+advantage to influence, and often to dictate, the election of bishops
+and abbots, and the men thus elected were likely enough to be unworthy
+of their offices in both character and ability. The charter of the
+Cluny monastery, however, expressly provided that the abbot should be
+chosen by canonical election, i.e., by the monks, and without any sort
+of outside interference. The life of the monastery was to be regulated
+by the Benedictine Rule, though with rather less stress on manual
+labor and rather more on religious services and literary employment.
+Cluny, indeed, soon came to be one of the principal centers of
+learning in western Europe, as well as perhaps the greatest
+administrator of charity.
+
+Another notable achievement of Cluny was the building up of the
+so-called "Cluny Congregation." Hitherto it had been customary for
+monasteries to be entirely independent of one another, even when
+founded by monks sent out from a parent establishment. Cluny, however,
+kept under the control of her own abbot all monasteries founded by her
+agents and made the priors of these monasteries directly responsible
+to him. Many outside abbeys were drawn into the new system, so that by
+the middle of the twelfth century the Cluny congregation was comprised
+of more than two thousand monasteries, all working harmoniously under
+a single abbot-general. The majority of these were in France, but
+there were many also in Spain, Italy, Poland, Germany, and England. It
+was the Cluny monks who gave the Pope his chief support in the
+struggle to free the Church from lay investiture and simony and to
+enforce the ideal of a celibate clergy. This movement for reform may
+properly be said, indeed, to have originated with the Cluniacs and to
+have been taken up only later by the popes, chiefly by Gregory VII. By
+the end of the eleventh century Cluniac discipline had begun to grow
+lax and conditions were gradually shaped for another wave of monastic
+reform, which came with the establishment of the Carthusians (in 1084)
+and of the Cistercians (in 1098).
+
+     Source--Text in Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des Historiens des
+     Gaules et de la France_ ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul
+     and of France"] (Paris, 1874), Vol. IX., pp. 709-711.
+
+     [Sidenote: Motives for Duke William's benefaction]
+
+   To all who think wisely it is evident that the providence of God
+   has made it possible for rich men, by using well their temporal
+   possessions, to be able to merit eternal rewards.... I, William,
+   count and duke, after diligent reflection, and desiring to provide
+   for my own safety while there is still time, have decided that it
+   is advisable, indeed absolutely necessary, that from the
+   possessions which God has given me I should give some portion for
+   the good of my soul. I do this, indeed, in order that I who have
+   thus increased in wealth may not at the last be accused of having
+   spent all in caring for my body, but rather may rejoice, when fate
+   at length shall snatch all things away, in having preserved
+   something for myself. I cannot do better than follow the precepts
+   of Christ and make His poor my friends. That my gift may be durable
+   and not transitory I will support at my own expense a congregation
+   of monks. And I hope that I shall receive the reward of the
+   righteous because I have received those whom I believe to be
+   righteous and who despise the world, although I myself am not able
+   to despise all things.[363]
+
+     [Sidenote: The land and other property ceded]
+
+   Therefore be it known to all who live in the unity of the faith and
+   who await the mercy of Christ, and to those who shall succeed them
+   and who shall continue to exist until the end of the world, that,
+   for the love of God and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, I hand over
+   from my own rule to the holy apostles, namely, Peter and Paul, the
+   possessions over which I hold sway--the town of Cluny, with the
+   court and demesne manor, and the church in honor of St. Mary, the
+   mother of God, and of St. Peter, the prince of the apostles,
+   together with all the things pertaining to it, the villas, the
+   chapels, the serfs of both sexes, the vines, the fields, the
+   meadows, the woods, the waters and their outlets, the mills, the
+   incomes and revenues, what is cultivated and what is not, all
+   without reserve. These things are situated in or about the county
+   of Mâcon[364], each one marked off by definite bounds. I give,
+   moreover, all these things to the aforesaid apostles--I, William,
+   and my wife Ingelberga--first for the love of God; then for the
+   soul of my lord King Odo, of my father and my mother; for myself
+   and my wife,--for the salvation, namely, of our souls and bodies;
+   and not least, for that of Ava, who left me these things in her
+   will; for the souls also of our brothers and sisters and nephews,
+   and of all our relatives of both sexes; for our faithful ones who
+   adhere to our service; for the advancement, also, and integrity of
+   the Catholic religion. Finally, since all of us Christians are held
+   together by one bond of love and faith, let this donation be for
+   all--for the orthodox, namely, of past, present, or future times.
+
+     [Sidenote: A monastery to be established.]
+
+     [Sidenote: Election of abbots to be "canonical"]
+
+   I give these things, moreover, with this understanding, that in
+   Cluny a monastery shall be constructed in honor of the holy
+   apostles Peter and Paul, and that there the monks shall congregate
+   and live according to the rule of St. Benedict, and that they shall
+   possess and make use of these same things for all time. In such
+   wise, however, that the venerable house of prayer which is there
+   shall be faithfully frequented with vows and supplications, and
+   that heavenly conversations shall be sought after with all desire
+   and with the deepest ardor; and also that there shall be diligently
+   directed to God prayers and exhortations, as well for me as for
+   all, according to the order in which mention has been made of them
+   above. And let the monks themselves, together with all aforesaid
+   possessions, be under the power and dominion of the abbot Berno,
+   who, as long as he shall live, shall preside over them regularly
+   according to his knowledge and ability.[365] But after his death,
+   those same monks shall have power and permission to elect any one
+   of their order whom they please as abbot and rector, following the
+   will of God and the rule promulgated by St. Benedict--in such wise
+   that neither by the intervention of our own or of any other power
+   may they be impeded from making a purely canonical election. Every
+   five years, moreover, the aforesaid monks shall pay to the church
+   of the apostles at Rome ten shillings to supply them with lights;
+   and they shall have the protection of those same apostles and the
+   defense of the Roman pontiff; and those monks may, with their whole
+   heart and soul, according to their ability and knowledge, build up
+   the aforesaid place.
+
+     [Sidenote: Works of charity enjoined]
+
+   We will, further, that in our times and in those of our successors,
+   according as the opportunities and possibilities of that place
+   shall allow, there shall daily, with the greatest zeal, be
+   performed works of mercy towards the poor, the needy, strangers,
+   and pilgrims.[366] It has pleased us also to insert in this
+   document that, from this day, those same monks there congregated
+   shall be subject neither to our yoke, nor to that of our relatives,
+   nor to the sway of the royal might, nor to that of any earthly
+   power. And, through God and all His saints, and by the awful day of
+   judgment, I warn and admonish that no one of the secular princes,
+   no count, no bishop, not even the pontiff of the aforesaid Roman
+   see, shall invade the property of these servants of God, or
+   alienate it, or diminish it, or exchange it, or give it as a
+   benefice to any one, or set up any prelate over them against their
+   will.[367]
+
+
+43. The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of Clairvaux
+
+The most important individual who had part in the twelfth century
+movement for monastic reform was unquestionably St. Bernard, of whom
+indeed it has been said with reason that for a quarter of a century
+there was no more influential man in Europe. Born in 1091, he came
+upon the scene when times were ripe for great deeds and great careers,
+whether with the crusading hosts in the East or in the vexed swirl of
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs in the West. Particularly were the
+times ripe for a great preacher and reformer--one who could avail
+himself of the fresh zeal of the crusading period and turn a portion
+of it to the regeneration of the corrupt and sluggish spiritual life
+which in far too great a measure had crept in to replace the earlier
+purity and devotion of the clergy. The need of reform was perhaps most
+conspicuous in the monasteries, for many monastic establishments had
+not been greatly affected by the Cluniac movement of the previous
+century, and in many of those which had been touched temporarily the
+purifying influences had about ceased to produce results. It was as a
+monastic reformer that St. Bernard rendered greatest service to the
+Church of his day, though he was far more than a mere zealot. He was,
+says Professor Emerton, more than any other man, representative of the
+spirit of the Middle Ages. "The monastery meant to him, not a place of
+easy and luxurious retirement, where a man might keep himself pure
+from earthly contact, nor even a home of learning, from which a man
+might influence his world. It meant rather a place of pitiless
+discipline, whereby the natural man should be reduced to the lowest
+terms and thus the spiritual life be given its largest liberty. The
+aim of Bernard was nothing less than the regeneration of society
+through the presence in it of devoted men, bound together by a compact
+organization, and holding up to the world the highest types of an
+ideal which had already fixed itself in the imagination of the
+age."[368]
+
+The founding of Clairvaux by St. Bernard, in 1115, was not the
+beginning of a new monastic order; the Cistercians, to whom the
+establishment properly belonged, had originated at Cîteaux seventeen
+years before. But in later times St. Bernard was very properly
+regarded as a second founder of the Cistercians, and the story of his
+going forth from the parent house to establish the new one affords an
+excellent illustration of the spirit which dominated the leaders in
+monastic reform in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and of the
+methods they employed to keep alive the lofty ideals of the old
+Benedictine system; and, although individual monasteries were founded
+under the most diverse circumstances, the story is of interest as
+showing us the precise way in which one monastic house took its
+origin. By the time of St. Bernard's death (1153) not fewer than a
+hundred and fifty religious houses had been regenerated under his
+inspiration.
+
+We are fortunate in possessing a composite biography of the great
+reformer which is practically contemporary. It is in five books, the
+first of which was written by William, abbot of St. Thierry of Rheims;
+the second by Arnold, abbot of Bonneval, near Chartres; and the third,
+fourth, and fifth by Geoffrey, a monk of Clairvaux and a former
+secretary of St. Bernard. William of St. Thierry (from whose portion
+of the biography selection "a" below is taken) wrote about 1140,
+Arnold and Geoffrey soon after Bernard's death in 1153.
+
+     Sources--(a) Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, _Bernardus
+     Clarævallensis_ [William of Saint Thierry, "Life of St.
+     Bernard"], Bk. I., Chaps. 1-4.
+
+     (b) The _Acta Sanctorum_. Translated in Edward L. Cutts,
+     _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1872), pp.
+     11-12.
+
+     [Sidenote: Bernard's parents]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Saint Bernard was born at Fontaines in Burgundy [near Dijon], at
+   the castle of his father. His parents were famed among the famous
+   of that age, most of all because of their piety. His father,
+   Tescelin, was a member of an ancient and knightly family, fearing
+   God and scrupulously just. Even when engaged in holy war he
+   plundered and destroyed no one; he contented himself with his
+   worldly possessions, of which he had an abundance, and used them in
+   all manner of good works. With both his counsel and his arms he
+   served temporal lords, but so as never to neglect to render to the
+   sovereign Lord that which was due Him. Bernard's mother, Alith, of
+   the castle Montbar, mindful of holy law, was submissive to her
+   husband and, with him, governed the household in the fear of God,
+   devoting herself to deeds of mercy and rearing her children in
+   strict discipline. She bore seven children, six boys and one girl,
+   not so much for the glory of her husband as for that of God; for
+   all the sons became monks and the daughter a nun....[369]
+
+     [Sidenote: His early characteristics]
+
+   As soon as Bernard was of sufficient age his mother intrusted his
+   education to the teachers in the church at Châtillon[370] and did
+   everything in her power to enable him to make rapid progress. The
+   young boy, abounding in pleasing qualities and endowed with natural
+   genius, fulfilled his mother's every expectation; for he advanced
+   in his study of letters at a speed beyond his age and that of other
+   children of the same age. But in secular matters he began already,
+   and very naturally, to humble himself in the interest of his future
+   perfection, for he exhibited the greatest simplicity, loved to be
+   in solitude, fled from people, was extraordinarily thoughtful,
+   submitted himself implicitly to his parents, had little desire to
+   converse, was devoted to God, and applied himself to his studies as
+   the means by which he should be able to learn of God through the
+   Scriptures....
+
+     [Sidenote: He decides to become a monk at Cîteaux]
+
+   Determined that it would be best for him to abandon the world, he
+   began to inquire where his soul, under the yoke of Christ, would be
+   able to find the most complete and sure repose. The recent
+   establishment of the order of Cîteaux[371] suggested itself to his
+   thought. The harvest was abundant, but the laborers were few, for
+   hardly any one had sought happiness by taking up residence there,
+   because of the excessive austerity of life and the poverty which
+   there prevailed, but which had no terrors for the soul truly
+   seeking God. Without hesitation or misgivings, he turned his steps
+   to that place, thinking that there he would be able to find
+   seclusion and, in the secret of the presence of God, escape the
+   importunities of men; wishing particularly there to gain a refuge
+   from the vain glory of the noble's life, and to win purity of soul,
+   and perhaps the name of saint.
+
+     [Sidenote: His struggle and his victory]
+
+   When his brothers, who loved him according to the flesh, discovered
+   that he intended to become a monk, they employed every means to
+   turn him to the pursuit of letters and to attach him to the secular
+   life by the love of worldly knowledge. Without doubt, as he has
+   himself declared, he was not a little moved by their arguments. But
+   the memory of his devout mother urged him importunately to take the
+   step. It often seemed to him that she appeared before him,
+   reproaching him and reminding him that she had not reared him for
+   frivolous things of that sort, and that she had brought him up in
+   quite another hope. Finally, one day when he was returning from the
+   siege of a château called Grancey, and was coming to his brothers,
+   who were with the duke of Burgundy, he began to be violently
+   tormented by these thoughts. Finding by the roadside a church, he
+   went in and there prayed, with flooded eyes, lifting his hands
+   toward Heaven and pouring out his heart like water before the Lord.
+   That day fixed his resolution irrevocably. From that hour, even as
+   the fire consumes the forests and the flame ravages the mountains,
+   seizing everything, devouring first that which is nearest but
+   advancing to objects farther removed, so did the fire which God had
+   kindled in the heart of his servant, desiring that it should
+   consume it, lay hold first of his brothers (of whom only the
+   youngest, incapable yet of becoming a monk, was left to console his
+   old father), then his parents, his companions, and his friends,
+   from whom no one had ever expected such a step....
+
+     [Sidenote: Bernard and his companions at Châtillon]
+
+   The number of those who decided to take upon themselves monastic
+   vows increased and, as one reads of the earliest sons of the
+   Church, "all the multitude of those who believed were of one mind
+   and one heart" [Acts v. 32]. They lived together and no one else
+   dared mingle with them. They had at Châtillon a house which they
+   possessed in common and in which they held meetings, dwelt
+   together, and held converse with one another. No one was so bold as
+   to enter it, unless he were a member of the congregation. If any
+   one entered there, seeing and hearing what was done and said (as
+   the Apostle declared of the Christians of Corinth), he was
+   convinced by their prophecies and, adoring the Lord and perceiving
+   that God was truly among them, he either joined himself to the
+   brotherhood or, going away, wept at his own plight and their happy
+   state....
+
+     [Sidenote: They enter Cîteaux]
+
+   At that time, the young and feeble establishment at Cîteaux, under
+   the venerable abbot Stephen,[372] began to be seriously weakened by
+   its paucity of numbers and to lose all hope of having successors to
+   perpetuate the heritage of holy poverty, for everybody revered the
+   life of these monks for its sanctity but held aloof from it because
+   of its austerity. But the monastery was suddenly visited and made
+   glad by the Lord in a happy and unhoped-for manner. In 1113,
+   fifteen years after the foundation of the monastery, the servant of
+   God, Bernard, then about twenty-three years of age, entered the
+   establishment under the abbot Stephen, with his companions to the
+   number of more than thirty, and submitted himself to the blessed
+   yoke of Christ. From that day God prospered the house, and that
+   vine of the Lord bore fruit, putting forth its branches from sea to
+   sea.
+
+   Such were the holy beginnings of the monastic life of that man of
+   God. It is impossible to any one who has not been imbued as he with
+   the spirit of God to recount the illustrious deeds of his career,
+   and his angelic conduct, during his life on earth. He entered the
+   monastery poor in spirit, still obscure and of no fame, with the
+   intention of there perishing in the heart and memory of men, and
+   hoping to be forgotten and ignored like a lost vessel. But God
+   ordered it otherwise, and prepared him as a chosen vessel, not only
+   to strengthen and extend the monastic order, but also to bear His
+   name before kings and peoples to the ends of the earth....
+
+     [Sidenote: Bernard prays for and obtains the ability to reap]
+
+     [Sidenote: His devotion and knowledge of the Scriptures]
+
+   At the time of harvest the brothers were occupied, with the fervor
+   and joy of the Holy Spirit, in reaping the grain. Since he
+   [Bernard] was not able to have part in the labor, they bade him sit
+   by them and take his ease. Greatly troubled, he had recourse to
+   prayer and, with much weeping, implored the Lord to grant him the
+   strength to become a reaper. The simplicity of his faith did not
+   deceive him, for that which he asked he obtained. Indeed from that
+   day he prided himself in being more skilful than the others at that
+   task; and he was the more given over to devotion during that labor
+   because he realized that the ability to perform it was a direct
+   gift from God. Refreshed by his employments of this kind, he
+   prayed, read, or meditated continuously. If an opportunity for
+   prayer in solitude offered itself, he seized it; but in any case,
+   whether by himself or with companions, he preserved a solitude in
+   his heart, and thus was everywhere alone. He read gladly, and
+   always with faith and thoughtfulness, the Holy Scriptures, saying
+   that they never seemed to him so clear as when read in the text
+   alone, and he declared his ability to discern their truth and
+   divine virtue much more readily in the source itself than in the
+   commentaries which were derived from it. Nevertheless, he read
+   humbly the saints and orthodox commentators and made no pretense of
+   rivaling their knowledge; but, submitting his to theirs, and
+   tracing it faithfully to its sources, he drank often at the
+   fountain whence they had drawn. It is thus that, full of the spirit
+   which has divinely inspired all Holy Scripture, he has served God
+   to this day, as the Apostle says, with so great confidence, and
+   such ability to instruct, convert, and sway. And when he preaches
+   the word of God, he renders so clear and agreeable that which he
+   takes from Scripture to insert in his discourse, and he has such
+   power to move men, that everybody, both those clever in worldly
+   matters and those who possess spiritual knowledge, marvel at the
+   eloquent words which fall from his lips.
+
+     [Sidenote: Site selected for the new monastery]
+
+   (b)
+
+   Twelve monks and their abbot, representing our Lord and His
+   apostles, were assembled in the church. Stephen placed a cross in
+   Bernard's hands, who solemnly, at the head of his small band,
+   walked forth from Cîteaux.... Bernard struck away to the northward.
+   For a distance of nearly ninety miles he kept this course, passing
+   up by the source of the Seine, by Châtillon, of school-day
+   memories, until he arrived at La Ferté, about equally distant
+   between Troyes and Chaumont, in the diocese of Langres, and
+   situated on the river Aube.[373] About four miles beyond La Ferté
+   was a deep valley opening to the east. Thick umbrageous forests
+   gave it a character of gloom and wildness; but a gushing stream of
+   limpid water which ran through it was sufficient to redeem every
+   disadvantage.
+
+     [Sidenote: The first building constructed]
+
+   In June, 1115, Bernard took up his abode in the "Valley of
+   Wormwood," as it was called, and began to look for means of shelter
+   and sustenance against the approaching winter. The rude fabric
+   which he and his monks raised with their own hands was long
+   preserved by the pious veneration of the Cistercians. It consisted
+   of a building covered by a single roof, under which chapel,
+   dormitory, and refectory were all included. Neither stone nor wood
+   hid the bare earth, which served for a floor. Windows scarcely
+   wider than a man's head admitted a feeble light. In this room the
+   monks took their frugal meals of herbs and water. Immediately above
+   the refectory was the sleeping apartment. It was reached by a
+   ladder, and was, in truth, a sort of loft. Here were the monks'
+   beds, which were peculiar. They were made in the form of boxes, or
+   bins, of wooden planks, long and wide enough for a man to lie down
+   in. A small space, hewn out with an axe, allowed room for the
+   sleeper to get in or out. The inside was strewn with chaff, or
+   dried leaves, which, with the woodwork, seem to have been the only
+   covering permitted....
+
+     [Sidenote: Hardships encountered]
+
+   The monks had thus got a house over their heads; but they had very
+   little else. They had left Cîteaux in June. Their journey had
+   probably occupied them a fortnight; their clearing, preparations,
+   and building, perhaps two months; and thus they were near September
+   when this portion of their labor was accomplished. Autumn and
+   winter were approaching, and they had no store laid by. Their food
+   during the summer had been a compound of leaves intermixed with
+   coarse grain. Beech-nuts and roots were to be their main support
+   during the winter. And now to the privations of insufficient food
+   was added the wearing out of their shoes and clothes. Their
+   necessities grew with the severity of the season, until at last
+   even salt failed them; and presently Bernard heard murmurs. He
+   argued and exhorted; he spoke to them of the fear and love of God,
+   and strove to rouse their drooping spirits by dwelling on the hopes
+   of eternal life and Divine recompense. Their sufferings made them
+   deaf and indifferent to their abbot's words. They would not remain
+   in this valley of bitterness; they would return to Cîteaux.
+   Bernard, seeing they had lost their trust in God, reproved them no
+   more; but himself sought in earnest prayer for release from their
+   difficulties. Presently a voice from heaven said, "Arise, Bernard,
+   thy prayer is granted thee." Upon which the monks said, "What didst
+   thou ask of the Lord?" "Wait, and ye shall see, ye of little
+   faith," was the reply; and presently came a stranger who gave the
+   abbot ten livres.
+
+
+44. A Description of Clairvaux
+
+The following is an interesting description of the abbey of Clairvaux,
+written by William of St. Thierry, the friend and biographer of
+Bernard. After giving an account of the external appearance and
+surroundings of the monastery, the writer goes on to portray the daily
+life and devotion of the monks who resided in it. In reading the
+description it should be borne in mind that Clairvaux was a new
+establishment, founded expressly to further the work of monastic
+reform, and that therefore at the time when William of St. Thierry
+knew it, it exhibited a state of piety and industry considerably above
+that to be found in the average abbey of the day.
+
+     Source--Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, _Bernardus Clarævallensis_
+     [William of Saint Thierry, "Life of St. Bernard"], Bk. I.,
+     Chap. 7. Translated in Edward L. Cutts, _Scenes and Characters
+     of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1872), pp. 12-14.
+
+     [Sidenote: The solitude of Clairvaux]
+
+   At the first glance as you entered Clairvaux by descending the hill
+   you could see that it was a temple of God; and the still, silent
+   valley bespoke, in the modest simplicity of its buildings, the
+   unfeigned humility of Christ's poor. Moreover, in this valley full
+   of men, where no one was permitted to be idle, where one and all
+   were occupied with their allotted tasks, a silence deep as that of
+   night prevailed. The sounds of labor, or the chants of the brethren
+   in the choral service, were the only exceptions. The orderliness of
+   this silence, and the report that went forth concerning it, struck
+   such a reverence even into secular persons that they dreaded
+   breaking it,--I will not say by idle or wicked conversation, but
+   even by proper remarks. The solitude, also, of the place--between
+   dense forests in a narrow gorge of neighboring hills--in a certain
+   sense recalled the cave of our father St. Benedict,[374] so that
+   while they strove to imitate his life, they also had some
+   similarity to him in their habitation and loneliness....
+
+     [Sidenote: Marvelous works accomplished there]
+
+   Although the monastery is situated in a valley, it has its
+   foundations on the holy hills, whose gates the Lord loveth more
+   than all the dwellings of Jacob. Glorious things are spoken of it,
+   because the glorious and wonderful God therein worketh great
+   marvels. There the insane recover their reason, and although their
+   outward man is worn away, inwardly they are born again. There the
+   proud are humbled, the rich are made poor, and the poor have the
+   Gospel preached to them, and the darkness of sinners is changed
+   into light. A large multitude of blessed poor from the ends of the
+   earth have there assembled, yet have they one heart and one mind;
+   justly, therefore, do all who dwell there rejoice with no empty
+   joy. They have the certain hope of perennial joy, of their
+   ascension heavenward already commenced. In Clairvaux, they have
+   found Jacob's ladder, with angels upon it; some descending, who so
+   provide for their bodies that they faint not on the way; others
+   ascending, who so rule their souls that their bodies hereafter may
+   be glorified with them.
+
+     [Sidenote: The piety of the monks]
+
+   For my part, the more attentively I watch them day by day, the more
+   do I believe that they are perfect followers of Christ in all
+   things. When they pray and speak to God in spirit and in truth, by
+   their friendly and quiet speech to Him, as well as by their
+   humbleness of demeanor, they are plainly seen to be God's
+   companions and friends. When, on the other hand, they openly praise
+   God with psalms, how pure and fervent are their minds, is shown by
+   their posture of body in holy fear and reverence, while by their
+   careful pronunciation and modulation of the psalms, is shown how
+   sweet to their lips are the words of God--sweeter than honey to
+   their mouths. As I watch them, therefore, singing without fatigue
+   from before midnight to the dawn of day, with only a brief
+   interval, they appear a little less than the angels, but much more
+   than men....
+
+     [Sidenote: Their manual labor]
+
+   As regards their manual labor, so patiently and placidly, with such
+   quiet countenances, in such sweet and holy order, do they perform
+   all things, that although they exercise themselves at many works,
+   they never seem moved or burdened in anything, whatever the labor
+   may be. Whence it is manifest that that Holy Spirit worketh in them
+   who disposeth of all things with sweetness, in whom they are
+   refreshed, so that they rest even in their toil. Many of them, I
+   hear, are bishops and earls, and many illustrious through their
+   birth or knowledge; but now, by God's grace, all distinction of
+   persons being dead among them, the greater any one thought himself
+   in the world, the more in this flock does he regard himself as less
+   than the least. I see them in the garden with hoes, in the meadows
+   with forks or rakes, in the fields with scythes, in the forest with
+   axes. To judge from their outward appearance, their tools, their
+   bad and disordered clothes, they appear a race of fools, without
+   speech or sense. But a true thought in my mind tells me that their
+   life in Christ is hidden in the heavens. Among them I see Godfrey
+   of Peronne, Raynald of Picardy, William of St. Omer, Walter of
+   Lisle, all of whom I knew formerly in the old man, whereof I now
+   see no trace, by God's favor. I knew them proud and puffed up; I
+   see them walking humbly under the merciful hand of God.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[363] In other words, it is Duke William's hope that, though not
+himself willing to be restricted to the life of a monk, he may secure
+substantially an equivalent reward by patronizing men who _are_ thus
+willing.
+
+[364] Mâcon, the seat of the diocese in which Cluny was situated, was
+on the Saône, a short distance to the southeast.
+
+[365] Berno served as abbot of Cluny from 910 until 927.
+
+[366] That the charitable side of the monastery's work was well
+attended to is indicated by the fact that in a single year, late in
+the eleventh century, seventeen thousand poor were given assistance by
+the monks.
+
+[367] The remainder of the charter consists of a series of
+imprecations of disaster and punishment upon all who at any time and
+in any way should undertake to interfere with the vested rights just
+granted. These imprecations were strictly typical of the mediæval
+spirit-so much so that many of them came to be mere formulæ, employed
+to give documents due solemnity, but without any especially direful
+designs on the part of the writer who used them.
+
+[368] Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, p. 458.
+
+[369] Bernard was the third son.
+
+[370] About sixty miles southeast of Troyes.
+
+[371] Cîteaux (established by Odo, duke of Burgundy, in 1098) was near
+Dijon in Burgundy.
+
+[372] Stephen Harding, an Englishman, succeeded Alberic as abbot of
+Cîteaux in 1113.
+
+[373] Châtillon was about twelve miles south of La Ferté. The latter
+was fifty miles southeast of Troyes and only half as far from
+Chaumont, despite the author's statement that, it lay midway between
+the two places. The Aube is an important tributary of the upper Seine.
+
+[374] The famous founder of the monastery of Monte Cassino and the
+compiler of the Benedictine Rule [see p. 83].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE
+
+
+45. Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority
+
+Hildebrand, who as pope was known as Gregory VII., was born about the
+year 1025 in the vicinity of the little Tuscan town of Soana. His
+education was received in the rich monastery of Saint Mary on the
+Aventine, of which one of his uncles was abbot. At the age of
+twenty-five he became chaplain to Pope Gregory VI., after whose fall
+from power he sought seclusion in the monastery at Cluny. In 1049,
+however, he again appeared in Italy, this time in the rôle of
+companion to the new pontiff, Leo IX. In a few years he became
+sub-deacon and cardinal and was intrusted with the municipal affairs
+and financial interests of the Holy See. He served as papal legate in
+France and in 1057 was sent to Germany to obtain the consent of
+Empress Agnes to the hurried election of Stephen IX. While in these
+countries he became convinced that the evil conditions--simony, lay
+investiture, and non-celibacy of the clergy--which the Cluniacs were
+seeking to reform would never be materially improved by the temporal
+powers, and consequently that the only hope of betterment lay in the
+establishing of an absolute papal supremacy before which kings, and
+even emperors, should be compelled to bow in submission. In April,
+1073, Hildebrand himself was made pope, nominally by the vote of the
+College of Cardinals, but really by the enthusiastic choice of the
+Roman populace. His whole training and experience had fitted him
+admirably for the place and had equipped him with the capacity to make
+of his office something more than had any of his predecessors. When he
+became pope it was with a very lofty ideal of what the papacy should
+be, and the surprising measure in which he was able to realize this
+ideal entitles him without question to be regarded as the greatest of
+all mediæval popes.
+
+In the document given below, the so-called _Dictatus Papæ_, Pope
+Gregory's conception of the nature of the papal power and its proper
+place in the world is stated in the form of a clear and forcible
+summary. Until recently the _Dictatus_ was supposed to have been
+written by Gregory himself, but it has been fairly well demonstrated
+that it was composed not earlier than 1087 and was therefore the work
+of some one else (Gregory died in 1085). It conforms very closely to a
+collection of the laws of the Church published in 1087 by a certain
+cardinal by the name of Deusdedit. The document loses little or none
+of its value by reason of this uncertainty as to its authorship, for
+it represents Pope Gregory's views as accurately as if he were known
+to have written it. In judging Gregory's theories it should be borne
+in mind (1) that it was not personal ambition, but sincere conviction,
+that lay beneath them; (2) that the temporal states which existed in
+western Europe in Gregory's day were rife with feudal anarchy and
+oppression and often too weak to be capable of rendering justice; and
+(3) that Gregory claimed, not that the Church should actually assume
+the management of the civil government throughout Europe, but only
+that in cases of notorious failure of temporal sovereigns to live
+right and govern well, the supreme authority of the papacy should be
+brought to bear upon them, either to depose them or to compel them to
+mend their ways. It is worthy of note, however, that Gregory was
+careful to lay the foundations of a formidable political power in
+Italy, chiefly by availing himself of the practices of feudalism, as
+seen, for example, in the grant of southern Italy to the Norman Robert
+Guiscard to be held as a fief of the Roman see.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica
+     Selecta_ (München, 1889), Vol. III., p. 17.
+
+   =1.= That the Roman Church was founded by God alone.
+
+   =2.= That the Roman bishop alone is properly called
+   universal.[375]
+
+   =3.= That he alone has the power to depose bishops and reinstate
+   them.
+
+   =4.= That his legate, though of inferior rank, takes precedence of
+   all bishops in council, and may give sentence of deposition against
+   them.
+
+   =5.= That the Pope has the power to depose [bishops] in their
+   absence.[376]
+
+   =6.= That we should not even stay in the same house with those who
+   are excommunicated by him.
+
+   =8.= That he alone may use the imperial insignia.[377]
+
+   =9.= That the Pope is the only person whose feet are kissed by all
+   princes.
+
+   =11.= That the name which he bears belongs to him alone.[378]
+
+   =12.= That he has the power to depose emperors.[379]
+
+   =13.= That he may, if necessity require, transfer bishops from one
+   see to another.
+
+   =16.= That no general synod may be called without his consent.
+
+   =17.= That no action of a synod, and no book, may be considered
+   canonical without his authority.[380]
+
+   =18.= That his decree can be annulled by no one, and that he alone
+   may annul the decrees of any one.
+
+   =19.= That he can be judged by no man.
+
+   =20.= That no one shall dare to condemn a person who appeals to the
+   apostolic see.
+
+   =22.= That the Roman Church has never erred, nor ever, by the
+   testimony of Scripture, shall err, to all eternity.[381]
+
+   =26.= That no one can be considered Catholic who does not agree
+   with the Roman Church.
+
+   =27.= That he [the Pope] has the power to absolve the subjects of
+   unjust rulers from their oath of fidelity.
+
+
+46. Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (December, 1075)
+
+The high ideal of papal supremacy over temporal sovereigns which
+Gregory cherished when he became pope in 1073, and which is set forth
+so forcibly in the _Dictatus_, was one whose validity no king or
+emperor could be brought to recognize. It involved an attitude of
+inferiority and submissiveness which monarchs felt to be quite
+inconsistent with the complete independence which they claimed in the
+management of the affairs of their respective states. Perhaps one may
+say that the theory in itself, as a mere expression of religious
+sentiment, was not especially obnoxious; many an earlier pope had
+proclaimed it in substance without doing the kings and emperors of
+Europe material injury. It was the firm determination and the
+aggressive effort of Gregory to reduce the theory to an actual working
+system that precipitated a conflict.
+
+The supreme test of Gregory's ability to make the papal power felt in
+the measure that he thought it should be came early in the pontificate
+in the famous breach with Henry IV. of Germany. Henry at the time was
+not emperor in name, but only "king of the Romans," the imperial
+coronation not yet having taken place.[382] For all practical
+purposes, however, he may be regarded as occupying the emperor's
+position, since all that was lacking was the performance of a more or
+less perfunctory ceremony. Henry's specific grievances against the
+Pope were that the latter had declared it a sin for an ecclesiastic to
+be invested with his office by a layman, though this was almost the
+universal practice in Germany, and that he had condemned five of the
+king's councilors for simony,[383] suspended the archbishop of Bremen,
+the bishops of Speyer and Strassburg, and two Lombard bishops, and
+deposed the bishop of Florence. Half of the land and wealth of Germany
+was in the hands of bishops and abbots who, if the Pope were to have
+his way, would be released from all practical dependence upon the king
+and so would be free to encourage and take part in the feudal revolts
+which Henry was exerting himself so vigorously to crush. June 8, 1075,
+on the banks of the Unstrutt, the king won a signal victory over the
+rebellious feudal lords, after which he felt strong enough to defy the
+authority of Gregory with impunity. He therefore continued to
+associate with the five condemned councilors and, in contempt of
+recent papal declarations against lay investiture, took it upon
+himself to appoint and invest a number of bishops and abbots, though
+always with extreme care that the right kind of men be selected. Pope
+Gregory was, of course, not the man to overlook such conduct and at
+once made vigorous protest. The letter given below was written in
+December, 1075, and is one of a considerable series which passed back
+and forth across the Alps prior to the breaking of the storm in
+1076-1077. At this stage matters had not yet got beyond the
+possibility of compromise and reconciliation; in fact Gregory writes
+as much as anything else to get the king's own statement regarding the
+reports of his conduct which had come to Rome. The tone of the letter
+is firm, it is true, but conciliatory. The thunder of subsequent
+epistles to the recreant Henry had not yet been brought into play.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica
+     Selecta_ (München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 18-22. Adapted from
+     translation in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source
+     Book for Mediæval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 147-150.
+
+   Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to Henry, the
+   king, greeting and apostolic benediction,--that is, if he be
+   obedient to the apostolic see as is becoming in a Christian king:
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry exhorted to confess his sins]
+
+   It is with some hesitation that we have sent you our apostolic
+   benediction, knowing that for all our acts as pope we must render
+   an account to God, the severe judge. It is reported that you have
+   willingly associated with men who have been excommunicated by
+   decree of the Pope and sentence of a synod.[384] If this be true,
+   you are very well aware that you can receive the blessing neither
+   of God nor of the Pope until you have driven them from you and have
+   compelled them to do penance, and have also yourself sought
+   absolution and forgiveness for your transgressions with due
+   repentance and good works. Therefore we advise you that, if you
+   realize your guilt in this matter, you immediately confess to some
+   pious bishop, who shall absolve you with our permission,
+   prescribing for you penance in proportion to the fault, and who
+   shall faithfully report to us by letter, with your permission, the
+   nature of the penance required.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Pope's claim to authority over temporal princes]
+
+   We wonder, moreover, that you should continue to assure us by
+   letter and messengers of your devotion and humility; that you
+   should call yourself our son and the son of the holy mother Church,
+   obedient in the faith, sincere in love, diligent in devotion; and
+   that you should commend yourself to us with all zeal of love and
+   reverence--whereas in fact you are constantly disobeying the
+   canonical and apostolic decrees in important matters of the
+   faith.... Since you confess yourself a son of the Church, you
+   should treat with more honor the head of the Church, that is, St.
+   Peter, the prince of the apostles. If you are one of the sheep of
+   the Lord, you have been entrusted to him by divine authority, for
+   Christ said to him: "Peter, feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16]; and
+   again: "And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of
+   Heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in
+   heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in
+   heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19]. And since we, although an unworthy
+   sinner, exercise his authority by divine will, the words which you
+   address to us are in reality addressed directly to him. And
+   although we read or hear only the words, he sees the heart from
+   which the words proceed. Therefore your highness should be very
+   careful that no insincerity be found in your words and messages to
+   us; and that you show due reverence, not to us, indeed, but to
+   omnipotent God, in those things which especially make for the
+   advance of the Christian faith and the well-being of the Church.
+   For our Lord said to the apostles and to their successors: "He that
+   heareth you heareth me, and he that despiseth you despiseth me"
+   [Luke, x. 16]. For no one will disregard our admonitions if he
+   believes that the decrees of the Pope have the same authority as
+   the words of the apostle himself....[385]
+
+     [Sidenote: Abuses in the Church to be corrected]
+
+   Now in the synod held at the apostolic seat to which the divine
+   will has called us (at which some of your subjects also were
+   present) we, seeing that the Christian religion had been weakened
+   by many attacks and that the chief and proper motive, that of
+   saving souls, had for a long time been neglected and slighted, were
+   alarmed at the evident danger of the destruction of the flock of
+   the Lord, and had recourse to the decrees and the doctrine of the
+   holy fathers. We decreed nothing new, nothing of our invention; but
+   we decided that the error should be abandoned and the single
+   primitive rule of ecclesiastical discipline and the familiar way of
+   the saints should be again sought out and followed.[386] For we
+   know that no other door to salvation and eternal life lies open to
+   the sheep of Christ than that which was pointed out by Him who
+   said: "I am the door: by me if any man enter in he shall be saved,
+   and find pasture" [John, x. 9]; and this, we learn from the gospels
+   and from the sacred writings, was preached by the apostles and
+   observed by the holy fathers. And we have decided that this
+   decree--which some, placing human above divine honor, have called
+   an unendurable weight and an immense burden, but which we call by
+   its proper name, that is, the truth and light necessary to
+   salvation--is to be received and observed not only by you and your
+   subjects, but also by all princes and peoples of the earth who
+   confess and worship Christ; for it is greatly desired by us, and
+   would be most fitting to you, that as you are greater than others
+   in glory, in honor, and in virtue, so you should be more
+   distinguished in devotion to Christ.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory disposed to treat Henry fairly]
+
+   Nevertheless, that this decree may not seem to you beyond measure
+   grievous and unjust, we have commanded you by your faithful
+   ambassadors to send to us the wisest and most pious men whom you
+   can find in your kingdom, so that if they can show or instruct us
+   in any way how we can temper the sentence promulgated by the holy
+   fathers without offense to the eternal King or danger to our souls,
+   we may consider their advice. But, even if we had not warned you in
+   so friendly a manner, it would have been only right on your part,
+   before you violated the apostolic decrees, to ask justice of us in
+   a reasonable manner in any matter in which we had injured or
+   affected your honor. But from what you have since done and decreed
+   it is evident how little you care for our warnings, or for the
+   observance of justice.
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry's obligation to serve and obey the papacy]
+
+   But since we hope that, while the long-suffering patience of God
+   still invites you to repent, you may become wiser and your heart
+   may be turned to obey the commands of God, we warn you with
+   fatherly love that, knowing the rule of Christ to be over you, you
+   should consider how dangerous it is to place your honor above His,
+   and that you should not interfere with the liberty of the Church
+   which He has deigned to join to Himself by heavenly union, but
+   rather with faithful devotion you should offer your assistance to
+   the increasing of this liberty to omnipotent God and St. Peter,
+   through whom also your glory may be enhanced. You ought to
+   recognize what you undoubtedly owe to them for giving you victory
+   over your enemies,[387] that as they have gladdened you with great
+   prosperity, so they should see that you are thereby rendered more
+   devout. And in order that the fear of God, in whose hands is all
+   power and all rule, may affect your heart more than these our
+   warnings, you should recall what happened to Saul, when, after
+   winning the victory which he gained by the will of the prophet, he
+   glorified himself in his triumph and did not obey the warnings of
+   the prophet, and how God reproved him; and, on the other hand, what
+   grace King David acquired by reason of his humility, as well as his
+   other virtues.
+
+
+47. Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (January, 1076)
+
+In 1059, when Nicholas II. was pope and Hildebrand was yet only a
+cardinal, a council assembled at the Lateran decreed that henceforth
+the right of electing the sovereign pontiff should be vested
+exclusively in the college of cardinals, or in other words, in seven
+cardinal bishops in the vicinity of Rome and a certain number of
+cardinal priests and deacons attached to the parishes of the city. The
+people and clergy generally were deprived of participation in the
+election, except so far as merely to give their consent. Hildebrand
+seems to have been the real author of the decree. Nevertheless, in
+1073, when he was elevated to the papal chair, the decree of 1059 was
+in a measure ignored, for he was elected by popular vote and his
+choice was only passively sanctioned by the cardinals. When,
+therefore, the quarrel between him and Henry IV. came on, the latter
+was not slow to make use of the weapon which Hildebrand's (or
+Gregory's) uncanonical election placed in his hands. In replying,
+January 24, 1076, to the papal letter of December, 1075, he bluntly
+addresses himself to "Hildebrand, not pope, but false monk," and
+writes a stinging epistle in the tone thus assumed in his salutation.
+In his arraignment of Gregory the king doubtless went far beyond the
+truth; but the fact remains that Gregory's dominating purposes in the
+interest of the papal authority threatened to cut deeply into the
+independence of all temporal sovereigns, and therefore rendered such
+resistance as Henry offered quite inevitable. In the interim between
+receiving the Pope's letter and dispatching his reply Henry had
+convened at Worms a council of the German clergy, and this body had
+decreed that Gregory, having wrongfully ascended the papal throne,
+should be compelled forthwith to abdicate it.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica
+     Selecta_ (München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 24-25. Translated in
+     Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source Book for
+     Mediæval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 151-152.
+
+   Henry, king not by usurpation, but by the holy ordination of God,
+   to Hildebrand, not pope, but false monk.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory declared to be only a demagogue]
+
+     [Sidenote: The papal claim to temporal supremacy rejected]
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry also cites Scripture]
+
+   This is the salutation which you deserve, for you have never held
+   any office in the Church without making it a source of confusion
+   and a curse to Christian men, instead of an honor and a blessing.
+   To mention only the most obvious cases out of many, you have not
+   only dared to lay hands on the Lord's anointed, the archbishops,
+   bishops, and priests, but you have scorned them and abused them, as
+   if they were ignorant servants not fit to know what their master
+   was doing. This you have done to gain favor with the vulgar crowd.
+   You have declared that the bishops know nothing and that you know
+   everything; but if you have such great wisdom you have used it not
+   to build but to destroy. Therefore we believe that St. Gregory,
+   whose name you have presumed to take, had you in mind when he said:
+   "The heart of the prelate is puffed up by the abundance of
+   subjects, and he thinks himself more powerful than all others." All
+   this we have endured because of our respect for the papal office,
+   but you have mistaken our humility for fear, and have dared to make
+   an attack upon the royal and imperial authority which we received
+   from God. You have even threatened to take it away, as if we had
+   received it from you, and as if the Empire and kingdom were in your
+   disposal and not in the disposal of God. Our Lord Jesus Christ has
+   called us to the government of the Empire, but He never called you
+   to the rule of the Church. This is the way you have gained
+   advancement in the Church: through craft you have obtained wealth;
+   through wealth you have obtained favor; through favor, the power of
+   the sword; and through the power of the sword, the papal seat,
+   which is the seat of peace; and then from the seat of peace you
+   have expelled peace. For you have incited subjects to rebel against
+   their prelates by teaching them to despise the bishops, their
+   rightful rulers. You have given to laymen the authority over
+   priests, whereby they condemn and depose those whom the bishops
+   have put over them to teach them. You have attacked me, who,
+   unworthy as I am, have yet been anointed to rule among the anointed
+   of God, and who, according to the teaching of the fathers, can be
+   judged by no one save God alone, and can be deposed for no crime
+   except infidelity. For the holy fathers in the time of the apostate
+   Julian[388] did not presume to pronounce sentence of deposition
+   against him, but left him to be judged and condemned by God. St.
+   Peter himself said, "Fear God, honor the king" [1 Pet., ii. 17].
+   But you, who fear not God, have dishonored me, whom He hath
+   established. St. Paul, who said that even an angel from heaven
+   should be accursed who taught any other than the true doctrine, did
+   not make an exception in your favor, to permit you to teach false
+   doctrines. For he says, "But though we, or an angel from heaven,
+   preach any other gospel unto you than that which we have preached
+   unto you, let him be accursed" [Gal., i. 8]. Come down, then, from
+   that apostolic seat which you have obtained by violence; for you
+   have been declared accursed by St. Paul for your false doctrines,
+   and have been condemned by us and our bishops for your evil rule.
+   Let another ascend the throne of St. Peter, one who will not use
+   religion as a cloak of violence, but will teach the life-giving
+   doctrine of that prince of the apostles. I, Henry, king by the
+   grace of God, with all my bishops, say unto you: "Come down, come
+   down, and be accursed through all the ages."
+
+
+48. Henry IV. Deposed by Pope Gregory (1076)
+
+The foregoing letter of Henry IV. was received at Rome with a storm of
+disapproval and the envoys who bore it barely escaped with their
+lives. A council of French and Italian bishops was convened in the
+Lateran (Feb. 24, 1076), and the king's haughty epistle, together with
+the decree of the council at Worms deposing Gregory, were read and
+allowed to have their effect. With the assent of the bishops, the Pope
+pronounced the sentence of excommunication against Henry and formally
+released all the latter's Christian subjects from their oath of
+allegiance. Naturally the action of Gregory aroused intense interest
+throughout Europe. In Germany it had the intended effect of detaching
+many influential bishops and abbots from the imperial cause and
+stirring the political enemies of the king to renewed activity. The
+papal ban became a pretext for the renewal of the hostility on part of
+his dissatisfied subjects which Henry had but just succeeded in
+suppressing.
+
+In the first part of the papal decree Gregory seeks to defend himself
+against the charges brought by Henry and the German clergy to the
+effect that he had mounted the papal throne through personal ambition
+and the employment of unbecoming means. It was indisputable that his
+election had not been strictly in accord with the decree of 1059, but
+it seems equally true that, as Gregory declares, he was placed at the
+helm of the Church contrary to his personal desires.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica
+     Selecta_ (München, 1889), Vol. III., p. 26. Translated in
+     Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source Book for
+     Mediæval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 155-156.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory denies that he ever sought the papal
+     office]
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry deposed by papal decree]
+
+   St. Peter, prince of the apostles, incline thine ear unto me, I
+   beseech thee, and hear me, thy servant, whom thou hast nourished
+   from mine infancy and hast delivered from mine enemies that hate me
+   for my fidelity to thee. Thou art my witness, as are also my
+   mistress, the mother of God, and St. Paul thy brother, and all the
+   other saints, that the Holy Roman Church called me to its
+   government against my own will, and that I did not gain thy throne
+   by violence; that I would rather have ended my days in exile than
+   have obtained thy place by fraud or for worldly ambition. It is not
+   by my efforts, but by thy grace, that I am set to rule over the
+   Christian world which was especially intrusted to thee by Christ.
+   It is by thy grace, and as thy representative that God has given to
+   me the power to bind and to loose in heaven and in earth. Confident
+   of my integrity and authority, I now declare in the name of the
+   omnipotent God, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, that Henry, son
+   of the Emperor Henry,[389] is deprived of his kingdom of Germany
+   and Italy. I do this by thy authority and in defense of the honor
+   of thy Church, because he has rebelled against it. He who attempts
+   to destroy the honor of the Church should be deprived of such honor
+   as he may have held. He has refused to obey as a Christian should;
+   he has not returned to God from whom he had wandered; he has had
+   dealings with excommunicated persons; he has done many iniquities;
+   he has despised the warnings which, as thou art witness, I sent to
+   him for his salvation; he has cut himself off from thy Church, and
+   has attempted to rend it asunder; therefore, by thy authority, I
+   place him under the curse. It is in thy name that I curse him, that
+   all people may know that thou art Peter, and upon thy rock the Son
+   of the living God has built his Church, and the gates of Hell shall
+   not prevail against it.
+
+
+49. The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)
+
+In his contest with the Pope, Henry's chances of winning were from the
+outset diminished by the readiness of his subjects to take advantage
+of his misfortunes to recover political privileges they had lost under
+his vigorous rule. In October, 1076, the leading German nobles, lay
+and clerical, encouraged by the papal decree of the preceding
+February, assembled at Tribur, near Mainz, and proceeded to formulate
+a plan of action. Henry, with the few followers who remained faithful,
+awaited the result at Oppenheim, just across the Rhine. The magnates
+at last agreed that unless Henry could secure the removal of the papal
+ban within a year he should be deposed from the throne. By the
+Oppenheim Convention he was forced to promise to revoke his sentence
+of deposition against Gregory and to offer him his allegiance. The
+promise was executed in a royal edict of the same month. Seeing that
+there remained no hope in further resistance, and hearing that Gregory
+was about to present himself in Germany to compel a final adjustment
+of the affair, Henry fled from Speyer, where he had been instructed by
+the nobles to remain, and by a most arduous winter journey over the
+Alps arrived at last at the castle of Canossa, in Tuscany,[390] where
+the Pope, on his way to Germany, was being entertained by one of his
+allies, the Countess Matilda. Gregory might indeed already have been
+on the Rhine but that he had heard of the move Henry was making and
+feared that he was proposing to stir up revolt in the papal dominions.
+The king was submissive, apparently conquered; yet Gregory was loath
+to end the conflict at this point. He had hoped to establish a
+precedent by entering German territory and there disposing of the
+crown according to his own will. But it was a cardinal rule of the
+Church that a penitent sincerely seeking absolution could not be
+denied, and in his request Henry was certainly importunate enough to
+give every appearance of sincerity. Accordingly, the result of the
+meeting of king [Emperor] and Pope at Canossa was that the ban of
+excommunication was revoked by the latter, while the former took an
+oath fully acknowledging the papal claims.
+
+Inasmuch as he had saved his crown and frustrated the design of
+Gregory to cross the mountains into Germany, Henry may be said to have
+won a temporary advantage; and this was followed within a few years,
+when the struggle broke out again, by the practical expulsion of
+Gregory from Rome and his death in broken-hearted exile (1085).
+Nevertheless the moral effect of the Canossa episode, and of the
+events which followed, in the long run operated decidedly against the
+king's position and the whole imperial theory. The document below is a
+letter of Gregory to the German magnates giving an account of the
+submission of the king at Canossa, and including the text of the oath
+which he there took.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica
+     Selecta_ (München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 33-34. Adapted from
+     translation in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical
+     Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 385-388.
+
+Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to all the
+archbishops, bishops, dukes, counts, and other princes of the realm of
+the Germans who defend the Christian faith, greeting and apostolic
+benediction.
+
+Inasmuch as for love of justice you assumed common cause and danger
+with us in the struggle of Christian warfare, we have taken care to
+inform you, beloved, with sincere affection, how the king, humbled to
+penance, obtained the pardon of absolution and how the whole affair
+has progressed from his entrance into Italy to the present time.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory's advance into Tuscany]
+
+As had been agreed with the legates who had been sent to us on your
+part,[391] we came into Lombardy about twenty days before the date on
+which one of the commanders was to come over the pass to meet us,
+awaiting his advent that we might cross over to the other side. But
+when the period fixed upon had already passed, and we were told that
+at this time on account of many difficulties--as we can readily
+believe--an escort could not be sent to meet us, we were involved in
+no little perplexity as to what would be best for us to do, having no
+other means of coming to you.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry at Canossa]
+
+Meanwhile, however, we learned that the king was approaching. He also,
+before entering Italy, sent to us suppliant legates, offering in all
+things to render satisfaction to God, to St. Peter, and to us. And he
+renewed his promise that, besides amending his way of living, he would
+observe all obedience if only he might deserve to obtain from us the
+favor of absolution and the apostolic benediction. When, after long
+postponing a decision and holding frequent consultations, we, through
+all the envoys who passed, had severely taken him to task for his
+excesses, he came at length of his own accord, with a few followers,
+showing nothing of hostility or boldness, to the town of Canossa where
+we were tarrying. And there, having laid aside all the belongings of
+royalty, wretchedly, with bare feet and clad in wool, he continued for
+three days to stand before the gate of the castle. Nor did he desist
+from imploring with many tears, the aid and consolation of the
+apostolic mercy until he had moved all of those who were present
+there, and whom the report of it reached, to such pity and depth of
+compassion that, interceding for him with many prayers and tears, all
+wondered indeed at the unaccustomed hardness of our heart, while some
+actually cried out that we were exercising, not the dignity of
+apostolic severity, but the cruelty, as it were, of a tyrannical
+madness.
+
+Finally, won by the persistency of his suit and by the constant
+supplications of all who were present, we loosed the chain of the
+anathema[392] and at length received him into the favor of communion
+and into the lap of the holy mother Church, those being accepted as
+sponsors for him whose names are written below.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory's purpose to visit Germany]
+
+Having thus accomplished these matters, we desire at the first
+opportunity to cross over to your country in order that, by God's aid,
+we may more fully arrange all things for the peace of the Church and
+the concord of the kingdom, as has long been our wish. For we desire,
+beloved, that you should know beyond a doubt that the whole question
+at issue is as yet so little cleared up--as you can learn from the
+sponsors mentioned--that both our coming and the concurrence of your
+counsels are extremely necessary. Wherefore strive ye all to continue
+in the faith in which you have begun and in the love of justice; and
+know that we are not otherwise committed to the king save that, by
+word alone, as is our custom, we have said that he might have hopes
+from us in those matters in which, without danger to his soul or to
+our own, we might be able to help him to his salvation and honor,
+either through justice or through mercy.
+
+OATH OF KING HENRY
+
+I, King Henry, on account of the murmuring and enmity which the
+archbishops and bishops, dukes, counts and other princes of the realm
+of the Germans, and others who follow them in the same matter of
+dissension, bring to bear against me, will, within the term which our
+master Pope Gregory has constituted, either do justice according to
+his judgment or conclude peace according to his counsels--unless an
+absolute impediment should stand in his way or in mine. And on the
+removal of this impediment I shall be ready to continue in the same
+course. Likewise, if that same lord Pope Gregory shall wish to go
+beyond the mountains [i.e., into Germany], or to any other part of the
+world, he himself, as well as those who shall be in his escort or
+following, or who are sent by him, or come to him from any parts of
+the world whatever, shall be secure while going, remaining, or
+returning, on my part, and on the part of those whom I can constrain,
+from every injury to life or limb, or from capture. Nor shall he, by
+my consent, meet any other hindrance that is contrary to his dignity;
+and if any such be placed in his way I will aid him according to my
+ability. So help me God and this holy gospel.
+
+
+50. The Concordat of Worms (1122)
+
+The veteran Emperor Henry IV. died at Liège in 1106 and was succeeded
+by his son, Henry V. The younger Henry had some months before been
+prompted by Pope Paschal II. to rebel against his father and,
+succeeding in this, had practically established himself on the throne
+before his legitimate time. Pope Paschal expected the son to be more
+submissive than the father had been and in 1106 issued a decree
+renewing the prohibition of lay investiture. Outside of Germany this
+evil had been brought almost to an end and, now that the vigorous
+Henry IV. was out of the way, the Pope felt that the time had come to
+make the reform complete throughout Christendom. But in this he was
+mistaken, for Henry V. proved almost as able and fully as determined a
+power to contend with as had been his father. In fact, the new monarch
+could command a much stronger army, and he was in no wise loath to use
+it. In 1110 he led a host of thirty thousand men across the Alps,
+compelled the submission of the north Italian towns, and marched on
+Rome. The outcome was a secret compact (February 4, 1111) by which the
+king, on the one hand, was to abandon all claim to the right of
+investiture and the Pope, on the other, was to see that the
+ecclesiastical princes of the Empire (bishops and abbots holding large
+tracts of land) should give up all the lands which they had received
+by royal grant since the days of Charlemagne. The abandonment of
+investiture looked like a surrender on the part of Henry, but in
+reality all that he wanted was direct control over all the lands of
+the Empire, and if the ecclesiastical princes were to be dispossessed
+of these he cared little or nothing about having a part in the mere
+religious ceremony. This settlement was rendered impossible, however,
+by the attitude of the princes themselves, who naturally refused to be
+thus deprived of their landed property and chief source of income. The
+Pope was then forced to make a second compact surrendering the full
+right of investiture to the imperial authority, and Henry also got the
+coveted imperial coronation. But his triumph was short-lived.
+Rebellions among the German nobles robbed him of his strength and
+after years of wearisome bickerings and petty conflicts he again came
+to the point where he was willing to compromise. Calixtus II., who
+became pope in 1119, was similarly inclined.
+
+Accordingly, in a diet at Worms, in 1122, the whole problem was taken
+up for settlement, and happily this time with success. The documents
+translated below contain the concessions made mutually by the two
+parties. Calixtus, in brief, grants that the elections of bishops and
+abbots may take place in the presence of the Emperor, or of his
+agents, and that the Emperor should have the right to invest them with
+the scepter, i.e., with their dignity as princes of the Empire. Henry,
+on his side, agrees to give up investiture with the ring and staff,
+i.e., with spiritual functions, to allow free elections, and to aid in
+the restoration of church property which had been confiscated during
+the long struggle now drawing to a close. The settlement was in the
+nature of a compromise; but on the whole the papacy came off the
+better. In its largest aspects the great fifty-year struggle over the
+question of investiture was ended, though minor features of it
+remained to trouble all parties concerned for a long time to come.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 75-76.
+
+     (b) Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica
+     Selecta_, Vol. III., p. 60.
+
+     [Sidenote: The provision for elections]
+
+   (a)
+
+   I, Bishop Calixtus, servant of the servants of God, do grant to
+   thee, by the grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, the right
+   to hold the elections of the bishops and abbots of the German realm
+   who belong to the kingdom, in thy presence, without simony, and
+   without any resort to violence; it being agreed that, if any
+   dispute arise among those concerned, thou, by the counsel and
+   judgment of the metropolitan [i.e., the archbishop] and the
+   suffragan bishops, shalt extend favor and support to the party
+   which shall seem to you to have the better case. Moreover, the
+   person elected may receive from thee the _regalia_ through the
+   scepter, without any exaction being levied;[393] and he shall
+   discharge his rightful obligations to thee for them.[394]
+
+     [Sidenote: Investiture with the scepter]
+
+   He who is consecrated in other parts of the Empire[395] shall
+   receive the _regalia_ from thee through the scepter, within six
+   months, and without any exaction, and shall discharge his rightful
+   obligations to thee for them; those rights being excepted, however,
+   which are known to belong to the Roman Church. In whatever cases
+   thou shalt make complaint to me and ask my aid I will support thee
+   according as my office requires. To thee, and to all those who are
+   on thy side, or have been, in this period of strife, I grant a true
+   peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: Investiture with ring and staff]
+
+   (b)
+
+   In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, I, Henry, by the
+   grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, for the love of God and
+   of the holy Roman Church and of our lord Pope Calixtus, and for the
+   saving of my soul, do give over to God, and to the holy apostles of
+   God, Peter and Paul, and the holy Catholic Church, all investiture
+   through ring and staff; and do concede that in all the churches
+   that are in my kingdom or empire there shall be canonical election
+   and free consecration.
+
+     [Sidenote: Restoration of confiscated property]
+
+   All the property and _regalia_ of St. Peter which, from the
+   beginning of this conflict until the present time, whether in the
+   days of my father or in my own, have been confiscated, and which I
+   now hold, I restore to the holy Roman Church. And as for those
+   things which I do not now hold, I will faithfully aid in their
+   restoration. The property also of all other churches and princes
+   and of every one, whether lay or ecclesiastical, which has been
+   lost in the struggle, I will restore as far as I hold it, according
+   to the counsel of the princes, or according to considerations of
+   justice. I will also faithfully aid in the restoration of those
+   things which I do not hold.
+
+   And I grant a true peace to our lord Pope Calixtus, and to the holy
+   Roman Church, and to all those who are, or have been, on its side.
+   In matters where the holy Roman Church shall seek assistance, I
+   will faithfully render it, and when it shall make complaint to me I
+   will see that justice is done.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[375] The incumbent of the papal office was at the same time bishop of
+Rome, temporal sovereign of the papal lands, and head of the church
+universal. In earlier times there was always danger that the third of
+these functions be lost and that the papacy revert to a purely local
+institution, but by Gregory VII.'s day the universal headship was
+clearly recognized throughout the West as inherent in the office. It
+was only when there arose the question as to how far this headship
+justified the Pope in attempting to control the affairs of the world
+that serious disagreement manifested itself.
+
+[376] That is, without giving them a hearing at a later date.
+
+[377] On the basis of the forged Donation of Constantine the Pope
+claimed the right here mentioned. There was no proper warrant for it.
+
+[378] "This is the first distinct assertion of the exclusive right of
+the bishop of Rome to the title of pope, once applied to all bishops."
+Robinson, _Readings in European History_, Vol. I., p. 274. The word
+pope is derived from _papa_ (father). It is still used as the common
+title of all priests in the Greek Church.
+
+[379] This, with the letter given on page 265, sets forth succinctly
+the papacy's absolute claim of authority as against the highest
+temporal power in Europe.
+
+[380] That is, pronounced by the canons of the Church to be divinely
+inspired.
+
+[381] This is, of course, not a claim of _papal_ infallibility. The
+assertion is merely that in the domain of faith and morals the Roman
+church, judged by Scriptural principles, has never pursued a course
+either improper or unwarranted.
+
+[382] It did not occur until 1084. Henry had inherited the office at
+the death of his father, Henry III., in 1056.
+
+[383] The sin of simony comprised the employment of any corrupt means
+to obtain appointment or election to an ecclesiastical office. For the
+origin of the term see the incident recorded in Acts, viii. 18-24. The
+five councilors had been condemned by a synod at Rome in February,
+1075.
+
+[384] The five condemned councillors.
+
+[385] This portion of the letter comprises a clear assertion of the
+"Petrine Supremacy," i.e., the theory that Peter, as the first bishop
+of Rome, transmitted his superiority over all other bishops to his
+successors in the Roman see, who in due time came to constitute the
+line of popes [see p. 78].
+
+[386] This refers to a decree of a Roman synod in 1074 against simony
+and the marriage of the clergy.
+
+[387] In the battle on the Unstrutt, June 8, 1075.
+
+[388] Julian succeeded Constantine's son Constantius as head of the
+Roman Empire in 361. He was known as "the Apostate" because of his
+efforts to displace the Christian religion and to restore the old
+pagan worship. He died in battle with the Persians in 363.
+
+[389] Henry III., emperor from 1039 to 1056.
+
+[390] The castle of Canossa stood on one of the northern spurs of the
+Apennines, about ten miles southwest of Reggio. Some remains of it may
+yet be seen.
+
+[391] The German princes who were hostile to Henry had kept in close
+touch with the Pope. In the Council of Tribur a legate of Gregory took
+the most prominent part, and the members of that body had invited the
+Pope to come to Augsburg and aid in the settling of Henry's crown upon
+a successor.
+
+[392] Revoked the ban of excommunication. The anathema was a solemn
+curse by an ecclesiastical authority.
+
+[393] That is, the Emperor was to be allowed to invest the new bishop
+or abbot with the fiefs and secular powers by a touch of the scepter,
+but his old claim to the right of investment with the spiritual
+emblems of ring and crozier was denied.
+
+[394] This means that the ecclesiastical prince--the bishop or
+abbot--in the capacity of a landholder was to render the ordinary
+feudal obligations to the Emperor.
+
+[395] Burgundy and Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE CRUSADES
+
+
+51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (1095)
+
+Within a short time after the death of Mohammed (632) the whole
+country of Syria, including Palestine, was overrun by the Arabs, and
+the Holy City of Jerusalem passed out of Christian hands into the
+control of the infidels. The Arabs, however, shared the veneration of
+the Christians for the places associated with the life of Christ and
+did not greatly interfere with the pilgrims who flocked thither from
+all parts of the Christian world. In the tenth century the strong
+emperors of the Macedonian dynasty at Constantinople succeeded in
+winning back all of Syria except the extreme south, and the prospect
+seemed fair for the permanent possession by a Christian power of all
+those portions of the Holy Land which were regarded as having
+associations peculiarly sacred. This prospect might have been realized
+but for the invasions and conquests of the Seljuk Turks in the latter
+part of the eleventh century. These Turks came from central Asia and
+are to be carefully distinguished from the Ottoman Turks of more
+modern times. They had recently been converted to Mohammedanism and
+were now the fiercest and most formidable champions of that faith in
+its conflict with the Christian East. In 1071 Emperor Romanus Diogenes
+was defeated at Manzikert, in Armenia, and taken prisoner by the
+sultan Alp Arslan, and as a result not only Asia Minor, but also
+Syria, was forever lost to the Empire. The Holy City of Jerusalem was
+definitely occupied in 1076. The invaders established a stronghold at
+Nicæa, less than a hundred miles across the Sea of Marmora from
+Constantinople, and even threatened the capital itself, although they
+did not finally succeed in taking it until 1453.
+
+No sooner were the Turks in possession of Jerusalem and the approaches
+thither, than pilgrims returning to western Europe began to tell
+tales, not infrequently as true as they were terrifying, regarding
+insults and tortures suffered at the hand of the pitiless conquerors.
+The Emperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) put forth every effort to
+expel the intruders from Asia Minor, hoping to be able to regain the
+territories, including Syria, which they had stripped from the Empire;
+but his strength proved unequal to the task. Accordingly, in 1095, he
+sent an appeal to Pope Urban II. to enlist the Christian world in a
+united effort to save both the Empire and the Eastern Church. It used
+to be thought that Pope Sylvester II., about the year 1000, had
+suggested a crusade against the Mohammedans of the East, but it now
+appears that the first pope to advance such an idea was Gregory VII.
+(1073-1085), who in response to an appeal of Alexius's predecessor in
+1074, had actually assembled an army of 50,000 men for the aid of the
+Emperor and had been prevented from carrying out the project only by
+the severity of the investiture controversy with Henry IV. of Germany.
+At any rate, it was not a difficult task for the ambassadors of
+Alexius to convince Pope Urban that he ought to execute the plan of
+Gregory. The plea for aid was made at the Council of Piacenza in
+March, 1095, and during the next few months Urban thought out the best
+method of procedure.
+
+At the Council of Clermont, held in November, 1095, the crusade was
+formally proclaimed through the famous speech which the Pope himself
+delivered after the regular business of the assembly had been
+transacted. Urban was a Frenchman and he knew how to appeal to the
+emotions and sympathies of his hearers. For the purpose of stirring up
+interest in the enterprise he dropped the Latin in which the work of
+the Council had been transacted and broke forth in his native tongue,
+much to the delight of his countrymen. There are four early versions
+of the speech, differing widely in contents, and none, of course,
+reproducing the exact words used by the speaker. The version given by
+Robert the Monk, a resident of Rheims, in the opening chapter of his
+history of the first crusade seems in most respects superior to the
+others. It was written nearly a quarter of a century after the Council
+of Clermont, but the writer in all probability had at least heard the
+speech which he was trying to reproduce; in any event we may take his
+version of it as a very satisfactory representation of the aspirations
+and spirit which impelled the first crusaders to their great
+enterprise. It has been well said that "many orations have been
+delivered with as much eloquence, and in as fiery words as the Pope
+used, but no other oration has ever been able to boast of as wonderful
+results."
+
+     Source--Robertus Monachus, _Historia Iherosolimitana_ [Robert
+     the Monk, "History of the Crusade to Jerusalem"], Bk. I.,
+     Chap. 1. Reprinted in _Recueildes Historiens des Croisades:
+     Historiens Occidentaux_ (Paris, 1866), Vol. III., pp. 727-728.
+     Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa.
+     Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I., No. 2, pp. 5-8.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Council of Clermont]
+
+   In the year of our Lord's Incarnation one thousand and ninety-five,
+   a great council was convened within the bounds of Gaul, in
+   Auvergne, in the city which is called Clermont. Over this Pope
+   Urban II. presided, with the Roman bishops and cardinals. This
+   council was a famous one on account of the concourse of both French
+   and German bishops, and of princes as well. Having arranged the
+   matters relating to the Church, the lord Pope went forth into a
+   certain spacious plain, for no building was large enough to hold
+   all the people. The Pope then, with sweet and persuasive eloquence,
+   addressed those present in words something like the following,
+   saying:
+
+     [Sidenote: Pope Urban appeals to the French]
+
+   "Oh, race of Franks, race beyond the mountains [the Alps], race
+   beloved and chosen by God (as is clear from many of your works),
+   set apart from all other nations by the situation of your country,
+   as well as by your Catholic faith and the honor you render to the
+   holy Church: to you our discourse is addressed, and for you our
+   exhortations are intended. We wish you to know what a serious
+   matter has led us to your country, for it is the imminent peril
+   threatening you and all the faithful that has brought us hither.
+
+     [Sidenote: The ravages of the Turks]
+
+   "From the confines of Jerusalem and from the city of Constantinople
+   a grievous report has gone forth and has been brought repeatedly to
+   our ears; namely, that a race from the kingdom of the Persians, an
+   accursed race, a race wholly alienated from God, 'a generation that
+   set not their heart aright, and whose spirit was not steadfast with
+   God' [Ps., lxxviii. 8], has violently invaded the lands of those
+   Christians and has depopulated them by pillage and fire. They have
+   led away a part of the captives into their own country, and a part
+   they have killed by cruel tortures. They have either destroyed the
+   churches of God or appropriated them for the rites of their own
+   religion. They destroy the altars, after having defiled them with
+   their uncleanness.... The kingdom of the Greeks [the Eastern
+   Empire] is now dismembered by them and has been deprived of
+   territory so vast in extent that it could not be traversed in two
+   months' time.
+
+     [Sidenote: Urban recalls the zeal and valor of the earlier Franks]
+
+   "On whom, therefore, rests the labor of avenging these wrongs and
+   of recovering this territory, if not upon you--you, upon whom,
+   above all other nations, God has conferred remarkable glory in
+   arms, great courage, bodily activity, and strength to humble the
+   heads of those who resist you? Let the deeds of your ancestors
+   encourage you and incite your minds to manly achievements--the
+   glory and greatness of King Charlemagne, and of his son Louis [the
+   Pious], and of your other monarchs, who have destroyed the kingdoms
+   of the Turks[396] and have extended the sway of the holy Church
+   over lands previously pagan. Let the holy sepulcher of our Lord and
+   Saviour, which is possessed by the unclean nations, especially
+   arouse you, and the holy places which are now treated with ignominy
+   and irreverently polluted with the filth of the unclean. Oh most
+   valiant soldiers and descendants of invincible ancestors, do not
+   degenerate, but recall the valor of your ancestors.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crusade as a desirable remedy for over population]
+
+   "But if you are hindered by love of children, parents, or wife,
+   remember what the Lord says in the Gospel, 'He that loveth father
+   or mother more than me is not worthy of me' [Matt., x. 37]. 'Every
+   one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or sisters, or father,
+   or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my name's sake,
+   shall receive an hundred-fold, and shall inherit everlasting life'
+   [Matt., xix. 29]. Let none of your possessions restrain you, nor
+   anxiety for your family affairs. For this land which you inhabit,
+   shut in on all sides by the seas and surrounded by the mountain
+   peaks, is too narrow for your large population; nor does it abound
+   in wealth; and it furnishes scarcely food enough for its
+   cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another,
+   that you wage war, and that very many among you perish in civil
+   strife.[397]
+
+     [Sidenote: Syria, a rich country]
+
+   "Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels
+   end; let wars cease; and let all dissensions and controversies
+   slumber. Enter upon the road of the Holy Sepulcher; wrest that land
+   from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves. That land
+   which, as the Scripture says, 'floweth with milk and honey' [Num.,
+   xiii. 27] was given by God into the power of the children of
+   Israel. Jerusalem is the center of the earth; the land is fruitful
+   above all others, like another paradise of delights. This spot the
+   Redeemer of mankind has made illustrious by His advent, has
+   beautified by His sojourn, has consecrated by His passion, has
+   redeemed by His death, has glorified by His burial.
+
+   "This royal city, however, situated at the center of the earth, is
+   now held captive by the enemies of Christ and is subjected, by
+   those who do not know God, to the worship of the heathen. She
+   seeks, therefore, and desires to be liberated, and ceases not to
+   implore you to come to her aid. From you especially she asks
+   succor, because, as we have already said, God has conferred upon
+   you, above all other nations, great glory in arms. Accordingly,
+   undertake this journey eagerly for the remission of your sins, with
+   the assurance of the reward of imperishable glory in the kingdom of
+   heaven."
+
+     [Sidenote: Response to the appeal]
+
+   When Pope Urban had skilfully said these and very many similar
+   things, he so centered in one purpose the desires of all who were
+   present that all cried out, "It is the will of God! It is the will
+   of God!" When the venerable Roman pontiff heard that, with eyes
+   uplifted to heaven, he gave thanks to God and, commanding silence
+   with his hand, said:
+
+     [Sidenote: "Deus vult," the war cry]
+
+   "Most beloved brethren, to-day is manifest in you what the Lord
+   says in the Gospel, 'Where two or three are gathered together in my
+   name, there am I in the midst of them' [Matt., xviii. 20]. For
+   unless God had been present in your spirits, all of you would not
+   have uttered the same cry; since, although the cry issued from
+   numerous mouths, yet the origin of the cry was one. Therefore I say
+   to you that God, who implanted this in your breasts, has drawn it
+   forth from you. Let that, then, be your war cry in battle, because
+   it is given to you by God. When an armed attack is made upon the
+   enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of God: 'It
+   is the will of God! It is the will of God!'
+
+     [Sidenote: Who should go and who should remain]
+
+   "And we neither command nor advise that the old or feeble, or those
+   incapable of bearing arms, undertake this journey. Nor ought women
+   to set out at all without their husbands, or brothers, or legal
+   guardians. For such are more of a hindrance than aid, more of a
+   burden than an advantage. Let the rich aid the needy; and according
+   to their wealth let them take with them experienced soldiers. The
+   priests and other clerks [clergy], whether secular or regular, are
+   not to go without the consent of their bishop; for this journey
+   would profit them nothing if they went without permission. Also, it
+   is not fitting that laymen should enter upon the pilgrimage without
+   the blessing of their priests.
+
+   "Whoever, therefore, shall decide upon this holy pilgrimage, and
+   shall make his vow to God to that effect, and shall offer himself
+   to Him for sacrifice, as a living victim, holy and acceptable to
+   God, shall wear the sign of the cross of the Lord on his forehead
+   or on his breast. When he shall return from his journey, having
+   fulfilled his vow, let him place the cross on his back between his
+   shoulders. Thus shall ye, indeed, by this twofold action, fulfill
+   the precept of the Lord, as He commands in the Gospel, 'He that
+   taketh not his cross, and followeth after me, is not worthy of me'"
+   [Luke, xiv. 27].
+
+
+52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)
+
+The appeals of Pope Urban at Clermont and elsewhere met with ready
+response, especially among the French, but also to a considerable
+extent among Italians, Germans, and even English. A great variety of
+people were attracted by the enterprise, and from an equal variety of
+motives. Men whose lives had been evil saw in the crusade an
+opportunity of doing penance; criminals who perhaps cared little for
+penance but much for their own personal safety saw in it an avenue of
+escape from justice; merchants discovered in it a chance to open up
+new and valuable trade; knights hailed it as an invitation to deeds of
+valor and glory surpassing any Europe had yet known; ordinary
+malcontents regarded it as a chance to mend their fortunes; and a very
+large number of people looked upon it as a great spiritual obligation
+laid upon them and necessary to be performed in order to insure
+salvation in the world to come. By reason of all these incentives,
+some of them weighing much more in the mediæval mind than we can
+understand to-day, the crusade brought together men, women, and
+children from every part of Christendom. Both of the accounts given
+below of the assembling and starting of the crusaders are doubtless
+more or less exaggerated at certain points, yet in substance they
+represent what must have been pretty nearly the actual facts.
+
+William of Malmesbury was an English monk who lived in the first half
+of the twelfth century and wrote a very valuable _Chronicle of the
+Kings of England_, which reached the opening of the reign of Stephen
+(1135). He thus had abundant opportunity to learn of the first
+crusade from people who had actually participated in it. His rather
+humorous picture of the effects of Pope Urban's call is thus well
+worth reading. Better than it, however, is the account by the priest
+Fulcher of Chartres (1058-1124)--better because the writer himself
+took part in the crusade and so was a personal observer of most of the
+things he undertook to describe. Fulcher, in 1096, set out upon the
+crusade in the company of his lord, Etienne, count of Blois and
+Chartres, who was a man of importance in the army of Robert of
+Normandy. With the rest of Robert's crusaders he spent the winter in
+Italy and arrived at Durazzo in the spring of 1097. He had a part in
+the siege of Nicæa and in the battle of Dorylæum, but not in the siege
+of Antioch. Before reaching Jerusalem, in 1099, he became chaplain to
+a brother of Godfrey of Bouillon and was already making progress on
+his "history of the army of God."
+
+     Sources--(a) Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, _De gestis
+     regum Anglorum_ [William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the
+     Kings of England"], Bk. IV., Chap. 2. Adapted from translation
+     by John Sharpe (London, 1815), p. 416.
+
+     (b) Fulcherius Carnotensis, _Historia Iherosolimitana: gesta
+     Francorum Iherusalem peregrinantium_ [Fulcher of Chartres,
+     "History of the Crusade to Jerusalem: the Deeds of the French
+     Journeying Thither"], Chap. 6. Text in _Recueil des Historiens
+     des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux_ (Paris, 1866), Vol.
+     III., p. 328.
+
+     [Sidenote: Universal interest in the crusade]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Immediately the fame of this great event,[398] being spread through
+   the universe, penetrated the minds of Christians with its mild
+   breath, and wherever it blew there was no nation, however distant
+   and obscure, that did not send some of its people. This zeal
+   animated not only the provinces bordering on the Mediterranean, but
+   all who had ever even heard of the name Christian in the most
+   remote isles, and among barbarous nations. Then the Welshman
+   abandoned his forests and neglected his hunting; the Scotchman
+   deserted the fleas with which he is so familiar; the Dane ceased to
+   swallow his intoxicating draughts; and the Norwegian turned his
+   back upon his raw fish. The fields were left by the cultivators,
+   and the houses by their inhabitants; all the cities were deserted.
+   People were restrained neither by the ties of blood nor the love of
+   country; they saw nothing but God. All that was in the granaries,
+   or was destined for food, was left under the guardianship of the
+   greedy agriculturist. The journey to Jerusalem was the only thing
+   hoped for or thought of. Joy animated the hearts of all who set
+   out; grief dwelt in the hearts of all who remained. Why do I say
+   "of those who remained"? You might have seen the husband setting
+   forth with his wife, with all his family; you would have laughed to
+   see all the _penates_[399] put in motion and loaded upon wagons.
+   The road was too narrow for the passengers, and more room was
+   wanted for the travelers, so great and numerous was the crowd.[400]
+
+     [Sidenote: The multitude of crusaders]
+
+   (b)
+
+   Such, then, was the immense assemblage which set out from the West.
+   Gradually along the march, and from day to day, the army grew by
+   the addition of other armies, coming from every direction and
+   composed of innumerable people. Thus one saw an infinite multitude,
+   speaking different languages and coming from divers countries. All
+   did not, however, come together into a single army until we had
+   reached the city of Nicæa.[401] What shall I add? The isles of the
+   sea and the kingdoms of the whole earth were moved by God, so that
+   one might believe fulfilled the prophecy of David, who said in his
+   Psalm: "All nations whom Thou hast made shall come and worship
+   before Thee, O Lord, and shall glorify Thy name;" and so that those
+   who reached the holy places afterwards said justly: "We will
+   worship where His feet have stood." Concerning this journey we
+   read very many other predictions in the prophets, which it would be
+   tedious to recall.
+
+     [Sidenote: Mingled sorrow and joy of the crusaders]
+
+   Oh, how great was the grief, how deep the sighs, what weeping, what
+   lamentations among the friends, when the husband left the wife so
+   dear to him, his children also, and all his possessions of any
+   kind, father, mother, brethren, or kindred! And yet in spite of the
+   floods of tears which those who remained shed for their friends
+   about to depart, and in their very presence, the latter did not
+   suffer their courage to fail, and, out of love for the Lord, in no
+   way hesitated to leave all that they held most precious, believing
+   without doubt that they would gain an hundred-fold in receiving the
+   recompense which God has promised to those who love Him.
+
+   Then the husband confided to his wife the time of his return and
+   assured her that, if he lived, by God's grace he would return to
+   her. He commended her to the Lord, gave her a kiss, and, weeping,
+   promised to return. But the latter, who feared that she would never
+   see him again, overcome with grief, was unable to stand, fell as if
+   lifeless to the ground, and wept over her dear one whom she was
+   losing in life, as if he were already dead. He, then, as if he had
+   no pity (nevertheless he was filled with pity) and was not moved by
+   the grief of his friends (and yet he was secretly moved), departed
+   with a firm purpose. The sadness was for those who remained, and
+   the joy for those who departed. What more can we say? "This is the
+   Lord's doings, and it is marvelous in our eyes."
+
+
+53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife
+
+One of the most important groups of sources on the crusades is the
+large body of letters which has come down to us, written by men who
+had an actual part in the various expeditions. These letters,
+addressed to parents, wives, children, vassals, or friends, are
+valuable alike for the facts which they contain and for the revelation
+they give of the spirit and motives of the crusaders. A considerable
+collection of the letters, in English translation, may be found in
+Roger de Hoveden's _Annals of English History_, Roger of Wendover's
+_Flowers of History_, and Matthew Paris's _English History_ (all in
+the Bohn Library); also in Michaud's _History of the Crusades_, Vol.
+III., Appendix. In many respects the letter given below, written at
+Antioch by Count Stephen of Blois to his wife Adele, under date of
+March 29, 1098, is unexcelled in all the records of mediæval
+letter-writing. Count Stephen (a brother-in-law of Robert of Normandy,
+who was a son of William the Conqueror) was one of the wealthiest and
+most popular French noblemen who responded to Pope Urban's summons at
+Clermont. At least three of his letters to his wife survive, of which
+the one here given is the third in order of time. It discloses the
+ordinary human sentiments of the crusader and makes us feel that,
+unlike the modern man as he was, he yet had very much in common with
+the people of to-day and of all ages. He was at the same time a bold
+fighter and a tender husband, a religious enthusiast and a practical
+man of affairs. When the letter was written, the siege of Antioch had
+been in progress somewhat more than five months; it continued until
+the following June, when it ended in the capture of the city by the
+crusaders. Count Stephen was slain in the battle of Ramleh in 1102.
+
+     Source--D'Achery, _Spicilegium_ ["Gleanings"], 2d edition,
+     Vol. III., pp. 430-433. Adapted from translation by Dana C.
+     Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I.,
+     No. 4, pp. 5-8.
+
+   Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, to his
+   dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks,--his greeting
+   and blessing.
+
+     [Sidenote: Count Stephen reports prosperity]
+
+   You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I sent to
+   give you pleasure left me before Antioch safe and unharmed and,
+   through God's grace, in the greatest prosperity. And already at
+   that time, together with all the chosen army of Christ, endowed
+   with great valor by Him, we have been continually advancing for
+   twenty-three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You may know
+   for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many other kind
+   of riches I now have twice as much as your love had assigned to me
+   when I left you. For all our princes, with the common consent of
+   the whole army, though against my own wishes, have made me up to
+   the present time the leader, chief, and director of their whole
+   expedition.
+
+     [Sidenote: Early achievements of the crusaders]
+
+   Doubtless you have heard that after the capture of the city of
+   Nicæa we fought a great battle with the treacherous Turks and, by
+   God's aid, conquered them.[402] Next we conquered for the Lord all
+   Romania, and afterwards Cappadocia.[403] We had learned that there
+   was a certain Turkish prince, Assam, dwelling in Cappadocia; so we
+   directed our course thither. We conquered all his castles by force
+   and compelled him to flee to a certain very strong castle situated
+   on a high rock. We also gave the land of that Assam to one of our
+   chiefs, and in order that he might conquer the prince we left there
+   with him many soldiers of Christ. Thence, continually following the
+   wicked Turks, we drove them through the midst of Armenia,[404] as
+   far as the great river Euphrates. Having left all their baggage and
+   beasts of burden on the bank, they fled across the river into
+   Arabia.
+
+     [Sidenote: The arrival at Antioch (1097)]
+
+   The bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria,
+   hastened by forced marches night and day, in order to be able to
+   enter the royal city of Antioch before our approach.[405] Hearing
+   of this, the whole army of God gave due praise and thanks to the
+   all-powerful Lord. Hastening with great joy to this chief city of
+   Antioch, we besieged it and there had a great number of conflicts
+   with the Turks; and seven times we fought with the citizens of the
+   city and with the innumerable troops all the time coming to their
+   aid. The latter we rushed out to meet and fought with the fiercest
+   courage under the leadership of Christ. And in all these seven
+   battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered and most
+   assuredly killed an innumerable host of them. In those battles,
+   indeed, and in very many attacks made upon the city, many of our
+   brethren and followers were killed and their souls were borne to
+   the joys of paradise.
+
+     [Sidenote: The beginning of the siege]
+
+   We found the city of Antioch very extensive, fortified with the
+   greatest strength and almost impossible to be taken. In addition,
+   more than 5,000 bold Turkish soldiers had entered the city, not
+   counting the Saracens, Publicans, Arabs, Turcopolitans, Syrians,
+   Armenians, and other different races of whom an infinite multitude
+   had gathered together there. In fighting against these enemies of
+   God and of us we have, by God's grace, endured many sufferings and
+   innumerable hardships up to the present time. Many also have
+   already exhausted all their means in this most holy enterprise.
+   Very many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a bodily death from
+   starvation, if the mercy of God and our money had not come to their
+   rescue. Lying before the city of Antioch, indeed, throughout the
+   whole winter we suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold
+   and enormous torrents of rain. What some say about the
+   impossibility of bearing the heat of the sun in Syria is untrue,
+   for the winter there is very similar to our winter in the West.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Christians defeated near the seashore]
+
+   I delight to tell you, dearest, what happened to us during Lent.
+   Our princes had caused a fortress to be built before a certain gate
+   which was between our camp and the sea. For the Turks, coming out
+   of this gate daily, killed some of our men on their way to the sea.
+   The city of Antioch is about five leagues distant from the sea. For
+   this purpose they sent the excellent Bohemond and Raymond, count of
+   St. Gilles,[406] to the sea with only sixty horsemen, in order
+   that they might bring mariners to aid in this work. When, however,
+   they were returning to us with these mariners, the Turks collected
+   an army, fell suddenly upon our two leaders, and forced them to a
+   perilous flight. In that unexpected fight we lost more than 500 of
+   our foot-soldiers--to the glory of God. Of our horsemen, however,
+   we lost only two, for certain.
+
+   On that same day, in order to receive our brethren with joy, and
+   entirely ignorant of their misfortunes, we went out to meet them.
+   When, however, we approached the above-mentioned gate of the city,
+   a mob of foot-soldiers and horsemen from Antioch, elated by the
+   victory which they had won, rushed upon us in the same manner.
+   Seeing these, our leaders went to the camp of the Christians to
+   order all to be ready to follow us into battle. In the meantime our
+   men gathered together and the scattered leaders, namely, Bohemond
+   and Raymond, with the remainder of their army came up and told of
+   the great misfortune which they had suffered.
+
+     [Sidenote: A notable victory over the Turks]
+
+   Our men, full of fury at these most evil tidings, prepared to die
+   for Christ and, deeply grieved for their brethren, rushed upon the
+   wicked Turks. They, enemies of God and of us, hastily fled before
+   us and attempted to enter the city. But by God's grace the affair
+   turned out very differently; for, when they tried to cross a bridge
+   built over the great river Moscholum,[407] we followed them as
+   closely as possible, killed many before they reached the bridge,
+   forced many into the river, all of whom were killed, and we also
+   slew many upon the bridge and very many at the narrow entrance to
+   the gate. I am telling you the truth, my beloved, and you may be
+   assured that in this battle we killed thirty emirs, that is,
+   princes, and three hundred other Turkish nobles, not counting the
+   remaining Turks and pagans. Indeed the number of Turks and
+   Saracens killed is reckoned at 1230, but of ours we did not lose a
+   single man.
+
+   On the following day (Easter), while my chaplain Alexander was
+   writing this letter in great haste, a party of our men lying in
+   wait for the Turks fought a successful battle with them and killed
+   sixty horsemen, whose heads they brought to the army.
+
+   These which I write to you are only a few things, dearest, of the
+   many which we have done; and because I am not able to tell you,
+   dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to watch
+   carefully over your land, and to do your duty as you ought to your
+   children and your vassals. You will certainly see me just as soon
+   as I can possibly return to you. Farewell.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[396] The term Turks is here used loosely and inaccurately for Asiatic
+pagan invaders in general. The French had never destroyed any
+"kingdoms of the Turks" in the proper sense of the word, though from
+time to time they had made successful resistance to Saracens, Avars
+and Hungarians.
+
+[397] Among the acts of the Council of Clermont had been a solemn
+confirmation of the Truce of God, with the purpose of restraining
+feudal warfare [see p. 228]. In the version of Urban's speech given by
+Fulcher of Chartres, the Pope is reported as saying that in some parts
+of France "hardly any one can venture to travel upon the highways, by
+night or day, without danger of attack by thieves or robbers; and no
+one is sure that his property at home or abroad will not be taken from
+him by the violence or craft of the wicked."
+
+[398] Pope Urban's appeal at the Council of Clermont.
+
+[399] The _penates_ of the Romans were household gods. William of
+Malmesbury here uses the term half-humorously to designate the various
+sorts of household articles which the crusaders thought they could not
+do without on the expedition, and hence undertook to carry with them.
+
+[400] This was in the summer of 1097. The whole body of crusaders,
+including monks, women, children, and hangers-on, may then have
+numbered three or four hundred thousand, but the effective fighting
+force was not likely over one hundred thousand men.
+
+[401] The crusaders reached Nicæa May 6, 1097. After a long siege the
+city surrendered, although to the Emperor Alexius rather than to the
+French.
+
+[402] This battle--the first pitched contest between the crusader and
+the Turk--was fought at Dorylæum, southeast of Nicæa.
+
+[403] Romania (or the sultanate of Roum) and Cappadocia were regions
+in northern Asia Minor.
+
+[404] The country immediately southeast of the Black Sea.
+
+[405] Antioch was one of the largest and most important cities of the
+East. It had been girdled with enormous walls by Justinian and was a
+strategic position of the greatest value to any power which would
+possess Syria and Palestine. The siege of the city by the crusaders
+began October 21, 1097.
+
+[406] Bohemond of Tarentum was the son of Robert Guiscard and the
+leader of the Norman contingent from Italy. Raymond of St. Gilles,
+count of Toulouse, was leader of the men from Languedoc in south
+France.
+
+[407] The modern Orontes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE GREAT CHARTER
+
+
+54. The Winning of the Charter
+
+The reign of King John (1199-1216) was an era of humiliation, though
+in the end one of triumph, for all classes of the English people. The
+king himself was perhaps the most unworthy sovereign who has ever
+occupied the English throne and one after another of his deeds and
+policies brought deep shame to every patriotic Englishman. His
+surrender to the papacy (1213) and his loss of the English possessions
+on the continent (1214) were only two of the most conspicuous results
+of his weakness and mismanagement. Indeed it was not these that
+touched the English people most closely, for after all it was rather
+their pride than their real interests that suffered by the king's
+homage to Innocent III. and his bitter defeat at Bouvines. Worse than
+these things were the heavy taxes and the illegal extortions of money,
+in which John went far beyond even his unscrupulous brother and
+predecessor, Richard. The king's expenses were very heavy, the more so
+by reason of his French wars, and to meet them he devised all manner
+of schemes for wringing money from his unwilling subjects. Land taxes
+were increased, scutage (payments in lieu of military service) was
+nearly doubled, levies of a thirteenth, a seventh, and other large
+fractions of the movable property of the realm were made, excessive
+fines were imposed, old feudal rights were revived and exercised in an
+arbitrary fashion, and property was confiscated on the shallowest of
+pretenses. Even the Church was by no means immune from the king's
+rapacity. The result of these high-handed measures was that all
+classes of the people--barons, clergy, and commons--were driven into
+an attitude of open protest. The leadership against the king fell
+naturally to the barons and it was directly in consequence of their
+action that John was brought, in 1215, to grant the Great Charter and
+to pledge himself to govern thereafter according to the ancient and
+just laws of the kingdom.
+
+The account of the winning of the Charter given below comes from the
+hand of Roger of Wendover, a monk of St. Albans, a monastery in
+Hertfordshire which was famous in the thirteenth century for its group
+of historians and annalists. It begins with the meeting of the barons
+at St. Edmunds in Suffolk late in November, 1214, and tells the story
+to the granting of the Charter at Runnymede, June 15, 1215. On this
+subject, as well as on the entire period of English history from 1189
+to 1235, Roger of Wendover is our principal contemporary authority.
+
+     Source--Rogerus de Wendover, _Chronica Majora, sive Liber qui
+     dicitur Flores Historiarum_ [Roger of Wendover, "Greater
+     Chronicle, or the Book which is called the Flowers of
+     History"]. Translated by J. A. Giles (London, 1849), Vol. II.,
+     pp. 303-324 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: A conference held by the barons against King John]
+
+   About this time the earls and barons of England assembled at St.
+   Edmunds, as if for religious duties, although it was for another
+   reason;[408] for after they had discoursed together secretly for a
+   time, there was placed before them the charter of King Henry the
+   First, which they had received, as mentioned before, in the city of
+   London from Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury.[409] This charter
+   contained certain liberties and laws granted to the holy Church as
+   well as to the nobles of the kingdom, besides some liberties which
+   the king added of his own accord. All therefore assembled in the
+   church of St. Edmund, the king and martyr, and, commencing with
+   those of the highest rank, they all swore on the great altar that,
+   if the king refused to grant these liberties and laws, they
+   themselves would withdraw from their allegiance to him, and make
+   war on him until he should, by a charter under his own seal,
+   confirm to them everything that they required; and finally it was
+   unanimously agreed that, after Christmas, they should all go
+   together to the king and demand the confirmation of the aforesaid
+   liberties to them, and that they should in the meantime provide
+   themselves with horses and arms, so that if the king should
+   endeavor to depart from his oath they might, by taking his castles,
+   compel him to satisfy their demands; and having arranged this, each
+   man returned home....
+
+     [Sidenote: They demand a confirmation of the old liberties]
+
+     [Sidenote: A truce arranged]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 1215, which was the seventeenth year of the
+   reign of King John, he held his court at Winchester at Christmas
+   for one day, after which he hurried to London, and took up his
+   abode at the New Temple;[410] and at that place the above-mentioned
+   nobles came to him in gay military array, and demanded the
+   confirmation of the liberties and laws of King Edward, with other
+   liberties granted to them and to the kingdom and church of England,
+   as were contained in the charter, and above-mentioned laws of Henry
+   the First. They also asserted that, at the time of his absolution
+   at Winchester,[411] he had promised to restore those laws and
+   ancient liberties, and was bound by his own oath to observe them.
+   The king, hearing the bold tone of the barons in making this
+   demand, much feared an attack from them, as he saw that they were
+   prepared for battle. He, however, made answer that their demands
+   were a matter of importance and difficulty, and he therefore asked
+   a truce until the end of Easter, that, after due deliberation, he
+   might be able to satisfy them as well as the dignity of his crown.
+   After much discussion on both sides, the king at length, although
+   unwillingly, procured the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of
+   Ely, and William Marshal, as his sureties that on the day agreed
+   upon he would, in all reason, satisfy them all; on which the nobles
+   returned to their homes. The king, however, wishing to take
+   precautions against the future, caused all the nobles throughout
+   England to swear fealty to him alone against all men, and to renew
+   their homage to him; and, the better to take care of himself, on
+   the day of St. Mary's purification, he assumed the cross of our
+   Lord, being induced to this more by fear than devotion....[412]
+
+     [Sidenote: The truce at an end]
+
+     [Sidenote: The preliminary demands of the barons]
+
+   In Easter week of this same year, the above-mentioned nobles
+   assembled at Stamford,[413] with horses and arms. They had now
+   induced almost all the nobility of the whole kingdom to join them,
+   and constituted a very large army; for in their army there were
+   computed to be two thousand knights, besides horse-soldiers,
+   attendants, and foot-soldiers, who were variously equipped.... The
+   king at this time was awaiting the arrival of his nobles at
+   Oxford.[414] On the Monday next after the octave of Easter,[415]
+   the said barons assembled in the town of Brackley.[416] And when
+   the king learned this, he sent the archbishop of Canterbury and
+   William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, with some other prudent men, to
+   them to inquire what the laws and liberties were which they
+   demanded. The barons then delivered to the messengers a paper,
+   containing in great measure the laws and ancient customs of the
+   kingdom, and declared that, unless the king immediately granted
+   them and confirmed them under his own seal, they, by taking
+   possession of his fortresses, would force him to give them
+   sufficient satisfaction as to their before-named demands. The
+   archbishop, with his fellow messengers, then carried the paper to
+   the king, and read to him the heads of the paper one by one
+   throughout. The king, when he heard the purport of these heads,
+   said derisively, with the greatest indignation, "Why, amongst these
+   unjust demands, did not the barons ask for my kingdom also? Their
+   demands are vain and visionary, and are unsupported by any plea of
+   reason whatever." And at length he angrily declared with an oath
+   that he would never grant them such liberties as would render him
+   their slave. The principal of these laws and liberties which the
+   nobles required to be confirmed to them are partly described above
+   in the charter of King Henry,[417] and partly are extracted from
+   the old laws of King Edward,[418] as the following history will
+   show in due time.
+
+     [Sidenote: The castle of Northampton besieged by the barons]
+
+   As the archbishop and William Marshal could not by any persuasion
+   induce the king to agree to their demands, they returned by the
+   king's order to the barons, and duly reported to them all that they
+   had heard from the king. And when the nobles heard what John said,
+   they appointed Robert Fitz-Walter commander of their soldiers,
+   giving him the title of "Marshal of the Army of God and the Holy
+   Church," and then, one and all flying to arms, they directed their
+   forces toward Northampton.[419] On their arrival there they at once
+   laid siege to the castle, but after having stayed there for fifteen
+   days, and having gained little or no advantage, they determined to
+   move their camp. Having come without _petrariæ_[420] and other
+   engines of war, they, without accomplishing their purpose,
+   proceeded in confusion to the castle of Bedford....[421]
+
+     [Sidenote: The city of London given over to the barons]
+
+   When the army of the barons arrived at Bedford, they were received
+   with all respect by William de Beauchamp.[422] Messengers from the
+   city of London also came to them there, secretly telling them, if
+   they wished to get into that city, to come there immediately. The
+   barons, encouraged by the arrival of this agreeable message,
+   immediately moved their camp and arrived at Ware. After this they
+   marched the whole night and arrived early in the morning at the
+   city of London, and, finding the gates open, on the 24th of May
+   (which was the Sunday next before our Lord's ascension) they
+   entered the city without any tumult while the inhabitants were
+   performing divine service; for the rich citizens were favorable to
+   the barons, and the poor ones were afraid to murmur against them.
+   The barons, having thus got into the city, placed their own guards
+   in charge of each of the gates, and then arranged all matters in
+   the city at will.[423] They then took security from the citizens,
+   and sent letters through England to those earls, barons, and
+   knights who appeared to be still faithful to the king (though they
+   only pretended to be so) and advised them with threats, as they had
+   regard for the safety of all their property and possessions, to
+   abandon a king who was perjured and who made war against his
+   barons, and together with them to stand firm and fight against the
+   king for their rights and for peace; and that, if they refused to
+   do this, they, the barons, would make war against them all, as
+   against open enemies, and would destroy their castles, burn their
+   houses and other buildings, and pillage their warrens, parks, and
+   orchards.... The greatest part of these, on receiving the message
+   of the barons, set out to London and joined them, abandoning the
+   king entirely....
+
+     [Sidenote: The conference between the king and the barons]
+
+     [Sidenote: The charter granted at Runnymede]
+
+   King John, when he saw that he was deserted by almost all, so that
+   out of his regal superabundance of followers he retained scarcely
+   seven knights, was much alarmed lest the barons should attack his
+   castles and reduce them without difficulty, as they would find no
+   obstacle to their so doing. He deceitfully pretended to make peace
+   for a time with the aforesaid barons, and sent William Marshal,
+   earl of Pembroke, with other trustworthy messengers, to them, and
+   told them that, for the sake of peace and for the exaltation and
+   honor of the kingdom, he would willingly grant them the laws and
+   liberties they demanded. He sent also a request to the barons by
+   these same messengers that they appoint a suitable day and place to
+   meet and carry all these matters into effect. The king's messengers
+   then came in all haste to London, and without deceit, reported to
+   the barons all that had been deceitfully imposed on them. They in
+   their great joy appointed the fifteenth of June for the king to
+   meet them, at a field lying between Staines and Windsor.[424]
+   Accordingly, at the time and place agreed upon the king and nobles
+   came to the appointed conference, and when each party had stationed
+   itself some distance from the other, they began a long discussion
+   about terms of peace and the aforesaid liberties.... At length,
+   after various points on both sides had been discussed, King John,
+   seeing that he was inferior in strength to the barons, without
+   raising any difficulty, granted the underwritten laws and
+   liberties, and confirmed them by his charter as follows:--
+
+   [Here ensues the Charter.]
+
+
+55. Extracts from the Charter
+
+No document in the history of any nation is more important than the
+Great Charter; in the words of Bishop Stubbs, the whole of the
+constitutional history of England is only one long commentary upon it.
+Its importance lay not merely in the fact that it was won from an
+unwilling sovereign by the united action of nobles, clergy, and
+people, but also in the admirable summary which it embodies of the
+fundamental principles of English government, so far as they had
+ripened by the early years of the thirteenth century. The charter
+contained almost nothing that was not old. It was not even an
+instrument, like the Constitution of the United States, providing for
+the creation of a new government. It merely sought to gather up within
+a single reasonably brief document all the important principles which
+the best of the English sovereigns had recognized, but which such
+rulers as Richard and John had lately been improving every opportunity
+to evade. The primary purpose of the barons in forcing the king to
+grant the charter was not to get a new form of government or code of
+laws, but simply to obtain a remedy for certain concrete abuses, to
+resist the encroachments of the crown upon the traditional liberties
+of Englishmen, and to get a full and definite confirmation of these
+liberties in black and white. Not a new constitution was wanted, but
+good government in conformity with the old one. Naturally enough,
+therefore, the charter of 1215 was based in most of its important
+provisions upon that granted by Henry I. in 1100, even as this one was
+based on the righteous laws of the good Edward the Confessor. And
+after the same manner the charter of King John, in its turn, became
+the foundation for all future resistance of Englishmen to the evils of
+misgovernment, so that very soon it came naturally to be called _Magna
+Charta_--the Great Charter--by which designation it is known to this
+day.
+
+King John was in no true sense the author of the charter. Many weeks
+before the meeting at Runnymede the barons had drawn up their demands
+in written form, and when that meeting occurred they were ready to lay
+before the sovereign a formal document, in forty-nine chapters, to
+which they simply requested his assent. This preliminary document was
+discussed and worked over, the number of chapters being increased to
+sixty-two, but the charter as finally agreed upon differed from it
+only in minor details. It is a mistake to think of John as "signing"
+the charter after the fashion of modern sovereigns. There is no
+evidence that he could write, and at any rate he acquiesced in the
+terms of the charter only by having his seal affixed to the paper. The
+original "Articles of the Barons" is still preserved in the British
+Museum, but there is no _one_ original Magna Charta in existence.
+Duplicate copies of the document were made for distribution among the
+barons, and papers which are generally supposed to represent four of
+these still exist, two being in the British Museum.
+
+The charter makes a lengthy document and many parts of it are too
+technical to be of service in this book; hence only a few of the most
+important chapters are here given. Translations of the entire document
+from the original Latin may be found in many places, among them the
+University of Pennsylvania _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I., No.
+6; Lee, _Source Book of English History_, 169-180; Adams and Stephens,
+_Select Documents Illustrative of English Constitutional History_, pp.
+42-52; and the _Old South Leaflets_, No. 5.
+
+     Source--Text in William Stubbs, _Select Charters Illustrative
+     of English Constitutional History_ (8th ed., Oxford, 1895),
+     pp. 296-306. Adapted from translation in Sheldon Amos, _Primer
+     of the English Constitution and Government_ (London, 1895),
+     pp. 189-201 _passim_.
+
+   John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke
+   of Normandy, Aquitane, and count of Anjou, to his archbishops,
+   bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciaries, foresters, sheriffs,
+   governors, officers, and to all bailiffs, and his faithful
+   subjects, greeting. Know ye, that we, in the presence of God, and
+   for the salvation of our soul, and the souls of all our ancestors
+   and heirs, and unto the honor of God and the advancement of Holy
+   Church, and amendment of our Realm, ... have, in the first place,
+   granted to God, and by this our present Charter confirmed, for us
+   and our heirs forever:
+
+     [Sidenote: Liberties of the English Church guaranteed]
+
+   =1.= That the Church of England shall be free, and have her whole
+   rights, and her liberties inviolable; and we will have them so
+   observed that it may appear thence that the freedom of elections,
+   which is reckoned chief and indispensable to the English Church,
+   and which we granted and confirmed by our Charter, and obtained the
+   confirmation of the same from our Lord Pope Innocent III., before
+   the discord between us and our barons, was granted of mere free
+   will; which Charter we shall observe, and we do desire it to be
+   faithfully observed by our heirs forever.[425]
+
+     [Sidenote: The rate of reliefs]
+
+   =2.= We also have granted to all the freemen of our kingdom, for us
+   and for our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties, to be
+   had and holden by them and their heirs, of us and our heirs
+   forever. If any of our earls, or barons, or others who hold of us
+   in chief by military service,[426] shall die, and at the time of
+   his death his heir shall be of full age, and owe a relief, he shall
+   have his inheritance by the ancient relief--that is to say, the
+   heir or heirs of an earl, for a whole earldom, by a hundred pounds;
+   the heir or heirs of a knight, for a whole knight's fee, by a
+   hundred shillings at most; and whoever oweth less shall give less,
+   according to the ancient custom of fees.[427]
+
+   =3.= But if the heir of any such shall be under age, and shall be
+   in ward, when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance without
+   relief and without fine.[428]
+
+     [Sidenote: The three aids]
+
+   =12.= No scutage[429] or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom,
+   unless by the general council of our kingdom;[430] except for
+   ransoming our person, making our eldest son a knight, and once for
+   marrying our eldest daughter; and for these there shall be paid no
+   more than a reasonable aid. In like manner it shall be concerning
+   the aids of the City of London.[431]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Great Council]
+
+   =14.= And for holding the general council of the kingdom concerning
+   the assessment of aids, except in the three cases aforesaid, and
+   for the assessing of scutage, we shall cause to be summoned the
+   archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons of the
+   realm, singly by our letters. And furthermore, we shall cause to be
+   summoned generally, by our sheriffs and bailiffs, all others who
+   hold of us in chief, for a certain day, that is to say, forty days
+   before their meeting at least, and to a certain place. And in all
+   letters of such summons we will declare the cause of such summons.
+   And summons being thus made, the business shall proceed on the day
+   appointed, according to the advice of such as shall be present,
+   although all that were summoned come not.[432]
+
+   =15.= We will not in the future grant to any one that he may take
+   aid of his own free tenants, except to ransom his body, and to make
+   his eldest son a knight, and once to marry his eldest daughter; and
+   for this there shall be paid only a reasonable aid.[433]
+
+   =36.= Nothing from henceforth shall be given or taken for a writ of
+   inquisition of life or limb, but it shall be granted freely, and
+   not denied.[434]
+
+   =39.= No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseised,[435]
+   or outlawed,[436] or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we
+   pass upon him, nor will we send upon him,[437] unless by the lawful
+   judgment of his peers,[438] or by the law of the land.[439]
+
+   =40.= We will sell to no man, we will not deny to any man, either
+   justice or right.[440]
+
+     [Sidenote: Freedom of commercial intercourse]
+
+   =41.= All merchants shall have safe and secure conduct to go out
+   of, and to come into, England, and to stay there and to pass as
+   well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient and
+   allowed customs, without any unjust tolls, except in time of war,
+   or when they are of any nation at war with us. And if there be
+   found any such in our land, in the beginning of the war, they shall
+   be detained, without damage to their bodies or goods, until it be
+   known to us, or to our chief justiciary, how our merchants be
+   treated in the nation at war with us; and if ours be safe there,
+   the others shall be safe in our dominions.[441]
+
+   =42.= It shall be lawful, for the time to come, for any one to go
+   out of our kingdom and return safely and securely by land or by
+   water, saving his allegiance to us (unless in time of war, by some
+   short space, for the common benefit of the realm), except prisoners
+   and outlaws, according to the law of the land, and people in war
+   with us, and merchants who shall be treated as is above
+   mentioned.[442]
+
+   =51.= As soon as peace is restored, we will send out of the kingdom
+   all foreign knights, cross-bowmen, and stipendiaries, who are come
+   with horses and arms to the molestation of our people.[443]
+
+   =60.= All the aforesaid customs and liberties, which we have
+   granted to be holden in our kingdom, as much as it belongs to us,
+   all people of our kingdom, as well clergy as laity, shall observe,
+   as far as they are concerned, towards their dependents.[444]
+
+     [Sidenote: How the charter was to be enforced]
+
+   =61.= And whereas, for the honor of God and the amendment of our
+   kingdom, and for the better quieting the discord that has arisen
+   between us and our barons, we have granted all these things
+   aforesaid. Willing to render them firm and lasting, we do give and
+   grant our subjects the underwritten security, namely, that the
+   barons may choose five and twenty barons of the kingdom, whom they
+   think convenient, who shall take care, with all their might, to
+   hold and observe, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties
+   we have granted them, and by this our present Charter
+   confirmed....[445]
+
+   =63.= ... It is also sworn, as well on our part as on the part of
+   the barons, that all the things aforesaid shall be observed in good
+   faith, and without evil duplicity. Given under our hand, in the
+   presence of the witnesses above named, and many others, in the
+   meadow called Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, the 15th day
+   of June, in the 17th year of our reign.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[408] The barons attended the meeting under the pretense of making a
+religious pilgrimage.
+
+[409] This charter, granted at the coronation of Henry I. in 1100,
+contained a renunciation of the evil practices which had marked the
+government of William the Conqueror and William Rufus. It was from
+this document mainly that the barons in 1215 drew their constitutional
+programme.
+
+[410] The Knights Templars, having purchased all that part of the
+banks of the Thames lying between Whitefriars and Essex Street,
+erected on it a magnificent structure which was known as the New
+Temple, in distinction from the Old Temple on the south side of
+Holborn. Meetings of Parliament and of the king's council were
+frequently held in the New Temple; here also were kept the crown
+jewels. Ultimately, after the suppression of the Templars by Edward
+II., the Temple became one of England's most celebrated schools of
+law.
+
+[411] This refers to the king's absolution at the hands of Stephen
+Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, July 20, 1213, after his submission
+to the papacy. At that time John took an oath on the Bible to the
+effect that he would restore the good laws of his forefathers and
+render to all men their rights.
+
+[412] The exact day upon which John took the crusader's vow is
+uncertain. It was probably Ash Wednesday (March 4), 1215. The king's
+object was in part to get the personal protection which the sanctity
+of the vow carried with it and in part to enlist the sympathies of the
+Pope and make it appear that the barons were guilty of interfering
+with a crusade.
+
+[413] On the southern border of Lincolnshire.
+
+[414] On the Thames in Oxfordshire. This statement of the chronicler
+is incorrect. John was yet in London.
+
+[415] Octave means the period of eight days following a religious
+festival. This Monday was April 27.
+
+[416] Brackley is about twenty-two miles north of Oxford.
+
+[417] Henry I.'s charter, 1100.
+
+[418] Edward the Confessor, king from 1042 to 1066.
+
+[419] In the county of Northampton, in central England.
+
+[420] Engines for hurling stones.
+
+[421] About twenty miles southeast of Northampton.
+
+[422] The commander of Bedford Castle.
+
+[423] The loss of London by the king was a turning point in the
+contest. Thereafter the barons' party gained rapidly and its complete
+success was only a question of time.
+
+[424] Runnymede, on the Thames.
+
+[425] The charter referred to, in which the liberties of the Church
+were confirmed, was granted in November, 1214, and renewed in
+January, 1215. It was in the nature of a bribe offered the clergy by
+the king in the hope of winning their support in his struggle with the
+barons. The liberty granted was particularly that of "canonical
+election," i.e., the privilege of the cathedral chapters to elect
+bishops without being dominated in their choice by the king. Henry
+I.'s charter (1100) contained a similar provision, but it had not been
+observed in practice.
+
+[426] Tenants _in capite_, i.e., men holding land directly from the
+king on condition of military service.
+
+[427] The object of this chapter is, in general, to prevent the
+exaction of excessive reliefs. The provision of Henry I.'s charter
+that reliefs should be just and reasonable had become a dead letter.
+
+[428] During the heir's minority the king received the profits of the
+estate; in consequence of this the payment of relief by such an heir
+was to be remitted.
+
+[429] Scutage (from _scutum_, shield) was payment made to the king by
+persons who owed military service but preferred to give money instead.
+Scutage levied by John had been excessively heavy.
+
+[430] The General, or Great, Council was a feudal body made up of the
+king's tenants-in-chief, both greater and lesser lords. This chapter
+puts a definite, even though not very far-reaching, limitation upon
+the royal power of taxation, and so looks forward in a way to the
+later regime of taxation by Parliament.
+
+[431] London had helped the barons secure the charter and was rewarded
+by being specifically included in its provisions.
+
+[432] Here we have a definite statement as to the composition of the
+Great Council. The distinction between greater and lesser barons is
+mentioned as early as the times of Henry I. (1100-1135). In a general
+way it may be said that the greater barons (together with the greater
+clergy) developed into the House of Lords and the lesser ones, along
+with the ordinary free-holders, became the "knights of the shire," who
+so long made up the backbone of the Commons. In the thirteenth century
+comparatively few of the lesser barons attended the meetings of the
+Council. Attendance was expensive and they were not greatly interested
+in the body's proceedings. It should be noted that the Great Council
+was in no sense a legislative assembly.
+
+[433] It is significant that the provisions of the charter which
+prohibit feudal exactions were made by the barons to apply to
+themselves as well as to the king.
+
+[434] This is an important legal enactment whose purpose is to prevent
+prolonged imprisonment, without trial, of persons accused of serious
+crime. A person accused of murder, for example, could not be set at
+liberty under bail, but he could apply for a writ _de odio et âtia_
+("concerning hatred and malice") which directed the sheriff to make
+inquest by jury as to whether the accusation had been brought by
+reason of hatred and malice. If the jury decided that the accusation
+had been so brought, the accused person could be admitted to bail
+until the time for his regular trial. This will occur to one as being
+very similar to the principle of _habeas corpus_. John had been
+charging heavy fees for these writs _de odio et âtia_, or "writs of
+inquisition of life and limb," as they are called in the charter;
+henceforth they were to be issued freely.
+
+[435] To disseise a person is to dispossess him of his freehold
+rights.
+
+[436] Henceforth a person could be outlawed, i.e., declared out of the
+protection of the law, only by the regular courts.
+
+[437] That is, use force upon him, as John had frequently done.
+
+[438] The term "peers," as here used, means simply equals in rank. The
+present clause does not yet imply trial by jury in the modern sense.
+It comprises simply a narrow, feudal demand of the nobles to be judged
+by other nobles, rather than by lawyers or clerks. Jury trial was
+increasingly common in the thirteenth century, but it was not
+guaranteed in the Great Charter.
+
+[439] This chapter is commonly regarded as the most important in the
+charter. It undertakes to prevent arbitrary imprisonment and to
+protect private property by laying down a fundamental principle of
+government which John had been constantly violating and which very
+clearly marked the line of distinction between a limited and an
+absolute monarchy.
+
+[440] The principle is here asserted that justice in the courts should
+be open to all, and without the payment of money to get judgment
+hastened or delayed. Extortions of this character did not cease in
+1215, but they became less exorbitant and arbitrary.
+
+[441] The object of this chapter is to encourage commerce by
+guaranteeing foreign merchants the same treatment that English
+merchants received in foreign countries. The tolls imposed on traders
+by the cities, however, were not affected and they continued a serious
+obstacle for some centuries.
+
+[442] This chapter provides that, except under the special
+circumstances of war, any law-abiding Englishman might go abroad
+freely, provided only he should remain loyal to the English crown. The
+rule thus established continued in effect until 1382, when it was
+enacted that such privileges should belong only to lords, merchants,
+and soldiers.
+
+[443] During the struggle with the barons, John had brought in a
+number of foreign mercenary soldiers or "stipendiaries." All classes
+of Englishmen resented this policy and the barons improved the
+opportunity offered by the charter to get a promise from the king to
+dispense with his continental mercenaries as quickly as possible.
+
+[444] This chapter provides that the charter's regulation of feudal
+customs should apply to the barons just as to the king. The barons'
+tenants were to be protected from oppression precisely as were the
+barons themselves. These tenants had helped in the winning of the
+charter and were thus rewarded for their services.
+
+[445] The chapter goes on at considerable length to specify the manner
+in which, if the king should violate the terms of the charter, the
+commission of twenty-five barons should proceed to bring him to
+account. Even the right of making war was given them, in case it
+should become necessary to resort to such an extreme measure.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS
+
+
+56. The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by Joinville
+
+Louis IX., or St. Louis, as he is commonly called, was the eldest son
+of Louis VIII. and a grandson of Philip Augustus. He was born in 1214
+and upon the death of his father in 1226 he succeeded to the throne of
+France while yet but a boy of twelve. The recent reign of Philip
+Augustus (1180-1223) had been a period marked by a great increase in
+the royal power and by a corresponding lessening of the independent
+authority of the feudal magnates. The accession of a boy-king was
+therefore hailed by the discontented nobles as an opportunity to
+recover something at least of their lost privileges. It would
+doubtless have been such but for the vigilance, ability, and masculine
+aggressiveness of the young king's mother, Blanche of Castile. Aided
+by the clergy and the loyal party among the nobles, she, in the
+capacity of regent, successfully defended her son's interests against
+a succession of plots and uprisings, with the result that when Louis
+gradually assumed control of affairs in his own name, about 1236, the
+realm was in good order and the dangers which once had been so
+threatening had all but disappeared. The king's education and moral
+training had been well attended to, and he arrived at manhood with
+an equipment quite unusual among princes of his day. His reign
+extended to 1270 and became in some respects the most notable in all
+French history. In fact, whether viewed from the standpoint of his
+personal character or his practical achievements, St. Louis is
+generally admitted to have been one of the most remarkable sovereigns
+of mediæval Europe. He was famous throughout Christendom for his
+piety, justice, wisdom, and ability, being recognized as at once a
+devoted monk, a brave knight, and a capable king. In him were blended
+two qualities--vigorous activity and proneness to austere
+meditation--rarely combined in such measure in one person. His
+character may be summed up by saying that he had all the virtues of
+his age and few of its vices. No less cynical a critic than Voltaire
+has declared that he went as far in goodness as it is possible for a
+man to go.
+
+Saint Louis being thus so interesting a character in himself, it is
+very fortunate that we have an excellent contemporary biography of
+him, from the hand of a friend and companion who knew him well. Sire
+de Joinville's _Histoire de Saint Louis_ is a classic of French
+literature and in most respects the best piece of biographical writing
+that has come down to us from the Middle Ages. Joinville, or more
+properly John, lord of Joinville, was born in Champagne, in northern
+France, probably in 1225. His family was one of the most distinguished
+in Champagne and he himself had all the advantages that could come
+from being brought up at the refined court of the count of this
+favored district. In 1248, when St. Louis set out on his first
+crusading expedition, Joinville, only recently become of age, took the
+cross and became a follower of the king, joining him in Cyprus and
+there first definitely entering his service. During the next six years
+the two were inseparable companions, and even after Joinville, in
+1254, retired from the king's service in order to manage his estates
+in Champagne he long continued to make frequent visits of a social
+character to the court.
+
+Joinville's memoirs of St. Louis were completed about 1309--probably
+nine years before the death of the author--and they were first
+published soon after the death of Philip the Fair in 1314. They
+constitute by far the most important source of information on the
+history of France in the middle portion of the thirteenth century.
+Joinville had the great advantage of intimate acquaintance and long
+association with King Louis and, what is equally important, he seems
+to have tried to write in a spirit of perfect fairness and justice. He
+was an ardent admirer of Louis, but his biography did not fall into
+the tempting channel of mere fulsome and indiscriminate praise.
+Moreover, the work is a biography of the only really satisfactory
+type; it is not taken up with a bare recital of events in the life of
+the individual under consideration, but it has a broad background
+drawn from the general historical movements and conditions of the
+time. Its most obvious defects arise from the fact that it comprises
+largely the reminiscences of an old man, which are never likely to be
+entirely accurate or well-balanced. In his dedication of the treatise
+to Louis, eldest son of Philip IV., the author relates that it had
+been written at the urgent solicitation of the deceased king's widow.
+
+The biography in print makes a good-sized volume and it is possible,
+of course, to reproduce here but a few significant passages from it.
+But these are perhaps sufficient to show what sort of man the
+saint-king really was, and it is just this insight into the character
+of the men of the Middle Ages that is most worth getting--and the
+hardest thing, as a rule, to get. Incidentally, the extract throws
+some light on the methods of warfare employed by the crusaders and the
+Turks.
+
+     Source--Jean, Sire de Joinville, _Histoire de Saint Louis_.
+     Text edited by M. Joseph Noël (Natalis de Wailly) and
+     published by the Société de l'Histoire de France (Paris,
+     1868). Translated by James Hutton under title of _Saint Louis,
+     King of France_ (London, 1868), _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The king's birth]
+
+   As I have heard him say, he [Saint Louis] was born on the day of
+   St. Mark the Evangelist,[446] shortly after Easter. On that day the
+   cross is carried in procession in many places, and in France they
+   are called black crosses. It was therefore a sort of prophecy of
+   the great numbers of people who perished in those two crusades,
+   i.e., in that to Egypt, and in that other, in the course of which
+   he died at Carthage;[447] for many great sorrows were there on that
+   account in this world, and many great joys are there now in
+   Paradise on the part of those who in those two pilgrimages died
+   true crusaders.
+
+     [Sidenote: His early training]
+
+   God, in whom he put his trust, preserved him ever from his infancy
+   to the very last; and especially in his infancy did He preserve him
+   when he stood in need of help, as you will presently hear. As for
+   his soul, God preserved it through the pious instructions of his
+   mother, who taught him to believe in God and to love Him, and
+   placed about him none but ministers of religion. And she made him,
+   while he was yet a child, attend to all his prayers and listen to
+   the sermons on saints' days. He remembered that his mother used
+   sometimes to tell him that she would rather he were dead than that
+   he should commit a deadly sin.
+
+     [Sidenote: Difficulties at the beginning of his reign]
+
+   Sore need of God's help had he in his youth, for his mother, who
+   came out of Spain, had neither relatives nor friends in all the
+   realm of France. And because the barons of France saw that the king
+   was an infant, and the queen, his mother, a foreigner, they made
+   the count of Boulogne, the king's uncle, their chief, and looked up
+   to him as their lord.[448] After the king was crowned, some of the
+   barons asked of the queen to bestow upon them large domains; and
+   because she would do nothing of the kind all the barons assembled
+   at Corbei.[449] And the sainted king related to me how neither he
+   nor his mother, who were at Montlhéri,[450] dared to return to
+   Paris, until the citizens of Paris came, with arms in their hands,
+   to escort them. He told me, too, that from Montlhéri to Paris the
+   road was filled with people, some with and some without weapons,
+   and that all cried unto our Lord to give him a long and happy life,
+   and to defend and preserve him from his enemies....
+
+     [Sidenote: Louis takes the cross]
+
+   After these things it chanced, as it pleased God, that great
+   illness fell upon the king at Paris, by which he was brought to
+   such extremity that one of the women who watched by his side wanted
+   to draw the sheet over his face, saying that he was dead; but
+   another woman, who was on the other side of the bed, would not
+   suffer it, for the soul, she said, had not yet left the body. While
+   he was listening to the dispute between these two, our Lord wrought
+   upon him and quickly sent him health; for before that he was dumb,
+   and could not speak. He demanded that the cross should be given to
+   him, and it was done. When the queen, his mother, heard that he had
+   recovered his speech, she exhibited as much joy as could be; but
+   when she was told by himself that he had taken the cross, she
+   displayed as much grief as if she had seen him dead.
+
+     [Sidenote: Prominent Frenchmen who followed his example]
+
+   After the king put on the cross, Robert, count of Artois, Alphonse,
+   count of Poitiers, Charles, count of Anjou, who was afterwards king
+   of Sicily--all three brothers of the king--also took the cross; as
+   likewise did Hugh, duke of Burgundy, William, count of Flanders
+   (brother to Count Guy of Flanders, the last who died), the good
+   Hugh, count of Saint Pol, and Monseigneur Walter, his nephew, who
+   bore himself right manfully beyond seas, and would have been of
+   great worth had he lived. There was also the count of La Marche,
+   and Monseigneur Hugh le Brun, his son; the count of Sarrebourg, and
+   Monseigneur d'Apremont, his brother, in whose company I myself,
+   John, Seigneur de Joinville, crossed the sea in a ship we
+   chartered, because we were cousins; and we crossed over in all
+   twenty knights, nine of whom followed the count of Sarrebourg, and
+   nine were with me....
+
+   The king summoned his barons to Paris, and made them swear to keep
+   faith and loyalty towards his children if anything happened to
+   himself on the voyage. He asked the same of me, but I refused to
+   take any oath, because I was not his vassal....
+
+     [Sidenote: Embarking on the Mediterranean]
+
+   In the month of August we went on board our ships at the Rock of
+   Marseilles. The day we embarked the door of the vessel was opened,
+   and the horses that we were to take with us were led inside. Then
+   they fastened the door and closed it up tightly, as when one sinks
+   a cask, because when the ship is at sea the whole of the door is
+   under water. When the horses were in, our sailing-master called out
+   to his mariners who were at the prow: "Are you all ready?" And they
+   replied: "Sir, let the clerks and priests come forward." As soon
+   as they had come nigh, he shouted to them; "Chant, in God's name!"
+   And they with one voice chanted, "_Veni, Creator Spiritus._" Then
+   the master called out to his men: "Set sail, in God's name!" And
+   they did so. And in a little time the wind struck the sails and
+   carried us out of sight of land, so that we saw nothing but sea and
+   sky; and every day the wind bore us farther away from the land
+   where we were born. And thereby I show you how foolhardy he must be
+   who would venture to put himself in such peril with other people's
+   property in his possession, or while in deadly sin; for when you
+   fall asleep at night you know not but that ere the morning you may
+   be at the bottom of the sea.
+
+     [Sidenote: Preparations made in Cyprus]
+
+   When we reached Cyprus, the king was already there, and we found an
+   immense supply of stores for him, i.e., wine-stores and granaries.
+   The king's wine-stores consisted of great piles of casks of wine,
+   which his people had purchased two years before the king's arrival
+   and placed in an open field near the seashore. They had piled them
+   one upon the other, so that when seen from the front they looked
+   like a farmhouse. The wheat and barley had been heaped up in the
+   middle of the field, and at first sight looked like hills; for the
+   rain, which had long beaten upon the corn, had caused it to sprout,
+   so that nothing was seen but green herbage. But when it was desired
+   to transport it to Egypt, they broke off the outer coating with the
+   green herbage, and the wheat and barley within were found as fresh
+   as if they had only just been threshed out.
+
+     [Sidenote: An embassy from the Khan]
+
+   The king, as I have heard him say, would gladly have pushed on to
+   Egypt without stopping, had not his barons advised him to wait for
+   his army, which had not all arrived. While the king was sojourning
+   in Cyprus, the great Khan of Tartary[451] sent envoys to him, the
+   bearers of very courteous messages. Among other things, he told him
+   that he was ready to aid him in conquering the Holy Land and in
+   delivering Jerusalem out of the hands of the Saracens. The king
+   received the messengers very graciously, and sent some to the Khan,
+   who were two years absent before they could return. And with his
+   messengers the king sent to the Khan a tent fashioned like a
+   chapel, which cost a large sum of money, for it was made of fine
+   rich scarlet cloth. And the king, in the hope of drawing the Khan's
+   people to our faith, caused to be embroidered inside the chapel,
+   pictures representing the Annunciation of Our Lady, and other
+   articles of faith. And he sent these things to them by the hands of
+   two friars, who spoke the Saracen language, to teach and point out
+   to them what they ought to believe....
+
+     [Sidenote: The departure from Cyprus]
+
+   As soon as March came round, the king, and, by his command, the
+   barons and other pilgrims, gave orders that the ships should be
+   laden with wine and provisions, to be ready to sail when the king
+   should give the signal. It happened that when everything was ready,
+   the king and queen withdrew on board their ship on the Friday
+   before Whitsunday, and the king desired his barons to follow in his
+   wake straight towards Egypt. On Saturday[452] the king set sail,
+   and all the other vessels at the same time, which was a fine sight
+   to behold, for it seemed as if the whole sea, as far as the eye
+   could reach, was covered with sails, and the number of ships,
+   great and small, was reckoned at 1,800....[453]
+
+     [Sidenote: Decision to proceed against Cairo]
+
+   Upon the arrival of the count of Poitiers, the king summoned all
+   the barons of the army to decide in what direction he should march,
+   whether towards Alexandria, or towards Babylon.[454] It resulted
+   that the good Count Peter of Brittany, and most of the barons of
+   the army, were of the opinion that the king should lay siege to
+   Alexandria, because that city is possessed of a good port where the
+   vessels could lie that should bring provisions for the army. To
+   this the count of Artois was opposed. He said that he could not
+   advise going anywhere except to Babylon, because that was the chief
+   town in all the realm of Egypt; he added, that whosoever wished to
+   kill a serpent outright should crush its head. The king set aside
+   the advice of his barons, and held to that of his brother.
+
+   At the beginning of Advent, the king set out with his army to march
+   against Babylon, as the count of Artois had counseled him. Not far
+   from Damietta we came upon a stream of water which issued from the
+   great river [Nile], and it was resolved that the army should halt
+   for a day to dam up this branch, so that it might be crossed. The
+   thing was done easily enough, for the arm was dammed up close to
+   the great river. At the passage of this stream the sultan sent 500
+   of his knights, the best mounted in his whole army, to harass the
+   king's troops, and retard our march.
+
+     [Sidenote: A skirmish between the Saracens and the Templars]
+
+   On St. Nicholas's day[455] the king gave the order to march and
+   forbade that any one should be so bold as to sally out upon the
+   Saracens who were before us. So it chanced that when the army was
+   in motion to resume the march and the Turks saw that no one would
+   sally out against them, and learned from their spies that the king
+   had forbidden it, they became emboldened and attacked the
+   Templars,[456] who formed the advance-guard. And one of the Turks
+   hurled to the ground one of the knights of the Temple, right before
+   the feet of the horse of Reginald de Bichiers, who was at that time
+   Marshal of the Temple. When the latter saw this, he shouted to the
+   other brethren: "Have at them, in God's name! I cannot suffer any
+   more of this." He dashed in his spurs, and all the army did
+   likewise. Our people's horses were fresh, while those of the Turks
+   were already worn out. Whence it happened, as I have heard, that
+   not a Turk escaped, but all perished, several of them having
+   plunged into the river, where they were drowned....[457]
+
+   One evening when we were on duty near the cat castles, they brought
+   against us an engine called _pierrière_,[458] which they had never
+   done before, and they placed Greek fire[459] in the sling of the
+   engine. When Monseigneur Walter de Cureil, the good knight, who
+   was with me, saw that, he said to us: "Sirs, we are in the greatest
+   peril we have yet been in; for if they set fire to our towers, and
+   we remain here, we are dead men, and if we leave our posts which
+   have been intrusted to us, we are put to shame; and no one can
+   rescue us from this peril save God. It is therefore my opinion and
+   my advice to you that each time they discharge the fire at us we
+   should throw ourselves upon our elbows and knees, and pray our Lord
+   to bring us out of this danger."
+
+     [Sidenote: The Saracens make use of Greek fire]
+
+   As soon as they fired we threw ourselves upon our elbows and knees,
+   as he had counseled us. The first shot they fired came between our
+   two cat castles, and fell in front of us on the open place which
+   the army had made for the purpose of damming the river. Our men
+   whose duty it was to extinguish fires were all ready for it; and
+   because the Saracens could not aim at them on account of the two
+   wings of the sheds which the king had erected there, they fired
+   straight up towards the clouds, so that their darts came down from
+   above upon the men. The nature of the Greek fire was in this wise,
+   that it rushed forward as large around as a cask of verjuice,[460]
+   and the tail of the fire which issued from it was as big as a
+   large-sized spear. It made such a noise in coming that it seemed as
+   if it were a thunderbolt from heaven and looked like a dragon
+   flying through the air. It cast such a brilliant light that in the
+   camp they could see as clearly as if it were daytime, because of
+   the light diffused by such a bulk of fire. Three times that night
+   they discharged the Greek fire at us, and four times they sent it
+   from the fixed cross-bows. Each time that Our sainted king heard
+   that they had discharged the Greek fire at us, he dressed himself
+   on his bed and stretched out his hands towards our Lord, and prayed
+   with tears: "Fair Sire God, preserve me my people!" And I verily
+   believe that his prayers stood us in good stead in our hour of
+   need. That evening, every time the fire fell, he sent one of his
+   chamberlains to inquire in what state we were and if the fire had
+   done us any damage. One time when they threw it, it fell close to
+   the cat castle which Monseigneur de Courtenay's people were
+   guarding, and struck on the river-bank. Then a knight named
+   Aubigoiz called to me and said: "Sir, if you do not help us we are
+   all burnt, for the Saracens have discharged so many of their darts
+   dipped in Greek fire that there is of them, as it were, a great
+   blazing hedge coming towards our tower."
+
+   We ran forward and hastened thither and found that he spoke the
+   truth. We extinguished the fire, but before we had done so the
+   Saracens covered us with the darts they discharged from the other
+   side of the river.
+
+     [Sidenote: Progress of the conflict]
+
+   The king's brothers mounted guard on the roof of the cat castles to
+   fire bolts from cross-bows against the Saracens, and which fell
+   into their camp. The king had commanded that when the king of
+   Sicily[461] mounted guard in the daytime at the cat castles, we
+   were to do so at night. One day when the king of Sicily was keeping
+   watch, which we should have to do at night, we were in much trouble
+   of mind because the Saracens had shattered our cat castles. The
+   Saracens brought out the _pierrière_ in the daytime, which they had
+   hitherto done only at night, and discharged the Greek fire at our
+   towers. They had advanced their engines so near to the causeway
+   which the army had constructed to dam the river that no one dared
+   to go to the towers, because of the huge stones which the engines
+   flung upon the road. The consequence was that our two towers were
+   burned, and the king of Sicily was so enraged about it that he came
+   near flinging himself into the fire to extinguish it. But if he
+   were wrathful, I and my knights, for our part, gave thanks to God;
+   for if we had mounted guard at night, we should all have been
+   burned....[462]
+
+   It came to pass that the sainted king labored so much that the
+   king of England, his wife, and children, came to France to treat
+   with him about peace between him and them. The members of his
+   council were strongly opposed to this peace, and said to him:
+
+     [Sidenote: The treaty of Paris, 1259]
+
+   "Sire, we greatly marvel that it should be your pleasure to yield
+   to the king of England such a large portion of your land, which you
+   and your predecessors have won from him, and obtained through
+   forfeiture. It seems to us that if you believe you have no right to
+   it, you do not make fitting restitution to the king of England
+   unless you restore to him all the conquests which you and your
+   predecessors have made; but if you believe that you have a right to
+   it, it seems to us that you are throwing away all that you yield to
+   him."
+
+   To this the sainted king replied after this fashion: "Sirs, I am
+   certain that the king of England's predecessors lost most justly
+   the conquests I hold; and the land which I give up to him I do not
+   give because I am bound either towards himself or his heirs, but to
+   create love between his children and mine, who are first cousins.
+   And it seems to me that I am making a good use of what I give to
+   him, because before he was not my vassal, but now he has to render
+   homage to me."...[463]
+
+   After the king's return from beyond sea, he lived so devoutly that
+   he never afterwards wore furs of different colors, nor
+   minnever,[464] nor scarlet cloth, nor gilt stirrups or spurs. His
+   dress was of camlet[465] and of a dark blue cloth; the linings of
+   his coverlets and garments were of doeskin or hare-legs.
+
+     [Sidenote: The king's personal traits]
+
+   When rich men's minstrels entered the hall after the repast,
+   bringing with them their viols, he waited to hear grace until the
+   minstrel had finished his chant; then he rose and the priests who
+   said grace stood before him. When we were at his court in a private
+   way,[466] he used to sit at the foot of his bed, and when the
+   Franciscans and Dominicans[467] who were there spoke of a book that
+   would give him pleasure, he would say to them: "You shall not read
+   to me, for, after eating, there is no book so pleasant as
+   _quolibets_,"--that is, that every one should say what he likes.
+   When men of quality dined with him, he made himself agreeable to
+   them....
+
+     [Sidenote: His primitive method of dispensing justice]
+
+   Many a time it happened that in the summer he would go and sit down
+   in the wood at Vincennes,[468] with his back to an oak, and make us
+   take our seats around him. And all those who had complaints to make
+   came to him, without hindrance from ushers or other folk. Then he
+   asked them with his own lips: "Is there any one here who has a
+   cause?"[469] Those who had a cause stood up, when he would say to
+   them: "Silence all, and you shall be dispatched one after the
+   other." Then he would call Monseigneur de Fontaines, or Monseigneur
+   Geoffrey de Villette, and would say to one of them: "Dispose of
+   this case for me." When he saw anything to amend in the words of
+   those who spoke for others, he would correct it with his own lips.
+   Sometimes in summer I have seen him, in order to administer justice
+   to the people, come into the garden of Paris dressed in a camlet
+   coat, a surcoat of woollen stuff, without sleeves, a mantle of
+   black taffety around his neck, his hair well combed and without
+   coif, a hat with white peacock's feathers on his head. Carpets were
+   spread for us to sit down upon around him, and all the people who
+   had business to dispatch stood about in front of him. Then he would
+   have it dispatched in the same manner as I have already described
+   in the wood of Vincennes.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[446] April 25, 1215.
+
+[447] Louis started on his first crusade in August, 1248. After a
+series of disasters in Egypt he managed to reach the Holy Land, where
+he spent nearly four years fortifying the great seaports. He returned
+to France in July, 1254. Sixteen years later, in July, 1270, he
+started on his second crusade. He had but reached Carthage when he was
+suddenly taken ill and compelled to halt the expedition. He died there
+August 25, 1270. Louis was as typical a crusader as ever lived, but in
+his day men of his kind were few; the great era of crusading
+enterprise was past.
+
+[448] This was Philip, son of Philip Augustus. The lands of the count
+of Boulogne lay on the coast of the English Channel north of the
+Somme.
+
+[449] An important church center about seventy miles north of Paris.
+
+[450] A town a few miles south of Paris.
+
+[451] In the early years of the thirteenth century, an Asiatic
+chieftain by the name of Genghis Khan built up a vast empire of Mongol
+or Tartar peoples, which for a time stretched all the way from China
+to eastern Germany. The rise and westward expansion of this barbarian
+power spread alarm throughout Christendom, and with good reason, for
+it was with great difficulty that the Tartar sovereigns were prevented
+from extending their dominion over Germany and perhaps over all
+western Europe. After the first feeling of terror had passed, however,
+it began to be considered that possibly the Asiatic conquerors might
+yet be made to serve the interests of Christendom. They were not
+Mohammedans, and Christian leaders saw an opportunity to turn them
+against the Saracen master of the coveted Holy Land. Louis IX.'s
+reception of an embassy from Ilchikadai, one of the Tartar khans, or
+sovereigns, was only one of several incidents which illustrate the
+efforts made in this direction. After this episode the Tartars
+advanced rapidly into Syria, taking the important cities of Damascus
+and Aleppo; but a great defeat, September 3, 1260, by the sultan Kutuz
+at Ain Talut stemmed the tide of invasion and compelled the Tartars to
+retire to their northern dominions.
+
+[452] May 21, 1249.
+
+[453] Joinville here gives an account of the first important
+undertaking of the crusaders--the capture of Damietta. After this
+achievement the king resolved to await the arrival of his brother, the
+count of Poitiers, with additional troops. The delay thus occasioned
+was nearly half a year in length, i.e., until October.
+
+[454] This was a common designation of Cairo, the Saracen capital of
+Egypt.
+
+[455] December 6.
+
+[456] The order of the Templars was founded in 1119 to afford
+protection to pilgrims in Palestine. The name was taken from the
+temple of Solomon, in Jerusalem, near which the organization's
+headquarters were at first established. The Templars, in their early
+history, were a military order and they had a prominent part in most
+of the crusading movements after their foundation.
+
+[457] At this point Joinville gives an extended description of the
+Nile and its numerous mouths. King Louis found himself on the bank of
+one of the streams composing the delta, with the sultan's army drawn
+up on the other side to prevent the Christians from crossing. Louis
+determined to construct an embankment across the stream, so that his
+troops might cross and engage in battle with the enemy. To protect the
+men engaged in building the embankment, two towers, called cat castles
+(because they were in front of two cats, or covered galleries) were
+erected. Under cover of these, the work of constructing a passageway
+went on, though the Saracens did not cease to shower missiles upon the
+laborers.
+
+[458] An instrument intended primarily for the hurling of stones.
+
+[459] Greek fire was made in various ways, but its main ingredients
+were sulphur, Persian gum, pitch, petroleum, and oil. It was a highly
+inflammable substance and when once ignited could be extinguished only
+by the use of vinegar or sand. It was used quite extensively by the
+Saracens in their battles with the crusaders, being usually projected
+in the form of fire-balls from hollow tubes.
+
+[460] An acid liquor made from sour apples or grapes.
+
+[461] Charles, count of Anjou--a brother of Saint Louis.
+
+[462] Joinville's story of the remainder of the campaign in Egypt is a
+long one. Enough has been given to show something of the character of
+the conflicts between Saracen and crusader. In the end Louis was
+compelled to withdraw his shattered army. He then made his way to the
+Holy Land in the hope of better success, but the four years he spent
+there were likewise a period of disappointment.
+
+[463] The treaty here referred to is that of Paris, negotiated by
+Louis IX. and Henry III. in 1259. By it the English king renounced his
+claim to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou, while Louis IX.
+ceded to Henry the Limousin, Périgord, and part of Saintonge, besides
+the reversion of Agenais and Quercy. The territories thus abandoned by
+the French were to be annexed to the duchy of Guienne, for which Henry
+III. was to render homage to the French king, just as had been
+rendered by the English sovereigns before the conquests of Philip
+Augustus. Manifestly Louis IX.'s chief motive in yielding possession
+of lands he regarded as properly his was to secure peace with England
+and to get the homage of the English king for Guienne. For upwards of
+half a century the relations of England and France had been strained
+by reason of the refusal of Henry III. to recognize the conquests of
+Philip Augustus and to render the accustomed homage. The treaty of
+Paris was important because it regulated the relations of France and
+England to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War. It undertook to
+perpetuate the old division of French soil between the English and
+French monarchs--an arrangement always fruitful of discord and
+destined, more than anything else, to bring on the great struggle of
+the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries between the two nations [see p.
+417 ff.].
+
+[464] A fur much esteemed in the Middle Ages. It is not known whether
+it was the fur of a single animal or of several kinds combined.
+
+[465] A woven fabric made of camel's hair.
+
+[466] After his retirement from the royal service in 1254 Joinville
+frequently made social visits at Louis's court.
+
+[467] On the Franciscans and Dominicans [see p. 360].
+
+[468] To the east from Paris--now a suburb of that city. The chateau
+of Vincennes was one of the favorite royal residences.
+
+[469] That is, a case in law.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITY
+
+
+57. Some Twelfth Century Town Charters
+
+In the times of the Carolingians the small and scattered towns and
+villages of western Europe, particularly of France, were inhabited
+mainly by serfs and villeins, i.e., by a dependent rather than an
+independent population. With scarcely an exception, these urban
+centers belonged to the lords of the neighboring lands, who
+administered their affairs through mayors, provosts, bailiffs, or
+other agents, collected from them seigniorial dues as from the rural
+peasantry, and, in short, took entire charge of matters of justice,
+finance, military obligations, and industrial arrangements. There was
+no local self-government, nothing in the way of municipal organization
+separate from the feudal régime, and no important burgher class as
+distinguished from the agricultural laborers. By the twelfth century a
+great transformation is apparent. France has come to be dotted with
+strong and often largely independent municipalities, and a powerful
+class of bourgeoisie, essentially anti-feudal in character, has risen
+to play an increasing part in the nation's political and economic
+life. In these new municipalities there is a larger measure of freedom
+of person, security of property, and rights of self-government than
+Europe had known since the days of Charlemagne, perhaps even since the
+best period of the Roman Empire.
+
+The reason for this transformation--in other words, the origin of
+these new municipal centers--has been variously explained. One theory
+is that the municipal system of the Middle Ages was essentially a
+survival of that which prevailed in western Europe under the fostering
+influence of Rome. The best authorities now reject this view, for
+there is every reason to believe that, speaking generally, the
+barbarian invasions and feudalism practically crushed out the
+municipal institutions of the Empire. Another theory ascribes the
+origin of mediæval municipal government to the merchant and craft
+guilds, particularly the former; but there is little evidence to
+support the view. Undeniably the guild was an important factor in
+drawing groups of burghers together and forming centers of combination
+against local lords, but it was at best only one of several forces
+tending to the growth of municipal life. Other factors of larger
+importance were the military and the commercial. On the one hand, the
+need of protection led people to flock to fortified places--castles or
+monasteries--and settle in the neighborhood; on the other, the growth
+of commerce and industry, especially after the eleventh century,
+caused strategic places like the intersection of great highways and
+rivers to become seats of permanent and growing population. The towns
+which thus sprang up in response to new conditions and necessities in
+time took on a political as well as a commercial and industrial
+character, principally through the obtaining of charters from the
+neighboring lords, defining the measure of independence to be enjoyed
+and the respective rights of lord and town. Charters of the sort were
+usually granted by the lord, not merely because requested by the
+burghers, but because they were paid for and constituted a valuable
+source of revenue. Not infrequently, however, a charter was wrested
+from an unwilling lord through open warfare. It was in the first half
+of the twelfth century that town charters became common. As a rule
+they were obtained by the larger towns (it should be borne in mind
+that a population of 10,000 was large in the twelfth century), but not
+necessarily so, for many villages of two or three hundred people
+secured them also.
+
+The two great classes of towns were the _villes libres_ (free towns)
+and the _villes franches_, or _villes de bourgeoisie_ (franchise, or
+chartered, towns). The free towns enjoyed a large measure of
+independence. In relation to their lords they occupied essentially the
+position of vassals, with the legislative, financial, and judicial
+privileges which by the twelfth century all great vassals had come to
+have. The burghers elected their own officers, constituted their own
+courts, made their own laws, levied taxes, and even waged war. The
+leading types of free cities were the communes of northern France
+(governed by a provost and one or more councils, often essentially
+oligarchical) and the consulates of southern France and northern Italy
+(distinguished from the communes by the fact that the executive was
+made up of "consuls," and by the greater participation of the local
+nobility in town affairs). A typical free town of the commune type,
+was Laon, in the region of northern Champagne. In 1109 the bishop of
+Laon, who was lord of the city, consented to the establishment of a
+communal government. Three years later he sought to abolish it, with
+the result that an insurrection was stirred up in which he lost his
+life. King Louis VI. intervened and the citizens were obliged to
+submit to the authority of the new bishop, though in 1328 fear of
+another uprising led this official to renew the old grant. The act was
+ratified by Louis VI. in the text (a) given below.
+
+The other great class of towns--the franchise towns--differed from the
+free towns in having a much more limited measure of political and
+economic independence. They received grants of privileges, or
+"franchises," from their lord, especially in the way of restrictions
+of rights of the latter over the persons and property of the
+inhabitants, but they remained politically subject to the lord and
+their government was partly or wholly under his control. Their
+charters set a limit to the lord's arbitrary authority, emancipated
+such inhabitants as were not already free, gave the citizens the right
+to move about and to alienate property, substituted money payments for
+the corvée, and in general made old regulations less burdensome; but
+as a rule no political rights were conferred. Paris, Tours, Orleans,
+and other more important cities on the royal domain belonged to this
+class. The town of Lorris, on the royal domain a short distance east
+of Orleans, became the common model for the type. Its charter,
+received from Louis VII. in 1155, is given in the second selection (b)
+below.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in Vilevault and Bréquigny, _Ordonnances des
+     Rois de France de la Troisième Race_ ["Ordinances of the Kings
+     of France of the Third Dynasty"], Paris, 1769, Vol. XI., pp.
+     185-187.
+
+     (b) Text in Maurice Prou, _Les Coutumes de Lorris et leur
+     Propagation aux XIIe et XIIIe Siècles_ ["The Customs of
+     Lorris and their Spread in the Twelfth and Thirteenth
+     Centuries"], Paris, 1884, pp. 129-141.
+
+   (a)
+
+   =1.= Let no one arrest any freeman or serf for any offense without
+   due process of law.[470]
+
+     [Sidenote: Provisions of the charter of Laon]
+
+   =2.= But if any one do injury to a clerk, soldier, or merchant,
+   native or foreign, provided he who does the injury belongs to the
+   same city as the injured person, let him, summoned after the fourth
+   day, come for justice before the mayor and jurats.[471]
+
+   =7.= If a thief is arrested, let him be brought to him on whose
+   land he has been arrested; but if justice is not done by the lord,
+   let it be done by the jurats.[472]
+
+   =12.= We entirely abolish mortmain.[473]
+
+   =18.= The customary tallages we have so reformed that every man
+   owing such tallages, at the time when they are due, must pay four
+   pence, and beyond that no more.[474]
+
+   =19.= Let men of the peace not be compelled to resort to courts
+   outside the city.[475]
+
+   (b)
+
+   =1.= Every one who has a house in the parish of Lorris shall pay as
+   _cens_ sixpence only for his house, and for each acre of land that
+   he possesses in the parish.[476]
+
+   =2.= No inhabitant of the parish of Lorris shall be required to pay
+   a toll or any other tax on his provisions; and let him not be made
+   to pay any measurage fee on the grain which he has raised by his
+   own labor.[477]
+
+   =3.= No burgher shall go on an expedition, on foot or on horseback,
+   from which he cannot return the same day to his home if he
+   desires.[478]
+
+   =4.= No burgher shall pay toll on the road to Étampes, to Orleans,
+   to Milly (which is in the Gâtinais), or to Melun.[479]
+
+     [Sidenote: The charter of Lorris]
+
+   =5.= No one who has property in the parish of Lorris shall forfeit
+   it for any offense whatsoever, unless the offense shall have been
+   committed against us or any of our _hôtes_.[480]
+
+   =6.= No person while on his way to the fairs and markets of Lorris,
+   or returning, shall be arrested or disturbed, unless he shall have
+   committed an offense on the same day.[481]
+
+   =9.= No one, neither we nor any other, shall exact from the
+   burghers of Lorris any tallage, tax, or subsidy.[482]
+
+   =12.= If a man shall have had a quarrel with another, but without
+   breaking into a fortified house, and if the parties shall have
+   reached an agreement without bringing a suit before the provost, no
+   fine shall be due to us or our provost on account of the
+   affair.[483]
+
+   =15.= No inhabitant of Lorris is to render us the obligation of
+   _corvée_, except twice a year, when our wine is to be carried to
+   Orleans, and not elsewhere.[484]
+
+   =16.= No one shall be detained in prison if he can furnish surety
+   that he will present himself for judgment.
+
+   =17.= Any burgher who wishes to sell his property shall have the
+   privilege of doing so; and, having received the price of the sale,
+   he shall have the right to go from the town freely and without
+   molestation, if he so desires, unless he has committed some offense
+   in it.
+
+   =18.= Any one who shall dwell a year and a day in the parish of
+   Lorris, without any claim having pursued him there, and without
+   having refused to lay his case before us or our provost, shall
+   abide there freely and without molestation.[485]
+
+   =35.= We ordain that every time there shall be a change of provosts
+   in the town the new provost shall take an oath faithfully to
+   observe these regulations; and the same thing shall be done by new
+   sergeants[486] every time that they are installed.
+
+
+58. The Colonization of Eastern Germany
+
+In the time of Charlemagne the Elbe River marked a pretty clear
+boundary between the Slavic population to the east and the Germanic to
+the west. There were many Slavs west of the Elbe, but no Germans east
+of it. There had been a time when Germans occupied large portions of
+eastern Europe, but for one reason or another they gradually became
+concentrated toward the west, while Slavic peoples pushed in to fill
+the vacated territory. Under Charlemagne and his successors we can
+discern the earlier stages of a movement of reaction which has gone on
+in later times until the political map of all north central Europe has
+been remodeled. During the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries large
+portions of the "sphere of influence" (to use a modern phrase) which
+Charlemagne had created eastward from the Elbe were converted into
+German principalities and dependencies. German colonists pushed down
+the Danube, well toward the Black Sea, along the Baltic, past the Oder
+and toward the Vistula, and up the Oder into the heart of modern
+Poland. The Slavic population was slowly brought under subjection,
+Christianized, and to a certain extent Germanized. In the tenth
+century Henry I. (919-936) began a fresh forward movement against the
+Slavs, or Wends, as the Germans called them. Magdeburg, on the Elbe,
+was established as the chief base of operations. The work was kept up
+by Henry's son, Otto I. (936-973), but under his grandson, Otto II.
+(973-983), a large part of what had been gained was lost for a time
+through a Slavic revolt called out by the Emperor's preoccupation with
+affairs in Italy. Thereafter for a century the Slavs were allowed
+perforce to enjoy their earlier independence, and upon more than one
+occasion they were able to assume the aggressive against their
+would-be conquerors. In 1066 the city of Hamburg, on the lower Elbe,
+was attacked and almost totally destroyed. The imperial power was fast
+declining and the Franconian sovereigns had little time left from
+their domestic conflicts and quarrels with the papacy to carry on a
+contest on the east.
+
+The renewed advance which the Germans made against the Slavs in the
+later eleventh and earlier twelfth centuries was due primarily to the
+energy of the able princes of Saxony and to the pressure for
+colonization, which increased in spite of small encouragement from any
+except the local authorities. The document given below is a typical
+charter of the period, authorizing the establishment of a colony of
+Germans eastward from Hamburg, on the border of Brandenburg. It was
+granted in 1106 by the bishop of Hamburg, who as lord of the region in
+which the proposed settlement was to be made exercised the right not
+merely of giving consent to the undertaking, but also of prescribing
+the terms and conditions by which the colonists were to be bound. As
+appears from the charter, the colony was expected to be a source of
+profit to the bishop; and indeed it was financial considerations on
+the part of lords, lay and spiritual, who had stretches of unoccupied
+land at their disposal, almost as much as regard for safety in numbers
+and the absolute dominance of Germanic peoples, that prompted these
+local magnates of eastern Germany so ardently to promote the work of
+colonization.
+
+     Source--Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim,
+     _Ausgewählte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der
+     Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter_ ["Select
+     Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional History of
+     Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, 1904, pp.
+     159-160. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, _A Source Book for
+     Mediæval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 572-573.
+
+   =1.= In the name of the holy and undivided Trinity. Frederick, by
+   the grace of God bishop of Hamburg, to all the faithful in Christ,
+   gives a perpetual benediction. We wish to make known to all the
+   agreement which certain people living this side of the Rhine, who
+   are called Hollanders,[487] have made with us.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Hollanders ask land for a colony]
+
+   =2.= These men came to us and earnestly begged us to grant them
+   certain lands in our bishopric, which are uncultivated, swampy, and
+   useless to our people. We have consulted our subjects about this
+   and, feeling that this would be profitable to us and to our
+   successors, have granted their request.
+
+   =3.= The agreement was made that they should pay us every year one
+   _denarius_ for every hide of land. We have thought it necessary to
+   determine the dimensions of the hide, in order that no quarrel may
+   thereafter arise about it. The hide shall be 720 royal rods long
+   and thirty royal rods wide. We also grant them the streams which
+   flow through this land.
+
+   =4.= They agreed to give the tithe according to our decree, that
+   is, every eleventh sheaf of grain, every tenth lamb, every tenth
+   pig, every tenth goat, every tenth goose, and a tenth of the honey
+   and of the flax. For every colt they shall pay a _denarius_ on St.
+   Martin's day [Nov. 11], and for every calf an obol [penny].
+
+     [Sidenote: Obedience promised to the bishop of Hamburg]
+
+   =5.= They promised to obey me in all ecclesiastical matters,
+   according to the decrees of the holy fathers, the canonical law,
+   and the practice in the diocese of Utrecht.[488]
+
+     [Sidenote: Judicial immunity]
+
+   =6.= They agreed to pay every year two marks for every 100 hides
+   for the privilege of holding their own courts for the settlement of
+   all their differences about secular matters. They did this because
+   they feared they would suffer from the injustice of foreign
+   judges.[489] If they cannot settle the more important cases, they
+   shall refer them to the bishop. And if they take the bishop with
+   them for the purpose of deciding one of their trials,[490] they
+   shall provide for his support as long as he remains there by
+   granting him one third of all the fees arising from the trial; and
+   they shall keep the other two thirds.
+
+   =7.= We have given them permission to found churches wherever they
+   may wish on these lands. For the support of the priests who shall
+   serve God in these churches we grant a tithe of our tithes from
+   these parish churches. They promised that the congregation of each
+   of these churches should endow their church with a hide for the
+   support of their priest.[491] The names of the men who made this
+   agreement with us are: Henry, the priest, to whom we have granted
+   the aforesaid churches for life; and the others are laymen,
+   Helikin, Arnold, Hiko, Fordalt, and Referic. To them and to their
+   heirs after them we have granted the aforesaid land according to
+   the secular laws and to the terms of this agreement.
+
+
+59. The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)
+
+About the middle of the thirteenth century the central authority of
+the Holy Roman Empire was for a time practically dissolved. Frederick
+II., the last strong ruler of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, died in 1250,
+and even he was so largely Italian in character and interests that he
+could bring himself to give little attention to German affairs. During
+the stormy period of the Interregnum (1254-1273) there was no
+universally recognized emperor at all. Germany had reached an advanced
+stage of political disintegration and it is scarcely conceivable that
+even a Henry IV. or a Frederick Barbarossa could have made the
+imperial power much more than a shadow and a name. But while the
+Empire was broken up into scores of principalities, independent
+cities, and other political fragments, its people were enjoying a
+vigorous and progressive life. The period was one of great growth of
+industry in the towns, and especially of commerce. The one serious
+disadvantage was the lack of a central police authority to preserve
+order and insure the safety of person and property. Warfare was all
+but ceaseless, robber-bands infested the rivers and highways, and all
+manner of vexatious conditions were imposed upon trade by the various
+local authorities. The natural result was the formation of numerous
+leagues and confederacies for the suppression of anarchy and the
+protection of trade and industry. The greatest of these was the
+Hanseatic League, which came to comprise one hundred and seventy-two
+cities, and the history of whose operations runs through more than
+three centuries. An earlier organization, which may be considered in a
+way a forerunner of the Hansa, was the Rhine League, established in
+1254. At this earlier date Conrad IV., son of Frederick II., was
+fighting his half-brother Manfred for their common Sicilian heritage;
+William of Holland, who claimed the imperial title, was recognized in
+only a small territory and was quite powerless to affect conditions of
+disorder outside; the other princes, great and small, were generally
+engaged in private warfare; and the difficulties and dangers of trade
+and industry were at their maximum. To establish a power strong
+enough, and with the requisite disposition, to suppress the robbers
+and pirates who were ruining commerce, the leading cities of the Rhine
+valley--Mainz, Cologne, Worms, Speyer, Strassburg, Basel, Trier, Metz,
+and others--entered into a "league of holy peace," to endure for a
+period of ten years, dating from July 13, 1254. The more significant
+terms of the compact are set forth in the selection below.
+
+     Source--Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim,
+     _Ausgewählte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der
+     Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter_ ["Select
+     Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional History of
+     Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, 1904, pp.
+     251-254. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, _A Source Book for
+     Mediæval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 606-609.
+
+     [Sidenote: The league formed at Worms]
+
+   In the name of the Lord, amen. In the year of our Lord 1254, on the
+   octave of St. Michael's day [a week after Sept. 29] we, the cities
+   of the upper and lower Rhine, leagued together for the preservation
+   of peace, met in the city of Worms. We held a conference there and
+   carefully discussed everything pertaining to a general peace. To
+   the honor of God, and of the holy mother Church, and of the holy
+   Empire, which is now governed by our lord, William, king of the
+   Romans,[492] and to the common advantage of all, both rich and poor
+   alike, we made the following laws. They are for the benefit of all,
+   both poor and great, the secular clergy, monks, laymen, and Jews.
+   To secure these things, which are for the public good, we will
+   spare neither ourselves nor our possessions. The princes and lords
+   who take the oath are joined with us.
+
+   =1.= We decree that we will make no warlike expeditions, except
+   those that are absolutely necessary and determined on by the wise
+   counsel of the cities and communes. We will mutually aid each other
+   with all our strength in securing redress for our grievances.
+
+     [Sidenote: No dealings to be had with enemies of the league]
+
+   =2.= We decree that no member of the league, whether city or lord,
+   Christian or Jew, shall furnish food, arms, or aid of any kind, to
+   any one who opposes us or the peace.
+
+   =3.= And no one in our cities shall give credit, or make a loan, to
+   them.
+
+   =4.= No citizen of any of the cities in the league shall associate
+   with such, or give them counsel, aid, or support. If any one is
+   convicted of doing so, he shall be expelled from the city and
+   punished so severely in his property that he will be a warning to
+   others not to do such things.
+
+     [Sidenote: A warning to enemies]
+
+   =5.= If any knight, in trying to aid his lord who is at war with
+   us, attacks or molests us anywhere outside of the walled towns of
+   his lord, he is breaking the peace, and we will in some way inflict
+   due punishment on him and his possessions, no matter who he is. If
+   he is caught in any of the cities, he shall be held as a prisoner
+   until he makes proper satisfaction. We wish to be protectors of the
+   peasants, and we will protect them against all violence if they
+   will observe the peace with us. But if they make war on us, we will
+   punish them, and if we catch them in any of the cities, we will
+   punish them as malefactors.
+
+   =6.= We wish the cities to destroy all the ferries except those in
+   their immediate neighborhood, so that there shall be no ferries
+   except those near the cities which are in the league. This is to be
+   done in order that the enemies of the peace may be deprived of all
+   means of crossing the Rhine.
+
+   =7.= We decree that if any lord or knight aids us in promoting the
+   peace, we will do all we can to protect him. Whoever does not swear
+   to keep the peace with us, shall be excluded from the general
+   peace.
+
+   =10.= Above all, we wish to affirm that we desire to live in mutual
+   peace with the lords and all the people of the province, and we
+   desire that each should preserve all his rights.
+
+   =11.= Under threat of punishment we forbid any citizen to revile
+   the lords, although they may be our enemies. For although we wish
+   to punish them for the violence they have done us, yet before
+   making war on them we will first warn them to cease from injuring
+   us.
+
+     [Sidenote: Mainz and Worms to be the capitals of the league]
+
+   =12.= We decree that all correspondence about this matter with the
+   cities of the lower Rhine shall be conducted from Mainz, and from
+   Worms with the cities of the upper Rhine. From these two cities all
+   our correspondence shall be carried on and all who have done us
+   injury shall be warned. Those who have suffered injury shall send
+   their messengers at their own expense.
+
+     [Sidenote: The governing body of the league]
+
+   =13.= We also promise, both lords and cities, to send four official
+   representatives to whatever place a conference is to be held, and
+   they shall have full authority from their cities to decide on all
+   matters. They shall report to their cities all the decisions of the
+   meeting. All who come with the representatives of the cities, or
+   who come to them while in session, shall have peace, and no
+   judgment shall be enforced against them.
+
+   =14.= No city shall receive non-residents, who are commonly called
+   "pfahlburgers," as citizens.[493]
+
+   =15.= We firmly declare that if any member of the league breaks the
+   peace, we will proceed against him at once as if he were not a
+   member, and compel him to make proper satisfaction.
+
+   =16.= We promise that we will faithfully keep each other informed
+   by letter about our enemies and all others who may be able to do us
+   damage, in order that we may take timely counsel to protect
+   ourselves against them.
+
+   =17.= We decree that no one shall violently enter the house of
+   monks or nuns, of whatever order they may be, or quarter themselves
+   upon them, or demand or extort food or any kind of service from
+   them, contrary to their will. If any one does this, he shall be
+   held as a violator of the peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The league to be enlarged]
+
+   =18.= We decree that each city shall try to persuade each of its
+   neighboring cities to swear to keep the peace. If they do not do
+   so, they shall be entirely cut off from the peace, so that if any
+   one does them an injury, either in their persons or their property,
+   he shall not thereby break the peace.
+
+   =19.= We wish all members of the league, cities, lords, and all
+   others, to arm themselves properly and prepare for war, so that
+   whenever we call upon them we shall find them ready.
+
+     [Sidenote: Military preparations of the league]
+
+   =20.= We decree that the cities between the Moselle and Basel shall
+   prepare 100 war boats, and the cities below the Moselle shall
+   prepare 500, well equipped with bowmen, and each city shall prepare
+   herself as well as she can and supply herself with arms for knights
+   and foot-soldiers.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[470] Such guarantees of personal liberty were not peculiar to the
+charters of communes; they are often found in those of franchise
+towns.
+
+[471] The chief magistrate of Laon was a mayor, elected by the
+citizens. In judicial matters he was assisted by twelve "jurats."
+
+[472] This is intended to preserve the judicial privileges of lords of
+manors.
+
+[473] The citizens of the town were to have freedom to dispose of
+their property as they chose.
+
+[474] This provision was intended to put an end to arbitrary taxation
+by the bishop. In the earlier twelfth century serfs were subject to
+the arbitrary levy of the taille (tallage) and this indeed constituted
+one of their most grievous burdens. Arbitrary tallage was almost
+invariably abolished by the town charters.
+
+[475] By "men of the peace" is meant the citizens of the commune. The
+term "commune" is scrupulously avoided in the charter because of its
+odious character in the eyes of the bishop. Suits were to be tried at
+home in the burgesses' own courts, to save time and expense and insure
+better justice.
+
+[476] This trifling payment of sixpence a year was made in recognition
+of the lordship of the king, the grantor of the charter. Aside from
+it, the burgher had full rights over his land.
+
+[477] The burghers, who were often engaged in agriculture as well as
+commerce, are to be exempt from tolls on commodities bought for their
+own sustenance and from the ordinary fees due the lord for each
+measure of grain harvested.
+
+[478] The object of this provision is to restrict the amount of
+military service due the king. The burghers of small places like
+Lorris were farmers and traders who made poor soldiers and who were
+ordinarily exempted from service by their lords. The provision for
+Lorris practically amounted to an exemption, for such service as was
+permissible under chapter 3 of the charter was not worth much.
+
+[479] The Gâtinais was the region in which Lorris was situated.
+Étampes, Milly, and Melun all lay to the north of Lorris, in the
+direction of Paris. Orleans lay to the west. The king's object in
+granting the burghers the right to carry goods to the towns specified
+without payment of tolls was to encourage commercial intercourse.
+
+[480] This protects the landed property of the burghers against the
+crown and crown officials. With two exceptions, fine or imprisonment,
+not confiscation of land, is to be the penalty for crime. _Hôtes_
+denotes persons receiving land from the king and under his direct
+protection.
+
+[481] This provision is intended to attract merchants to Lorris by
+placing them under the king's protection and assuring them that they
+would not be molested on account of old offenses.
+
+[482] This chapter safeguards the personal property of the burghers,
+as chapter 5 safeguards their land. Arbitrary imposts are forbidden
+and any of the inhabitants who as serfs had been paying arbitrary
+tallage are relieved of the burden. The nominal _cens_ (Chap. 1) was
+to be the only regular payment due the king.
+
+[483] An agreement outside of court was allowable in all cases except
+when there was a serious breach of the public peace. The provost was
+the chief officer of the town. He was appointed the crown and was
+charged chiefly with the administration of justice and the collection
+of revenues. All suits of the burghers were tried in his court. They
+had no active part in their own government, as was generally true of
+the franchise towns.
+
+[484] Another part of the charter specifies that only those burghers
+who owned horses and carts were expected to render the king even this
+service.
+
+[485] This clause, which is very common in the town charters of the
+twelfth century (especially in the case of towns on the royal domain)
+is intended to attract serfs from other regions and so to build up
+population. As a rule the towns were places of refuge from seigniorial
+oppression and the present charter undertakes to limit the time within
+which the lord might recover his serf who had fled to Lorris to a year
+and a day--except in cases where the serf should refuse to recognize
+the jurisdiction of the provost's court in the matter of the lord's
+claim.
+
+[486] The sergeants were deputies of the provost, somewhat on the
+order of town constables.
+
+[487] These "Hollanders" inhabited substantially the portion of Europe
+now designated by their name.
+
+[488] This was the diocese from which the colonists proposed to
+remove.
+
+[489] That is, judges representing any outside authority.
+
+[490] In other words, if the bishop should go from his seat at Hamburg
+to the colony.
+
+[491] In each parish of the colony, therefore, the priest would be
+supported by the income of the hide of land set apart for his use and
+by the tenth of the regular church tithes which the bishop conceded
+for the purpose.
+
+[492] All that this means is that the members of the Rhine League
+recognized William of Holland as emperor. Most of the Empire did not
+so recognize him. He died in 1256, two years after the league was
+formed.
+
+[493] These "pfahlburgers" were subjects of ecclesiastical or secular
+princes who, in order to escape the burdens of this relation,
+contrived to get themselves enrolled as citizens of neighboring
+cities. While continuing to dwell in regions subject to the
+jurisdiction of their lords, they claimed to enjoy immunity from that
+jurisdiction, because of their citizenship in those outside cities.
+The pfahlburgers were a constant source of friction between the towns
+and the territorial princes. The Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV.
+(1356) decreed that pfahlburgers should not enjoy the rights and
+privileges of the cities unless they became actual residents of them
+and discharged their full obligations as citizens.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT LIFE
+
+
+The modern university is essentially a product of the Middle Ages. The
+Greeks and Romans had provisions for higher education, but nothing
+that can properly be termed universities, with faculties, courses of
+study, examinations, and degrees. The word "universitas" in the
+earlier mediæval period was applied indiscriminately to any group or
+body of people, as a guild of artisans or an organization of the
+clergy, and only very gradually did it come to be restricted to an
+association of teachers and students--the so-called _universitas
+societas magistrorum discipulorumque_. The origins of mediæval
+universities are, in most cases, rather obscure. In the earlier Middle
+Ages the interests of learning were generally in the keeping of the
+monks and the work of education was carried on chiefly in monastic
+schools, where the subjects of study were commonly the seven liberal
+arts inherited from Roman days.[494] By the twelfth century there was
+a relative decline of these monastic schools, accompanied by a marked
+development of cathedral schools in which not only the seven liberal
+arts but also new subjects like law and theology were taught. The
+twelfth century renaissance brought a notable revival of Roman law,
+medicine, astronomy, and philosophy; by 1200 the whole of Aristotle's
+writings had become known; and the general awakening produced
+immediate results in the larger numbers of students who flocked to
+places like Paris and Bologna where exceptional teachers were to be
+found.
+
+Out of these conditions grew the earliest of the universities. No
+definite dates for the beginnings of Paris, Bologna, Oxford, etc., can
+be assigned, but the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are to be
+considered their great formative period. Bologna was specifically the
+creation of the revived study of the Roman law and of the fame of the
+great law teacher Irnerius. The university sprang from a series of
+organizations effected first by the students and later by the
+masters, or teachers, and modeled after the guilds of workmen. It
+became the pattern for most of the later Italian and Spanish
+universities. Paris arose in a different way. It grew directly out of
+the great cathedral school of Notre Dame and, unlike Bologna, was an
+organization at the outset of masters rather than of students. It was
+presided over by the chancellor, who had had charge of education in
+the cathedral and who retained the exclusive privilege of granting
+licenses to teach (the _licentia docendi_), or, in other words,
+degrees.[495] Rising to prominence in the twelfth century, especially
+by virtue of the teaching of Abelard (1079-1142), Paris became in time
+the greatest university of the Middle Ages, exerting profound
+influence not only on learning, but also on the Church and even at
+times on political affairs. The universities of the rest of France, as
+well as the German universities and Oxford and Cambridge in England,
+were copied pretty closely after Paris.
+
+
+60. Privileges Granted to Students and Masters
+
+Throughout the Middle Ages numerous special favors were showered upon
+the universities and their students by the Church. Patronage and
+protection from the secular authorities were less to be depended on,
+though the courts of kings were not infrequently the rendezvous of
+scholars, and the greater seats of learning after the eleventh century
+generally owed their prosperity, if not their origin, to the
+liberality of monarchs such as Frederick Barbarossa or Philip
+Augustus. The recognition of the universities by the temporal powers
+came as a rule earlier than that by the Church. The edict of the
+Emperor Frederick I., which comprises selection (a) below, was issued
+in 1158 and is not to be considered as limited in its application to
+the students of any particular university, though many writers have
+associated it solely with the University of Bologna. That the statute
+was decreed at the solicitation of the Bologna doctors of law admits
+of little doubt, but, as Rashdall observes, it was "a general
+privilege conferred on the student class throughout the Lombard
+kingdom."[496] By some writers it is said to have been the earliest
+formal grant of privileges for university students, but this cannot be
+true as Salerno (notable chiefly for medical studies) received such
+grants from Robert Guiscard and his son Roger before the close of the
+eleventh century.
+
+Until the year 1200 the students of Paris enjoyed no privileges such
+as those conferred upon the Italian institutions by Frederick. In that
+year a tavern brawl occurred between some German students and Parisian
+townspeople, in which five of the students lost their lives. The
+provost of the city, instead of attempting to repress the disorder,
+took sides against the students and encouraged the populace. Such
+laxity stirred the king, Philip Augustus, to action. Fearing that the
+students would decamp _en masse_, he hastened to comply with their
+appeal for redress. The provost and his lieutenants were arrested and
+a decree was issued [given, in part, in selection (b)] exempting the
+scholars from the operation of the municipal law in criminal cases.
+Pope Innocent III. at once confirmed the privileges and on his part
+relaxed somewhat the vigilance of the Church. Such liberal measures,
+however, did not insure permanent peace. In less than three decades
+another conflict with the provost occurred which was so serious as to
+result in a total suspension of the university's activities for more
+than two years.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., p. 114. Adapted from translation by
+     Dana C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_,
+     Vol. II., No. 3, pp. 2-4.
+
+     (b) Text in _Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis_
+     ["Cartulary of the University of Paris"], No. 1., p. 59.
+     Adapted from translation in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+     Reprints_, _ibid._, pp. 4-7.
+
+     [Sidenote: Security of travel and residence for scholars]
+
+   (a)
+
+   After a careful consideration of this subject by the bishops,
+   abbots, dukes, counts, judges, and other nobles of our sacred
+   palace, we, from our piety, have granted this privilege to all
+   scholars who travel for the sake of study, and especially to the
+   professors of divine and sacred laws,[497] namely, that they may go
+   in safety to the places in which the studies are carried on, both
+   they themselves and their messengers, and may dwell there in
+   security. For we think it fitting that, during good behavior, those
+   should enjoy our praise and protection, by whose learning the world
+   is enlightened to the obedience of God and of us, his ministers,
+   and the life of the subject is molded; and by a special
+   consideration we defend them from all injuries.
+
+     [Sidenote: Regulation concerning the collection of debts]
+
+   For who does not pity those who exile themselves through love for
+   learning, who wear themselves out in poverty in place of riches,
+   who expose their lives to all perils and often suffer bodily injury
+   from the vilest men? This must be endured with vexation. Therefore,
+   we declare by this general and perpetual law, that in the future no
+   one shall be so rash as to venture to inflict any injury on
+   scholars, or to occasion any loss to them on account of a debt owed
+   by an inhabitant of their province--a thing which we have learned
+   is sometimes done by an evil custom.[498] And let it be known to
+   the violators of this constitution, and also to those who shall at
+   the time be the rulers of the places, that a fourfold restitution
+   of property shall be exacted from all and that, the mark of infamy
+   being affixed to them by the law itself, they shall lose their
+   office forever.
+
+     [Sidenote: Judicial privileges of scholars]
+
+   Moreover, if any one shall presume to bring a suit against them on
+   account of any business, the choice in this matter shall be given
+   to the scholars, who may summon the accusers to appear before their
+   professors or the bishop of the city, to whom we have given
+   jurisdiction in this matter.[499] But if, indeed, the accuser shall
+   attempt to drag the scholar before another judge, even if his
+   cause is a very just one, he shall lose his suit for such an
+   attempt.
+
+   (b)
+
+   Concerning the safety of the students at Paris in the future, by
+   the advice of our subjects we have ordained as follows:
+
+     [Sidenote: Protection for scholars against crimes of violence]
+
+   We will cause all the citizens of Paris to swear that if any one
+   sees an injury done to any student by any layman,[500] he will
+   testify truthfully to this, nor will any one withdraw in order not
+   to see [the act]. And if it shall happen that any one strikes a
+   student, except in self-defense, especially if he strikes the
+   student with a weapon, a club, or a stone, all laymen who see [the
+   act] shall in good faith seize the malefactor, or malefactors, and
+   deliver them to our judge; nor shall they run away in order not to
+   see the act, or seize the malefactor, or testify to the truth.
+   Also, whether the malefactor is seized in open crime or not, we
+   will make a legal and full examination through clerks, or laymen,
+   or certain lawful persons; and our count and our judges shall do
+   the same. And if by a full examination we, or our judges, are able
+   to learn that he who is accused, is guilty of the crime, then we,
+   or our judges, shall immediately inflict a penalty, according to
+   the quality and nature of the crime; notwithstanding the fact that
+   the criminal may deny the deed and say that he is ready to defend
+   himself in single combat, or to purge himself by the ordeal by
+   water.[501]
+
+     [Sidenote: Scholars to be tried and punished under ecclesiastical
+   authority]
+
+   Also, neither our provost nor our judges shall lay hands on a
+   student for any offense whatever; nor shall they place him in our
+   prison, unless such a crime has been committed by the student, that
+   he ought to be arrested. And in that case, our judge shall arrest
+   him on the spot, without striking him at all, unless he resists,
+   and shall hand him over to the ecclesiastical judge,[502] who ought
+   to guard him in order to satisfy us and the one suffering the
+   injury. And if a serious crime has been committed, our judge shall
+   go or shall send to see what is done with the student. If, indeed,
+   the student does not resist arrest and yet suffers any injury, we
+   will exact satisfaction for it, according to the aforesaid
+   examination and the aforesaid oath. Also our judges shall not lay
+   hands on the chattels of the students of Paris for any crime
+   whatever. But if it shall seem that these ought to be sequestrated,
+   they shall be sequestrated and guarded after sequestration by the
+   ecclesiastical judge, in order that whatever is judged legal by the
+   Church may be done with the chattels.[503] But if students are
+   arrested by our count at such an hour that the ecclesiastical judge
+   cannot be found and be present at once, our provost shall cause the
+   culprits to be guarded in some student's house without any
+   ill-treatment, as is said above, until they are delivered to the
+   ecclesiastical judge.
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath required of the provost and people of Paris]
+
+   In order, moreover, that these [decrees] may be kept more carefully
+   and may be established forever by a fixed law, we have decided that
+   our present provost and the people of Paris shall affirm by an
+   oath, in the presence of the scholars, that they will carry out in
+   good faith all the above-mentioned [regulations]. And always in the
+   future, whosoever receives from us the office of provost in Paris,
+   among the inaugural acts of his office, namely, on the first or
+   second Sunday, in one of the churches of Paris--after he has been
+   summoned for the purpose--shall affirm by an oath, publicly in the
+   presence of the scholars, that he will keep in good faith all the
+   above-mentioned [regulations].[504] And that these decrees may be
+   valid forever, we have ordered this document to be confirmed by the
+   authority of our seal and by the characters of the royal name
+   signed below.
+
+
+61. The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)
+
+Until the middle of the fourteenth century Germany possessed no
+university. In the earlier mediæval period, when palace and monastic
+schools were multiplying in France, Italy, and England, German culture
+was too backward to permit of a similar movement beyond the Rhine; and
+later, when in other countries universities were springing into
+prosperity, political dissensions long continued to thwart such
+enterprises among the Germans. Germany was not untouched by the
+intellectual movements of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but
+her young men were obliged to seek their learning at Oxford or Paris
+or Bologna. The first German university was that of Prague, in
+Bohemia, founded by Emperor Charles IV., a contemporary of Petrarch,
+and chartered in 1348. Once begun, the work of establishing such
+institutions went on rapidly, until ere long every principality of
+note had its own university. Vienna was founded in 1365, Erfurt was
+given papal sanction in 1379, Heidelberg was established in 1386, and
+Cologne followed in 1388. The document given below is the charter of
+privileges issued for Heidelberg in October, 1386, by the founder,
+Rupert I., Count Palatine of the Rhine. Marsilius Inghen became the
+first rector of the university. He and two other masters began
+lecturing October 19, 1386--one on logic, another on the epistle to
+Titus, the third on the philosophy of Aristotle. Within four years
+over a thousand students had been in attendance at the university.
+
+     Source--Text in Edward Winkelmann, _Urkundenbuch der
+     Universität Heidelberg_ ["Cartulary of the University of
+     Heidelberg"], Heidelberg, 1886, Vol. I., pp. 5-6. Translated
+     in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical Documents of the
+     Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 262-266.
+
+     [Sidenote: The university to be organized on the model of
+     Paris]
+
+   =1.= We, Rupert the elder, by the grace of God count palatine of
+   the Rhine, elector of the Holy Empire,[505] and duke of
+   Bavaria,--lest we seem to abuse the privilege conceded to us by
+   the apostolic see of founding a place of study at Heidelberg
+   similar to that at Paris, and lest, for this reason, being
+   subjected to the divine judgment, we should deserve to be deprived
+   of the privilege granted--do decree, with provident counsel (which
+   decree is to be observed unto all time), that the University of
+   Heidelberg shall be ruled, disposed, and regulated according to the
+   modes and manners accustomed to be observed in the University of
+   Paris.[506] Also that, as a handmaid of Paris--a worthy one let us
+   hope--the latter's steps shall be imitated in every way possible;
+   so that, namely, there shall be four faculties in it: the first, of
+   sacred theology and divinity; the second, of canon and civil law,
+   which, by reason of their similarity, we think best to comprise
+   under one faculty; the third, of medicine; the fourth, of liberal
+   arts--of the three-fold philosophy, namely, primal, natural, and
+   moral, three mutually subservient daughters.[507] We wish this
+   institution to be divided and marked out into four nations, as it
+   is at Paris;[508] and that all these faculties shall make one
+   university, and that to it the individual students, in whatever of
+   the said faculties they are, shall unitedly belong like lawful sons
+   to one mother.
+
+     [Sidenote: The obligations of the masters]
+
+   Likewise [we desire] that this university shall be governed by one
+   rector,[509] and that the various masters and teachers, before they
+   are admitted to the common pursuits of our institution, shall
+   swear to observe the statutes, laws, privileges, liberties, and
+   franchises of the same, and not reveal its secrets, to whatever
+   grade they may rise. Also that they will uphold the honor of the
+   rector and the rectorship of our university, and will obey the
+   rector in all things lawful and honest, whatever be the grade to
+   which they may afterwards happen to be promoted. Moreover, that the
+   various masters and bachelors shall read their lectures and
+   exercise their scholastic functions and go about in caps and gowns
+   of a uniform and similar nature, according as has been observed at
+   Paris up to this time in the different faculties.
+
+     [Sidenote: Internal government of the university further provided
+   for]
+
+   And we will that if any faculty, nation, or person shall oppose the
+   aforesaid regulations, or stubbornly refuse to obey them, or any
+   one of them--which God forbid--from that time forward that same
+   faculty, nation, or person, if it do not desist upon being warned,
+   shall be deprived of all connection with our aforesaid institution,
+   and shall not have the benefit of our defense or protection.
+   Moreover, we will and ordain that as the university as a whole may
+   do for those assembled here and subject to it, so each faculty,
+   nation, or province of it may enact lawful statutes, such as are
+   suitable to its needs, provided that through them, or any one of
+   them, no prejudice is done to the above regulations and to our
+   institution, and that no kind of impediment arise from them. And we
+   will that when the separate bodies shall have passed the statutes
+   for their own observance, they may make them perpetually binding on
+   those subject to them and on their successors. And as in the
+   University of Paris the various servants of the institution have
+   the benefit of the various privileges which its masters and
+   scholars enjoy, so in starting our institution in Heidelberg, we
+   grant, with even greater liberality, through these presents, that
+   all the servants, i.e., its pedells,[510] librarians, lower
+   officials, preparers of parchment, scribes, illuminators and
+   others who serve it, may each and all, without fraud, enjoy in it
+   the same privileges, franchises, immunities and liberties with
+   which its masters or scholars are now or shall hereafter be
+   endowed.
+
+     [Sidenote: The jurisdiction of the bishop of Worms]
+
+     [Sidenote: Conditions of imprisonment]
+
+   =2.= Lest in the new community of the city of Heidelberg, their
+   misdeeds being unpunished, there be an incentive to the scholars of
+   doing wrong, we ordain, with provident counsel, by these presents,
+   that the bishop of Worms, as judge ordinary of the clerks of our
+   institution, shall have and possess, now and hereafter while our
+   institution shall last, prisons, and an office in our town of
+   Heidelberg for the detention of criminal clerks. These things we
+   have seen fit to grant to him and his successors, adding these
+   conditions: that he shall permit no clerk to be arrested unless for
+   a misdemeanor; that he shall restore any one detained for such
+   fault, or for any light offense, to his master, or to the rector if
+   the latter asks for him, a promise having been given that the
+   culprit will appear in court and that the rector or master will
+   answer for him if the injured parties should go to law about the
+   matter. Furthermore, that, on being requested, he will restore a
+   clerk arrested for a crime on slight evidence, upon receiving a
+   sufficient pledge--sponsors if the prisoner can obtain them,
+   otherwise an oath if he cannot obtain sponsors--to the effect that
+   he will answer in court the charges against him; and in all these
+   things there shall be no pecuniary exactions, except that the clerk
+   shall give satisfaction, reasonably and according to the rule of
+   the aforementioned town, for the expenses which he incurred while
+   in prison. And we desire that he will detain honestly and without
+   serious injury a criminal clerk thus arrested for a crime where the
+   suspicion is grave and strong, until the truth can be found out
+   concerning the deed of which he is suspected. And he shall not for
+   any cause, moreover, take away any clerk from our aforesaid town,
+   or permit him to be taken away, unless the proper observances have
+   been followed, and he has been condemned by judicial sentence to
+   perpetual imprisonment for a crime.
+
+     [Sidenote: Limitations upon power to arrest students]
+
+   We command our advocate and bailiff and their servants in our
+   aforesaid town, under pain of losing their offices and our favor,
+   not to lay a detaining hand on any master or scholar of our said
+   institution, nor to arrest him or allow him to be arrested, unless
+   the deed be such that that master or scholar ought rightly to be
+   detained. He shall be restored to his rector or master, if he is
+   held for a slight cause, provided he will swear and promise to
+   appear in court concerning the matter; and we decree that a slight
+   fault is one for which a layman, if he had committed it, ought to
+   have been condemned to a light pecuniary fine. Likewise, if the
+   master or scholar detained be found gravely or strongly suspected
+   of the crime, we command that he be handed over by our officials to
+   the bishop or to his representative in our said town, to be kept in
+   custody.
+
+     [Sidenote: Students exempted from various imposts]
+
+   =3.= By the tenor of these presents we grant to each and all the
+   masters and scholars that, when they come to the said institution,
+   while they remain there, and also when they return from it to their
+   homes, they may freely carry with them, both coming and going,
+   throughout all the lands subject to us, all things which they need
+   while pursuing their studies, and all the goods necessary for their
+   support, without any duty, levy, imposts, tolls, excises, or other
+   exactions whatever. And we wish them and each one of them, to be
+   free from the aforesaid imposts when purchasing corn, wines, meat,
+   fish, clothes and all things necessary for their living and for
+   their rank. And we decree that the scholars from their stock in
+   hand of provisions, if there remain over one or two wagonloads of
+   wine without their having practised deception, may, after the
+   feast of Easter of that year, sell it at wholesale without paying
+   impost. We grant to them, moreover, that each day the scholars, of
+   themselves or through their servants, may be allowed to buy in the
+   town of Heidelberg, at the accustomed hour, freely and without
+   impediment or hurtful delay, any eatables or other necessaries of
+   life.
+
+     [Sidenote: How rates for lodging should be fixed]
+
+   4. Lest the masters and scholars of our institution of Heidelberg
+   may be oppressed by the citizens, moved by avarice, through
+   extortionate prices of lodgings, we have seen fit to decree that
+   henceforth each year, after Christmas, one expert from the
+   university on the part of the scholars, and one prudent, pious, and
+   circumspect citizen on the part of the citizens, shall be
+   authorized to determine the price of the students' lodgings.
+   Moreover, we will and decree that the various masters and scholars
+   shall, through our bailiff, our judge and the officials subject to
+   us, be defended and maintained in the quiet possession of the
+   lodgings given to them free or of those for which they pay rent.
+   Moreover, by the tenor of these presents, we grant to the rector
+   and the university, or to those designated by them, entire
+   jurisdiction concerning the payment of rents for the lodgings
+   occupied by the students, concerning the making and buying of
+   books, and the borrowing of money for other purposes by the
+   scholars of our institution; also concerning the payment of
+   assessments, together with everything that arises from, depends
+   upon, and is connected with these.
+
+   In addition, we command our officials that, when the rector
+   requires our and their aid and assistance for carrying out his
+   sentences against scholars who try to rebel, they shall assist our
+   clients and servants in this matter; first, however, obtaining
+   lawful permission to proceed against clerks from the lord bishop of
+   Worms, or from one deputed by him for this purpose.
+
+
+62. Mediæval Students' Songs
+
+"When we try to picture to ourselves," says Mr. Symonds in one of his
+felicitous passages, "the intellectual and moral state of Europe in
+the Middle Ages, some fixed and almost stereotyped ideas immediately
+suggest themselves. We think of the nations immersed in a gross mental
+lethargy; passively witnessing the gradual extinction of arts and
+sciences which Greece and Rome had splendidly inaugurated; allowing
+libraries and monuments of antique civilization to crumble into dust;
+while they trembled under a dull and brooding terror of coming
+judgment, shrank from natural enjoyment as from deadly sin, or yielded
+themselves with brutal eagerness to the satisfaction of vulgar
+appetites. Preoccupation with the other world in this long period
+weakens man's hold upon the things that make his life desirable....
+Prolonged habits of extra-mundane contemplation, combined with the
+decay of real knowledge, volatilize the thoughts and aspirations of
+the best and wisest into dreamy unrealities, giving a false air of
+mysticism to love, shrouding art in allegory, reducing the
+interpretation of texts to an exercise of idle ingenuity, and the
+study of nature to an insane system of grotesque and pious quibbling.
+The conception of man's fall and of the incurable badness of this
+world bears poisonous fruit of cynicism and asceticism, that two-fold
+bitter almond hidden in the harsh monastic shell. Nature is regarded
+with suspicion and aversion; the flesh, with shame and loathing,
+broken by spasmodic outbursts of lawless self-indulgence."[511]
+
+All of these ideas are properly to be associated with the Middle Ages,
+but it must be borne in mind that they represent only one side of the
+picture. They are drawn very largely from the study of monastic
+literature and produce a somewhat distorted impression. Though many
+conditions prevailing in mediæval times operated strongly to paralyze
+the intellects and consciences of men, the fundamental manifestations
+and expressions of human instinct and vitality were far from crushed
+out. The life of many people was full and varied and positive--not so
+different, after all, from that of men and women to-day. That this was
+true is demonstrated by a wealth of literature reflecting the jovial
+and exuberant aspects of mediæval life, which has come down to us
+chiefly in two great groups--the poetry of the troubadours and the
+songs of the wandering students. "That so bold, so fresh, so natural,
+so pagan a view of life," continues Mr. Symonds in the passage quoted,
+"as the Latin songs of the Wandering Students exhibit, should have
+found clear and artistic utterance in the epoch of the Crusades, is
+indeed enough to bid us pause and reconsider the justice of our
+stereotyped ideas about that period. This literature makes it manifest
+that the ineradicable appetites and natural instincts of men and women
+were no less vigorous in fact, though less articulate and
+self-assertive, than they had been in the age of Greece and Rome, and
+than they afterwards displayed themselves in what is known as the
+Renaissance. The songs of the Wandering Students were composed for the
+most part in the twelfth century. Uttering the unrestrained emotions
+of men attached by a slender tie to the dominant clerical class and
+diffused over all countries, they bring us face to face with a body of
+opinion which finds in studied chronicle or labored dissertation of
+the period no echo. On the one side, they express that delight in life
+and physical enjoyment which was a main characteristic of the
+Renaissance; on the other, they proclaim that revolt against the
+corruption of Papal Rome which was the motive force of the
+Reformation. Who were these Wandering Students? As their name implies,
+they were men, and for the most part young men, traveling from
+university to university in search of knowledge. Far from their homes,
+without responsibilities, light of purse and light of heart, careless
+and pleasure-seeking, they ran a free, disreputable course,
+frequenting taverns at least as much as lecture-rooms, more capable of
+pronouncing judgment upon wine or woman than upon a problem of
+divinity or logic. These pilgrims to the shrines of knowledge formed a
+class apart. According to tendencies prevalent in the Middle Ages,
+they became a sort of guild, and with pride proclaimed themselves an
+Order."[512]
+
+Our knowledge of the mediæval students' songs is derived from two
+principal sources: (1) a richly illuminated thirteenth-century
+manuscript now preserved at Munich and edited in 1847 under the title
+_Carmina Burana_; and (2) another thirteenth-century manuscript
+published (with other materials) in 1841 under the title _Latin Poems
+commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_. Many songs occur in both
+collections. The half-dozen given in translation below very well
+illustrate the subjects, tone, and style of these interesting bits of
+literature.
+
+     Source--Texts in Edélestand du Méril, _Poésies Populaires
+     Latines du Moyen Age_ ["Popular Latin Poetry of the Middle
+     Ages"], Paris, 1847, _passim_. Translated in John Addington
+     Symonds, _Wine, Women, and Song: Mediæval Latin Students'
+     Songs_ (London, 1884), pp. 12-136, _passim_.
+
+The first is a tenth century piece, marked by an element of tenderness
+in sentiment which is essentially modern. It is the invitation of a
+young man to his mistress, bidding her to a little supper at his home.
+
+     "Come therefore now, my gentle fere,
+     Whom as my heart I hold full dear;
+     Enter my little room, which is
+     Adorned with quaintest rarities:
+     There are the seats with cushions spread,
+     The roof with curtains overhead:
+     The house with flowers of sweetest scent
+     And scattered herbs is redolent:
+     A table there is deftly dight
+     With meats and drinks of rare delight;
+     There too the wine flows, sparkling, free;
+     And all, my love, to pleasure thee.
+     There sound enchanting symphonies;
+     The clear high notes of flutes arise;
+     A singing girl and artful boy
+     Are chanting for thee strains of joy;
+     He touches with his quill the wire,
+     She tunes her note unto the lyre:
+     The servants carry to and fro
+     Dishes and cups of ruddy glow;
+     But these delights, I will confess,
+     Than pleasant converse charm me less;
+     Nor is the feast so sweet to me
+     As dear familiarity.
+     Then come now, sister of my heart,
+     That dearer than all others art,
+     Unto mine eyes thou shining sun,
+     Soul of my soul, thou only one!
+     I dwelt alone in the wild woods,
+     And loved all secret solitudes;
+     Oft would I fly from tumults far,
+     And shunned where crowds of people are.
+     O dearest, do not longer stay!
+     Seek we to live and love to-day!
+     I cannot live without thee, sweet!
+     Time bids us now our love complete."
+
+The next is a begging petition, addressed by a student on the road to
+some resident of the place where he was temporarily staying. The
+supplication for alms, in the name of learning, is cast in the form of
+a sing-song doggerel.
+
+     I, a wandering scholar lad,
+       Born for toil and sadness,
+     Oftentimes am driven by
+       Poverty to madness.
+
+     Literature and knowledge I
+       Fain would still be earning,
+     Were it not that want of pelf
+       Makes me cease from learning.
+
+     These torn clothes that cover me
+       Are too thin and rotten;
+     Oft I have to suffer cold,
+       By the warmth forgotten.
+
+     Scarce I can attend at church,
+       Sing God's praises duly;
+     Mass and vespers both I miss,
+       Though I love them truly.
+
+     Oh, thou pride of N----,[513]
+       By thy worth I pray thee
+     Give the suppliant help in need,
+       Heaven will sure repay thee.
+
+     Take a mind unto thee now
+       Like unto St. Martin;[514]
+     Clothe the pilgrim's nakedness
+       Wish him well at parting.
+
+     So may God translate your soul
+       Into peace eternal,
+     And the bliss of saints be yours
+       In His realm supernal.
+
+The following jovial _Song of the Open Road_ throbs with exhilaration
+and even impudence. Two vagabond students are drinking together before
+they part. One of them undertakes to expound the laws of the
+brotherhood which bind them together. The refrain is intended
+apparently to imitate a bugle call.
+
+     We in our wandering,
+     Blithesome and squandering,
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Eat to satiety,
+     Drink to propriety;
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Laugh till our sides we split,
+     Rags on our hides we fit;
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Jesting eternally,
+     Quaffing infernally.
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Craft's in the bone of us,
+     Fear 'tis unknown of us;
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     When we're in neediness,
+     Thieve we with greediness:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Brother catholical,
+     Man apostolical,
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Say what you will have done,
+     What you ask 'twill be done!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Folk, fear the toss of the
+     Horns of philosophy!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Here comes a quadruple
+     Spoiler and prodigal![515]
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     License and vanity
+     Pamper insanity:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     As the Pope bade us do,
+     Brother to brother's true:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Brother, best friend, adieu!
+     Now, I must part from you!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     When will our meeting be?
+     Glad shall our greeting be!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Vows valedictory
+     Now have the victory:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Clasped on each other's breast,
+     Brother to brother pressed,
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+Here is a song entitled _The Vow to Cupid_.
+
+     Winter, now thy spite is spent,
+     Frost and ice and branches bent!
+     Fogs and furious storms are o'er,
+     Sloth and torpor, sorrow frore,
+     Pallid wrath, lean discontent.
+
+     Comes the graceful band of May!
+     Cloudless shines the limpid day,
+     Shine by night the Pleiades;
+     While a grateful summer breeze
+     Makes the season soft and gay.
+
+     Golden Love! shine forth to view!
+     Souls of stubborn men subdue!
+     See me bend! what is thy mind?
+     Make the girl thou givest kind,
+     And a leaping ram's thy due![516]
+
+     O the jocund face of earth,
+     Breathing with young grassy birth!
+     Every tree with foliage clad,
+     Singing birds in greenwood glad,
+     Flowering fields for lovers' mirth!
+
+Here is another song of exceedingly delicate sentiment. It is entitled
+_The Love-Letter in Spring_.
+
+     Now the sun is streaming,
+       Clear and pure his ray;
+     April's glad face beaming
+       On our earth to-day.
+     Unto love returneth
+       Every gentle mind;
+     And the boy-god burneth
+       Jocund hearts to bind.
+
+     All this budding beauty,
+       Festival array,
+     Lays on us the duty
+       To be blithe and gay.
+     Trodden ways are known, love!
+       And in this thy youth,
+     To retain thy own love
+       Were but faith and truth.
+
+     In faith love me solely,
+       Mark the faith of me,
+     From thy whole heart wholly,
+       From the soul of thee.
+     At this time of bliss, dear,
+       I am far away;
+     Those who love like this, dear,
+       Suffer every day!
+
+Next to love and the springtime, the average student set his
+affections principally on the tavern and the wine-bowl. From his
+proneness to frequent the tavern's jovial company of topers and
+gamesters naturally sprang a liberal supply of drinking songs. Here is
+a fragment from one of them.
+
+     Some are gaming, some are drinking,
+     Some are living without thinking;
+     And of those who make the racket,
+     Some are stripped of coat and jacket;
+     Some get clothes of finer feather,
+     Some are cleaned out altogether;
+     No one there dreads death's invasion,
+     But all drink in emulation.
+
+Finally may be given, in the original Latin, a stanza of a drinking
+song which fell to such depths of irreverence as to comprise a parody
+of Thomas Aquinas's hymn on the Lord's Supper.
+
+     _Bibit hera, bibit herus,
+     Bibit miles, bibit clerus,
+     Bibit ille, bibit illa,
+     Bibit servus cum ancilla,
+     Bibit velox, bibit piger,
+     Bibit albus, bibit niger,
+     Bibit constans, bibit vagus,
+     Bibit rudis, bibit magus._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[494] That is, the _trivium_ (Latin grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and
+the _quadrivium_ (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music).
+
+[495] The earliest degrees granted at Bologna, Paris, etc., were those
+of master of arts and doctor of philosophy. "Master" and "Doctor" were
+practically equivalent terms and both signified simply that the
+bearer, after suitable examinations, had been recognized as
+sufficiently proficient to be admitted to the guild of teachers. The
+bachelor's degree grew up more obscurely. It might be taken somewhere
+on the road to the master's degree, but was merely an incidental stamp
+of proficiency up to a certain stage of advancement. Throughout
+mediæval times the master's, or doctor's, degree, which carried the
+right to become a teacher, was the normal goal and few stopped short
+of its attainment.
+
+[496] Hastings Rashdall, _The Universities of Europe in the Middle
+Ages_ (Oxford, 1895), Vol. I., p. 146.
+
+[497] Evidently, from other passages, including students of law as
+well as teachers.
+
+[498] Greedy creditors sometimes compelled students to pay debts owed
+by the fellow-countrymen of the latter--a very thinly disguised form
+of robbery. This abuse was now to be abolished.
+
+[499] That is, in any legal proceedings against a scholar the
+defendant was to choose whether he would be tried before his own
+master or before the bishop. In later times this right of choice
+passed generally to the plaintiff.
+
+[500] The students of the French universities were regarded as, for
+all practical purposes, members of the clergy (_clerici_) and thus to
+be distinguished from laymen. They were not clergy in the full sense,
+but were subject to a special sort of jurisdiction closely akin to
+that applying to the clergy.
+
+[501] The law on this point was exceptionally severe. The privilege of
+establishing innocence by combat or the ordeal by water was denied,
+though even the provost and his subordinates who had played false in
+the riot of 1200 had been given the opportunity of clearing themselves
+by such means if they chose and could do so.
+
+[502] A further recognition of the clerical character of the students.
+
+[503] The property, as the persons, of the scholars was protected from
+seizure except by the church authorities.
+
+[504] In this capacity the provost of Paris came to be known as the
+"Conservator of the Royal Privileges of the University."
+
+[505] For an explanation of the phrase "elector of the Holy Empire"
+see p. 409.
+
+[506] Rupert had sent sums of money to Rome to induce Pope Urban VI.
+to approve the foundation of the university. The papal bull of 1385,
+which was the reward of his effort, specifically enjoined that the
+university be modeled closely after that of Paris.
+
+[507] The mediæval "three philosophies" were introduced by the
+rediscovery of some of Aristotle's writings in the twelfth century.
+Primal philosophy was what we now know as metaphysics; natural
+philosophy meant the sciences of physics, botany, etc.; and moral
+philosophy denoted ethics and politics.
+
+[508] At Paris the students were divided into four groups, named from
+the nationality which predominated in each of them at the time of its
+formation--the French, the Normans, the Picards, and the English.
+
+[509] The rector at Paris was head of the faculty of arts.
+
+[510] Equivalent to bedel. All mediæval universities had their bedels,
+who bore the mace of authority before the rectors on public occasions,
+made announcements of lectures, book sales, etc., and exercised many
+of the functions of the modern bedel of European universities.
+
+[511] John Addington Symonds, _Wine, Women and Song: Mediæval Latin
+Students' Songs_ (London, 1884), pp. 1-3.
+
+[512] Symonds, _Wine, Women, and Song_, pp. 5-20 _passim_.
+
+[513] This is the only indication of the name of the place where the
+suppliant student was supposed to be making his petition.
+
+[514] St. Martin was the founder of the monastery at Tours [see p.
+48].
+
+[515] "Honest folk are jeeringly bidden to beware of the _quadrivium_
+[see p. 339], which is apt to form a fourfold rogue instead of a
+scholar in four branches of knowledge."--Symonds, _Wine, Women, and
+Song_, p. 57.
+
+[516] That is, as a sacrifice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE FRIARS
+
+
+From the twelfth century onwards one of the most conspicuous features
+of the internal development of the mediæval Church was the struggle
+to combat worldliness among ecclesiastics and to preserve the purity
+of doctrine and uprightness of living which had characterized the
+primitive Christian clergy. As the Middle Ages advanced to their close,
+unimpeachable evidence accumulates that the Church was increasingly
+menaced by grave abuses. This evidence appears not only in contemporary
+records and chronicles but even more strikingly in the great
+protesting movements which spring up in rapid succession--particularly
+the rise of heretical sects, such as the Waldenses and the Albigenses,
+and the inauguration of systematic efforts to regenerate the church
+body without disrupting its unity. These latter efforts at first took
+the form of repeated revivals of monastic enthusiasm and self-denial,
+marked by the founding of a series of new orders on the basis of the
+Benedictine Rule--the Cluniacs, the Carthusians, the Cistercians, and
+others of their kind [see p. 245]. This resource proving ineffective,
+the movement eventually came to comprise the establishment of wholly
+new and independent organizations--the mendicant orders--on principles
+better adapted than were those of monasticism to the successful
+propagation of simplicity and purity of Christian living. The chief of
+these new orders were the Franciscans, known also as Gray Friars and
+as Minorites, and the Dominicans, sometimes called Black Friars or
+Preaching Friars. Both were founded in the first quarter of the
+thirteenth century, the one by St. Francis of Assisi; the other by the
+Spanish nobleman, St. Dominic.
+
+The friars, of whatsoever type, are clearly to be distinguished from
+the monks. In the first place, their aims were different. The monks,
+in so far as they were true to their principles, lived in more or less
+seclusion from the rest of the world and gave themselves up largely
+to prayer and meditation; the fundamental purpose of the friars, on
+the other hand, was to mingle with their fellow-men and to spend their
+lives in active religious work among them. Whereas the old monasticism
+had been essentially selfish, the new movement was above all of a
+missionary and philanthropic character. In the second place, the
+friars were even more strongly committed to a life of poverty than
+were the monks, for they renounced not only individual property, as
+did the monks, but also collective property, as the monks did not.
+They were expected to get their living either by their own labor or by
+begging. They did not dwell in fixed abodes, but wandered hither and
+thither as inclination and duty led. Their particular sphere of
+activity was the populous towns; unlike the monks, they had no liking
+for rural solitudes. As one writer has put it, "their houses were
+built in or near the great towns; and to the majority of the brethren
+the houses of the orders were mere temporary resting-places from which
+they issued to make their journeys through town and country, preaching
+in the parish churches, or from the steps of the market-crosses, and
+carrying their ministrations to every castle and every cottage."
+
+Both the Franciscans and the Dominicans were exempt from control by
+the bishops in the various dioceses and were ardent supporters of the
+papacy, which showered privileges upon them and secured in them two of
+its strongest allies. The organization of each order was elaborate and
+centralized. At the head was a master, or general, who resided at Rome
+and was assisted by a "chapter." All Christendom was divided into
+provinces, each of which was directed by a prior and provincial
+chapter. And over each individual "house" was placed a prior, or
+warden, appointed by the provincial chapter. In their earlier history
+the zeal and achievements of the friars were remarkable. Nearly all of
+the greatest men of the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries--as
+Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Dun Scotus, and Albertus Magnus--were
+members of one of the mendicant orders. Unfortunately, with the friars
+as with the monks, prosperity brought decadence; and by the middle of
+the fourteenth century their ardor had cooled and their boasted
+self-denial had pretty largely given place to self-indulgence.
+
+
+63. The Life of St. Francis
+
+Saint Francis, the founder of the Franciscan order, was born, probably
+in 1182, at Assisi, a small town in central Italy. His boyhood was
+unpromising, but when he was about twenty years of age a great change
+came over him, the final result of which was the making of one of the
+most splendid and altogether lovable characters of the entire Middle
+Ages. From a wild, reckless, although cultured, youth he developed
+into a sympathetic, self-denying, sweet-spirited saint. Finding
+himself, after his conversion, possessed of a natural loathing for the
+destitute and diseased, especially lepers, he disciplined himself
+until he could actually take a certain sort of pleasure in associating
+with these outcasts of society. When his father, a wealthy and
+aristocratic cloth-merchant, protested against this sort of conduct,
+the young man promptly cast aside his gentlemanly raiment, clad
+himself in the worn-out garments of a gardener, and adopted the life
+of the wandering hermit. In 1209, in obedience to what he conceived to
+be a direct commission from heaven, he began definitely to imitate the
+early apostles in his manner of living and to preach the gospel of the
+older and purer Christianity. By 1210 he had a small body of
+followers, and in that year he sought and obtained Pope Innocent
+III.'s sanction of his work, though the papal approval was expressed
+only orally and more than a decade was to elapse before the movement
+received formal recognition. About 1217 Francis and his companions
+took up missionary work on a large scale. Members of the brotherhood
+were dispatched to England, Germany, France, Spain, Hungary, and
+several other countries, with instructions to spread the principles
+which by this time were coming to be recognized as peculiarly
+Franciscan. The success of these efforts was considerable, though in
+some places the brethren were ill treated and an appeal had to be made
+to the Pope for protection.
+
+The several selections given below have been chosen to illustrate the
+principal features of the life and character of St. Francis. We are
+fortunate in possessing a considerable amount of literature,
+contemporary or nearly so, relating to the personal career of this
+noteworthy man. In the first place, we have some writings of St.
+Francis himself--the Rule (p. 373), the Will (p. 376), some poems,
+some reported sermons, and fragments of a few letters. Then we have
+several biographies, of which the most valuable, because not only the
+earliest but also the least conventional, are the _Mirror of
+Perfection_ and the _Legend of the Three Companions_. These were
+written by men who knew St. Francis intimately and who could avow "we
+who were with him have heard him say" or "we who were with him have
+seen," such and such things. The "three companions" were Brothers Leo,
+Rufinus, and Angelo--all men of noble birth, the last-named being the
+first soldier to be identified with the order. The _Mirror of
+Perfection_ was written in 1227 by Brother Leo, who of all men
+probably knew St. Francis best. It is a vivid and fascinating portrait
+drawn from life. The _Legend of the Three Companions_ was written in
+1246. The later biographies, such as the official _Life_ by St.
+Bonaventura (1261) and the _Little Flowers of St. Francis_ (written
+probably in the fourteenth century), though until recently the best
+known of the group, are relatively inferior in value. In them the real
+St. Francis is conventionalized and much obscured.
+
+The first passage here reproduced (a) comes from the _Legend of the
+Three Companions_; the others (b) are taken from the _Mirror of
+Perfection_.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Legenda S. Francisci Assisiensis quæ dicitur
+     Legenda trium sociorum._ Adapted from translation by E. G.
+     Salter, under title of "The Legend of the Three Companions,"
+     in the Temple Classics (London, 1902), pp. 8-24, _passim_.
+
+     (b) _Speculum Perfectionis._ Translated by Constance, Countess
+     de la Warr, under title of "The Mirror of Perfection,"
+     (London, 1902), _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: His youthful vanities and waywardness]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Francis, born in the city of Assisi, which lies in the confines of
+   the Vale of Spoleto, was at first named John by his mother. Then,
+   when his father, in whose absence he had been born, returned from
+   France, he was afterward named Francis[517]. After he was grown up,
+   and had become of a subtle wit, he practiced the art of his father,
+   that is, trade. But [he did so] in a very different manner, for he
+   was a merrier man than was his father, and more generous, given to
+   jests and songs, going about the city of Assisi day and night in
+   company with his kind, most free-handed in spending; insomuch that
+   he consumed all his income and his profits in banquets and other
+   matters. On this account he was often rebuked by his parents, who
+   told him he ran into so great expense on himself and on others that
+   he seemed to be no son of theirs, but rather of some mighty prince.
+   Nevertheless, because his parents were rich and loved him most
+   tenderly, they bore with him in such matters, not being disposed to
+   chastise him. Indeed, his mother, when gossip arose among the
+   neighbors concerning his prodigal ways, made answer: "What think ye
+   of my son? He shall yet be the son of God by grace." But he himself
+   was free-handed, or rather prodigal, not only in these things, but
+   even in his clothes he was beyond measure sumptuous, using stuffs
+   more costly than it befitted him to wear. So wayward was his fancy
+   that at times on the same coat he would cause a costly cloth to be
+   matched with one of the meanest sort.
+
+     [Sidenote: His redeeming qualities]
+
+     [Sidenote: A lesson in charity]
+
+   Yet he was naturally courteous, in manner and word, after the
+   purpose of his heart, never speaking a harmful or shameful word to
+   any one. Nay, indeed, although he was so gay and wanton a youth,
+   yet of set purpose would he make no reply to those who said
+   shameful things to him. And hence was his fame so spread abroad
+   throughout the whole neighborhood that it was said by many who knew
+   him that he would do something great. By these steps of godliness
+   he progressed to such grace that he would say in communing with
+   himself: "Seeing that thou art bountiful and courteous toward men,
+   from whom thou receivest naught save a passing and empty favor, it
+   is just that thou shouldst be courteous and bountiful toward God,
+   who is Himself most bountiful in rewarding His poor." Wherefore
+   thenceforward did he look with goodwill upon the poor, bestowing
+   alms upon them abundantly. And although he was a merchant, yet was
+   he a most lavish dispenser of this world's riches. One day, when he
+   was standing in the warehouse in which he sold goods, and was
+   intent on business, a certain poor man came to him asking alms for
+   the love of God. Nevertheless, he was held back by the covetousness
+   of wealth and the cares of merchandise, and denied him the alms.
+   But forthwith, being looked upon by the divine grace, he rebuked
+   himself of great churlishness, saying, "Had this poor man asked
+   thee aught in the name of a great count or baron, assuredly thou
+   wouldst have given him what he had asked. How much more then
+   oughtest thou to have done it for the King of Kings and Lord of
+   all?" By reason whereof he thenceforth determined in his heart
+   never again to deny anything asked in the name of so great a
+   Lord....
+
+     [Sidenote: A vision in the midst of revelry]
+
+   Now, not many days after he returned to Assisi,[518] he was chosen
+   one evening by his comrades as their master of the revels, to spend
+   the money collected from the company after his own fancy. So he
+   caused a sumptuous banquet to be made ready, as he had often done
+   before. And when they came forth from the house, and his comrades
+   together went before him, going through the city singing while he
+   carried a wand in his hand as their master, he was walking behind
+   them, not singing, but meditating very earnestly. And lo! suddenly
+   he was visited by the Lord, and his heart was filled with such
+   sweetness that he could neither speak nor move; nor was he able to
+   feel and hear anything except that sweetness only, which so
+   separated him from his physical senses that--as he himself
+   afterward said--had he then been pricked with knives all over at
+   once, he could not have moved from the spot. But when his comrades
+   looked back and saw him thus far off from them, they returned to
+   him in fear, staring at him as one changed into another man. And
+   they asked him, "What were you thinking about, that you did not
+   come along with us? Perchance you were thinking of taking a wife."
+   To them he replied with a loud voice: "Truly have you spoken, for I
+   thought of taking to myself a bride nobler and richer and fairer
+   than ever you have seen." And they mocked at him. But this he said
+   not of his own accord, but inspired of God; for the bride herself
+   was true Religion, whom he took unto him, nobler, richer, and
+   fairer than others in her poverty.
+
+     [Sidenote: His increasing zeal in charity]
+
+   And so from that hour he began to grow worthless in his own eyes,
+   and to despise those things he had formerly loved, although not
+   wholly so at once, for he was not yet entirely freed from the
+   vanity of the world. Nevertheless, withdrawing himself little by
+   little from the tumult of the world, he made it his study to
+   treasure up Jesus Christ in his inner man, and, hiding from the
+   eyes of mockers the pearl that he would fain buy at the price of
+   selling his all, he went oftentimes, and as it were in secret,
+   daily to prayer, being urged thereto by the foretaste of that
+   sweetness that had visited him more and more often, and compelled
+   him to come from the streets and other public places to prayer.
+   Although he had long done good unto the poor, yet from this time
+   forth he determined still more firmly in his heart never again to
+   deny alms to any poor man who should ask it for the love of God,
+   but to give alms more willingly and bountifully than had been his
+   practice. Whenever, therefore, any poor man asked of him an alms
+   out of doors, he would supply him with money if he could; if he had
+   no ready money, he would give him his cap or girdle rather than
+   send the poor man away empty. And if it happened that he had
+   nothing of this kind, he would go to some hidden place, and strip
+   off his shirt, and send the poor man thither that he might take it,
+   for the sake of God. He also would buy vessels for the adornment
+   of churches, and would send them in all secrecy to poor priests....
+
+     [Sidenote: He begs alms at Rome]
+
+   So changed, then, was he by divine grace (although still in the
+   secular garb) that he desired to be in some city where he might, as
+   one unknown, strip off his own clothes and exchange them for those
+   of some beggar, so that he might wear his instead and make trial of
+   himself by asking alms for the love of God. Now it happened that at
+   that time he had gone to Rome on a pilgrimage. And entering the
+   church of St. Peter, he reflected on the offerings of certain
+   people, seeing that they were small, and spoke within himself:
+   "Since the Prince of the Apostles should of right be magnificently
+   honored, why do these folk make such sorry offerings in the church
+   wherein his body rests?" And so in great fervency he put his hand
+   into his purse and drew it forth full of money, and flung it
+   through the grating of the altar with such a crash that all who
+   were standing by marveled greatly at so splendid an offering. Then,
+   going forth in front of the doors of the church, where many beggars
+   were gathered to ask alms, he secretly borrowed the rags of one
+   among the neediest and donned them, laying aside his own clothing.
+   Then, standing on the church steps with the other beggars, he asked
+   an alms in French, for he loved to speak the French tongue,
+   although he did not speak it correctly. Thereafter, putting off the
+   rags, and taking again his own clothes, he returned to Assisi, and
+   began to pray the Lord to direct his way. For he revealed unto none
+   his secret, nor took counsel of any in this matter, save only of
+   God (who had begun to direct his way) and at times of the bishop of
+   Assisi. For at that time no true Poverty was to be found anywhere,
+   and she it was that he desired above all things of this world,
+   being minded in her to live--yea, and to die....
+
+     [Sidenote: Francis and the leper]
+
+   Now when on a certain day he was praying fervently unto the Lord,
+   answer was made unto him: "Francis, all those things that thou hast
+   loved after the flesh, and hast desired to have, thou must needs
+   despise and hate, if thou wouldst do My will, and after thou shalt
+   have begun to do this the things that aforetime seemed sweet unto
+   thee and delightful shall be unbearable unto thee and bitter, and
+   from those that aforetime thou didst loathe thou shalt drink great
+   sweetness and delight unmeasured." Rejoicing at these words, and
+   consoled in the Lord, when he had ridden nigh unto Assisi, he met
+   one that was a leper. And because he had been accustomed greatly to
+   loathe lepers, he did violence to himself, and dismounted from his
+   horse, gave him money, and kissed his hand. And receiving from him
+   the kiss of peace, he remounted his horse and continued his
+   journey. Thenceforth he began more and more to despise himself,
+   until by the grace of God he had attained perfect mastery over
+   himself.
+
+   A few days later, he took much money and went to the quarter of the
+   lepers, and, gathering all together, gave to each an alms, kissing
+   his hand. As he departed, in very truth that which had aforetime
+   been bitter to him, that is, the sight and touch of lepers, was
+   changed into sweetness. For, as he confessed, the sight of lepers
+   had been so grievous to him that he had been accustomed to avoid
+   not only seeing them, but even going near their dwellings. And if
+   at any time he happened to pass their abodes, or to see them,
+   although he was moved by compassion to give them an alms through
+   another person, yet always would he turn aside his face, stopping
+   his nostrils with his hand. But, through the grace of God, he
+   became so intimate a friend of the lepers that, even as he recorded
+   in his Will,[519] he lived with them and did humbly serve them.
+
+     [Sidenote: How St. Francis would not dwell in an adorned cell]
+
+     [Sidenote: Or in a cell called his own]
+
+   (b)
+
+   A very spiritual friar, who was familiar with Blessed Francis,
+   erected at the hermitage where he lived a little cell in a solitary
+   spot, where Blessed Francis could retire and pray when he came
+   thither. When he arrived at this place the friar took him to the
+   cell, and Blessed Francis said, "This cell is too splendid"--it
+   was, indeed, built only of wood, and smoothed with a hatchet--"if
+   you wish me to remain here, make it within and without of branches
+   of trees and clay." For the poorer the house or cell, the more was
+   he pleased to live therein. When the friar had done this, Blessed
+   Francis remained there several days. One day he was out of the cell
+   when a friar came to see him, who, coming thereafter to the place
+   where Blessed Francis was, was asked, "Whence came you, Brother?"
+   He answered, "I come from your cell." Then said Blessed Francis:
+   "Since you have called it mine, let another dwell there and not I."
+   And, in truth, we who were with him often heard him say: "The foxes
+   have holes, and the birds of the air have their nests, but the Son
+   of Man hath not where to lay His head." And again he would say:
+   "When the Lord remained in the desert, and fasted forty days and
+   forty nights, He did not make for Himself a cell or a house, but
+   found shelter amongst the rocks of the mountain." For this reason,
+   and to follow His example, he would not have it said that a cell or
+   house was his, nor would he allow such to be constructed.... When
+   he was nigh unto death he caused it to be written in his
+   Testament[520] that all the cells and houses of the friars should
+   be of wood and clay, the better to safeguard poverty and humility.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: A lazy friar]
+
+   At the beginning of the Order, when the friars were at
+   Rivo-Torto,[521] near Assisi, there was among them one friar who
+   would not pray, work, nor ask for alms, but only eat. Considering
+   this, Blessed Francis knew by the Holy Spirit that he was a carnal
+   man, and said to him, "Brother Fly, go your way, since you consume
+   the labor of the brethren, and are slothful in the work of the
+   Lord, like the idle and barren drone who earns nothing and does not
+   work, but consumes the labor and earnings of the working bee." He,
+   therefore, went his way, and as he was a carnally-minded man he
+   neither sought for mercy nor obtained it.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: Public humiliation inflicted upon himself]
+
+   Having at a time suffered greatly from one of his serious attacks
+   of illness, when he felt a little better he began to think that
+   during his sickness he had exceeded his usual allowance of food,
+   whereas he had really eaten very little. Though not quite recovered
+   from the ague, he caused the people of Assisi to be called together
+   in the public square to listen to a sermon. When he had finished
+   preaching, he told the people to remain where they were until he
+   came back to them, and entered the cathedral of St. Rufinus with
+   many friars and Brother Peter of Catana, who had been a canon of
+   that church, and was now the first Minister-General[522] appointed
+   by Blessed Francis. To Brother Peter Francis spoke, enjoining him
+   under obedience not to contradict what he was about to say. Brother
+   Peter replied: "Brother, neither is it possible, as between you and
+   me, nor do I wish to do anything save what is pleasing to you."
+   Then, taking off his tunic, Blessed Francis bade him place a rope
+   around his neck and drag him thus before the people to the place
+   where he had preached. At the same time he ordered another friar to
+   carry a bowlful of ashes to the place, and when he got there to
+   throw the ashes into his face. But this order was not obeyed by
+   the friar out of the pity and compassion he felt for him.
+
+   Brother Peter, taking the rope, did as he had been told; but he and
+   all the other friars shed tears of compassion and bitterness. When
+   he [Francis] stood thus bared before the people in the place where
+   he had preached, he cried: "You, and all those who by my example
+   have been induced to abandon the world and enter Religion to lead
+   the lives of friars, I confess before God and you that in my
+   illness I have eaten meat and broths made of meat." And all the
+   people could not refrain from weeping, especially as at that time
+   it was very cold and he had scarcely recovered from the fever.
+   Beating their breasts where they stood, they exclaimed, "If this
+   saint, for just and manifest necessity, with shame of body thus
+   accuses himself, whose life we know to be holy, and who has imposed
+   on himself such great abstinence and austerity since his first
+   conversion to Christ (whom we here, as it were, see in the flesh),
+   what will become of us sinners who all our lifetime seek to follow
+   our carnal appetites?"
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: St. Francis and the larks]
+
+   Blessed Francis, wholly wrapped up in the love of God, discerned
+   perfectly the goodness of God not only in his own soul, now adorned
+   with the perfection of virtue, but in every creature. On account of
+   which he had a singular and intimate love of creatures, especially
+   of those in which was figured anything pertaining to God or the
+   Order. Wherefore above all other birds he loved a certain little
+   bird which is called the lark, or by the people, the cowled lark.
+   And he used to say of it: "Sister Lark hath a cowl like a
+   Religious; and she is a humble bird, because she goes willingly by
+   the road to find there any food. And if she comes upon it in
+   foulness, she draws it out and eats it. But, flying, she praises
+   God very sweetly, like a good Religious, despising earthly things,
+   whose conversation is always in the heavens, and whose intent is
+   always to the praise of God. Her clothes (that is, her feathers),
+   are like to the earth and she gives an example to Religious that
+   they should not have delicate and colored garments, but common in
+   price and color, as earth is commoner than the other elements." And
+   because he perceived this in them, he looked on them most
+   willingly. Therefore it pleased the Lord, that these most holy
+   little birds should show some sign of affection towards him in the
+   hour of his death. For late in the Sabbath day after vespers,
+   before the night in which he passed away to the Lord, a great
+   multitude of that kind of birds called larks came on the roof of
+   the house where he was lying, and, flying about, made a wheel like
+   a circle around the roof, and, sweetly singing, seemed likewise to
+   praise the Lord.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: His desire that birds and animals be fed on Christmas
+   day]
+
+   We who were with Blessed Francis and write these things, testify
+   that many times we heard him say: "If I could speak with the
+   Emperor,[523] I would supplicate and persuade him that, for the
+   love of God and me, he would make a special law that no man should
+   snare or kill our sisters, the larks, nor do them any harm. Also,
+   that all chief magistrates of cities and lords of castles and
+   villages should, every year, on the day of the Lord's Nativity,
+   compel men to scatter wheat and other grain on the roads outside
+   cities and castles, that our Sister Larks and all other birds might
+   have to eat on that most solemn day; and that, out of reverence for
+   the Son of God, who on that night was laid by the most Blessed
+   Virgin Mary in a manger between an ox and an ass, all who have oxen
+   and asses should be obliged on that night to provide them with
+   abundant and good fodder; and also that on that day the poor should
+   be most bountifully fed by the rich."
+
+   For Blessed Francis held in higher reverence than any other the
+   Feast of the Lord's Nativity, saying, "After the Lord was born, our
+   salvation became a necessity." Therefore he desired that on this
+   day all Christians should rejoice in the Lord, and, for the love
+   of Him who gave Himself for us, should generously provide not only
+   for the poor, but also for the beasts and birds.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: His regard for trees, stones, and all created things]
+
+   Next to fire he most loved water, which is the symbol of holy
+   penance and tribulation, whereby the stains are washed from the
+   soul, and by which the first cleansing of the soul takes place in
+   holy baptism. Hence, when he washed his hands, he would select a
+   place where he would not tread the water underfoot. When he walked
+   over stones he would tread on them with fear and reverence, for the
+   love of Him who is called the Rock, and when reciting the words of
+   the Psalm, _Thou hast exalted me on a rock_, would add with great
+   reverence and devotion, "beneath the foot of the rock hast thou
+   exalted me."
+
+   In the same way he would tell the friars who cut and prepared the
+   wood not to cut down the whole tree, but only such branches as
+   would leave the tree standing, for love of Him who died for us on
+   the wood of the Cross. So, also, he would tell the friar who was
+   the gardener not to cultivate all the ground for vegetables and
+   herbs for food, but to set aside some part to produce green plants
+   which should in their time bear flowers for the friars, for love of
+   Him who was called "The Flower of the Field," and "The Lily of the
+   Valley." Indeed he would say the Brother Gardener should always
+   make a beautiful little garden in some part of the land, and plant
+   it with sweet-scented herbs bearing lovely flowers, which in the
+   time of their blossoming invited men to praise Him who made all
+   herbs and flowers. For every creature cries aloud: "God has made me
+   for thee, O man!"
+
+
+64. The Rule of St. Francis
+
+There is every reason for believing that St. Francis set out upon his
+mission with no idea whatever of founding a new religious order. His
+fundamental purpose was to revive what he conceived to be the purer
+Christianity of the apostolic age, and so far as this involved the
+announcement of any definite principles or rules he was quite content
+to draw them solely from the Scriptures. We have record, for example,
+of how when (in 1209) St. Francis had yet but two followers, he led
+them to the steps of the church of St. Nicholas at Assisi and there
+read to them three times the words of Jesus sending forth his
+disciples,[524] adding, "This, brethren, is our life and our rule, and
+that of all who may join us. Go, then, and do as you have heard." As
+his field of labor expanded, however, and the number of the friars
+increased, St. Francis decided to write out a definite Rule for the
+brotherhood and go to Rome to procure its approval by the Pope. The
+Rule as thus formulated, in 1210, has not come down to us. We know
+only that it was extremely simple and that it was composed almost
+wholly of passages from the Bible (doubtless those read to the
+companions at Assisi), with a few precepts about the occupations and
+manner of living of the brethren. This first Rule indeed proved too
+simple and brief to satisfy the demands of the growing order. A
+general injunction, such as "be poor," was harder to apply and to live
+up to than a more specific set of instructions explaining just what
+was to be considered poverty and what was not. The brethren, moreover,
+were soon preaching and laboring in all the countries of western
+Europe and questions were continually coming up regarding their
+relations with the temporal powers in those countries, with the local
+clergy, with the papal government, and also among themselves.
+
+Reluctantly, and with a heart-felt warning against the insidious
+influences of ambition and organization, the founder finally brought
+himself to the task of drawing up a constitution for the order which
+had surprised him, and in a certain sense grieved him, by the very
+elaborateness of its development. During the winter of 1220-21, when
+physical infirmities were foreshadowing the end, Francis worked out
+the document generally known as the Rule of 1221, which became the
+basis for the Rule of 1223, quoted in part below. Before the Rule took
+its final form, the influence of the Church was brought to bear
+through the papacy, with the result that most of the freshness and
+vigor that St. Francis put into the earlier effort was crushed out in
+the interest of ecclesiastical regularity. Only a small portion of the
+document can be reproduced here, but enough, perhaps, to show
+something as to what the manner of life of the Franciscan friar was
+expected to be. The extract may profitably be compared with the
+Benedictine Rule governing the monks [see p. 83].
+
+     Source--_Bullarium Romanum_ ["Collection of Papal Bulls"],
+     editio Taurinensis, Vol. III., p. 394. Adapted from
+     translation in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical
+     Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 344-349
+     _passim_.
+
+   =1.= This is the rule and way of living of the Minorite brothers,
+   namely, to observe the holy Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, living
+   in obedience, without personal possessions, and in chastity.
+   Brother Francis promises obedience and reverence to our lord Pope
+   Honorius,[525] and to his successors who canonically enter upon
+   their office, and to the Roman Church. And the other brothers shall
+   be bound to obey Brother Francis and his successors.
+
+     [Sidenote: Money in no case to be received by the brothers]
+
+   =4.= I firmly command all the brothers by no means to receive coin
+   or money, of themselves or through an intervening person. But for
+   the needs of the sick and for clothing the other brothers, the
+   ministers alone and the guardians shall provide through spiritual
+   friends, as it may seem to them that necessity demands, according
+   to time, place and the coldness of the temperature. This one thing
+   being always borne in mind, that, as has been said, they receive
+   neither coin nor money.
+
+     [Sidenote: The obligation to labor]
+
+   =5.= Those brothers to whom God has given the ability to labor
+   shall labor faithfully and devoutly, in such manner that idleness,
+   the enemy of the soul, being averted, they may not extinguish the
+   spirit of holy prayer and devotion, to which other temporal things
+   should be subservient. As a reward, moreover, for their labor, they
+   may receive for themselves and their brothers the necessities of
+   life, but not coin or money; and this humbly, as becomes the
+   servants of God and the followers of most holy poverty.
+
+   =6.= The brothers shall appropriate nothing to themselves, neither
+   a house, nor a place, nor anything; but as pilgrims and strangers
+   in this world, in poverty and humility serving God, they shall
+   confidently go seeking for alms. Nor need they be ashamed, for the
+   Lord made Himself poor for us in this world.
+
+
+65. The Will of St. Francis
+
+The will which St. Francis prepared just before his death (1226)
+contains an admirable statement of the principles for which he
+labored, as well as a notable warning to his successors not to allow
+the order to fall away from its original high ideals. Among the later
+Franciscans the Will acquired a moral authority superior even to that
+of the Rule.
+
+     Source--Text in Amoni, _Legenda Trium Sociorum_ ["Legend of
+     the Three Companions"], Appendix, p. 110. Translation adapted
+     from Paul Sabatier, _Life of St. Francis of Assisi_ (New York,
+     1894), pp. 337-339.
+
+   God gave it to me, Brother Francis, to begin to do penance in the
+   following manner: when I was yet in my sins it seemed to me too
+   painful to look upon the lepers, but the Lord Himself led me among
+   them, and I had compassion upon them. When I left them, that which
+   had seemed to me bitter had become sweet and easy. A little while
+   after, I left the world,[526] and God gave me such faith that I
+   would kneel down with simplicity in any of his churches, and I
+   would say, "We adore thee, Lord Jesus Christ, here and in all thy
+   churches which are in the world, and we bless thee that by Thy holy
+   cross Thou hast ransomed the world."
+
+     [Sidenote: St. Francis not hostile to the existing Church]
+
+   Afterward the Lord gave me, and still gives me, so great a faith in
+   priests who live according to the form of the holy Roman Church,
+   because of their sacerdotal character, that even if they
+   persecuted me I would have recourse to them, and even though I had
+   all the wisdom of Solomon, if I should find poor secular priests, I
+   would not preach in their parishes against their will.[527] I
+   desire to respect them like all the others, to love them and honor
+   them as my lords. I will not consider their sins, for in them I see
+   the Son of God, and they are my lords. I do this because here below
+   I see nothing, I perceive nothing physically of the most high Son
+   of God, except His most holy body and blood, which the priests
+   receive and alone distribute to others.[528]
+
+   I desire above all things to honor and venerate all these most holy
+   mysteries and to keep them precious. Wherever I find the sacred
+   name of Jesus, or his words, in unsuitable places, I desire to take
+   them away and put them in some decent place; and I pray that others
+   may do the same. We ought to honor and revere all the theologians
+   and those who preach the most holy word of God, as dispensing to us
+   spirit and life.
+
+   When the Lord gave me the care of some brothers, no one showed me
+   what I ought to do, but the Most High himself revealed to me that I
+   ought to live according to the model of the holy gospel. I caused a
+   short and simple formula to be written and the lord Pope confirmed
+   it for me.[529]
+
+     [Sidenote: Poverty and labor enjoined]
+
+   Those who volunteered to follow this kind of life distributed all
+   they had to the poor. They contented themselves with one tunic,
+   patched within and without, with the cord and breeches, and we
+   desired to have nothing more.... We loved to live in poor and
+   abandoned churches, and we were ignorant and were submissive to
+   all. I worked with my hands and would still do so, and I firmly
+   desire also that all the other brothers work, for this makes for
+   goodness. Let those who know no trade learn one, not for the
+   purpose of receiving wages for their toil, but for their good
+   example and to escape idleness. And when we are not given the price
+   of our work, let us resort to the table of the Lord, begging our
+   bread from door to door. The Lord revealed to me the salutation
+   which we ought to give: "God give you peace!"
+
+     [Sidenote: No further privileges to be sought from the Pope]
+
+   Let the brothers take great care not to accept churches, dwellings,
+   or any buildings erected for them, except as all is in accordance
+   with the holy poverty which we have vowed in the Rule; and let them
+   not live in them except as strangers and pilgrims. I absolutely
+   forbid all the brothers, in whatsoever place they may be found, to
+   ask any bull from the court of Rome, whether directly or
+   indirectly, in the interest of church or convent, or under pretext
+   of preaching, or even for the protection of their bodies. If they
+   are not received anywhere, let them go of themselves elsewhere,
+   thus doing penance with the benediction of God....
+
+   And let the brothers not say, "This is a new Rule"; for this is
+   only a reminder, a warning, an exhortation. It is my last will and
+   testament, that I, little Brother Francis, make for you, my blessed
+   brothers, in order that we may observe in a more Catholic way the
+   Rule which we promised the Lord to keep.
+
+     [Sidenote: No additions to be made to the Rule or the Will]
+
+   Let the ministers-general, all the other ministers, and the
+   custodians be held by obedience to add nothing to and take nothing
+   away from these words. Let them always keep this writing near them
+   beside the Rule; and in all the assemblies which shall be held,
+   when the Rule is read, let these words be read also.
+
+   I absolutely forbid all the brothers, clerics and laymen, to
+   introduce comments in the Rule, or in this Will, under pretext of
+   explaining it. But since the Lord has given me to speak and to
+   write the Rule and these words in a clear and simple manner, so do
+   you understand them in the same way without commentary, and put
+   them in practice until the end.
+
+   And whoever shall have observed these things, may he be crowned in
+   heaven with the blessings of the heavenly Father, and on earth with
+   those of his well-beloved Son and of the Holy Spirit, the Consoler,
+   with the assistance of all the heavenly virtues and all the saints.
+
+   And I, little Brother Francis, your servant, confirm to you, so far
+   as I am able, this most holy benediction. Amen.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[517] The father's name was Pietro Bernardone. As a cloth-merchant he
+was probably accustomed to make frequent journeys to northern France,
+particularly Champagne, which was the principal seat of commercial
+exchange between northern and southern Europe.
+
+[518] Aspiring to become a knight and to win distinction on the field
+of battle, Francis had gone to Spoleto with the intention of joining
+an expedition about to set out for Apulia. While there he was stricken
+with fever and compelled to abandon his purpose. Returning to Assisi,
+he redoubled his works of charity and sought to keep aloof from the
+people of the town. His old companions, however, flocked around him,
+expecting still to profit by his prodigality, and for a time, being
+himself uncertain as to the course he would take, he acceded to their
+desires.
+
+[519] See p. 376.
+
+[520] Brief portions of this testament, or will, are given on p. 376.
+
+[521] This was in the latter part of 1210 and the early part of 1211.
+Rivo-Torto was an abandoned cottage in the plain of Assisi, an hour's
+walk from the town and near the highway between Perugia and Rome. The
+building had once served as a leper hospital. Francis and his
+companions selected it as a temporary place of abode, probably because
+of its proximity to the _carceri_, or natural grottoes, of Mount
+Subasio to which the friars resorted for solitude, and because it was
+at the same time sufficiently near the Umbrian towns to permit of
+frequent trips thither for preaching and charity.
+
+[522] Practically, St. Francis's successor in the headship of the
+order. With the idea of realizing entire humility in his own life, St.
+Francis had resigned his position of authority into the hands of
+Brother Peter and had pledged the implicit obedience of himself and
+the others to the new prelate.
+
+[523] That is, the sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+[524] The passage (Luke ix. 1-6) is as follows: "Jesus, having called
+to Him the Twelve, gave them power and authority over all devils and
+to cure diseases. And He sent them to preach the Kingdom of God and to
+heal the sick. And He said unto them, Take nothing for your journey,
+neither staves, nor scrip, neither bread, neither money; neither have
+two coats apiece. And whatsoever house ye enter into, there abide, and
+thence depart. And whosoever will not receive you, when ye go out of
+that city shake off the very dust from your feet for a testimony
+against them. And they departed and went through the towns, preaching
+the gospel and healing everywhere."
+
+[525] Honorius III., 1216-1227.
+
+[526] That is, abandoned the worldly manner of living.
+
+[527] Despite the willingness of St. Francis here expressed to get on
+peaceably with the secular clergy, i.e., the bishops and priests, the
+history of the mendicant orders is filled with the records of strife
+between the seculars and friars. This was inevitable, since such
+friars as had taken priestly orders were accustomed to hear
+confessions, preside at masses, preach in parish churchyards, bury the
+dead, and collect alms--all the proper functions of the parish priests
+but permitted to the friars by special papal dispensations. The
+priests very naturally regarded the friars as usurpers.
+
+[528] That is, in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
+
+[529] The Rule of 1210, approved by Innocent III., is here meant [see
+p. 374].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL POWERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES
+
+
+66. The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)
+
+Two of the most effective weapons at the service of the mediæval
+Church were excommunication and the interdict. By the ban of
+excommunication the proper ecclesiastical authorities could exclude a
+heretic or otherwise objectionable person from all religious
+privileges, thereby cutting him off from association with the faithful
+and consigning him irrevocably (unless he repented) to Satan. The
+interdict differed from excommunication in being less sweeping in its
+condemnatory character, and also in being applied to towns, provinces,
+or countries rather than to individuals. As a rule the interdict
+undertook to deprive the inhabitants of a specified region of the use
+of certain of the sacraments, of participation in the usual religious
+services, and of the right of Christian burial. It did not expel men
+from church membership, as did excommunication, but it suspended most
+of the privileges and rights flowing from such membership. The
+interdict was first employed by the clergy of north France in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries. In the twelfth it was adopted by the
+papacy on account of its obvious value as a means of disciplining the
+monarchs of western Europe. Because of its effectiveness in stirring
+up popular indignation against sovereigns who incurred the papal
+displeasure, by the time of Innocent III. (1198-1216) it had come to
+be employed for political as well as for purely religious purposes,
+though generally the two considerations were closely intertwined. A
+famous and typical instance of its use was that of the year 1200,
+described below.
+
+In August, 1193, Philip Augustus, king of France, married Ingeborg,
+second sister of King Knut VI. of Denmark. At the time Philip was
+contemplating an invasion of England and hoped through the marriage to
+assure himself of Danish aid. Circumstances soon changed his plans,
+however, and almost immediately he began to treat his new wife coldly,
+with the obvious purpose of forcing her to return to her brother's
+court. Failing in this, he convened his nobles and bishops at
+Compiègne and got from them a decree of divorce, on the flimsy pretext
+that the marriage with Ingeborg had been illegal on account of the
+latter's distant relationship to Elizabeth of Hainault, Philip's first
+wife. Ingeborg and her brother appealed to Rome, and Pope Celestine
+III. dispatched letter after letter and legate after legate to the
+French court, but without result. Indeed, after three years, Philip,
+to clinch the matter, as he thought, married Agnes of Meran, daughter
+of a Bavarian nobleman, and shut up Ingeborg in a convent at Soissons.
+In 1198, while the affair stood thus, Celestine died and was succeeded
+by Innocent III., under whom the papal power was destined to attain a
+height hitherto unknown. Innocent flatly refused to sanction the
+divorce or to recognize the second marriage, although he was not pope,
+of course, until some years after both had occurred. On the ground
+that the whole subject of marriage lay properly within the
+jurisdiction of the Church, Innocent demanded that Philip cast off the
+beautiful Agnes and restore Ingeborg to her rightful place. This
+Philip promptly refused to do.
+
+The threat of an interdict failing to move him, the Pope proceeded to
+put his threat into execution. In January, 1200, the interdict was
+pronounced and, though the king's power over the French clergy was so
+strong that many refused to heed the voice from Rome, gradually the
+discontent and indignation of the people grew until after nine months
+it became apparent that the king must yield. He did so as gracefully
+as he could, promising to take back Ingeborg and submit the question
+of a divorce to a council presided over by the papal legate. This
+council, convened in 1201 at Soissons, decided against the king and in
+favor of Ingeborg; but Philip had no intention to submit in good faith
+and, until the death of Agnes in 1204, he maintained his policy of
+procrastination and double-dealing. Even in the later years of the
+reign the unfortunate Ingeborg had frequent cause to complain of
+harshness and neglect at the hand of her royal husband.
+
+The following are the principal portions of Innocent's interdict.
+
+     Source--Martène, Edmond, and Durand, Ursin, _Thesaurus novus
+     Anecdotorum_ ["New Collection of Unpublished Documents"],
+     Paris, 1717, Vol. IV., p. 147. Adapted from translation by
+     Arthur C. Howland in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_,
+     Vol. IV., No. 4, pp. 29-30.
+
+     [Sidenote: Partial suspension of the services and offices of
+     the Church]
+
+   Let all the churches be closed; let no one be admitted to them,
+   except to baptize infants; let them not be otherwise opened, except
+   for the purpose of lighting the lamps, or when the priest shall
+   come for the Eucharist and holy water for the use of the sick. We
+   permit Mass to be celebrated once a week, on Friday, early in the
+   morning, to consecrate the Host[530] for the use of the sick, but
+   only one clerk is to be admitted to assist the priest. Let the
+   clergy preach on Sunday in the vestibules of the churches, and in
+   place of the Mass let them deliver the word of God. Let them recite
+   the canonical hours[531] outside the churches, where the people do
+   not hear them; if they recite an epistle or a gospel, let them
+   beware lest the laity hear them; and let them not permit the dead
+   to be interred, nor their bodies to be placed unburied in the
+   cemeteries. Let them, moreover, say to the laity that they sin and
+   transgress grievously by burying bodies in the earth, even in
+   unconsecrated ground, for in so doing they assume to themselves an
+   office pertaining to others.
+
+     [Sidenote: How Easter should be observed]
+
+     [Sidenote: Arrangements for confession]
+
+   Let them forbid their parishioners to enter churches that may be
+   open in the king's territory, and let them not bless the wallets of
+   pilgrims, except outside the churches. Let them not celebrate the
+   offices in Passion week, but refrain even until Easter day, and
+   then let them celebrate in private, no one being admitted except
+   the assisting priest, as above directed; let no one communicate,
+   even at Easter, unless he be sick and in danger of death. During
+   the same week, or on Palm Sunday, let them announce to their
+   parishioners that they may assemble on Easter morning before the
+   church and there have permission to eat flesh and consecrated
+   bread.... Let the priest confess all who desire it in the portico
+   of the church; if the church have no portico, we direct that in bad
+   or rainy weather, and not otherwise, the nearest door of the church
+   may be opened and confessions heard on its threshold (all being
+   excluded except the one who is to confess), so that the priest and
+   the penitent can be heard by those who are outside the church. If,
+   however, the weather be fair, let the confession be heard in front
+   of the closed doors. Let no vessels of holy water be placed outside
+   the church, nor shall the priests carry them anywhere; for all the
+   sacraments of the Church beyond these two which are reserved[532]
+   are absolutely prohibited. Extreme unction, which is a holy
+   sacrament, may not be given.[533]
+
+
+67. The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)
+
+In the history of the mediæval Church at least three great periods of
+conflict between the papacy and the temporal powers can be
+distinguished. The first was the era of Gregory VII. and Henry IV. of
+Germany [see p. 261]; the second was that of Innocent III. and John of
+England and Philip Augustus of France [see p. 380]; the third was that
+of Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France. In many respects the
+most significant document pertaining to the last of these struggles is
+the papal bull, given below, commonly designated by its opening words,
+_Unam Sanctam_.
+
+The question at issue in the conflict of Boniface VIII. and Philip the
+Fair was the old one as to whether the papacy should be allowed to
+dominate European states in temporal as well as in spiritual matters.
+The Franconian emperors, in the eleventh century, made stubborn
+resistance to such domination, but the immediate result was only
+partial success, while later efforts to keep up the contest
+practically ruined the power of the house of Hohenstaufen. Even Philip
+Augustus, at the opening of the thirteenth century, had been compelled
+to yield, at least outwardly, to the demands of the papacy respecting
+his marriages and his national policies. With the revival of the issue
+under Boniface and Philip, however, the tide turned, for at last there
+had arisen a nation whose sovereign had so firm a grip upon the
+loyalty of his subjects that he could defy even the power of Rome with
+impunity.
+
+The quarrel between Boniface and Philip first assumed importance in
+1296--two years after the accession of the former and eleven after
+that of the latter. The immediate subject of dispute was the heavy
+taxes which Philip was levying upon the clergy of France and the
+revenues from which he was using in the prosecution of his wars with
+Edward I. of England; but royal and papal interests were fundamentally
+at variance and as both king and pope were of a combative temper, a
+conflict was inevitable, irrespective of taxes or any other particular
+cause of controversy. In 1096 Boniface issued the famous bull
+_Clericis Laicos_, forbidding laymen (including monarchs) to levy
+subsidies on the clergy without papal consent and prohibiting the
+clergy to pay subsidies so levied. Philip the Fair was not mentioned
+in the bull, but the measure was clearly directed primarily at him. He
+retaliated by prohibiting the export of money, plate, etc., from the
+realm, thereby cutting off the accustomed papal revenues from France.
+In 1297 an apparent reconciliation was effected, the Pope practically
+suspending the bull so far as France was concerned, though only to
+secure relief from the conflict with Philip while engaged in a
+struggle with the rival Colonna family at Rome.
+
+In 1301 the contest was renewed, mainly because of the indiscretion of
+a papal legate, Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who vilified the
+king and was promptly imprisoned for his violent language. Boniface
+took up the cause of Saisset and called an ecclesiastical council to
+regulate the affairs of church and state in France and to rectify the
+injuries wrought by King Philip. The claim to papal supremacy in
+temporal as well as spiritual affairs, which Boniface proposed thus to
+make good, was boldly stated in a new bull--that of _Ausculta
+Fili_--in 1301. At the same time the bull _Clericis Laicos_ was
+renewed for France. Philip knew that the Franconians and his own
+Capetian predecessors had failed in their struggles with Rome chiefly
+for the reason that they had been lacking in consistent popular
+support. National feeling was unquestionably stronger in the France of
+1301 than in the Germany of 1077, or even in the France of 1200; but
+to make doubly sure, Philip, in 1302, caused the first meeting of a
+complete States General to be held, and from this body, representing
+the various elements of the French people, he got reliable pledges of
+support in his efforts to resist the temporal aggressions of the
+papacy. It was at this juncture that Boniface issued the bull _Unam
+Sanctam_, which has well been termed the classic mediæval expression
+of the papal claims to universal temporal sovereignty.
+
+In 1303 an assembly of French prelates and magnates, under the
+inspiration of Philip, brought charges of heresy and misconduct
+against Boniface and called for a meeting of a general ecclesiastical
+council to depose him. Boniface decided to issue a bull
+excommunicating and deposing Philip. But before the date set for this
+step (September, 1303) a catastrophe befell the papacy which resulted
+in an unexpected termination of the episode. On the day before the
+bull of deposition was to be issued William of Nogaret, whom Philip
+had sent to Rome to force Boniface to call a general council to try
+the charges against himself, led a band of troops to Anagni and took
+the Pope prisoner with the intention of carrying him to France for
+trial. After three days the inhabitants of Anagni attacked the
+Frenchmen and drove them out and Boniface, who had barely escaped
+death, returned to Rome. The unfortunate Pope never recovered,
+however, from the effects of the outrage and his death in October
+(1303) left Philip, by however unworthy means, a victor. From this
+point the papacy passes under the domination of the French court and
+in 1309 began the dark period of the so-called Babylonian Captivity,
+during most of which the popes dwelt at Avignon under conditions
+precisely the reverse of the ideal which Boniface so clearly asserted
+in _Unam Sanctam_.
+
+     Source--Text based upon the papal register published by P.
+     Mury in _Revue des Questions Historiques_, Vol. XLVI. (July,
+     1889), pp. 255-256. Translated in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar
+     H. McNeal, _Source Book for Mediæval History_ (New York),
+     1905, pp. 314-317.
+
+     [Sidenote: An assertion of the unity of the Church]
+
+   The true faith compels us to believe that there is one holy
+   Catholic Apostolic Church, and this we firmly believe and plainly
+   confess. And outside of her there is no salvation or remission of
+   sins, as the Bridegroom says in the Song of Solomon: "My dove, my
+   undefiled, is but one; she is the only one of her mother, she is
+   the choice one of her that bare her" [Song of Sol., vi. 9]; which
+   represents the one mystical body, whose head is Christ, but the
+   head of Christ is God [1 Cor., xi. 3]. In this Church there is "one
+   Lord, one faith, one baptism" [Eph., iv. 5]. For in the time of the
+   flood there was only one ark, that of Noah, prefiguring the one
+   Church, and it was "finished above in one cubit" [Gen., vi. 16],
+   and had but one helmsman and master, namely, Noah. And we read that
+   all things on the earth outside of this ark were destroyed. This
+   Church we venerate as the only one, since the Lord said by the
+   prophet: "Deliver my soul from the sword; my darling from the power
+   of the dog" [Ps., xxii. 20]. He prayed for his soul, that is, for
+   himself, the head; and at the same time for the body, and he named
+   his body, that is, the one Church, because there is but one
+   Bridegroom [John, iii. 29], and because of the unity of the faith,
+   of the sacraments, and of his love for the Church. This is the
+   seamless robe of the Lord which was not rent but parted by lot
+   [John, xix. 23].
+
+     [Sidenote: An allusion to the Petrine Supremacy]
+
+     [Sidenote: The proper relation of spiritual and temporal powers]
+
+   Therefore there is one body of the one and only Church, and one
+   head, not two heads, as if the Church were a monster. And this head
+   is Christ, and his vicar, Peter and his successor; for the Lord
+   himself said to Peter: "Feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16]. And he said
+   "my sheep," in general, not these or those sheep in particular;
+   from which it is clear that all were committed to him. If,
+   therefore, Greeks [i.e., the Greek Church] or any one else say that
+   they are not subject to Peter and his successors, they thereby
+   necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. For
+   the Lord says, in the Gospel of John, that there is one fold and
+   only one shepherd [John, x. 16]. By the words of the gospel we are
+   taught that the two swords, namely, the spiritual authority and the
+   temporal, are in the power of the Church. For when the apostles
+   said "Here are two swords" [Luke, xxii. 38]--that is, in the
+   Church, since it was the apostles who were speaking--the Lord did
+   not answer, "It is too much," but "It is enough." Whoever denies
+   that the temporal sword is in the power of Peter does not properly
+   understand the word of the Lord when He said: "Put up thy sword
+   into the sheath" [John, xviii. 11]. Both swords, therefore, the
+   spiritual and the temporal, are in the power of the Church. The
+   former is to be used by the Church, the latter for the Church; the
+   one by the hand of the priest, the other by the hand of kings and
+   knights, but at the command and permission of the priest. Moreover,
+   it is necessary for one sword to be under the other, and the
+   temporal authority to be subjected to the spiritual; for the
+   apostle says, "For there is no power but of God: and the powers
+   that be are ordained of God" [Rom., xiii. 1]; but they would not be
+   ordained unless one were subjected to the other, and, as it were,
+   the lower made the higher by the other.
+
+     [Sidenote: The superiority of the spiritual]
+
+   For, according to St. Dionysius,[534] it is a law of divinity that
+   the lowest is made the highest through the intermediate. According
+   to the law of the universe all things are not equally and directly
+   reduced to order, but the lowest are fitted into their order
+   through the intermediate, and the lower through the higher. And we
+   must necessarily admit that the spiritual power surpasses any
+   earthly power in dignity and honor, because spiritual things
+   surpass temporal things. We clearly see that this is true from the
+   paying of tithes, from the benediction, from the sanctification,
+   from the receiving of the power, and from the governing of these
+   things. For the truth itself declares that the spiritual power must
+   establish the temporal power and pass judgment on it if it is not
+   good. Thus the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning the Church and the
+   ecclesiastical power is fulfilled: "See, I have this day set thee
+   over the nations and over the kingdoms, to root out, and to pull
+   down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to plant"
+   [Jer., i. 10].
+
+     [Sidenote: The highest spiritual power (the papacy) responsible to
+   God alone]
+
+   Therefore if the temporal power errs, it will be judged by the
+   spiritual power, and if the lower spiritual power errs, it will be
+   judged by its superior. But if the highest spiritual power errs, it
+   cannot be judged by men, but by God alone. For the apostle says:
+   "But he that is spiritual judgeth all things, yet he himself is
+   judged of no man" [1 Cor., ii. 15]. Now this authority, although it
+   is given to man and exercised through man, is not human, but
+   divine. For it was given by the word of the Lord to Peter, and the
+   rock was made firm to him and his successors, in Christ himself,
+   whom he had confessed. For the Lord said to Peter: "Whatsoever thou
+   shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou
+   shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19].
+
+     [Sidenote: Submission to the papacy essential to salvation]
+
+   Therefore, whosoever resisteth this power thus ordained of God
+   resisteth the ordinance of God [Rom., xiii. 2], unless there are
+   two principles [beginnings], as Manichæus[535] pretends there are.
+   But this we judge to be false and heretical. For Moses says that,
+   not in the beginnings, but in the beginning, God created the heaven
+   and the earth [Gen., i. 1]. We therefore declare, say, and affirm
+   that submission on the part of every man to the bishop of Rome is
+   altogether necessary for his salvation.
+
+
+68. The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance
+
+The "Babylonian Captivity"--begun in 1305, or perhaps more properly in
+1309, when the French Pope, Clement V., took up his residence
+regularly at Avignon--lasted until 1377. During these sixty or seventy
+years the College of Cardinals consisted chiefly of Frenchmen, all of
+the seven popes were of French nationality, and for the most part the
+papal authority was little more than a tool in the hands of the
+aggressive French sovereigns. In 1377, at the solicitation of the
+Italian clergy and people, Pope Gregory XI. removed to Rome, where he
+died in 1378. In the election that followed the Roman populace,
+determined to bring the residence of the popes at Avignon to an end
+once for all, demanded a Roman, or at least an Italian, pope. The
+majority of the cardinals were French, but they could not agree upon a
+French candidate and, intimidated by the threats of the mob, they at
+last chose a Neapolitan who took the name Urban VI. A few months of
+Urban's obstinate administration convinced the cardinals that they had
+made a serious mistake, and, on the ground that their choice had been
+unduly influenced by popular clamor, they sought to nullify the
+election and to replace Urban by a Genevan who took the title Clement
+VII. Urban utterly refused thus to be put aside, so that there were
+now two popes, each duly elected by the College of Cardinals and each
+claiming the undivided allegiance of Christendom. This was the
+beginning of the Great Schism, destined to work havoc in the Church
+for a full generation, or until finally ended in 1417. Clement VII.
+fixed his abode at Avignon and French influence secured for him the
+support of Spain, Scotland, and Sicily. The rest of Europe, displeased
+with the subordination of the papacy to France and French interests,
+declared for Urban, who was pledged to maintain the papal capital at
+Rome.
+
+France must be held responsible in the main for the evils of the Great
+Schism--a breach in the Church which she deliberately created and for
+many years maintained; but she herself suffered by it more than any
+other nation of Europe because of the annates,[536] the _décime_,[537]
+and other taxes which were imposed upon the French clergy and people
+to support the luxurious and at times extravagant papal court at
+Avignon, or which were exacted by ambitious monarchs under the cover
+of papal license. In the course of time the impossible situation
+created by the Schism demanded a remedy and in fairness it should be
+observed that in the work of adjustment the leading part was taken by
+the French. After the death of Clement VII., in 1394, the French court
+sincerely desired to bring the Schism to an end on terms that would be
+fair to all. Already in 1393 King Charles VI. had laid the case before
+the University of Paris and asked for an opinion as to the best course
+to be pursued. The authorities of the university requested each member
+of the various faculties to submit his idea of a solution of the
+problem and from the mass of suggestions thus brought together a
+committee of fifty-four professors, masters, and doctors worked out
+the three lines of action set forth in selection (a) below. The first
+plan, i.e., that both popes should resign as a means of restoring
+harmony, was accepted as the proper one by an assembly of the French
+clergy convened in 1395. It was doomed to defeat, however, by the
+vacillation of both Benedict XIII. at Avignon and Boniface IX. at
+Rome, and in the end it was agreed to fall back upon the third plan
+which the University of Paris had proposed, i.e., the convening of a
+general council. There was no doubt that such a council could legally
+be summoned only by the pope, but finally the cardinals attached to
+both popes deserted them and united in issuing the call in their own
+name.
+
+The council met at Pisa in 1409 and proceeded to clear up the question
+of its own legality and authority by issuing the unequivocal
+declaration comprised in (b) below. It furthermore declared both popes
+deposed and elected a new one, who took the name Alexander V. Neither
+of the previous popes, however, recognized the council's action, so
+now there were three rivals instead of two and the situation was only
+so much worse than before. In 1410 Alexander V. died and the cardinals
+chose as his successor John XXIII., a man whose life was notoriously
+wicked, but who was far from lacking in political sagacity. Three
+years later the capture of Rome by the king of Naples forced John to
+appeal for assistance to the Emperor Sigismund; and Sigismund
+demanded, before extending the desired aid, that a general church
+council be summoned to meet on German soil for the adjustment of the
+tangled papal situation. The result was the Council of Constance,
+whose sessions extended from November, 1414, to April, 1418, and
+which, because of its general European character, was able to succeed
+where the Council of Pisa had failed. In the decree _Sacrosancta_
+given below (c), issued in April, 1415, we have the council's notable
+assertion of its supreme authority in ecclesiastical matters, even as
+against the pope himself. The Schism was healed with comparative
+facility. Gregory XII., who had been the pope at Rome, but who was now
+in exile, sent envoys to offer his abdication. Benedict XIII.,
+likewise a fugitive, was deposed and found himself without supporters.
+John XXIII. was deposed for his unworthy character and had no means of
+offering resistance. The cardinals, together with representatives of
+the five "nations" into which the council was divided, harmoniously
+selected for pope a Roman cardinal, who assumed the name of Martin V.
+This was in 1417. The Schism was at an end, though the work of
+combating heresy and of propagating reform within the Church went on
+in successive councils, notably that of Basel (1431-1449).
+
+     Sources--(a) Lucæ d'Achery, _Spicilegium, sive Collectio
+     veterum aliquot Scriptorum qui in Galliæ Bibliothecis
+     Delituerant_ ["Gleanings, or a Collection of some Early
+     Writings, which survive in Gallic Libraries"], Paris, 1723,
+     Vol. I., p. 777. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, _Source
+     Book for Mediæval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 326-327.
+
+     (b) Raynaldus, _Annales, anno 1409_ ["Annals, year 1409"],
+     §71.
+
+     (c) Von der Hardt, _Magnum Constantiense Concilium_ ["Great
+     Council of Constance"], Vol. II., p. 98.
+
+   (a)
+
+   _The first way._ Now the first way to end the Schism is that both
+   parties should entirely renounce and resign all rights which they
+   may have, or claim to have, to the papal office.
+
+     [Sidenote: Three possible solutions of the Schism offered by the
+   University of Paris]
+
+   _The second way._ But if both cling tenaciously to their rights and
+   refuse to resign, as they have thus far done, we would propose a
+   resort to arbitration. That is, that they should together choose
+   worthy and suitable men, or permit such to be chosen in a regular
+   and canonical way, and these should have full power and authority
+   to discuss the case and decide it, and if necessary and expedient
+   and approved by those who, according to the canon law, have the
+   authority [i.e., the cardinals], they might also have the right to
+   proceed to the election of a pope.
+
+   _The third way._ If the rival popes, after being urged in a
+   brotherly and friendly manner, will not accept either of the above
+   ways, there is a third way which we propose as an excellent remedy
+   for this sacrilegious schism. We mean that the matter should be
+   left to a general council. This general council might be composed,
+   according to canon law, only of prelates; or, since many of them
+   are very illiterate, and many of them are bitter partisans of one
+   or the other pope, there might be joined with the prelates an equal
+   number of masters and doctors of theology and law from the
+   faculties of approved universities. Or, if this does not seem
+   sufficient to any one, there might be added, besides, one or more
+   representatives from cathedral chapters and the chief monastic
+   orders, to the end that all decisions might be rendered only after
+   most careful examination and mature deliberation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Declarations of the Council of Pisa (1409)]
+
+   (b)
+
+   This holy and general council, representing the universal Church,
+   decrees and declares that the united college of cardinals was
+   empowered to call the council, and that the power to call such a
+   council belongs of right to the aforesaid holy college of
+   cardinals, especially now when there is a detestable schism. The
+   council further declares that this holy council, representing the
+   universal Church, caused both claimants of the papal throne to be
+   cited in the gates and doors of the churches of Pisa to come and
+   hear the final decision [in the matter of the Schism] pronounced,
+   or to give a good and sufficient reason why such sentence should
+   not be rendered.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Council of Constance asserts its superiority to even
+   the papacy]
+
+   (c)
+
+   This holy synod of Constance, being a general council, and legally
+   assembled in the Holy Spirit for the praise of God and for ending
+   the present schism, and for the union and reformation of the Church
+   of God in its head and in its members, in order more easily, more
+   securely, more completely, and more fully to bring about the union
+   and reformation of the Church of God, ordains, declares, and
+   decrees as follows: First it declares that this synod, legally
+   assembled, is a general council, and represents the Catholic church
+   militant and has its authority directly from Christ; and everybody,
+   of whatever rank or dignity, including also the pope, is bound to
+   obey this council in those things which pertain to the faith, to
+   the ending of this schism, and to a general reformation of the
+   Church in its head and members. Likewise it declares that if any
+   one, of whatever rank, condition, or dignity, including also the
+   pope, shall refuse to obey the commands, statutes, ordinances, or
+   orders of this holy council, or of any other holy council properly
+   assembled, in regard to the ending of the Schism and to the
+   reformation of the Church, he shall be subject to the proper
+   punishment, and, unless he repents, he shall be duly punished, and,
+   if necessary, recourse shall be had to other aids of justice.
+
+
+69. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)
+
+The Council of Basel, convened in 1431, had for its object a
+thoroughgoing reformation of the Church, "in its head and its
+members," from papacy to parish priest. Like all of the councils of
+the period, its spirit was distinctly anti-papal and for this reason
+Pope Eugene IV. sought to bring it under his control by transferring
+it to Bologna and, failing in this, to turn its deliberations into
+channels other than criticism of the papacy. While the negotiations of
+Eugene and the council were in progress a step fraught with great
+significance was taken in France in the promulgation of the Pragmatic
+Sanction of Bourges.[538] France was the only country in which the
+principles laid down by the councils--Pisa, Constance, Basel, and the
+rest--had taken firm hold. In 1438 Charles VII. convened at Bourges an
+assembly composed of leading prelates, councillors, and princes of the
+royal blood, to which the Pope and the Council of Basel both sent
+delegates. This assembly proceeded to adapt the decrees of the council
+to the conditions and needs of France, on the evident assumption that
+the will of the French magnates in such matters was superior to that
+of both pope and council, so far as France was concerned. The action
+at Bourges well illustrates the growing spirit of French nationality
+which had sprung up since the recent achievements of Joan of Arc.
+
+The Pragmatic Sanction dealt in the main with four subjects--the
+authority of church councils, the diminishing of papal patronage, the
+restriction of papal taxation, and the limitation of appeals to Rome.
+Together these matters are commonly spoken of as the "Gallican
+liberties," i.e., the liberties of the Gallic or French church, and
+they implied the right of the national church to administer its own
+affairs with only the slightest interference from the pope or other
+outside powers; in other words, they were essentially anti-papal.
+Louis XI., the successor of Charles VII., for diplomatic reasons,
+sought to revoke the Pragmatic Sanction, but the Parlement of Paris
+refused to register the ordinance and for all practical purposes the
+Pragmatic was maintained until 1516. In that year Francis I.
+established the relations of the papacy and the French clergy on the
+basis of a new "concordat," which, however, was not very unlike the
+Pragmatic. The Pragmatic is of interest to the student of French
+history mainly because of the degree in which it enhanced the power of
+the crown, particularly in respect to the ecclesiastical affairs of
+the realm, and because of the testimony it bears to the declining
+influence of the papacy in the stronger nations like France and
+England. The text printed below represents only an abstract of the
+document, which in all included thirty-three chapters.
+
+     Source.--Text in Vilevault et Bréquigny, _Ordonnances des Rois
+     de France de la Troisième Race_ (Paris, 1772), Vol. XIII., pp.
+     267-291.
+
+     [Sidenote: Charles VII. recognizes the obligations of the king
+     to the Church]
+
+     [Sidenote: Abuses prevalent in the French church]
+
+   The king declares that, according to the oath taken at their
+   coronation, kings are bound to defend and protect the holy Church,
+   its ministers and its sacred offices, and zealously to guard in
+   their kingdoms the decrees of the holy fathers. The general council
+   assembled at Basel to continue the work begun by the councils of
+   Constance and Siena,[539] and to labor for the reform of the
+   Church, in both its head and members, having had presented to it
+   numerous decrees and regulations, with the request that it accept
+   them and cause them to be observed in the kingdom, the king has
+   convened an assembly composed of prelates and other ecclesiastics
+   representing the clergy of France and of the Dauphiné.[540] He has
+   presided in person over its deliberations, surrounded by his son,
+   the princes of the blood, and the principal lords of the realm. He
+   has listened to the ambassadors of the Pope and the council. From
+   the examination of prelates and the most renowned doctors, and from
+   the thoroughgoing discussions of the assembly, it appears that,
+   from the falling into decay of the early discipline, the churches
+   of the kingdom have been made to suffer from all sorts of
+   insatiable greed; that the _réserve_ and the _grâce_
+   _expectative_[541] have given rise to grievous abuses and
+   unbearable burdens; that the most notable and best endowed
+   benefices have fallen into the hands of unknown men, who do not
+   conform at all to the requirement of residence and who do not
+   understand the speech of the people committed to their care, and
+   consequently are neglectful of the needs of their souls, like
+   mercenaries who dream of nothing whatever but temporal gain; that
+   thus the worship of Christ is declining, piety is enfeebled, the
+   laws of the Church are violated, and buildings for religious uses
+   are falling in ruin. The clergy abandon their theological studies,
+   because there is no hope of advancement. Conflicts without number
+   rage over the possession of benefices, plurality of which is
+   coveted by an execrable ambition. Simony is everywhere glaring; the
+   prelates and other collators[542] are pillaged of their rights and
+   their ministry; the rights of patrons are impaired; and the wealth
+   of the kingdom goes into the hands of foreigners, to the detriment
+   of the clergy.
+
+     [Sidenote: The decrees of Basel accepted with some modifications]
+
+   Since, in the judgment of the prelates and other ecclesiastics, the
+   decrees of the holy council of Basel seemed to afford a suitable
+   remedy for all these evils, after mature deliberation, we have
+   decided to accept them--some without change, others with certain
+   modifications--without wishing to cast doubt upon the power and
+   authority of the council, but at the same time taking account of
+   the necessities of the occasion and of the customs of the nation.
+
+   =1.= General councils shall be held every ten years, in places to
+   be designated by the pope.
+
+   =2.= The authority of the general council is superior to that of
+   the pope in all that pertains to the faith, the extirpation of
+   schism, and the reform of the Church in both head and members.[543]
+
+   =3.= Election is reëstablished for ecclesiastical offices; but the
+   king, or the princes of his kingdom, without violating the
+   canonical rules, may make recommendations when elections are to
+   occur in the chapters or the monasteries.[544]
+
+   =4.= The popes shall not have the right to reserve the collation of
+   benefices, or to bestow any benefice before it becomes vacant.
+
+   =5.= All grants of benefices made by the pope in virtue of the
+   _droit d'expectative_ are hereby declared null. Those who shall
+   have received such benefices shall be punished by the secular
+   power. The popes shall not have the right to interfere by the
+   creation of canonships.[545]
+
+   =6.= Appeals to Rome are prohibited until every other grade of
+   jurisdiction shall have been exhausted.
+
+   =7.= Annates are prohibited.[546]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[530] The consecrated wafer, believed to be the body of Christ, which
+in the Mass is offered as a sacrifice; also the bread before
+consecration.
+
+[531] Certain periods of the day, set apart by the laws of the Church,
+for the duties of prayer and devotion; also certain portions of the
+Breviary to be used at stated hours. The seven canonical hours are
+matins and lauds, the first, third, sixth, and ninth hours, vespers,
+and compline.
+
+[532] That is, infant baptism and the _viaticum_ (the Lord's Supper
+when administered to persons in immediate danger of death).
+
+[533] Extreme unction is the sacrament of anointing in the last
+hours,--the application of consecrated oil by a priest to all the
+senses, i.e., to eyes, ears, nostrils, etc., of a person when in
+immediate danger of death. The sacrament is performed for the
+remission of sins.
+
+[534] St. Dionysius was bishop of Alexandria about the middle of the
+third century. He was a pupil of the great theologian Origen and
+himself a writer of no small ability on the doctrinal questions which
+vexed the early Church.
+
+[535] Manichæus was a learned Persian who, in the third century,
+worked out a system of doctrine which sought to combine the principles
+of Christianity with others taken over from the Persian and kindred
+Oriental religions. The most prominent feature of the resulting creed
+was the conception of an absolute dualism running throughout the
+universe--light and darkness, good and evil, soul and body--which
+existed from the beginning and should exist forever. The Manichæan
+sect spread from Persia into Asia Minor North Africa, Sicily, and
+Italy. Though persecuted by Diocletian, and afterwards by some of the
+Christian emperors, it had many adherents as late as the sixth
+century, and certain of its ideas appeared under new names at still
+later times, notably among the Albigenses in southern France in the
+twelfth century.
+
+[536] Annates were payments made to the pope by newly elected or
+appointed ecclesiastical officials of the higher sort. They were
+supposed to comprise the first year's income from the bishop's or
+abbot's benefice.
+
+[537] The _décime_ was an extraordinary royal revenue derived from the
+payment by the clergy of a tenth of the annual income from their
+benefices. Its prototype was the Saladin tithe, imposed by Philip
+Augustus (1180-1223) for the financing of his crusade. In the latter
+half of the thirteenth century, and throughout the fourteenth, the
+_décime_ was called for by the kings with considerable frequency,
+often ostensibly for crusading purposes, and it was generally obtained
+by a more or less compulsory vote of the clergy, or without their
+consent at all.
+
+[538] Pragmatic, in the general sense, means any sort of decree of
+public importance; in its more special usage it denotes an ordinance
+of the crown regulating the relations of the national clergy with the
+papacy. The modern equivalent is "concordat."
+
+[539] When the Council of Constance came to an end, in April, 1418, it
+was agreed between this body and Pope Martin V. that a similar council
+should be convened at Pavia in 1423. When the time arrived, conditions
+were far from favorable, but the University of Paris pressed the Pope
+to observe his pledge in the matter and the council was duly convened.
+Very few members appeared at Pavia, and, the plague soon breaking out
+there, the meeting was transferred to Siena. Even there only five
+German prelates were present, six French, and not one Spanish. Small
+though it was, the council entered upon a course so independent and
+self-assertive that in the following year the Pope was glad to take
+advantage of its paucity of numbers to declare it dissolved.
+
+[540] The Dauphiné was a region on the east side of the Rhone which,
+in 1349, was purchased of Humbert, Dauphin of Vienne, by Philip VI.,
+and ceded by the latter to his grandson Charles, the later Charles V.
+(1364-1380). Charles assumed the title of "the Dauphin," which became
+the established designation of the heir-apparent to the French throne.
+
+[541] Under the _grâce expectative_ the pope conferred upon a prelate
+a benefice which at the time was filled, to be assumed as soon as it
+should fall vacant. Benefices of larger importance, such as the
+offices of bishop and abbot, were often subject to the _réserve_; that
+is, the pope regularly reserved to himself the right of filling them,
+sometimes before, sometimes after, the vacancy occurred. These acts
+constituted clear assumptions by the popes of power which under the
+law of the Church was not theirs, and, though the framers of the
+Pragmatic Sanction had motives which were more or less selfish for
+combatting the _réserve_ and the _grâce expectative_, there can be no
+question that the abuses aimed at were as real as they were
+represented to be.
+
+[542] Those who presented and installed men in benefices.
+
+[543] These first two chapters reproduce without change the decrees of
+the Council of Basel. The second reiterates, in substance, the
+declaration of the Council of Constance [see p. 393].
+
+[544] That is, the "canonical" system of election of bishops by the
+chapters and of abbots by the monks. The Pragmatic differs in this
+clause from the decree of the Council of Basel in allowing temporal
+princes to recommend persons for election.
+
+[545] This means that the pope is not to add to the number of canons
+in any cathedral chapter as a means of influencing the composition and
+deliberations of that body.
+
+[546] Annates were ordinarily the first year's revenues of a benefice
+which, under the prevailing system, were supposed to be paid by the
+incumbent to the pope. The Pragmatic goes on to provide that during
+the lifetime of Pope Eugene one-fifth of the accustomed annates should
+continue to be paid.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH, AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+70. The Peace of Constance (1183)
+
+With the election of Frederick Barbarossa as emperor, in 1152, a new
+stage of the great papal-imperial combat was entered upon, though
+under conditions quite different from those surrounding the contest in
+the preceding century [see Chap. XVI]. The Empire was destined to
+succumb in the end to the papacy, but with a sovereign of Frederick's
+energy and ability at its head it was able at least to make a stubborn
+fight and to meet defeat with honor. The new reign was inaugurated by
+a definite announcement of the Emperor's intention to consolidate and
+strengthen the imperial government throughout all Germany and Italy.
+The task in Germany was far from simple; in Italy it was the most
+formidable that could have been conceived, and this for the reason
+that the Italian population was largely gathered in cities with strong
+political and military organization, with all the traditions of
+practical independence, and with no thought of submitting to the
+government of an emperor or any other claimant to more than merely
+nominal sovereignty.
+
+Trouble began almost at once between Frederick and the free commune of
+Milan, though war was averted for a time by the oaths taken to the
+Emperor on the occasion of his first expedition across the Alps in
+1154. Between that date and 1158 the consuls of the city were detected
+in treacherous conduct and, the people refusing to disavow them, in
+the latter year the Emperor again crossed the Alps, bent on nothing
+less than the annihilation of the commune and the dispersion of its
+inhabitants. He carried with him a larger army than a head of the Holy
+Roman Empire had ever led into Italy. The Milanese submitted, under
+conditions extremely humiliating, and Frederick, after being assured
+by the doctors of law at the new university of Bologna that he was
+acting quite within the letter of the Roman law, proceeded to lay
+claim to the _regalia_ (royal rights, such as tolls from roads and
+rivers, products of mines, and the estates of criminals), to the right
+to levy an extraordinary war tax, and to that of appointing the chief
+civic magistrates. Disaffection broke out at once in many of the
+communes, but chiefly at Milan; whereupon Frederick came promptly to
+the conclusion that the time had arrived to rid himself of this
+irreconcilable opponent of his measures. The city was besieged and,
+after its inhabitants had been starved into surrender, almost
+completely destroyed (1162).
+
+Only temporarily did the barbarous act have its intended effect; the
+net result was a widespread revival of the communal spirit, which
+expressed itself in the formation of a sturdy confederacy known as the
+Lombard League. One of the League's first acts was to rebuild Milan,
+under whose leadership the struggle with the Emperor was actively
+renewed. In 1168 a new city was founded at the foot of the Alps near
+Pavia to serve as a base of operations in the campaign which the
+League proposed to wage against the common enemy. It was given the
+name Alessandria (or Alexandria) in honor of Pope Alexander III., who
+was friendly to the cause of the cities. In 1174 Frederick began an
+open attack on the League, but in 1176, at Legnano, he suffered an
+overwhelming defeat, due largely to his failure to receive
+reinforcements from Germany. The adjustment of peace was intrusted to
+an assembly at Venice in which all parties were represented. The
+result was the treaty of Venice (1177), the advantages of which were
+wholly against the Empire. A truce of six years was granted the
+cities, with the understanding that all details were to be arranged
+within, or at the expiration of, that time.
+
+When the close of the period arrived, in 1183, Frederick no longer
+dreamed of subduing and punishing the rebellious Italians, but instead
+was quite ready to agree to a permanent peace. The result was the
+Peace of Constance, which has been described as the earliest
+international agreement of the kind in modern history. By this
+instrument the theoretical overlordship of the Emperor in Italy was
+reasserted, though in fact it had never been denied. Beyond this,
+however, the communes were recognized as essentially independent.
+Those who had enjoyed the right to choose their own magistrates
+retained it; their financial obligations to the Emperor were clearly
+defined; and the League was conceded to be a legitimate and permanent
+organization. By yielding on numerous vital points the Empire had
+vindicated its right to exist, but its administrative machinery, so
+far as Italy was concerned, was still further impaired. This
+machinery, it must be said, had never been conspicuously effective
+south of the Alps. As for Frederick, he set out in 1189 upon the Third
+Crusade, during the course of which he met his death in Asia Minor
+without being permitted to see the Holy Land.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica_, Legum Sectio
+     IV. (Weiland ed.), Vol. I., pp. 411-418. Adapted from
+     translation in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source
+     Book for Mediæval History_ (New York, 1905,) pp. 199-202.
+
+     [Sidenote: Concessions to the cities of the League]
+
+   =1.= We, Frederick, emperor of the Romans, and our son Henry, king
+   of the Romans,[547] hereby grant to you, the cities, territories,
+   and persons of the League, the _regalia_ and other rights within
+   and without the cities, as you have been accustomed to hold them;
+   that is, each member of the League shall have the same rights as
+   the city of Verona has had in the past, or has now.
+
+   =2.= The members of the League shall exercise freely and without
+   interference from us all the rights which they have exercised of
+   old.
+
+   =3.= These are the rights which are guaranteed to you: the
+   _fodrum_,[548] forests, pastures, bridges, streams, mills,
+   fortifications of the cities, criminal and civil jurisdiction, and
+   all other rights which concern the welfare of the city.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the regalia remaining to the Emperor were to be
+   determined]
+
+   =4.= The _regalia_ which are not to be granted to the members of
+   the League shall be determined in the following manner: in the case
+   of each city, certain men shall be chosen for this purpose from
+   both the bishopric and the city; these men shall be of good repute,
+   capable of deciding these questions, and such as are not prejudiced
+   against either party. Acting with the bishop of the diocese, they
+   shall swear to inquire into the questions of the _regalia_ and to
+   set aside those that by right belong to us. If, however, the cities
+   do not wish to submit to this inquisition, they shall pay to us an
+   annual tribute of 2,000 marks in silver as compensation for our
+   _regalia_. If this sum seems excessive, it may be reduced.
+
+   =5.= If anyone appeals to us in regard to matters which are by this
+   treaty admitted to be under your jurisdiction, we agree not to hear
+   such an appeal.
+
+   =8.= All privileges, gifts, and concessions made in the time of the
+   war by us or our representatives to the prejudice or injury of the
+   cities, territories, or members of the League are to be null and
+   void.
+
+     [Sidenote: The consuls]
+
+   =9.= Consuls[549] of cities where the bishop holds the position of
+   count from the king or emperor shall receive their office from the
+   bishop, if this has been the custom before. In all other cities the
+   consuls shall receive their office from us, in the following
+   manner: after they have been elected by the city they shall be
+   invested with office by our representative in the city or
+   bishopric, unless we are ourselves in Lombardy, in which case they
+   shall be invested by us. At the end of every five years each city
+   shall send its representative to us to receive the investiture.
+
+   =10.= This arrangement shall be observed by our successor, and all
+   such investitures shall be free.
+
+   =11.= After our death, the cities shall receive investiture in the
+   same way from our son and from his successors.
+
+     [Sidenote: Appeals to the Emperor]
+
+   =12.= The Emperor shall have the right of hearing appeals in cases
+   involving more than 25 pounds, saving the right of the church of
+   Brescia to hear appeals. The appellant shall not, however, be
+   compelled to come to Germany, but he shall appeal to the
+   representative of the Emperor in the city or bishopric. This
+   representative shall examine the case fairly and shall give
+   judgment according to the laws and customs of that city. The
+   decision shall be given within two months from the time of appeal,
+   unless the case shall have been deferred by reason of some legal
+   hindrance or by the consent of both parties.
+
+   =13.= The consuls of cities shall take the oath of allegiance to
+   the Emperor before they are invested with office.
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of fidelity]
+
+   =14.= Our vassals shall receive investiture from us and shall take
+   the vassal's oath of fidelity. All other persons between the ages
+   of 15 and 70 shall take the ordinary oath of fidelity to the
+   Emperor unless there be some good reason why this oath should be
+   omitted.
+
+   =17.= All injuries, losses, and damages which we or our followers
+   have sustained from the League, or any of its members or allies,
+   are hereby pardoned, and all such transgressors are hereby received
+   back into our favor.
+
+   =18.= We will not remain longer than is necessary in any city or
+   bishopric.
+
+   =19.= It shall be permitted to the cities to erect fortifications
+   within or without their boundaries.
+
+     [Sidenote: Recognition of the League's right to exist]
+
+   =20.= It shall be permitted to the League to maintain its
+   organization as it now is, or to renew it as often as it desires.
+
+
+71. Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of Frederick II.
+
+Frederick II. (1194-1250), king of Naples and Sicily and emperor of
+the Holy Roman Empire, was a son of Emperor Henry VI. and a grandson
+of Frederick Barbarossa. When his father died (1197) it was intended
+that the young child's uncle, Philip of Hohenstaufen, should occupy
+the imperial throne temporarily as regent. Philip, however, proceeded
+to assume the position as if in his own right and became engaged in a
+deadly conflict with a rival claimant, Otto IV., during which the
+Pope, Innocent III., fanned the flames of civil war and made the
+situation contribute chiefly to the aggrandizement of papal authority
+in temporal affairs. In 1208 Philip was assassinated and in the
+following year Otto received the imperial crown at Rome. Almost
+immediately, however, disagreement broke out between the Pope and the
+new Emperor, chiefly because of the latter's ambition to become king
+of Sicily. Repenting that he had befriended Otto, Innocent promptly
+excommunicated him and set on foot a movement--in which he enlisted
+the services of Philip Augustus of France--to supplant the obnoxious
+Emperor by Frederick of Sicily (the later Frederick II.). Otto was a
+nephew of Richard I. and John of England and the latter was easily
+persuaded to enter into an alliance with him against the
+papal-French-Sicilian combination. The result was the battle of
+Bouvines [see p. 297], in 1214, in which John and Otto were hopelessly
+defeated. Meanwhile, in 1212, Frederick had received a secret embassy
+from Otto's discontented subjects in Germany, offering him the
+imperial crown if he would come and claim it. In response he had
+gathered an army and, with the approval of Innocent and of Philip
+Augustus, had crossed the Alps for the purpose of winning over the
+German people from Otto to himself. The battle of Bouvines (in which
+Frederick was not engaged, but from which he profited immensely) was
+the death-blow to Otto's cause and Frederick was soon recognized
+universally as head of the Empire.
+
+The reign of Frederick II. (1212-1250) was a period of large
+importance in European history. The Emperor's efforts and
+achievements--his crusade, his great quarrel with Gregory IX. and
+Innocent IV., his legislation, his struggles with the Lombard
+League--were full of interest and significance, but, after all, not
+more so than the purely personal aspects of his career. Mr. Bryce has
+a passage which states admirably the position of Frederick with
+reference to his age and its problems. A portion of it is as follows:
+"Out of the long array of the Germanic successors of Charles
+[Charlemagne], he is, with Otto III.,[550] the only one who comes
+before us with a genius and a frame of character that are not those of
+a Northern or a Teuton. There dwelt in him, it is true, all the energy
+and knightly valor of his father Henry and his grandfather Frederick
+I. But along with these, and changing their direction, were other
+gifts, inherited perhaps from his half Norman, half Italian mother and
+fostered by his education in Sicily, where Mussulman and Byzantine
+influences were still potent, a love of luxury and beauty, an
+intellect refined, subtle, philosophical. Through the mist of calumny
+and legend it is but dimly that the truth of the man can be discerned,
+and the outlines that appear serve to quicken rather than appease the
+curiosity with which we regard one of the most extraordinary
+personages in history. A sensualist, yet also a warrior and a
+politician; a profound law-giver and an impassioned poet; in his youth
+fired by crusading fervor, in later life persecuting heretics while
+himself accused of blasphemy and unbelief; of winning manners and
+ardently beloved by his followers, but with the stain of more than one
+cruel deed upon his name, he was the marvel of his own generation, and
+succeeding ages looked back with awe, not unmingled with pity, upon
+the inscrutable figure of the last emperor who had braved all the
+terrors of the Church and died beneath her ban, the last who had ruled
+from the sands of the ocean to the shores of the Ionian Sea. But while
+they pitied they condemned. The undying hatred of the papacy threw
+round his memory a lurid light; him and him alone of all the imperial
+line, Dante, the worshipper of the empire, must perforce deliver to
+the flames of hell."[551]
+
+The following selections from the _Greater Chronicle_ of Matthew Paris
+comprise some of the stories which were current in Frederick's day
+regarding his manners, ideas, and deeds. Frederick was far ahead of
+his age and it was inevitable that the qualities in him which men
+could not understand or appreciate should become the grounds for dark
+rumors and unsavory suspicions. Matthew Paris was an English monk of
+St. Albans. It is thought that he was called _Parisiensis_, "the
+Parisian," because of having been born or educated in the capital of
+France. He seems to have confined his attention wholly to the study of
+history, and mainly to the history of his own country. His _Chronicle_
+takes up the story of English and continental affairs in detail with
+the year 1235 (where Roger of Wendover had stopped in his _Flowers of
+History_) and continues to the year 1259. His book has been described
+as "probably the most generally useful historical production of the
+thirteenth century."[552]
+
+     Source--Matthæus Parisiensis, _Chronica Majora_ [Matthew
+     Paris, "Greater Chronicle"]. Adapted from translation by J. A.
+     Giles (London, 1852), Vol. I., pp. 157-158, 166-167, 169-170;
+     Vol. II., pp. 84-85, 103.
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick suspected of heresy]
+
+     [Sidenote: Accusation of friendly relations with the Saracens]
+
+   In the course of the same year [1238] the fame of the Emperor
+   Frederick was clouded and marred by his jealous enemies and rivals;
+   for it was imputed to him that he was wavering in the Catholic
+   faith, or wandering from the right way, and had given utterance to
+   some speeches, from which it could be inferred and suspected that
+   he was not only weak in the Catholic faith, but--what was a much
+   greater and more serious crime--that there was in him an enormity
+   of heresy, and the most dreadful blasphemy, to be detested and
+   execrated by all Christians. For it was reported that the Emperor
+   Frederick had said (although it may not be proper to mention it)
+   that three imposters had so craftily deceived their contemporaries
+   as to gain for themselves the mastery of the world: these were
+   Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet [Mohammed]; and that he had impiously
+   given expression to some wicked and incredible ravings and
+   blasphemies respecting the most holy Eucharist. Far be it from any
+   discreet man, much less a Christian, to employ his tongue in such
+   raving blasphemy. It was also said by his rivals that the Emperor
+   agreed with and believed in the law of Mahomet more than that of
+   Jesus Christ. A rumor also crept amongst the people (which God
+   forbid to be true of such a great prince) that he had been for a
+   long time past in alliance with the Saracens, and was more friendly
+   to them than to the Christians; and his rivals, who were
+   endeavoring to blacken his fame, attempted to establish this by
+   many proofs. Whether they sinned or not, He alone knows who is
+   ignorant of nothing....
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick's seizure of the lands belonging to a bishop]
+
+     [Sidenote: Refusing to restore them, he is excommunicated]
+
+   In Lent, of the same year [1239], seeing the rash proceedings of
+   the Emperor, and that his words pleaded excuse for his
+   sins,--namely, that by the assistance of some of the nobles and
+   judges of Sardinia he had taken into his own possession, and still
+   held, the land and castles of the bishop of Sardinia, and
+   constantly declared that they were a portion of the Empire, and
+   that he by his first and chief oath would preserve the rights of
+   the Empire to the utmost of his power, and would also collect the
+   scattered portions of it,--the Pope[553] was excited to the most
+   violent anger against him. He set forth some very serious
+   complaints and claims against the Emperor and wrote often boldly
+   and carefully to him, advising him repeatedly by many special
+   messengers, whose authority ought to have obtained from him the
+   greatest attention, to restore the possessions he had seized, and
+   to desist from depriving the Church of her possessions, of which
+   she was endowed by long prescription. And, like a skilful
+   physician, who at one time makes use of medicines, at another of
+   the knife, and at another of the cauterizing instrument, he mixed
+   threats with entreaties, friendly messages with fearful
+   denunciations. As the Emperor, however, scornfully rejected his
+   requests, and excused his actions by arguments founded on reason,
+   his holiness the Pope, on Palm Sunday, in the presence of a great
+   many of the cardinals, in the spirit of glowing anger, solemnly
+   excommunicated the said Emperor Frederick, as though he would at
+   once have hurled him from his imperial dignity, consigning him with
+   terrible denunciations to the possession of Satan at his death;
+   and, as it were, thundering forth the fury of his anger, he excited
+   terror in all his hearers....[554]
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick accuses the Pope of ingratitude and jealousy]
+
+   The Emperor, on hearing of this, was inflamed with violent anger,
+   and with oft-repeated reproaches accused the Church and its rulers
+   of ingratitude to him, and of returning evil for good. He recalled
+   to their recollection how he had exposed himself and his property
+   to the billows and to a thousand kinds of danger for the
+   advancement of the Church's welfare and the increase of the
+   Catholic faith, and affirmed that whatever honors the Church
+   possessed in the Holy Land had been acquired by his toil and
+   industry. "But," said he, "the Pope, jealous at such a happy
+   increase being acquired for the Church by a layman, and who desires
+   gold and silver rather than an increase of the faith (as witness
+   his proceedings), and who extorts money from all Christendom in the
+   name of tithes, has, by all the means in his power, done his best
+   to supplant me, and has endeavored to disinherit me while fighting
+   for God, exposing my body to the weapons of war, to sickness, and
+   to the snares of his enemies, after encountering the dangers of the
+   unsparing billows. See what sort of protection is this of our
+   father's! What kind of assistance in difficulties is this afforded
+   by the vicar of Jesus Christ"!...[555]
+
+     [Sidenote: Further accusation of an alliance with the Saracens]
+
+     [Sidenote: His neglect of pious and charitable works]
+
+   "Besides, he is united by a detestable alliance with the
+   Saracens,--has ofttimes sent messages and presents to them, and in
+   turn received the same from them with respect and alacrity...; and
+   what is a more execrable offense, he, when formerly in the country
+   beyond sea, made a kind of arrangement, or rather collusion, with
+   the sultan, and allowed the name of Mahomet to be publicly
+   proclaimed in the temple of the Lord day and night; and lately, in
+   the case of the sultan of Babylon [Cairo], who, by his own hands,
+   and through his agents, had done irreparable mischief and injury to
+   the Holy Land and its Christian inhabitants, he caused that
+   sultan's ambassadors, in compliment to their master, as is
+   reported, to be honorably received and nobly entertained in his
+   kingdom of Sicily. He also, in opposition to the Christians, abuses
+   the pernicious and horrid rites of other infidels, and, entering
+   into an alliance of friendship with those who wickedly pay little
+   respect to and despise the Apostolic See, and have seceded from
+   the unity of the Church, he, laying aside all respect for the
+   Christian religion, caused, as is positively asserted, the duke of
+   Bavaria, of illustrious memory, a special and devoted ally of the
+   Roman Church, to be murdered by the assassins. He has also given
+   his daughter in marriage to Battacius, an enemy of God and the
+   Church, who, together with his aiders, counsellors, and abettors,
+   was solemnly expelled from the communion of the Christians by
+   sentence of excommunication. Rejecting the proceedings and customs
+   of Catholic princes, neglecting his own salvation and the purity of
+   his fame, he does not employ himself in works of piety; and what is
+   more (to be silent on his wicked and dissolute practices), although
+   he has learned to practice oppression to such a degree, he does not
+   trouble himself to relieve those oppressed by injuries, by
+   extending his hand, as a Christian prince ought, to bestow alms,
+   although he has been eagerly aiming at the destruction of the
+   churches, and has crushed religious men and other ecclesiastical
+   persons with the burden and persecution of his yoke. And it is not
+   known that he ever built or founded either churches, monasteries,
+   hospitals, or other pious places. Now these are not light, but
+   convincing, grounds for suspicions of heresy being entertained
+   against him."...
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick's wrath at his excommunication]
+
+   When the Emperor Frederick was made fully aware of all these
+   proceedings [i.e., his excommunication at Lyons] he could not
+   contain himself, but burst into a violent rage and, darting a
+   scowling look on those who sat around him, he thundered forth: "The
+   Pope in his synod has disgraced me by depriving me of my crown.
+   Whence arises such great audacity? Whence proceeds such rash
+   presumption? Where are my chests which contain my treasures?" And
+   on their being brought and unlocked before him, by his order, he
+   said, "See if my crowns are lost now;" then finding one, he placed
+   it on his head and, being thus crowned, he stood up, and, with
+   threatening eyes and a dreadful voice, unrestrainable from
+   passion, he said aloud, "I have not yet lost my crown, nor will I
+   be deprived of it by any attacks of the Pope or the council,
+   without a bloody struggle. Does his vulgar pride raise him to such
+   heights as to enable him to hurl from the imperial dignity me, the
+   chief prince of the world, than whom none is greater--yea, who am
+   without an equal? In this matter my condition is made better: in
+   some things I _was_ bound to obey, at least to respect, him; but
+   now I am released from all ties of affection and veneration, and
+   also from the obligation of any kind of peace with him." From that
+   time forth, therefore, he, in order to injure the Pope more
+   effectually and perseveringly, did all kinds of harm to his
+   Holiness, in his money, as well as in his friends and relatives.
+
+
+72. The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)
+
+The century following the death of Frederick II. (1250) was a period
+of unrest and turbulence in German history, the net result of which
+politically was the almost complete triumph of the princes, lay and
+clerical, over the imperial power. By 1350 the local magnates had come
+to be virtually sovereign throughout their own territories. They
+enjoyed the right of legislation and the privileges of coining money
+and levying taxes, and in many cases they had scarcely so much as a
+feudal bond to remind them of their theoretical allegiance to the
+Empire. The one principle of action upon which they could agree was
+that the central monarchy should be kept permanently in the state of
+helplessness to which it had been reduced. The power of choosing a
+successor when a vacancy arose in the imperial office had fallen
+gradually into the hands of seven men, who were known as the
+"electors" and who were recognized in the fourteenth century as
+possessing collective importance far greater than that of the emperor.
+Three of these seven--the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and
+Cologne--were great ecclesiastics; the other four--the king of
+Bohemia, the margrave of Brandenburg, the duke of Saxony, and the
+count palatine of the Rhine--were equally influential laymen. This
+electoral college first came into prominence at the election of
+Rudolph I. (of the House of Hapsburg) at the end of the Interregnum in
+1273. From that time until the termination of the Holy Roman Empire
+in 1806 these seven men (eight after 1648 and nine after 1692) played
+a part in German history not inferior to that of the emperors. They
+imposed upon their candidates such conditions as they chose, and when
+the bearer of the imperial title grew restive and difficult to control
+they did not hesitate to make war upon him, or even in extreme cases
+to depose him. It has been well said that never in all history have
+worse scandals been connected with any sort of elections than were
+associated repeatedly with the actions of these German electors.
+
+The central document in German constitutional history in the Middle
+Ages is the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. (1347-1378),
+promulgated in 1356. For a century prior to the reign of Charles the
+question of the imperial succession had been one of extreme
+perplexity. The electoral college had grown up to assume the
+responsibility, but this body rested on no solid legal basis and its
+acts were usually regarded as null by all whom they displeased, with
+the result that a civil war succeeded pretty nearly every election.
+Charles was shrewd enough to see that the existing system could not be
+set aside; the electors were entirely too powerful to permit of that.
+But he also saw that it might at least be improved by giving it the
+quality of legality which it had hitherto lacked. The result of his
+efforts in this direction was the Golden Bull, issued and confirmed at
+the diets of Nürnberg (Nuremberg) and Metz in 1356. The document,
+thenceforth regarded as the fundamental law of the Empire, dealt with
+a wide variety of subjects. It confirmed the electorship in the person
+of the king of Bohemia which had long been disputed by a rival branch
+of the family;[556] it made elaborate provision for the election of
+the emperor by the seven magnates; it defined the social and political
+prerogatives of these men and prescribed the relations which they
+should bear to their subjects, to other princes, and to the emperor;
+and it made numerous regulations regarding conspiracies, coinage,
+immunities, the forfeiture of fiefs, the succession of electoral
+princes, etc. In a word, as Mr. Bryce has put it, the document
+"confessed and legalized the independence of the Electors and the
+powerlessness of the crown."[557] Only a few selections from it can be
+given here, particularly those bearing on the methods of electing the
+emperor.
+
+     Source--Text in Wilhelm Altmann und Ernst Bernheim,
+     _Ausgewählte Urkunden zur Erläuterung der
+     Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter_ ["Select
+     Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional History of
+     Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, 1904, pp.
+     54-83. Adapted from translation in Oliver J. Thatcher and
+     Edgar H. McNeal, _Source Book for Mediæval History_ (New York,
+     1905), pp. 284-295 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Guarantee of safety of travel for the electors]
+
+   I. =1.= We decree and determine by this imperial edict that,
+   whenever the electoral princes are summoned according to the
+   ancient and praiseworthy custom to meet and elect a king of the
+   Romans and future emperor, each one of them shall be bound to
+   furnish on demand an escort and safe-conduct to his fellow electors
+   or their representatives, within his own lands and as much farther
+   as he can, for the journey to and from the city where the election
+   is to be held. Any electoral prince who refuses to furnish escort
+   and safe-conduct shall be liable to the penalties for perjury and
+   to the loss of his electoral vote for that occasion.
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for violation of the safe-conduct of the
+   electors]
+
+   =2.= We decree and command also that all other princes who hold
+   fiefs from the Empire, by whatever title, and all counts, barons,
+   knights, clients, nobles, commoners, citizens, and all corporations
+   of towns, cities, and territories of the Empire, shall furnish
+   escort and safe-conduct for this occasion to every electoral prince
+   or his representatives, on demand, within their own lands and as
+   much farther as they can. Violators of this decree shall be
+   punished as follows: princes, counts, barons, knights, clients, and
+   all others of noble rank, shall suffer the penalties of perjury,
+   and shall lose the fiefs which they hold of the emperor or any
+   other lord, and all their possessions; citizens and corporations
+   shall also suffer the penalty for perjury, shall be deprived of all
+   the rights, liberties, privileges, and graces which they have
+   received from the Empire, and shall incur the ban of the Empire
+   against their persons and property. Those whom we deprive of their
+   rights for this offense may be attacked by any man without
+   appealing to a magistrate, and without danger of reprisal; for they
+   are rebels against the state and the Empire, and have attacked the
+   honor and security of the prince, and are convicted of
+   faithlessness and perfidy.
+
+     [Sidenote: Supplies for the use of the electors]
+
+   =3.= We also command that the citizens and corporations of cities
+   shall furnish supplies to the electoral princes and their
+   representatives on demand at the regular price and without fraud,
+   whenever they arrive at, or depart from, the city on their way to
+   or from the election. Those who violate this decree shall suffer
+   the penalties described in the preceding paragraph for citizens and
+   corporations. If any prince, count, baron, knight, client, noble,
+   commoner, citizen, or city shall attack or molest in person or
+   goods any of the electoral princes or their representatives, on
+   their way to or from an election, whether they have safe-conduct or
+   not, he and his accomplices shall incur the penalties above
+   described, according to his position and rank.
+
+     [Sidenote: The electors to be summoned by the archbishop of Mainz]
+
+   =16.= When the news of the death of the king of the Romans has been
+   received at Mainz, within one month from the date of receiving it
+   the archbishop of Mainz shall send notices of the death and the
+   approaching election to all the electoral princes. But if the
+   archbishop neglects or refuses to send such notices, the electoral
+   princes are commanded on their fidelity to assemble on their own
+   motion and without summons at the city of Frankfort,[558] within
+   three months from the death of the emperor, for the purpose of
+   electing a king of the Romans and future emperor.
+
+   =17.= Each electoral prince or his representatives may bring with
+   him to Frankfort at the time of the election a retinue of 200
+   horsemen, of whom not more than 50 shall be armed.
+
+     [Sidenote: How a vote might be forfeited]
+
+   =18.= If any electoral prince, duly summoned to the election, fails
+   to come, or to send representatives with credentials containing
+   full authority, or if he (or his representatives) withdraws from
+   the place of the election before the election has been completed,
+   without leaving behind substitutes fully accredited and empowered,
+   he shall lose his vote in that election.
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath taken by the electors]
+
+   II. =2.=[559] "I, archbishop of Mainz, archchancellor of the Empire
+   for Germany,[560] electoral prince, swear on the holy gospels here
+   before me, and by the faith which I owe to God and to the Holy
+   Roman Empire, that with the aid of God, and according to my best
+   judgment and knowledge, I will cast my vote, in this election of
+   the king of the Romans and future emperor, for a person fitted to
+   rule the Christian people. I will give my voice and vote freely,
+   uninfluenced by any agreement, price, bribe, promise, or anything
+   of the sort, by whatever name it may be called. So help me God and
+   all the saints."
+
+     [Sidenote: Provision to ensure an election]
+
+   =3.= After the electors have taken this oath, they shall proceed to
+   the election, and shall not depart from Frankfort until the
+   majority have elected a king of the Romans and future emperor, to
+   be ruler of the world and of the Christian people. If they have not
+   come to a decision within thirty days from the day on which they
+   took the above oath, after that they shall live upon bread and
+   water and shall not leave the city until the election has been
+   decided.
+
+     [Sidenote: Order of precedence of the three archbishops]
+
+   III. =1.= To prevent any dispute arising between the archbishops of
+   Trier, Mainz, and Cologne, electoral princes of the Empire, as to
+   their priority and rank in the diet,[561] it has been decided and
+   is hereby decreed, with the advice and consent of all the electoral
+   princes, ecclesiastical and secular, that the archbishop of Trier
+   shall have the seat directly opposite and facing the emperor; that
+   the archbishop of Mainz shall have the seat at the right of the
+   emperor when the diet is held in the diocese or province of Mainz,
+   or anywhere in Germany except in the diocese of Cologne; that the
+   archbishop of Cologne shall have the seat at the right of the
+   emperor when the diet is held in the diocese or province of
+   Cologne, or anywhere in Gaul or Italy. This applies to all public
+   ceremonies--court sessions, conferring of fiefs, banquets,
+   councils, and all occasions on which the princes meet with the
+   emperor for the transaction of imperial business. This order of
+   seating shall be observed by the successors of the present
+   archbishops of Cologne, Trier, and Mainz, and shall never be
+   questioned.
+
+     [Sidenote: Seating arrangement at table]
+
+   IV. =1.= In the imperial diet, at the council-board, table, and all
+   other places where the emperor or king of the Romans meets with the
+   electoral princes, the seats shall be arranged as follows: On the
+   right of the emperor, first, the archbishop of Mainz, or of
+   Cologne, according to the province in which the meeting is held, as
+   arranged above; second, the king of Bohemia, because he is a
+   crowned and anointed prince; third, the count palatine of the
+   Rhine; on the left of the emperor, first, the archbishop of
+   Cologne, or of Mainz; second, the duke of Saxony; third, the
+   margrave of Brandenburg.
+
+     [Sidenote: The order of voting]
+
+   =2.= When the imperial throne becomes vacant, the archbishop of
+   Mainz shall have the authority, which he has had from of old, to
+   call the other electors together for the election. It shall be his
+   peculiar right also, when the electors have convened for the
+   election, to collect the votes, asking each of the electors
+   separately in the following order: first, the archbishop of Trier,
+   who shall have the right to the first vote, as he has had from of
+   old; then the archbishop of Cologne, who has the office of first
+   placing the crown upon the head of the king of the Romans; then the
+   king of Bohemia, who has the priority among the secular princes
+   because of his royal title; fourth, the count palatine of the
+   Rhine; fifth, the duke of Saxony; sixth, the margrave of
+   Brandenburg. Then the princes shall ask the archbishop of Mainz in
+   turn to declare his choice and vote. At the diet, the margrave of
+   Brandenburg shall offer water to the emperor or king, to wash his
+   hands; the king of Bohemia shall have the right to offer him the
+   cup first, although, by reason of his royal dignity, he shall not
+   be bound to do this unless he desires; the count palatine of the
+   Rhine shall offer him food; and the duke of Saxony shall act as his
+   marshal in the accustomed manner.
+
+     [Sidenote: Judicial privileges of the electors confirmed and
+   enlarged]
+
+   XI. =1.= We decree also that no count, baron, noble, vassal,
+   burggrave,[562] knight, client, citizen, burgher, or other subject
+   of the churches of Cologne, Mainz, or Trier, of whatever status,
+   condition, or rank, shall be cited, haled, or summoned to any
+   authority before any tribunal outside of the territories,
+   boundaries, and limits of these churches and their dependencies, or
+   before any judge, except the archbishop and their judges.... We
+   refuse to hear appeals based upon the authority of others over the
+   subjects of these princes; if these princes are accused by their
+   subjects of injustice, appeal shall lie to the imperial diet, and
+   shall be heard there and nowhere else.
+
+   =2.= We extend this right by the present law to the secular
+   electoral princes, the count palatine of the Rhine; the duke of
+   Saxony, and the margrave of Brandenburg, and to their heirs,
+   successors, and subjects forever.
+
+     [Sidenote: The electors to meet annually]
+
+   XII. =1.= It has been decided in the general diet held at
+   Nürnberg[563] with the electoral princes, ecclesiastical and
+   secular, and other princes and magnates, by their advice and with
+   their consent, that in the future, the electoral princes shall meet
+   every year in some city of the Empire four weeks after Easter. This
+   year they are to meet at that date in the imperial city of
+   Metz.[564] On that occasion, and on every meeting thereafter, the
+   place of assembling for the following year shall be fixed by us,
+   with the advice and consent of the princes. This ordinance shall
+   remain in force as long as it shall be pleasing to us and to the
+   princes; and as long as it is in effect, we shall furnish the
+   princes with safe-conduct for that assembly, going, staying, and
+   returning.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[547] Henry VI. succeeded his father as emperor, reigning from 1190 to
+1197.
+
+[548] The term (meaning literally "fodder") designates the obligation
+to furnish provisions for the royal army. The right of demanding such
+provisions was now given up by the Emperor.
+
+[549] The consuls--often twelve in number--were the chief magistrates
+of the typical Italian commune.
+
+[550] Otto III., emperor 983-1002. Otto is noted chiefly for his
+visionary project of renewing the imperial splendor of Rome and making
+her again the capital of a world-wide empire.
+
+[551] James Bryce, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904),
+pp. 207-208. For the reference to Dante see the _Inferno_, Canto X.
+
+[552] James H. Robinson, _Readings in European History_ (Boston,
+1904), Vol. I., p. 244.
+
+[553] Gregory IX., (1227-1241).
+
+[554] Frederick was excommunicated and anathematized on sixteen
+different charges, which the Pope carefully enumerated. All who were
+bound to him by oath of fealty were declared to be absolved from their
+allegiance.
+
+[555] At the Council of Lyons, in 1245, the Emperor was again
+excommunicated. The ensuing paragraph comprises a portion of Pope
+Innocent IV.'s denunciation of him upon that occasion.
+
+[556] Charles IV. was himself king of Bohemia, so that for the present
+the Emperor was also one of the seven imperial electors.
+
+[557] James Bryce, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904),
+p. 234.
+
+[558] Frankfort lay on the river Main, a short distance east of Mainz.
+"It was fixed as the place of election, as a tradition dating from
+East Frankish days preserved the feeling that both election and
+coronation ought to take place on Frankish soil."--James Bryce, _The
+Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904), p. 243.
+
+[559] The preceding section specifies that Mass should be celebrated
+the day following the arrival of the electors at Frankfort, and that
+the archbishop of Mainz should administer to his six colleagues the
+oath which he himself has taken, as specified in section 2.
+
+[560] The three archbishops were "archchancellors" of the Empire for
+Germany, Gaul and Burgundy, and Italy respectively. The king of
+Bohemia was designated as cupbearer, the margrave of Brandenburg as
+chamberlain, the count palatine as seneschal, and the duke of Saxony
+as marshal.
+
+[561] The diet was the Empire's nearest approach to a national
+assembly. It was made up of three orders--the electors, the princes,
+and the representatives of the cities.
+
+[562] An official representative of a king or overlord in a city.
+
+[563] Nürnberg (or Nuremberg) is situated in Bavaria, in south central
+Germany.
+
+[564] Metz lay on the Moselle, above Trier. Apparently this clause
+providing for a regular annual meeting of the electors was inserted by
+Charles in the hope that he might be able to make use of the body as
+an advisory council in the affairs of the Empire. The provision
+remained a dead letter, for the reason that the electors were
+indifferent to the Emperor's purposes in the matter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
+
+
+Our chief contemporary source of information on the history of the
+Hundred Years' War is Jean Froissart's _Chronicles of England, France,
+and the Adjoining Countries, from the Latter Part of the Reign of
+Edward II. to the Coronation of Henry IV._,[565] and it is from this
+important work that all of the extracts (except texts of treaties)
+which are included in this chapter have been selected. Froissart was a
+French poet and historian, born at Beaumont, near Valenciennes in
+Hainault, in 1337, when the Hundred Years' War was just beginning. He
+lived until the early part of the fifteenth century, 1410 being one of
+the conjectural dates of his death. He was a man of keen mental
+faculties and had enjoyed the advantages of an unusually thorough
+education during boyhood. This native ability and training, together
+with his active public life and admirable opportunities for
+observation, constituted his special qualification for the writing of
+a history of his times. Froissart represents a type of mediæval
+chronicler which was quite rare, in that he was not a monk living in
+seclusion but a practical man of affairs, accustomed to travel and
+intercourse with leading men in all the important countries of western
+Europe. He lived for five years at the English court as clerk of the
+Queen's Chamber; many times he was sent by the French king on
+diplomatic missions to Scotland, Italy, and other countries; and he
+made several private trips to various parts of Europe for the sole
+purpose of acquiring information. Always and everywhere he was
+observant and quick to take advantage of opportunities to ascertain
+facts which he could use, and we are told that after it came to be
+generally known that he was preparing to write an extended history of
+his times not a few kings and princes took pains to send him details
+regarding events which they desired to have recorded. The writing of
+the _Chronicles_ was a life work. When only twenty years of age
+Froissart submitted to Isabella, wife of King Edward III. of England,
+an account of the battle of Poitiers, in which the queen's son, the
+famous Black Prince, had won distinction in the previous year.
+Thereafter the larger history was published book by book, until by
+1373 it was complete to date. Subsequently it was extended to the year
+1400 (it had begun with the events of 1326), while the earlier
+portions were rewritten and considerably revised. And, in deed, when
+death came to the author he was still working at his arduous but
+congenial task. "As long as I live," he wrote upon one occasion, "by
+the grace of God I shall continue it; for the more I follow it and
+labor thereon, the more it pleases me. Even as a gentle knight or
+esquire who loves arms, while persevering and continuing develops
+himself therein, thus do I, laboring and striving with this matter,
+improve and delight myself."
+
+The _Chronicles_ as they have come down to us are written in a lively
+and pleasing style. It need hardly be said that they are not wholly
+accurate; indeed, on the whole, they are quite inaccurate, measured
+even by mediæval standards. Froissart was obliged to rely for a large
+portion of his information upon older chronicles and especially upon
+conversations and interviews with people in various parts of Europe.
+Such sources are never wholly trustworthy and it must be admitted that
+our author was not as careful to sift error from truth as he should
+have been. His credulity betrayed him often into accepting what a
+little investigation would have shown to be false, and only very
+rarely did he make any attempt, as a modern historian would do, to
+increase and verify his knowledge by a study of documents. Still, the
+_Chronicles_ constitute an invaluable history of the period they
+cover. The facts they record, the events they explain, the vivid
+descriptions they contain, and the side-lights they throw upon the
+life and manners of an interesting age unite to give them a place of
+peculiar importance among works of their kind. And, wholly aside from
+their historical value, they constitute one of the monuments of
+mediæval French literature.
+
+
+73. An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France
+
+The causes, general and specific, of the Hundred Years' War were
+numerous. The most important were: (1) The long-standing bad feeling
+between the French and English regarding the possession of Normandy
+and Guienne. England had lost the former to France and she had never
+ceased to hope for its recovery; on the other hand, the French were
+resolved upon the eventual conquest of the remaining English
+continental possession of Guienne and were constantly asserting
+themselves there in a fashion highly irritating to the English; (2)
+the assistance and general encouragement given the rebellious Scots by
+the French; (3) the pressure brought to bear upon the English crown by
+the popular party in Flanders to claim the French throne and to resort
+to war to obtain it. The Flemish wool trade was a very important item
+in England's economic prosperity and it was felt to be essential at
+all hazards to prevent the extension of French influence in Flanders,
+which would inevitably mean the checking, if not the ruin, of the
+commercial relations of the Flemish and the English; and (4) the claim
+to the throne of France which Edward III., king of England, set up and
+prepared to defend. It is this last occasion of war that Froissart
+describes in the passage below.
+
+     Source--Text in Siméon Luce (ed.), _Chroniques de Jean
+     Froissart_ [published for the Société de l'Histoire de
+     France], Paris, 1869, Chap. I. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_ (London, 1803), Vol. I., pp. 6-7.
+
+     [Sidenote: The succession to the French throne in 1328]
+
+   History tells us that Philip, king of France, surnamed the
+   Fair,[566] had three sons, besides his beautiful daughter
+   Isabella, married to the king of England.[567] These three sons
+   were very handsome. The eldest, Louis, king of Navarre, during
+   the lifetime of his father, was called Louis Hutin; the second
+   was named Philip the Great, or the Long; and the third, Charles.
+   All these were kings of France, after their father Philip, by
+   legitimate succession, one after the other, without having by
+   marriage any male heirs.[568] Yet on the death of the last king,
+   Charles, the twelve peers and barons of France[569] did not give
+   the kingdom to Isabella, the sister, who was queen of England,
+   because they said and maintained, and still insist, that the
+   kingdom of France is so noble that it ought not to go to a
+   woman; consequently neither to Isabella nor to her son, the king
+   of England; for they held that the son of a woman cannot claim
+   any right of succession where that woman has none herself.[570]
+   For these reasons the twelve peers and barons of France
+   unanimously gave the kingdom of France to the lord Philip of
+   Valois, nephew of King Philip,[571] and thus put aside the queen
+   of England (who was sister to Charles, the late king of France)
+   and her son. Thus, as it seemed to many people, the succession
+   went out of the right line, which has been the occasion of the
+   most destructive wars and devastations of countries, as well in
+   France as elsewhere, as you will learn hereafter; the real
+   object of this history being to relate the great enterprises and
+   deeds of arms achieved in these wars, for from the time of good
+   Charlemagne, king of France, never were such feats performed.
+
+
+74. Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of France
+
+Due to causes which have been mentioned, the relations of England and
+France at the accession of Philip VI. in 1328 were so strained that
+only a slight fanning of the flames was necessary to bring on an open
+conflict. Edward III.'s persistent demand to be recognized as king of
+France sufficed to accomplish this result. The war did not come at
+once, for neither king felt himself ready for it; but it was
+inevitable and preparations for it were steadily pushed on both sides
+from 1328 until its formal declaration by Edward nine years later.
+These preparations were not merely military and naval but also
+diplomatic. The primary object of both sovereigns was to secure as
+many and as strong foreign alliances as possible. In pursuit of this
+policy Philip soon assured himself of the support of Louis de Nevers,
+count of Flanders, King John of Bohemia, Alphonso XI. of Castile, and
+a number of lesser princes of the north. Edward was even more
+successful. In Spain and the Scandinavian countries many local powers
+allied themselves with him; in the Low Countries, especially Flanders
+and Brabant, the people and the princes chose generally to identify
+themselves with his cause; and the climax came in July, 1337, when a
+treaty of alliance was concluded with the Emperor, Louis of Bavaria.
+War was begun in this same year, and in 1338 Edward went himself to
+the continent to undertake a direct attack on France from Flanders as
+a base. The years 1338 and 1339 were consumed with ineffective
+operations against the walled cities of the French frontier, Philip
+steadily refusing to be drawn into an open battle such as Edward
+desired. The following year the English king resolved to declare
+himself sovereign of France. The circumstances attending this
+important step are detailed in the passage from Froissart given below.
+
+Heretofore Edward had merely protested that by reason of his being a
+grandson of Philip the Fair he should have been awarded the throne by
+the French barons in 1328; now, at the instigation of his German and
+Flemish allies, he flatly announces that he _is_ of right the king
+and that Philip VI. is to be deposed as an usurper. Of course this
+was a declaration which Edward could make good only by victory in the
+war upon which he had entered. But the claim thus set up rendered it
+inevitable that the war should be waged to the bitter end on both
+sides.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Société de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. XXXI. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. I., pp. 110-112.
+
+     [Sidenote: The conference at Brussels]
+
+   When King Edward had departed from Flanders and arrived at Brabant
+   he set out straight for Brussels, whither he was attended by the
+   duke of Gueldres, the duke of Juliers, the marquis of Blanckenburg,
+   the earl of Mons, the lord John of Hainault, the lord of
+   Fauquemont, and all the barons of the Empire who were allied to
+   him, as they wished to consider what was next to be done in this
+   war which they had begun. For greater expedition, they ordered a
+   conference to be held in the city of Brussels, and invited James
+   van Arteveld[572] to attend it, who came thither in great array,
+   and brought with him all the councils from the principal towns of
+   Flanders.
+
+   At this parliament the king of England was advised by his allies of
+   the Empire to solicit the Flemings to give him their aid and
+   assistance in this war, to challenge the king of France, and to
+   follow King Edward wherever he should lead them, and in return he
+   would assist them in the recovery of Lisle, Douay, and
+   Bethune.[573] The Flemings heard this proposal with pleasure; but
+   they requested of the king that they might consider it among
+   themselves and in a short time they would give their answer.
+
+     [Sidenote: Proposition made by the Flemings to King Edward]
+
+   The king consented and soon after they made this reply: "Beloved
+   sire, you formerly made us a similar request; and we are willing to
+   do everything in reason for you without prejudice to our honor and
+   faith. But we are pledged by promise on oath, under a penalty of
+   two millions of florins, to the apostolical chamber,[574] not to
+   act offensively against the king of France in any way, whoever he
+   may be, without forfeiting this sum, and incurring the sentence of
+   excommunication. But if you will do what we will tell you, you will
+   find a remedy, which is, that you take the arms of France, quarter
+   them with those of England, and call yourself king of France. We
+   will acknowledge your title as good, and we will demand of you
+   quittance for the above sum, which you will grant us as king of
+   France. Thus we shall be absolved and at liberty to go with you
+   wherever it pleases you."
+
+     [Sidenote: The agreement concluded]
+
+   The king summoned his council, for he was loath to take the title
+   and arms of France, seeing that at present he had not conquered any
+   part of that kingdom and that it was uncertain whether he ever
+   should. On the other hand, he was unwilling to lose the aid and
+   assistance of the Flemings, who could be of greater service to him
+   than any others at that period. He consulted, therefore, with the
+   lords of the Empire, the lord Robert d'Artois,[575] and his most
+   privy councilors, who, after having duly weighed the good and bad,
+   advised him to make for answer to the Flemings, that if they would
+   bind themselves under their seals, to an agreement to aid him in
+   carrying on the war, he would willingly comply with their
+   conditions, and would swear to assist them in the recovery of
+   Lisle, Douay, and Bethune. To this they willingly consented. A day
+   was fixed for them to meet at Ghent,[576] where the king and the
+   greater part of the lords of the Empire, and in general the
+   councils from the different towns in Flanders, assembled. The
+   above-mentioned proposals and answers were then repeated, sworn to,
+   and sealed; and the king of England bore the arms of France,
+   quartering them with those of England. He also took the title of
+   king of France from that day forward.
+
+
+75. The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)
+
+In the spring of 1340 Edward returned to England to secure money and
+supplies with which to prosecute the war. The French king thought he
+saw in this temporary withdrawal of his enemy an opportunity to strike
+him a deadly blow. A fleet of nearly two hundred vessels was gathered
+in the harbor of Sluys, on the Flemish coast, with a view to attacking
+the English king on his return to the continent and preventing him
+from again securing a foothold in Flanders. Edward, however, accepted
+the situation and made ready to fight his way back to the country of
+his allies. June 24, 1340, he boldly attacked the French at Sluys. The
+sharp conflict which ensued resulted in a brilliant victory for the
+English. Philip's fleet found itself shut up in the harbor and utterly
+unable to withstand the showers of arrows shot by the thousands of
+archers who crowded the English ships. The French navy was
+annihilated, England was relieved from the fear of invasion, and the
+whole French coast was laid open to attack.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Société de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. XXXVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. I., pp. 141-143.
+
+   He [King Edward] and his whole navy sailed from the Thames the day
+   before the eve of St. John the Baptist, 1340,[577] and made
+   straight for Sluys.
+
+   Sir Hugh Quiriel, Sir Peter Bahucet, and Barbenoir, were at that
+   time lying between Blankenburg and Sluys with upwards of one
+   hundred and twenty large vessels, without counting others. These
+   were manned with about forty thousand men, Genoese and Picards,
+   including mariners. By the orders of the king of France, they were
+   there at anchor, awaiting the return of the king of England, to
+   dispute his passage.
+
+     [Sidenote: Edward determines to fight at Sluys]
+
+   When the king's fleet had almost reached Sluys, they saw so many
+   masts standing before it that they looked like a wood. The king
+   asked the commander of his ship what they could be. The latter
+   replied that he imagined they must be that armament of Normans
+   which the king of France kept at sea, and which had so frequently
+   done him much damage, had burned his good town of Southampton and
+   taken his large ship the _Christopher_. The king replied, "I have
+   for a long time desired to meet them, and now, please God and St.
+   George, we will fight with them; for, in truth, they have done me
+   so much mischief that I will be revenged on them if it be
+   possible."
+
+   The king then drew up all his vessels, placing the strongest in
+   front, and his archers on the wings. Between every two vessels with
+   archers there was one of men-at-arms. He stationed some detached
+   vessels as a reserve, full of archers, to assist and help such as
+   might be damaged. There were in this fleet a great many ladies from
+   England, countesses, baronesses, and knights' and gentlemen's
+   wives, who were going to attend on the queen at Ghent.[578] These
+   the king had guarded most carefully by three hundred men-at-arms
+   and five hundred archers.
+
+     [Sidenote: The French make ready]
+
+   When the king of England and his marshals had properly divided the
+   fleet, they hoisted their sails to have the wind on their quarter,
+   as the sun shone full in their faces (which they considered might
+   be of disadvantage to them) and stretched out a little, so that at
+   last they got the wind as they wished. The Normans, who saw them
+   tack, could not help wondering why they did so, and remarked that
+   they took good care to turn about because they were afraid of
+   meddling with them. They perceived, however, by his banner, that
+   the king was on board, which gave them great joy, as they were
+   eager to fight with him. So they put their vessels in proper order,
+   for they were expert and gallant men on the seas. They filled the
+   _Christopher_, the large ship which they had taken the year before
+   from the English, with trumpets and other warlike instruments, and
+   ordered her to fall upon the English.
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle rages]
+
+   The battle then began very fiercely. Archers and cross-bowmen shot
+   with all their might at each other, and the men-at-arms engaged
+   hand to hand. In order to be more successful, they had large
+   grapnels and iron hooks with chains, which they flung from ship to
+   ship to moor them to each other. There were many valiant deeds
+   performed, many prisoners made, and many rescues. The
+   _Christopher_, which led the van, was recaptured by the English,
+   and all in her taken or killed. There were then great shouts and
+   cries, and the English manned her again with archers, and sent her
+   to fight against the Genoese.
+
+   This battle was very murderous and horrible. Combats at sea are
+   more destructive and obstinate than upon land, for it is not
+   possible to retreat or flee--every one must abide his fortune, and
+   exert his prowess and valor. Sir Hugh Quiriel and his companions
+   were bold and determined men; they had done much mischief to the
+   English at sea and destroyed many of their ships. The combat,
+   therefore, lasted from early in the morning until noon,[579] and
+   the English were hard pressed, for their enemies were four to one,
+   and the greater part men who had been used to the sea.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English triumph]
+
+   The king, who was in the flower of his youth, showed himself on
+   that day a gallant knight, as did the earls of Derby, Pembroke,
+   Hereford, Huntingdon, Northampton, and Gloucester; the lord
+   Reginald Cobham, lord Felton, lord Bradestan, sir Richard Stafford,
+   the lord Percy, sir Walter Manny, sir Henry de Flanders, sir John
+   Beauchamp, sir John Chandos, the lord Delaware, Lucie lord Malton,
+   and the lord Robert d'Artois, now called earl of Richmond. I cannot
+   remember the names of all those who behaved so valiantly in the
+   combat. But they did so well that, with some assistance from Bruges
+   and those parts of the country, the French were completely
+   defeated, and all the Normans and the others were killed or
+   drowned, so that not one of them escaped.[580]
+
+   After the king had gained this victory, which was on the eve of St.
+   John's day,[581] he remained all that night on board his ship
+   before Sluys, and there were great noises with trumpets and all
+   kinds of other instruments.
+
+
+76. The Battle of Crécy (1346)
+
+In July, 1346, Edward III. landed on the northwest coast of Normandy
+with a splendid army of English, Irish, and Welsh, including ten
+thousand men skilled in the use of the long bow. He advanced eastward,
+plundering and devastating as he went, probably with the ultimate
+intention of besieging Calais. Finding the passage of the Seine
+impossible at Rouen, he ascended the river until he came into the
+vicinity of Paris, only to learn that Philip with an army twice the
+size of that of the English had taken up a position on the Seine to
+turn back the invasion. The French king allowed himself to be
+outwitted, however, and Edward got out of the trap into which he had
+fallen by marching northward to the village of Crécy in Ponthieu. With
+an army that had grown to outnumber the English three to one Philip
+advanced in the path of the enemy, first to Abbeville on the Somme,
+and later to Crécy, slightly to the east of which Edward had taken his
+stand for battle. The English arrived at Crécy about noon on Friday,
+August 25. The French were nearly a day behind, having spent the night
+at Abbeville and set out thence over the roads to Crécy before sunrise
+Saturday morning. The army of the English numbered probably about
+14,000, besides an uncertain reserve of Welsh and Irish troops; that
+of the French numbered about 70,000, including 15,000 Genoese
+cross-bowmen. The course of the battle is well described by Froissart
+in the passage below. Doubtless the account is not accurate in every
+particular, yet it must be correct in the main and it shows very
+vividly the character of French and English warfare in this period.
+Despite the superior numbers of the French, the English had small
+difficulty in winning a decisive victory. This was due to several
+things. In the first place, the French army was a typical feudal levy
+and as such was sadly lacking in discipline and order, while the
+English troops were under perfect control. In the next place, the use
+of the long-bow gave the English infantry a great advantage over the
+French knights, and even over the Genoese mercenaries, who could shoot
+just once while an English long-bowman was shooting twelve times. In
+the third place, Philip's troops were exhausted before entering the
+battle and it was a grievous error on the part of the king to allow
+the conflict to begin before his men had an opportunity for rest.[582]
+The greatest significance of the English victory lay in the blow it
+struck at feudalism, and especially the feudal type of warfare. It
+showed very clearly that the armored knight was no match for the
+common foot-soldier, armed simply with his long-bow, and that feudal
+methods and ideals had come to be inconsistent with success in war.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Société de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. LX. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. I., pp. 320-329 _passim_.
+
+   The king of England, as I have mentioned before, encamped this
+   Friday in the plain,[583] for he found the country abounding in
+   provisions; but if they should have failed, he had an abundance in
+   the carriages which attended him. The army set about furbishing and
+   repairing their armor; and the king gave a supper that evening to
+   the earls and barons of his army, where they made good cheer. On
+   their taking leave, the king remained alone with the lord of his
+   bed-chamber. He retired into his oratory and, falling on his knees
+   before the altar, prayed to God, that if he should fight his
+   enemies on the morrow he might come off with honor. About midnight
+   he went to his bed and, rising early the next day, he and the
+   Prince of Wales[584] heard Mass and communicated. The greater part
+   of his army did the same, confessed, and made proper preparations.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English prepare for battle]
+
+   After Mass the king ordered his men to arm themselves and assemble
+   on the ground he had before fixed on. He had enclosed a large park
+   near a wood, on the rear of his army, in which he placed all his
+   baggage-wagons and horses; and this park had but one entrance. His
+   men-at-arms and archers remained on foot. The king afterwards
+   ordered, through his constable and his two marshals, that the army
+   should be divided into three battalions....
+
+   The king then mounted a small palfrey, having a white wand in his
+   hand and, attended by his two marshals on each side of him, he rode
+   through all the ranks, encouraging and entreating the army, that
+   they should guard his honor. He spoke this so gently, and with such
+   a cheerful countenance, that all who had been dejected were
+   immediately comforted by seeing and hearing him.
+
+   When he had thus visited all the battalions, it was near ten
+   o'clock. He retired to his own division and ordered them all to eat
+   heartily afterwards and drink a glass. They ate and drank at their
+   ease; and, having packed up pots, barrels, etc., in the carts, they
+   returned to their battalions, according to the marshals' orders,
+   and seated themselves on the ground, placing their helmets and bows
+   before them, that they might be the fresher when their enemies
+   should arrive.
+
+     [Sidenote: The French advance from Abbeville to Crécy]
+
+     [Sidenote: Philip's knights advise delay]
+
+   That same Saturday, the king of France arose betimes and heard Mass
+   in the monastery of St. Peter's in Abbeville,[585] where he was
+   lodged. Having ordered his army to do the same, he left that town
+   after sunrise. When he had marched about two leagues from Abbeville
+   and was approaching the enemy, he was advised to form his army in
+   order of battle, and to let those on foot march forward, that they
+   might not be trampled on by the horses. The king, upon this, sent
+   off four knights--the lord Moyne of Bastleberg, the lord of Noyers,
+   the lord of Beaujeu, and the lord of Aubigny--who rode so near to
+   the English that they could clearly distinguish their position. The
+   English plainly perceived that they were come to reconnoitre.
+   However, they took no notice of it, but suffered them to return
+   unmolested. When the king of France saw them coming back, he halted
+   his army, and the knights, pushing through the crowds, came near
+   the king, who said to them, "My lords, what news?" They looked at
+   each other, without opening their mouths; for no one chose to speak
+   first. At last the king addressed himself to the lord Moyne, who
+   was attached to the king of Bohemia, and had performed very many
+   gallant deeds, so that he was esteemed one of the most valiant
+   knights in Christendom. The lord Moyne said, "Sir, I will speak,
+   since it pleases you to order me, but with the assistance of my
+   companions. We have advanced far enough to reconnoitre your
+   enemies. Know, then, that they are drawn up in three battalions and
+   are awaiting you. I would advise, for my part (submitting, however,
+   to better counsel), that you halt your army here and quarter them
+   for the night; for before the rear shall come up and the army be
+   properly drawn out, it will be very late. Your men will be tired
+   and in disorder, while they will find your enemies fresh and
+   properly arrayed. On the morrow, you may draw up your army more at
+   your ease and may reconnoitre at leisure on what part it will be
+   most advantageous to begin the attack; for, be assured, they will
+   wait for you."
+
+     [Sidenote: Confusion in the French ranks]
+
+   The king commanded that it should be so done; and the two marshals
+   rode, one towards the front, and the other to the rear, crying out,
+   "Halt banners, in the name of God and St. Denis." Those that were
+   in the front halted; but those behind said they would not halt
+   until they were as far forward as the front. When the front
+   perceived the rear pushing on, they pushed forward; and neither the
+   king nor the marshals could stop them, but they marched on without
+   any order until they came in sight of their enemies.[586] As soon
+   as the foremost rank saw them, they fell back at once in great
+   disorder, which alarmed those in the rear, who thought they had
+   been fighting. There was then space and room enough for them to
+   have passed forward, had they been willing to do so. Some did so,
+   but others remained behind.
+
+   All the roads between Abbeville and Crécy were covered with common
+   people, who, when they had come within three leagues of their
+   enemies, drew their swords, crying out, "Kill, kill;" and with them
+   were many great lords who were eager to make show of their courage.
+   There is no man, unless he had been present, who can imagine, or
+   describe truly, the confusion of that day; especially the bad
+   management and disorder of the French, whose troops were beyond
+   number.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English prepare for battle]
+
+   The English, who were drawn up in three divisions and seated on the
+   ground, on seeing their enemies advance, arose boldly and fell into
+   their ranks. That of the prince[587] was the first to do so, whose
+   archers were formed in the manner of a portcullis, or harrow, and
+   the men-at-arms in the rear. The earls of Northampton and Arundel,
+   who commanded the second division, had posted themselves in good
+   order on his wing to assist and succor the prince, if necessary.
+
+   You must know that these kings, dukes, earls, barons, and lords of
+   France did not advance in any regular order, but one after the
+   other, or in any way most pleasing to themselves. As soon as the
+   king of France came in sight of the English his blood began to
+   boil, and he cried out to his marshals, "Order the Genoese forward,
+   and begin the battle, in the name of God and St. Denis."
+
+   There were about fifteen thousand Genoese cross-bowmen; but they
+   were quite fatigued, having marched on foot that day six leagues,
+   completely armed, and with their cross-bows. They told the
+   constable that they were not in a fit condition to do any great
+   things that day in battle. The earl of Alençon, hearing this, said,
+   "This is what one gets by employing such scoundrels, who fail when
+   there is any need for them."
+
+   During this time a heavy rain fell, accompanied by thunder and a
+   very terrible eclipse of the sun; and before this rain a great
+   flight of crows hovered in the air over all those battalions,
+   making a loud noise. Shortly afterwards it cleared up and the sun
+   shone very brightly; but the Frenchmen had it in their faces, and
+   the English at their backs.
+
+   When the Genoese were somewhat in order they approached the English
+   and set up a loud shout in order to frighten them; but the latter
+   remained quite still and did not seem to hear it. They then set up
+   a second shout and advanced a little forward; but the English did
+   not move. They hooted a third time, advancing with their cross-bows
+   presented, and began to shoot. The English archers then advanced
+   one step forward and shot their arrows with such force and
+   quickness that it seemed as if it snowed.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Genoese mercenaries repulsed]
+
+   When the Genoese felt these arrows, which pierced their arms,
+   heads, and through their armor, some of them cut the strings of
+   their cross-bows, others flung them on the ground, and all turned
+   about and retreated, quite discomfited. The French had a large body
+   of men-at-arms on horseback, richly dressed, to support the
+   Genoese. The king of France, seeing them thus fall back, cried out,
+   "Kill me those scoundrels; for they stop up our road, without any
+   reason." You would then have seen the above-mentioned men-at-arms
+   lay about them, killing all that they could of these runaways.
+
+     [Sidenote: Slaughter by the Cornish and Welsh]
+
+   The English continued shooting as vigorously and quickly as before.
+   Some of their arrows fell among the horsemen, who were sumptuously
+   equipped and, killing and wounding many, made them caper and fall
+   among the Genoese, so that they were in such confusion they could
+   never rally again. In the English army there were some Cornish and
+   Welshmen on foot who had armed themselves with large knives. These,
+   advancing through the ranks of the men-at-arms and archers, who
+   made way for them, came upon the French when they were in this
+   danger and, falling upon earls, barons, knights and squires, slew
+   many, at which the king of England was afterwards much exasperated.
+
+     [Sidenote: Death of the king of Bohemia]
+
+   The valiant king of Bohemia was slain there. He was called Charles
+   of Luxemburg, for he was the son of the gallant king and emperor,
+   Henry of Luxemburg.[588] Having heard the order of the battle, he
+   inquired where his son, the lord Charles, was. His attendants
+   answered that they did not know, but believed that he was fighting.
+   The king said to them: "Sirs, you are all my people, my friends and
+   brethren at arms this day; therefore, as I am blind, I request of
+   you to lead me so far into the engagement that I may strike one
+   stroke with my sword." The knights replied that they would lead him
+   forward immediately; and, in order that they might not lose him in
+   the crowd, they fastened the reins of all their horses together,
+   and put the king at their head, that he might gratify his wish,
+   and advanced towards the enemy. The king rode in among the enemy,
+   and made good use of his sword; for he and his companions fought
+   most gallantly. They advanced so far that they were all slain; and
+   on the morrow they were found on the ground, with their horses all
+   tied together.
+
+   Early in the day, some French, Germans, and Savoyards had broken
+   through the archers of the prince's battalion, and had engaged with
+   the men-at-arms, upon which the second battalion came to his aid;
+   and it was time, for otherwise he would have been hard pressed. The
+   first division, seeing the danger they were in, sent a knight[589]
+   in great haste to the king of England, who was posted upon an
+   eminence, near a windmill. On the knight's arrival, he said, "Sir,
+   the earl of Warwick, the lord Stafford, the lord Reginald Cobham,
+   and the others who are about your son are vigorously attacked by
+   the French; and they entreat that you come to their assistance with
+   your battalion for, if the number of the French should increase,
+   they fear he will have too much to do."
+
+     [Sidenote: Edward gives the Black Prince a chance to win his spurs]
+
+   The king replied: "Is my son dead, unhorsed, or so badly wounded
+   that he cannot support himself?" "Nothing of the sort, thank God,"
+   rejoined the knight; "but he is in so hot an engagement that he has
+   great need of your help." The king answered, "Now, Sir Thomas,
+   return to those who sent you and tell them from me not to send
+   again for me this day, or expect that I shall come, let what will
+   happen, as long as my son has life; and say that I command them to
+   let the boy win his spurs; for I am determined, if it please God,
+   that all the glory and honor of this day shall be given to him, and
+   to those into whose care I have entrusted him." The knight returned
+   to his lords and related the king's answer, which greatly
+   encouraged them and made them regret that they had ever sent such a
+   message.
+
+     [Sidenote: King Philip abandons the field of battle]
+
+   Late after vespers, the king of France had not more about him than
+   sixty men, every one included. Sir John of Hainault, who was of the
+   number, had once remounted the king; for the latter's horse had
+   been killed under him by an arrow. He said to the king, "Sir,
+   retreat while you have an opportunity, and do not expose yourself
+   so needlessly. If you have lost this battle, another time you will
+   be the conqueror." After he had said this, he took the bridle of
+   the king's horse and led him off by force; for he had before
+   entreated him to retire.
+
+   The king rode on until he came to the castle of La Broyes, where he
+   found the gates shut, for it was very dark. The king ordered the
+   governor of it to be summoned. He came upon the battlements and
+   asked who it was that called at such an hour. The king answered,
+   "Open, open, governor; it is the fortune of France." The governor,
+   hearing the king's voice, immediately descended, opened the gate,
+   and let down the bridge. The king and his company entered the
+   castle; but he had with him only five barons--Sir John of Hainault,
+   the lord Charles of Montmorency, the lord of Beaujeu, the lord of
+   Aubigny, and the lord of Montfort. The king would not bury himself
+   in such a place as that, but, having taken some refreshments, set
+   out again with his attendants about midnight, and rode on, under
+   the direction of guides who were well acquainted with the country,
+   until, about daybreak, he came to Amiens, where he halted.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English after the battle]
+
+   This Saturday the English never quitted their ranks in pursuit of
+   any one, but remained on the field, guarding their position and
+   defending themselves against all who attacked them. The battle was
+   ended at the hour of vespers. When, on this Saturday night, the
+   English heard no more hooting or shouting, nor any more crying out
+   to particular lords, or their banners, they looked upon the field
+   as their own and their enemies as beaten.
+
+   They made great fires and lighted torches because of the darkness
+   of the night. King Edward then came down from his post, who all
+   that day had not put on his helmet, and, with his whole battalion,
+   advanced to the Prince of Wales, whom he embraced in his arms and
+   kissed, and said, "Sweet son, God give you good preference. You are
+   my son, for most loyally have you acquitted yourself this day. You
+   are worthy to be a sovereign." The prince bowed down very low and
+   humbled himself, giving all honor to the king his father.
+
+   The English, during the night, made frequent thanksgivings to the
+   Lord for the happy outcome of the day, and without rioting; for the
+   king had forbidden all riot or noise.
+
+
+77. The Sack of Limoges (1370)
+
+As a single illustration of the devastation wrought by the Hundred
+Years' War, and of the barbarity of the commanders and troops engaged
+in it, Froissart's well-known description of the sack of Limoges in
+1370 by the army of the Black Prince is of no small interest. In some
+respects, of course, circumstances in connection with this episode
+were exceptional, and we are not to imagine that such heartless and
+indiscriminate massacres were common. Yet the evidence which has
+survived all goes to show that the long course of the war was filled
+with cruelty and destruction in a measure almost inconceivable among
+civilized peoples in more modern times.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Société de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. XCVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. II., pp. 61-68 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Black Prince resolves to retake Limoges]
+
+   When word was brought to the prince that the city of Limoges[590]
+   had become French, that the bishop, who had been his companion and
+   one in whom he had formerly placed great confidence, was a party
+   to all the treaties and had greatly aided and assisted in the
+   surrender, he was in a violent passion and held the bishop and all
+   other churchmen in very low estimation, in whom formerly he had put
+   great trust. He swore by the soul of his father, which he had never
+   perjured, that he would have it back again, that he would not
+   attend to anything before he had done this, and that he would make
+   the inhabitants pay dearly for their treachery....[591]
+
+   All these men-at-arms were drawn out in battle-array and took the
+   field, when the whole country began to tremble for the
+   consequences. At that time the Prince of Wales was not able to
+   mount his horse, but was, for his greater ease, carried in a
+   litter. They followed the road to the Limousin,[592] in order to
+   get to Limoges, where in due time they arrived and encamped all
+   around it. The prince swore he would never leave the place until he
+   had regained it.
+
+     [Sidenote: The town to be undermined]
+
+   The bishop of the place and the inhabitants found that they had
+   acted wickedly and had greatly incensed the prince, for which they
+   were very repentant, but that was now of no avail, as they were not
+   the masters of the town.[593] When the prince and his marshals had
+   well considered the strength and force of Limoges, and knew the
+   number of people that were in it, they agreed that they could never
+   take it by assault, but said they would attempt it by another
+   manner. The prince was always accustomed to carry with him on his
+   expeditions a large body of miners. These were immediately set to
+   work and made great progress. The knights who were in the town
+   soon perceived that they were undermining them, and on that
+   account began to countermine to prevent the effect....
+
+   The Prince of Wales remained about a month, and not more, before
+   the city of Limoges. He would not allow any assaults or
+   skirmishing, but kept his miners steadily at work. The knights in
+   the town perceived what they were about and made countermines to
+   destroy them, but they failed in their attempt. When the miners of
+   the prince (who, as they found themselves countermined, kept
+   changing the line of direction of their own mine) had finished
+   their business, they came to the prince and said, "My lord, we are
+   ready, and will throw down, whenever it pleases you, a very large
+   part of the wall into the ditch, through the breach of which you
+   may enter the town at your ease and without danger."
+
+     [Sidenote: The English assault]
+
+   This news was very agreeable to the prince, who replied: "I desire,
+   then, that you prove your words to-morrow morning at six o'clock."
+   The miners set fire to the combustibles in the mine, and on the
+   morrow morning, as they had foretold the prince, they flung down a
+   great piece of wall which filled the ditches. The English saw this
+   with pleasure, for they were armed and prepared to enter the town.
+   Those on foot did so and ran to the gate, which they destroyed, as
+   well as the barriers, for there were no other defenses; and all
+   this was done so suddenly that the inhabitants had not time to
+   prevent it.
+
+     [Sidenote: Barbarity of the sack]
+
+   The prince, the duke of Lancaster, the earls of Cambridge and of
+   Pembroke, sir Guiscard d'Angle and the others, with their men,
+   rushed into the town. You would then have seen pillagers, active to
+   do mischief, running through the town, slaying men, women, and
+   children, according to their orders. It was a most melancholy
+   business; for all ranks, ages, and sexes cast themselves on their
+   knees before the prince, begging for mercy; but he was so inflamed
+   with passion and revenge that he listened to none. But all were put
+   to the sword, wherever they could be found, even those who were
+   not guilty. For I know not why the poor were not spared, who could
+   not have had any part in the treason; but they suffered for it, and
+   indeed more than those who had been the leaders of the treachery.
+
+   There was not that day in the city of Limoges any heart so
+   hardened, or that had any sense of religion, that did not deeply
+   bewail the unfortunate events passing before men's eyes; for
+   upwards of three thousand men, women, and children were put to
+   death that day. God have mercy on their souls, for they were truly
+   martyrs.... The entire town was pillaged, burned, and totally
+   destroyed. The English then departed, carrying with them their
+   booty and prisoners.
+
+
+78. The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)
+
+The most important documents in the diplomatic history of the Hundred
+Years' War are the texts of the treaty of London (1359), the treaty of
+Bretigny (1360), the truce of Paris (1396), the treaty of Troyes
+(1420), the treaty of Arras (1435), and the truce of Tours (1444).
+Brief extracts from two of these are given below. The treaty of
+Bretigny was negotiated soon after the refusal of the French to ratify
+the treaty of London. In November, 1359, King Edward III., with his
+son, Edward, the Black Prince, and the duke of Lancaster, crossed the
+Channel, marched on Rheims, and threatened Paris. Negotiations for a
+new peace were actively opened in April, 1360, after the English had
+established themselves at Montlhéri, south from Paris. The French
+king, John II., who had been taken prisoner at Poitiers (1356), gave
+full powers of negotiation to his son Charles, duke of Normandy and
+regent of the kingdom. For some time no definite conclusions were
+reached, owing chiefly to Edward's unwillingness to renounce his claim
+to the French throne. Late in April the negotiations were transferred
+to Chartres, subsequently to Bretigny. Finally, on the eighth of May,
+representatives of the two parties signed the so-called treaty of
+Bretigny. Although the instrument was promptly ratified by the French
+regent and by the Black Prince (and, if we may believe Froissart, by
+the two kings themselves), it was afterwards revised and accepted in
+a somewhat different form by the monarchs and their following
+assembled at Calais (October 24, 1360). The most important respect in
+which the second document differed from the first was the omission of
+Article 12 of the first treaty, in which Edward renounced his claim to
+the throne of France and the sovereignty of Normandy, Maine, Anjou,
+Touraine, Brittany, and Flanders; nevertheless Edward, at Calais, made
+this renunciation in a separate convention, which for all practical
+purposes was regarded as a part of the treaty. The passages printed
+below are taken from the Calais text. Most of the thirty-nine articles
+composing the document are devoted to mere details. The war was
+renewed after a few years, and within two decades the English had lost
+all the territory guaranteed to them in 1360, except a few coast
+towns.
+
+The treaty of Troyes (1420) belongs to one of the most stormy periods
+in all French history. The first two decades of the fifteenth century
+were marked by a cessation of the war with England (until its renewal
+in 1415), but also unfortunately by the outbreak of a desperate civil
+struggle between two great factions of the French people, the
+Burgundians and the Armagnacs. The Burgundians, led by Philip the Bold
+and John the Fearless (successive dukes of Burgundy), stood for a
+policy of friendship with England, while the Armagnacs, comprising the
+adherents of Charles, duke of Orleans, whose wife was a daughter of
+the count of Armagnac, advocated the continuation of the war with the
+English; though, in reality, the forces which kept the two factions
+apart were jealousy and ambition rather than any mere question of
+foreign relations. The way was prepared for a temporary Burgundian
+triumph by the notable victory of the English at Agincourt in 1415 and
+by the assassination of John the Fearless at Paris in 1419, which made
+peace impossible and drove the Burgundians openly into the arms of the
+English. Philip the Good, the new duke of Burgundy, became the avowed
+ally of the English king Henry V., who since 1417 had been slowly but
+surely conquering Normandy and now had the larger portion of it in his
+possession. Philip recognized Henry as the true heir to the French
+throne and in 1419 concluded with him two distinct treaties on that
+basis. Charles VI., the reigning king of France, was mentally
+unbalanced and the queen, who bitterly hated the Armagnacs (with whom
+her son, the Dauphin Charles, was actively identified), was easily
+persuaded by Duke Philip to acquiesce in a treaty by which the
+succession should be vested in the English king upon the death of
+Charles VI. The result was the treaty of Troyes, signed May 21, 1420.
+According to agreements already entered into by Philip and Henry, the
+latter was to marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. (the marriage
+was not mentioned in the treaty of Troyes, but it was clearly
+assumed), and he was to act as regent of France until Charles VI.'s
+death and then become king in his own name. Most of the thirty-one
+articles of the treaty were taken up with a definition of Henry's
+position and obligations as regent and prospective sovereign of
+France.
+
+In due time the marriage of Henry and Catherine took place and Henry
+assumed the regency, though the Armagnacs, led by the Dauphin, refused
+absolutely to accept the settlement. War broke out, in the course of
+which (in 1422) Henry V. died and was succeeded by his infant son,
+Henry VI. In the same year Charles VI. also died, which meant that the
+young Henry would become king of France. With such a prospect the
+future of the country looked dark. Nevertheless, the death of Charles
+VI. and of Henry V. came in reality as a double blessing. Henry V.
+might long have kept the French in subjection and his position as
+Charles VI.'s son-in-law gave him some real claim to rule in France.
+But with the field cleared, as it was in 1422, opportunity was given
+for the Dauphin Charles (Charles VII.) to retrieve the fallen fortunes
+of his country--a task which, with more or less energy and skill, he
+managed in the long run to accomplish.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in Eugène Cosneau, _Les Grands Traités de la
+     Guerre de Cent Ans_ ["The Great Treaties of the Hundred Years'
+     War"], Paris, 1889, pp. 39-68 _passim_.
+
+     (b) Text in Cosneau, _ibid._ pp. 102-115 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Territories conceded to the English by the treaty
+     of Bretigny]
+
+   (a)
+
+   =1.= The king of England shall hold for himself and his heirs, for
+   all time to come, in addition to that which he holds in Guienne and
+   Gascony, all the possessions which are enumerated below, to be held
+   in the same manner that the king of France and his sons, or any of
+   their ancestors, have held them....[594]
+
+   =7.= And likewise the said king and his eldest son[595] shall give
+   order, by their letters patent to all archbishops and other
+   prelates of the holy Church, and also to counts, viscounts, barons,
+   nobles, citizens, and others of the cities, lands, countries,
+   islands, and places before mentioned, that they shall be obedient
+   to the king of England and to his heirs and at their ready command,
+   in the same manner in which they have been obedient to the kings
+   and to the crown of France. And by the same letters they shall
+   liberate and absolve them from all homage, pledges, oaths,
+   obligations, subjections, and promises made by any of them to the
+   kings and to the crown of France in any manner.
+
+   =13.= It is agreed that the king of France shall pay to the king of
+   England three million gold crowns, of which two are worth an obol
+   of English money.[596]
+
+     [Sidenote: Provision regarding alliances]
+
+   =30.= It is agreed that honest alliances, friendships, and
+   confederations shall be formed by the two kings of France and
+   England and their kingdoms, not repugnant to the honor or the
+   conscience of one king or the other. No alliances which they have,
+   on this side or that, with any person of Scotland or Flanders, or
+   any other country, shall be allowed to stand in the way.[597]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Treaty of Troyes fixes the succession upon Henry V]
+
+   (b)
+
+   =6.= After our death,[598] and from that time forward, the crown
+   and kingdom of France, with all their rights and appurtenances,
+   shall be vested permanently in our son [son-in-law], King Henry,
+   and his heirs.
+
+   =7.= ... The power and authority to govern and to control the
+   public affairs of the said kingdom shall, during our life-time, be
+   vested in our son, King Henry, with the advice of the nobles and
+   the wise men who are obedient to us, and who have consideration for
+   the advancement and honor of the said kingdom....
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry's title]
+
+   =22.= It is agreed that during our life-time we shall designate our
+   son, King Henry, in the French language in this fashion, _Notre
+   très cher fils Henri, roi d'Angleterre, héritier de France_; and in
+   the Latin language in this manner, _Noster præcarissimus filius
+   Henricus, rex Angliæ, heres Franciæ_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Union of France and England to be through the crown
+   only]
+
+   =24.= ... [It is agreed] that the two kingdoms shall be governed
+   from the time that our said son, or any of his heirs, shall assume
+   the crown, not divided between different kings at the same time,
+   but under one person, who shall be king and sovereign lord of both
+   kingdoms, observing all pledges and all other things, to each
+   kingdom its rights, liberties or customs, usages and laws, not
+   submitting in any manner one kingdom to the other.[599]
+
+   =29.= In consideration of the frightful and astounding crimes and
+   misdeeds committed against the kingdom of France by Charles, the
+   said Dauphin, it is agreed that we, our son Henry, and also our
+   very dear son Philip, duke of Burgundy, will never treat for peace
+   or amity with the said Charles.[600]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[565] This is the title employed by Thomas Johnes in his translation
+of the work a hundred years ago. Froissart himself called his book, in
+the French of his day, _Chroniques de France, d'Engleterre, d'Escoce,
+de Bretaigne, d'Espaigne, d'Italie, de Flandres et d'Alemaigne_.
+
+[566] Philip IV., king of France, 1285-1314.
+
+[567] Isabella was the wife of Edward II., who reigned in England from
+1307 until his deposition in 1327.
+
+[568] Louis X. (the Quarrelsome) reigned 1314-1316; Philip V. (the
+Long), 1316-1322; and Charles IV. (the Fair), 1322-1328. Louis and
+Charles were very weak kings, though Philip was vigorous and able.
+
+[569] The French Court of Twelve Peers did not constitute a distinct
+organization, but was merely a high rank of baronage. In the earlier
+Middle Ages, the number of peers was generally twelve, including the
+most powerful lay vassals of the king and certain influential
+prelates. In later times the number was frequently increased by the
+creation of peers by the crown.
+
+[570] In 1317, after the accession of Philip IV., an assembly of
+French magnates (such as that which disposed of the crown in 1328)
+laid down the general rule that no woman should succeed to the throne
+of France. This rule has come to be known as the Salic Law of France,
+though it has no historical connection with the law of the Salian
+Franks against female inheritance of property, with which older
+writers have generally confused it [see p. 67, note 1]. The rule of
+1317 was based purely on grounds of political expediency. It was
+announced at this particular time because the death of Louis X. had
+left France without a male heir to the throne for the first time since
+Hugh Capet's day and the barons thought it not best for the realm that
+a woman reign over it. Between 1316 and 1328 daughters of kings were
+excluded from the succession three times, and though in 1328, when
+Charles IV. died, there had been no farther legislation on the
+subject, the principle of the misnamed Salic Law had become firmly
+established in practice. In 1328, however, when the barons selected
+Philip of Valois to be regent first and then king, they went a step
+farther and declared not only that no woman should be allowed to
+inherit the throne of France but that the inheritance could not pass
+through a woman to her son; in other words, she could not transmit to
+her descendants a right which she did not herself possess. This was
+intended to cover any future case such as that of Edward III.'s claim
+to inherit through his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. The
+action of the barons was supported by public opinion in practically
+all France--especially since it appeared that only through this
+expedient could the realm be saved from the domination of an alien
+sovereign.
+
+[571] Philip of Valois was a son of Charles of Valois, who was a
+brother of Philip IV. The line of direct Capetian descent was now
+replaced by the branch line of the Valois. The latter occupied the
+French throne until the death of Henry III. in 1589.
+
+[572] James van Arteveld, a brewer of Ghent, was the leader of the
+popular party in Flanders--the party which hated French influence,
+which had expelled the count of Flanders on account of his services to
+Philip VI., and which was the most valuable English ally on the
+continent. Arteveld was murdered in 1345 during the civil discord
+which prevailed in Flanders throughout the earlier part of the Hundred
+Years' War.
+
+[573] These were towns situated near the Franco-Flemish frontier. They
+had been lost by Flanders to France and assistance in their recovery
+was rightly considered by the German advisers of Edward as likely to
+be more tempting to the Flemish than any other offer he could make
+them.
+
+[574] That is, the papal court.
+
+[575] Robert of Artois was a prince who had not a little to do with
+the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War. After having lost a suit for
+the inheritance of the county of Artois (the region about the Somme
+River) and having been proved guilty of fabricating documents to
+support his claims, he had fled to England and there as an exile had
+employed every resource to influence Edward to claim the French throne
+and to go to war to secure it.
+
+[576] In northeastern Flanders.
+
+[577] That is, June 23. The English fleet was composed of two hundred
+and fifty vessels, carrying 11,000 archers and 4,000 men-at-arms.
+
+[578] Edward III.'s queen was Philippa, daughter of the count of
+Hainault.
+
+[579] In reality, until five o'clock in the evening, or about nine
+hours in all.
+
+[580] The tide of battle was finally turned in favor of the English by
+the arrival of reinforcements in the shape of a squadron of Flemish
+vessels. The contest was not so one-sided or the French defeat so
+complete as Froissart represents, yet it was decisive enough, as is
+indicated by the fact that only thirty of the French ships survived
+and 20,000 French and Genoese were slain or taken prisoners, as
+against an English loss of about 10,000.
+
+[581] June 24, 1340.
+
+[582] As appears from Froissart's account (see p. 431), the king, on
+the advice of some of his knights, decided at one time to postpone the
+attack until the following day; but, the army falling into hopeless
+confusion and coming up unintentionally within sight of the English,
+he recklessly gave the order to advance to immediate combat. Perhaps,
+however, it is only fair to place the blame upon the system which made
+the army so unmanageable, rather than upon the king personally.
+
+[583] That is, the plain east of the village of Crécy.
+
+[584] The king's eldest son, Edward, generally known as the Black
+Prince.
+
+[585] Abbeville was on the Somme about fifteen miles south of Crécy.
+
+[586] This incident very well illustrates the confusion and lack of
+discipline prevailing in a typical feudal army.
+
+[587] Edward, the Black Prince, eldest son of the English king.
+
+[588] The Emperor Henry VII., 1308-1314.
+
+[589] Sir Thomas Norwich.
+
+[590] Limoges, besieged by the duke of Berry and the great French
+general, Bertrand du Guesclin, had just been forced to surrender. It
+was a very important town and its capture was the occasion of much
+elation among the French. Treaties were entered into between the duke
+of Berry on the one hand and the bishop and citizens of Limoges on the
+other, whereby the inhabitants recognized the sovereignty of the
+French king. It was the news of this surrender that so angered the
+Black Prince.
+
+[591] A force of 3,200 men was led by the Black Prince from the town
+of Cognac to undertake the siege of Limoges. Froissart here enumerates
+a large number of notable knights who went with the expedition.
+
+[592] The Limousin was a district in south central France, southeast
+of Poitou.
+
+[593] Limoges was now in the hands of three commanders representing
+the French king. Their names were John de Villemur, Hugh de la Roche,
+and Roger de Beaufort.
+
+[594] Here follows a minute enumeration of the districts, towns, and
+castles conceded to the English. The most important were Poitou,
+Limousin, Rouergne, and Saintonge in the south, and Calais, Guines,
+and Ponthieu in the north.
+
+[595] That is, King John II. and the regent Charles.
+
+[596] The enormous ransom thus specified for King John was never paid.
+The three million gold crowns would have a purchasing power of perhaps
+forty or forty-five million dollars to-day. On the strength of the
+treaty provision John was immediately released from captivity. With
+curious disregard of the bad conditions prevailing in France as the
+result of foreign and civil war he began preparations for a crusade,
+which, however, he was soon forced to abandon. In 1364, attracted by
+the gayety of English life as contrasted with the wretchedness and
+gloom of his impoverished subjects, he went voluntarily to England,
+where he died before the festivities in honor of his coming were
+completed.
+
+[597] Throughout the Hundred Years' War the English had maintained
+close relations with the Flemish enemies of France, just as France, in
+defiance of English opposition, had kept up her traditional friendship
+with Scotland. The treaty of Bretigny provided for a mutual reshaping
+of foreign policy, to the end that these obstacles to peace might be
+removed.
+
+[598] That is, the death of King Charles VI.
+
+[599] France was not to be dealt with as conquered territory. This
+article comprises the only important provision in the treaty for
+safeguarding the interests of the French people.
+
+[600] Charles VI., Henry V., and Philip the Good bind themselves not
+to come to any sort of terms with the Dauphin, which compact reveals
+the irreconcilable attitude characteristic of the factional and
+dynastic struggles of the period. Chapter 6 of the treaty disinherits
+the Dauphin; chapter 29 proclaims him an enemy of France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
+
+
+The question as to when the Middle Ages came to an end cannot be
+answered with a specific date, or even with a particular century. The
+transition from the mediæval world to the modern was gradual and was
+accomplished at a much earlier period in some lines than in others.
+Roughly speaking, the change fell within the two centuries and a half
+from 1300 to 1550. This transitional epoch is commonly designated the
+Age of the Renaissance, though if the term is taken in its most proper
+sense as denoting the flowering of an old into a new culture it
+scarcely does justice to the period, for political and religious
+developments in these centuries were not less fundamental than the
+revival and fresh stimulus of culture. But in the earlier portion of
+the period, particularly the fourteenth century, the intellectual
+awakening was the most obvious feature of the movement and, for the
+time being, the most important.
+
+The renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was not the
+first that Europe had known. There had been a notable revival of
+learning in the time of Charlemagne--the so-called Carolingian
+renaissance; another at the end of the tenth century, in the time of
+the Emperor Otto III. and Pope Sylvester II.; and a third in the
+twelfth century, with its center in northern France. The first two,
+however, had proved quite transitory, and even the third and most
+promising had dried up in the fruitless philosophy of the scholastics.
+
+Before there could be a vital and permanent intellectual revival it
+was indispensable that the mediæval attitude of mind undergo a
+fundamental change. This attitude may be summed up in the one phrase,
+the absolute dominance of "authority"--the authority, primarily, of
+the Church, supplemented by the writings of a few ancients like
+Aristotle. The scholars of the earlier Middle Ages busied themselves,
+not with research and investigation whereby to increase knowledge, but
+rather with commenting on the Scriptures, the writings of the Church
+fathers, and Aristotle, and drawing conclusions and inferences by
+reasoning from these accepted authorities. There was no disposition to
+question what was found in the books, or to supplement it with fresh
+information. Only after about 1300 did human interests become
+sufficiently broadened to make men no longer altogether content with
+the mere process of threshing over the old straw. Gradually there
+began to appear scholars who suggested the idea, novel for the day,
+that the books did not contain all that was worth knowing, and also
+that perchance some things that had long gone unquestioned just
+because they were in the books were not true after all. In other
+words, they proposed to investigate things for themselves and to apply
+the tests of observation and impartial reason.
+
+The most influential factor in producing this change of attitude was
+the revival of classical literature and learning. The Latin classics,
+and even some of the Greek, had not been unknown in the earlier Middle
+Ages, but they had not been read widely, and when read at all they had
+been valued principally as models of rhetoric rather than as a living
+literature to be enjoyed for the ideas that were contained in it and
+the forms in which they were expressed. These ideas were, of course,
+generally pagan, and that in itself was enough to cause the Church to
+look askance at the use of classical writings, except for grammatical
+or antiquarian purposes. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
+however, due to a variety of causes, the reading of the classics
+became commoner than since Roman days, and men, bringing to them more
+open minds, were profoundly attracted by the fresh, original, human
+ideas of life and the world with which Vergil and Horace and Cicero,
+for example, overflowed. It was all a new discovery of the world and
+of man, and from the _humanitas_ which the scholars found set forth as
+the classical conception of culture they themselves took the name of
+"humanists," while the subjects of their studies came to be known as
+the _litteræ humaniores_. This first great phase of the
+Renaissance--the birth of humanism--found its finest expression in
+Dante and Petrarch, and it cannot be studied with better effect than
+in certain of the writings of these two men.
+
+
+79. Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language
+
+Dante Alighieri was born at Florence in 1265. Of his early life little
+is known. His family seems to have been too obscure to have much part
+in the civil struggles with which Florence, and all Italy, in that day
+were vexed. The love affair with Beatrice, whose story Boccaccio
+relates with so much zest, is the one sharply-defined feature of
+Dante's youth and early manhood. It is known that at the age of
+eighteen the young Florentine was a poet and was winning wide
+recognition for his sonnets. Much time was devoted by him to study of
+literature and the arts, but the details of his employments,
+intellectual and otherwise, are impossible to make out. In 1290
+occurred the death of Beatrice, which event marked an epoch in the
+poetical lover's life. In his sorrow he took refuge in the study of
+such books as Boëthius's _Consolations of Philosophy_ and Cicero's
+_Friendship_, and became deeply interested in literary, and especially
+philosophical, problems. In 1295 he entered political life, taking
+from the outset a prominent part in the deliberations of the
+Florentine General Council and the Council of Consuls of the Arts. He
+assumed a firm attitude against all forms of lawlessness and in
+resistance to any external interference in Florentine affairs. Owing
+to conditions which he could not influence, however, his career in
+this direction was soon cut short and most of the remainder of his
+life was spent as a political exile, at Lucca, Verona, Ravenna, and
+other Italian cities, with a possible visit to Paris. He died at
+Ravenna, September 14, 1321, in his fifty-seventh year.
+
+Dante has well been called "the Janus-faced," because he stood at the
+threshold of the new era and looked both forward and backward. His
+_Divine Comedy_ admirably sums up the mediæval spirit, and yet it
+contains many suggestions of the coming age. His method was
+essentially that of the scholastics, but he knew many of the classics
+and had a genuine respect for them as literature. He was a mediævalist
+in his attachment to the Holy Roman Empire, yet he cherished the
+purely modern ambition of a united Italy. It is deeply significant
+that he chose to write his great poem--one of the most splendid in the
+world's literature--in the Italian tongue rather than the Latin. Aside
+from the fact that this, more than anything else, caused the Tuscan
+dialect, rather than the rival Venetian and Neapolitan dialects, to
+become the modern Italian, it evidenced the new desire for the
+popularization of literature which was a marked characteristic of the
+dawning era. Not content with putting his greatest effort in the
+vernacular, Dante undertook formally to defend the use of the popular
+tongue for literary purposes. This he did in _Il Convito_ ("The
+Banquet"), a work whose date is quite uncertain, but which was
+undoubtedly produced at some time while its author was in exile. It is
+essentially a prose commentary upon three _canzoni_ written for the
+honor and glory of the "noble, beautiful, and most compassionate lady,
+Philosophy." In it Dante sought to set philosophy free from the
+schools and from the heavy disputations of the scholars and to render
+her beauty visible even to the unlearned. It was the first important
+work on philosophy written in the Italian tongue, an innovation which
+the author rightly regarded as calling for some explanation and
+defense. The passage quoted from it below comprises this defense.
+Similar views on the nobility of the vulgar language, as compared with
+the Latin, were later set forth in fuller form in the treatise _De
+Vulgari Eloquentia_.
+
+     Source--Dante Alighieri, _Il Convito_ ["The Banquet"], Bk. I.,
+     Chaps. 5-13 _passim_. Translated by Katharine Hillard (London,
+     1889), pp. 17-47 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Reasons for using the Italian]
+
+   V. =1.= This bread being cleansed of its accidental
+   impurities,[601] we have now but to free it from one [inherent] in
+   its substance, that is, its being in the vulgar tongue, and not in
+   Latin; so that we might metaphorically call it made of oats instead
+   of wheat. And this [fault] may be briefly excused by three reasons,
+   which moved me to prefer the former rather than the latter
+   [language]. The first arises from care to avoid an unfit order of
+   things; the second, from a consummate liberality; the third, from a
+   natural love of one's own tongue. And I intend here in this manner
+   to discuss, in due order, these things and their causes, that I
+   may free myself from the reproach above named.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Latin fixed, the Italian changeable]
+
+   =3.= For, in the first place, had it [the commentary] been in
+   Latin, it would have been sovereign rather than subject, by its
+   nobility, its virtue, and its beauty. By its nobility, because
+   Latin is enduring and incorruptible, and the vulgar tongue is
+   unstable and corruptible. For we see that the ancient books of
+   Latin tragedy and comedy cannot be changed from the form we have
+   to-day, which is not the case with the vulgar tongue, as that can
+   be changed at will. For we see in the cities of Italy, if we take
+   notice of the past fifty years, how many words have been lost, or
+   invented, or altered; therefore, if a short time can work such
+   changes, how much more can a longer period effect! So that I think,
+   should they who departed this life a thousand years ago return to
+   their cities, they would believe them to be occupied by a foreign
+   people, so different would the language be from theirs. Of this I
+   shall speak elsewhere more fully, in a book which I intend to
+   write, God willing, on _Vulgar Eloquence_.[602]
+
+     [Sidenote: Translations cannot preserve the literary splendor of
+   the originals]
+
+   VII. =4.= ... The Latin could only have explained them [the
+   _canzoni_] to scholars; for the rest would not have understood it.
+   Therefore, as among those who desire to understand them there are
+   many more illiterate than learned, it follows that the Latin would
+   not have fulfilled this behest as well as the vulgar tongue, which
+   is understood both by the learned and the unlearned. Also the Latin
+   would have explained them to people of other nations, such as
+   Germans, English, and others; in doing which it would have exceeded
+   their order.[603] For it would have been against their will I say,
+   speaking generally, to have explained their meaning where their
+   beauty could not go with it. And, moreover, let all observe that
+   nothing harmonized by the laws of the Muses[604] can be changed
+   from its own tongue to another one without destroying all its
+   sweetness and harmony. And this is the reason why Homer is not
+   turned from Greek into Latin like the other writings we have of
+   theirs [the Greeks];[605] and this is why the verses of the
+   Psalter[606] lack musical sweetness and harmony; for they have been
+   translated from Hebrew to Greek, and from Greek to Latin, and in
+   the first translation all this sweetness perished.
+
+   IX. =1.= ... The Latin would not have served many; because, if we
+   recall to mind what has already been said, scholars in other
+   languages than the Italian could not have availed themselves of its
+   service.[607] And of those of this speech (if we should care to
+   observe who they are) we shall find that only to one in a thousand
+   could it really have been of use; because they would not have
+   received it, so prone are they to base desires, and thus deprived
+   of that nobility of soul which above all desires this food. And to
+   their shame I say that they are not worthy to be called scholars,
+   because they do not pursue learning for its own sake, but for the
+   money or the honors that they gain thereby; just as we should not
+   call him a lute-player who kept a lute in the house to hire out,
+   and not to play upon.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Italian of more solid excellence than other tongues]
+
+   X. =5.= Again, I am impelled to defend it [the vulgar tongue] from
+   many of its accusers, who disparage it and commend others, above
+   all the language of _Oco_,[608] saying that the latter is better
+   and more beautiful than the former, wherein they depart from the
+   truth. Wherefore by this commentary shall be seen the great
+   excellence of the vulgar tongue of _Si_,[609] because (although the
+   highest and most novel conceptions can be almost as fittingly,
+   adequately, and beautifully expressed in it as in the Latin) its
+   excellence in rhymed pieces, on account of the accidental
+   adornments connected with them, such as rhyme and rhythm, or
+   ordered numbers, cannot be perfectly shown; as it is with the
+   beauty of a woman, when the splendor of her jewels and her garments
+   draw more admiration than her person.[610] Wherefore he who would
+   judge a woman truly looks at her when, unaccompanied by any
+   accidental adornment, her natural beauty alone remains to her; so
+   shall it be with this commentary, wherein shall be seen the
+   facility of its language, the propriety of its diction, and the
+   sweet discourse it shall hold; which he who considers well shall
+   see to be full of the sweetest and most exquisite beauty. But
+   because it is most virtuous in its design to show the futility and
+   malice of its accuser, I shall tell, for the confounding of those
+   who attack the Italian language, the purpose which moves them to do
+   this; and upon this I shall now write a special chapter, that their
+   infamy may be the more notorious.
+
+     [Sidenote: Why people of Italy affect to despise their native
+   tongue]
+
+   XI. =1.= To the perpetual shame and abasement of those wicked men
+   of Italy who praise the language of others and disparage their own,
+   I would say that their motive springs from five abominable causes.
+   The first is intellectual blindness; the second, vicious excuses;
+   the third, greed of vain-glory; the fourth, an argument based on
+   envy; the fifth and last, littleness of soul, that is,
+   pusillanimity. And each of these vices has so large a following,
+   that few are they who are free from them....
+
+     [Sidenote: The unskilful attribute their faults to the language]
+
+   =3.= The second kind work against our language by vicious excuses.
+   These are they who would rather be considered masters than be such;
+   and, to avoid the reverse (that is, not to be considered masters),
+   they always lay the blame upon the materials prepared for their
+   art, or upon their tools; as the bad smith blames the iron given
+   him, and the bad lute-player blames the lute, thinking thus to lay
+   the fault of the bad knife or the bad playing upon the iron or the
+   lute, and to excuse themselves. Such are they (and they are not
+   few) who wish to be considered orators; and in order to excuse
+   themselves for not speaking, or for speaking badly, blame and
+   accuse their material, that is, their own language, and praise that
+   of others in which they are not required to work. And whoever
+   wishes to see wherein this tool [the vulgar tongue] deserves blame,
+   let him look at the work that good workmen have done with it, and
+   he will recognize the viciousness of those who, laying the blame
+   upon it, think they excuse themselves. Against such does Tullius
+   exclaim, in the beginning of one of his books called _De
+   Finibus_,[611] because in his time they blamed the Latin language
+   and commended the Greek, for the same reasons that these people
+   consider the Italian vile and the Provençal precious.
+
+     [Sidenote: People should use their own language, as being most
+   natural to them]
+
+   XII. =3.= That thing is nearest to a person which is, of all things
+   of its kind, the most closely related to himself; thus of all men
+   the son is nearest to the father, and of all arts medicine is
+   nearest to the doctor, and music to the musician, because these are
+   more closely related to them than any others; of all countries, the
+   one a man lives in is nearest to him, because it is most closely
+   related to him. And thus a man's own language is nearest to him,
+   because most closely related, being that one which comes alone and
+   before all others in his mind, and not only of itself is it thus
+   related, but by accident, inasmuch as it is connected with those
+   nearest to him, such as his kinsmen, and his fellow-citizens, and
+   his own people. And this is his own language, which is not only
+   near, but the very nearest, to every one. Because if proximity be
+   the seed of friendship, as has been stated above, it is plain that
+   it has been one of the causes of the love I bear my own language,
+   which is nearer to me than the others. The above-named reason (that
+   is, that we are most nearly related to that which is first in our
+   mind) gave rise to that custom of the people which makes the
+   firstborn inherit everything, as the nearest of kin; and, because
+   the nearest, therefore the most beloved.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Italian fulfils the highest requirement of a
+   language]
+
+   =4.= And again, its goodness makes me its friend. And here we must
+   know that every good quality properly belonging to a thing is
+   lovable in that thing; as men should have a fine beard, and women
+   should have the whole face quite free from hair; as the foxhound
+   should have a keen scent, and the greyhound great speed. And the
+   more peculiar this good quality, the more lovable it is, whence,
+   although all virtue is lovable in man, that is most so which is
+   most peculiarly human.... And we see that, of all things pertaining
+   to language, the power of adequately expressing thought is the most
+   loved and commended; therefore this is its peculiar virtue. And as
+   this belongs to our own language, as has been proved above in
+   another chapter, it is plain that this was one of the causes of my
+   love for it; since, as we have said, goodness is one of the causes
+   that engender love.
+
+
+80. Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power
+
+The best known prose work of Dante, the _De Monarchia_, is perhaps the
+most purely idealistic political treatise ever written. Its quality of
+idealism is so pronounced, in fact, that there is not even sufficient
+mention of contemporary men or events to assist in solving the wholly
+unsettled problem of the date of its composition. The _De Monarchia_
+is composed of three books, each of which is devoted to a fundamental
+question in relation to the balance of temporal and spiritual
+authority. The first question is whether the temporal monarchy is
+necessary for the well-being of the world. The answer is, that it is
+necessary for the preservation of justice, freedom, and unity and
+effectiveness of human effort. The second question is whether the
+Roman people took to itself this dignity of monarchy, or empire, by
+right. By a survey of Roman history from the days of Æneas to those of
+Cæsar it is made to appear that it was God's will that the Romans
+should rule the world. The third question is the most vital of all and
+its answer constitutes the pith of the treatise. In brief it is, does
+the authority of the Roman monarch, or emperor, who is thus by right
+the monarch of the world, depend immediately upon God, or upon some
+vicar of God, the successor of Peter? This question Dante answers
+first negatively by clearing away the familiar defenses of spiritual
+supremacy, and afterwards positively, by bringing forward specific
+arguments for the temporal superiority. The selection given below
+comprises the most suggestive portions of Dante's treatment of this
+aspect of his subject. The method, it will be observed, is quite
+thoroughly scholastic. Whenever the _De Monarchia_ was composed, it
+remained all but unknown until after the author's death (1321); but
+with the renewal of conflict between papacy and imperial power the
+imperialists were not slow to make use of the treatise, and by the
+middle of the fourteenth century it had become known throughout
+Europe, being admired by one party as much as it was abhorred by the
+other. At various times copies of it were burned as heretical and in
+the sixteenth century it was placed by the Roman authorities upon the
+Index of Prohibited Books. Few literary productions of the later
+Middle Ages exercised greater influence upon contemporary thought and
+politics.
+
+     Source--Dante Alighieri, _De Monarchia_ ["Concerning
+     Monarchy"], Bk. III., Chaps. 1-16 _passim_. Translated by
+     Aurelia Henry (Boston, 1904), pp. 137-206 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The problem to be considered]
+
+   I. =2.= The question pending investigation, then, concerns two
+   great luminaries, the Roman Pontiff [Pope] and the Roman Prince
+   [Emperor]; and the point at issue is whether the authority of the
+   Roman monarch, who, as proved in the second book, is rightful
+   monarch of the world, is derived from God directly, or from some
+   vicar or minister of God, by whom I mean the successor of Peter,
+   indisputable keeper of the keys of the kingdom of heaven.
+
+   IV. =1.= Those men to whom the entire subsequent discussion is
+   directed assert that the authority of the Empire depends on the
+   authority of the Church, just as the inferior artisan depends on
+   the architect. They are drawn to this by divers opposing arguments,
+   some of which they take from Holy Scripture, and some from certain
+   acts performed by the chief pontiff, and by the Emperor himself;
+   and they endeavor to make their conviction reasonable.
+
+     [Sidenote: The analogy of the sun and moon]
+
+   =2.= For, first, they maintain that, according to Genesis, God made
+   two mighty luminaries, a greater and a lesser, the former to hold
+   supremacy by day and the latter by night [Gen., i. 15, 16]. These
+   they interpret allegorically to be the two rulers--spiritual and
+   temporal.[612] Whence they argue that as the lesser luminary, the
+   moon, has no light but that gained from the sun, so the temporal
+   ruler has no authority but that gained from the spiritual ruler.
+
+   =8.= I proceed to refute the above assumption that the two
+   luminaries of the world typify its two ruling powers. The whole
+   force of their argument lies in the interpretation; but this we can
+   prove indefensible in two ways. First, since these ruling powers
+   are, as it were, accidents necessitated by man himself, God would
+   seem to have used a distorted order in creating first accidents,
+   and then the subject necessitating them. It is absurd to speak thus
+   of God, but it is evident from the Word that the two lights were
+   created on the fourth day, and man on the sixth.
+
+     [Sidenote: An abstruse bit of mediæval reasoning]
+
+   =9.= Secondly, the two ruling powers exist as the directors of men
+   toward certain ends, as will be shown further on. But had man
+   remained in the state of innocence in which God made him, he would
+   have required no such direction. These ruling powers are therefore
+   remedies against the infirmity of sin. Since on the fourth day man
+   was not only not a sinner, but was not even existent, the creation
+   of a remedy would have been purposeless, which is contrary to
+   divine goodness. Foolish indeed would be the physician who should
+   make ready a plaster for the abscess of a man not yet born.
+   Therefore it cannot be asserted that God made the two ruling powers
+   on the fourth day; and consequently the meaning of Moses cannot
+   have been what it is supposed to be.
+
+   =10.= Also, in order to be tolerant, we may refute this fallacy by
+   distinction. Refutation by distinction deals more gently with an
+   adversary, for it shows him to be not absolutely wrong, as does
+   refutation by destruction. I say, then, that although the moon may
+   have abundant light only as she receives it from the sun, it does
+   not follow on that account that the moon herself owes her existence
+   to the sun. It must be recognized that the essence of the moon, her
+   strength, and her function, are not one and the same thing. Neither
+   in her essence, her strength, nor her function taken absolutely,
+   does the moon owe her existence to the sun, for her movement is
+   impelled by her own force and her influence by her own rays.
+   Besides, she has a certain light of her own, as is shown in
+   eclipse. It is in order to fulfill her function better and more
+   potently that she borrows from the sun abundance of light, and
+   works thereby more effectively.
+
+     [Sidenote: Why the argument from the sun and moon fails]
+
+   =11.= In like manner, I say, the temporal power receives from the
+   spiritual neither its existence, nor its strength, which is its
+   authority, nor even its function, taken absolutely. But well for
+   her does she receive therefrom, through the light of grace which
+   the benediction of the chief pontiff sheds upon it in heaven and on
+   earth, strength to fulfill her function more perfectly. So the
+   argument was at fault in form, because the predicate of the
+   conclusion is not a term of the major premise, as is evident. The
+   syllogism runs thus: The moon receives light from the sun, which
+   is the spiritual power; the temporal ruling power is the moon;
+   therefore the temporal receives authority from the spiritual. They
+   introduce "light" as the term of the major, but "authority" as
+   predicate of the conclusion, which two things we have seen to be
+   diverse in subject and significance.
+
+     [Sidenote: Argument from the prerogative of the keys committed to
+   Peter]
+
+   VIII. =1.= From the same gospel they quote the saying of Christ to
+   Peter, "Whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in
+   heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19], and understand this saying to refer alike
+   to all the Apostles, according to the text of Matthew and John
+   [Matt., xviii. 18 and John, xx. 23]. They reason from this that the
+   successor of Peter has been granted of God power to bind and loose
+   all things, and then infer that he has power to loose the laws and
+   decrees of the Empire, and to bind the laws and decrees of the
+   temporal kingdom. Were this true, their inference would be correct.
+
+   =2.= But we must reply to it by making a distinction against the
+   major premise of the syllogism which they employ. Their syllogism
+   is this: Peter had power to bind and loose all things; the
+   successor of Peter has like power with him; therefore the successor
+   of Peter has power to loose and bind all things. From this they
+   infer that he has power to loose and bind the laws and decrees of
+   the Empire.
+
+   =3.= I concede the minor premise, but the major only with
+   distinction. Wherefore I say that "all," the symbol of the
+   universal which is implied in "whatsoever," is never distributed
+   beyond the scope of the distributed term. When I say, "All animals
+   run," the distribution of "all" comprehends whatever comes under
+   the genus "animal." But when I say, "All men run," the symbol of
+   the universal refers only to whatever comes under the term "man."
+   And when I say, "All grammarians run," the distribution is narrowed
+   still further.
+
+   =4.= Therefore we must always determine what it is over which the
+   symbol of the universal is distributed; then, from the recognized
+   nature and scope of the distributed term, will be easily apparent
+   the extent of the distribution. Now, were "whatsoever" to be
+   understood absolutely when it is said, "Whatsoever thou shalt
+   bind," he would certainly have the power they claim; nay, he would
+   have even greater power--he would be able to loose a wife from her
+   husband, and, while the man still lived, bind her to another--a
+   thing he can in nowise do. He would be able to absolve me, while
+   impenitent--a thing which God Himself cannot do.
+
+     [Sidenote: Dante's interpretation of the Scripture in question]
+
+   =5.= So it is evident that the distribution of the term under
+   discussion is to be taken, not absolutely, but relatively to
+   something else. A consideration of the concession to which the
+   distribution is subjoined will make manifest this related
+   something. Christ said to Peter, "I will give unto thee the keys of
+   the kingdom of heaven;" that is, I will make thee doorkeeper of the
+   kingdom of heaven. Then He adds, "and whatsoever," that is,
+   "everything which," and He means thereby, "Everything which
+   pertains to that office thou shalt have power to bind and loose."
+   And thus the symbol of the universal which is implied in
+   "whatsoever" is limited in its distribution to the prerogative of
+   the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Understood thus, the proposition
+   is true, but understood absolutely, it is obviously not. Therefore
+   I conclude that, although the successor of Peter has authority to
+   bind and loose in accordance with the requirements of the
+   prerogative granted to Peter, it does not follow, as they claim,
+   that he has authority to bind and loose the decrees or statutes of
+   empire, unless they prove that this also belongs to the office of
+   the keys. But further on we shall demonstrate that the contrary is
+   true.
+
+   XIII. =1.= Now that we have stated and rejected the errors on which
+   those chiefly rely who declare that the authority of the Roman
+   Prince is dependent on the Roman Pontiff,[613] we must return and
+   demonstrate the truth of that question which we propounded for
+   discussion at the beginning. The truth will be evident enough if it
+   can be shown, under the principle of inquiry agreed upon, that
+   imperial authority derives immediately from the summit of all
+   being, which is God. And this will be shown, whether we prove that
+   imperial authority does not derive from that of the Church (for the
+   dispute concerns no other authority), or whether we prove simply
+   that it derives immediately from God.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Church (or papacy) is not the source of imperial
+   authority]
+
+   =2.= That ecclesiastical authority is not the source of imperial
+   authority is thus verified. A thing non-existent, or devoid of
+   active force, cannot be the cause of active force in a thing
+   possessing that quality in full measure. But before the Church
+   existed, or while it lacked power to act, the Empire had active
+   force in full measure. Hence the Church is the source, neither of
+   acting power nor of authority in the Empire, where power to act and
+   authority are identical. Let A be the Church, B the Empire, and C
+   the power or authority of the Empire. If, A being non-existent, C
+   is in B, the cause of C's relation to B cannot be A, since it is
+   impossible that an effect should exist prior to its cause.
+   Moreover, if, A being inoperative, C is in B, the cause of C's
+   relation to B cannot be A, since it is indispensable for the
+   production of effect that the cause should be in operation
+   previously, especially the efficient cause which we are considering
+   here.
+
+     [Sidenote: Early Christian recognition of the authority of the
+   Emperor]
+
+   =3.= The major premise of this demonstration is intelligible from
+   its terms; the minor is confirmed by Christ and the Church. Christ
+   attests it, as we said before, in His birth and death. The Church
+   attests it in Paul's declaration to Festus in the Acts of the
+   Apostles: "I stand at Cæsar's judgment seat, where I ought to be
+   judged" [Acts, xxv. 10]; and in the admonition of God's angel to
+   Paul a little later: "Fear not, Paul; thou must be brought before
+   Cæsar" [Acts, xxvii. 24]; and again, still later, in Paul's words
+   to the Jews dwelling in Italy: "And when the Jews spake against it,
+   I was constrained to appeal unto Cæsar; not that I had aught to
+   accuse my nation of," but "that I might deliver my soul from death"
+   [Acts, xxviii. 19]. If Cæsar had not already possessed the right to
+   judge temporal matters, Christ would not have implied that he did,
+   the angel would not have uttered such words, nor would he who said,
+   "I desire to depart and be with Christ" [Phil., i. 23], have
+   appealed to an unqualified judge.
+
+   XIV. =1.= Besides, if the Church has power to confer authority on
+   the Roman Prince, she would have it either from God, or from
+   herself, or from some Emperor, or from the unanimous consent of
+   mankind, or, at least, from the consent of the most influential.
+   There is no other least crevice through which the power could have
+   diffused itself into the Church. But from none of these has it come
+   to her, and therefore the aforesaid power is not hers at all.
+
+   XVI. =1.= Although by the method of reduction to absurdity it has
+   been shown in the foregoing chapter that the authority of empire
+   has not its source in the Chief Pontiff, yet it has not been fully
+   proved, save by an inference, that its immediate source is God,
+   seeing that if the authority does not depend on the vicar of God,
+   we conclude that it depends on God Himself. For a perfect
+   demonstration of the proposition we must prove directly that the
+   Emperor, or Monarch, of the world has immediate relationship to the
+   Prince of the universe, who is God.
+
+     [Sidenote: Positive argument that the authority of the emperor is
+   derived directly from God]
+
+   =2.= In order to realize this, it must be understood that man alone
+   of all beings holds the middle place between corruptibility and
+   incorruptibility, and is therefore rightly compared by
+   philosophers to the horizon which lies between the two
+   hemispheres. Man may be considered with regard to either of his
+   essential parts, body or soul. If considered in regard to the body
+   alone, he is perishable; if in regard to the soul alone, he is
+   imperishable. So the Philosopher[614] spoke well of its
+   incorruptibility when he said in the second book, _On the Soul_,
+   "And this only can be separated as a thing eternal from that which
+   perishes."
+
+   =3.= If man holds a middle place between the perishable and the
+   imperishable, then, inasmuch as every man shares the nature of the
+   extremes, man must share both natures. And inasmuch as every nature
+   is ordained for a certain ultimate end, it follows that there
+   exists for man a two-fold end, in order that as he alone of all
+   beings partakes of the perishable and the imperishable, so he alone
+   of all beings should be ordained for two ultimate ends. One end is
+   for that in him which is perishable, the other for that which is
+   imperishable.
+
+     [Sidenote: Double aspect of human life]
+
+   =4.= Omniscient Providence has thus designed two ends to be
+   contemplated by man: first, the happiness of this life, which
+   consists in the activity of his natural powers, and is prefigured
+   by the terrestrial Paradise; and then the blessedness of life
+   everlasting, which consists in the enjoyment of the countenance of
+   God, to which man's natural powers may not obtain unless aided by
+   divine light, and which may be symbolized by the celestial
+   Paradise.[615]
+
+   =5.= To these states of blessedness, just as to diverse
+   conclusions, man must come by diverse means. To the former we come
+   by the teachings of philosophy, obeying them by acting in
+   conformity with the moral and intellectual virtues; to the latter,
+   through spiritual teachings which transcend human reason, and which
+   we obey by acting in conformity with the theological virtues,
+   faith, hope, and charity. Now the former end and means are made
+   known to us by human reason, which the philosophers have wholly
+   explained to us; and the latter by the Holy Spirit, which has
+   revealed to us supernatural but essential truth through the
+   prophets and sacred writers, through Jesus Christ, the coëternal
+   Son of God, and through His disciples. Nevertheless, human passion
+   would cast these behind, were not man, like horses astray in their
+   brutishness, held to the road by bit and rein.
+
+   =6.= Wherefore a twofold directive agent was necessary to man, in
+   accordance with the twofold end; the Supreme Pontiff to lead the
+   human race to life eternal by means of revelation, and the Emperor
+   to guide it to temporal well-being by means of philosophic
+   instruction. And since none or few--and these with exceeding
+   difficulty--could attain this port, were not the waves of seductive
+   desire calmed, and mankind made free to rest in the tranquillity of
+   peace, therefore this is the goal which he whom we call the
+   guardian of the earth and Roman Prince should most urgently seek;
+   then would it be possible for life on this mortal threshing-floor
+   to pass in freedom and peace. The order of the world follows the
+   order inherent in the revolution of the heavens. To attain this
+   order it is necessary that instruction productive of liberality and
+   peace should be applied by the guardian of the realm, in due place
+   and time, as dispensed by Him who is the ever-present Watcher of
+   the whole order of the heavens. And He alone foreordained this
+   order, that by it, in His providence, He might link together all
+   things, each in its own place.
+
+     [Sidenote: The proper functions of Pope and Emperor]
+
+   =7.= If this is so, and there is none higher than He, only God
+   elects and only God confirms. Whence we may further conclude that
+   neither those who are now, nor those who in any way whatsoever have
+   been, called electors[616] have the right to be so called; rather
+   should they be entitled heralds of Divine Providence. Whence it is
+   that those in whom is vested the dignity of proclamation suffer
+   dissension among themselves at times, when, all or part of them
+   being shadowed by the clouds of passion, they discern not the face
+   of God's dispensation.
+
+   =8.= It is established, then, that the authority of temporal
+   monarchy descends without mediation from the fountain of universal
+   authority. And this fountain, one in its purity of source, flows
+   into multifarious channels out of the abundance of its excellence.
+
+     [Sidenote: The ideal relation of the two powers]
+
+   =9.= I believe I have now approached sufficiently close to the goal
+   I had set myself, for I have taken the kernels of truth from the
+   husks of falsehood, in that question which asked whether the office
+   of monarchy was essential to the welfare of the world, and in the
+   next which made inquiry whether the Roman people rightfully
+   appropriated the empire, and in the last which sought whether the
+   authority of the monarch derived from God directly, or from some
+   other. But the truth of this final question must not be restricted
+   to mean that the Roman Prince shall not be subject in some degree
+   to the Roman Pontiff, for well-being that is mortal is ordered in a
+   measure after well-being that is immortal. Wherefore let Cæsar
+   honor Peter as a first-born son should honor his father, so that,
+   brilliant with the light of paternal grace, he may illumine with
+   greater radiance the earthly sphere over which he has been set by
+   Him who alone is Ruler of all things spiritual and temporal.[617]
+
+
+81. Petrarch's Love of the Classics
+
+Francesco Petrarca was born at Arezzo in northern Italy in July, 1304.
+His father was a Florentine notary who had been banished by the same
+decree with Dante in 1302, and who finally settled at Avignon in 1313
+to practice his profession in the neighborhood of the papal court.
+Petrarch was destined by his father for the law and was sent to study
+that subject at Montpellier and subsequently at Bologna. But from the
+moment when he first got hold of the Latin classics, notably Cicero
+and Vergil, he found his interest in legal subjects absolutely at an
+end. He was charmed by the literary power of the ancients, as he
+certainly was not by the logic and learning of the jurists, and though
+his father endeavored to discourage what he regarded as a sheer waste
+of time by burning the young enthusiast's precious Latin books, the
+love of the classics, once aroused, was never crushed out and the
+literary instinct remained dominant. The beginnings of the Renaissance
+spirit, which are so discernible in Dante, become in Petrarch the full
+expression of the new age. In the words of Professor Adams, "In him we
+clearly find, as controlling personal traits, all those specific
+features of the Renaissance which give it its distinguishing character
+as an intellectual revolution, and from their strong beginning in him
+they have never ceased among men. In the first place, he felt as no
+other man had done since the ancient days the beauty of nature and the
+pleasure of mere life, its sufficiency for itself; and he had also a
+sense of ability and power, and a self-confidence which led him to
+plan great things, and to hope for an immortality of fame in this
+world. In the second place, he had a most keen sense of the unity of
+past history, of the living bond of connection between himself and men
+of like sort in the ancient world. That world was for him no dead
+antiquity, but he lived and felt in it and with its poets and
+thinkers, as if they were his neighbors. His love for it amounted
+almost, if we may call it so, to an ecstatic enthusiasm, hardly
+understood by his own time, but it kindled in many others a similar
+feeling which has come down to us. The result is easily recognized in
+him as a genuine culture, the first of modern men in whom this can be
+found.... Finally, Petrarch first put the modern spirit into conscious
+opposition to the mediæval. The Renaissance meant rebellion and
+revolution. It meant a long and bitter struggle against the whole
+scholastic system, and all the follies and superstitions which
+flourished under its protection. Petrarch opened the attack along the
+whole line. Physicians, lawyers, astrologers, scholastic philosophers,
+the universities--all were enemies of the new learning, and so his
+enemies. And these attacks were not in set and formal polemics alone,
+his letters and almost all his writings were filled with them. It was
+the business of his life."[618]
+
+In the latter part of his life Petrarch enjoyed the highest renown
+throughout Europe. The cities of Italy, especially, vied with one
+another in showering honors upon him. A decree of the Venetian senate
+affirmed that no Christian poet or philosopher could be compared with
+him. Arezzo, the town of his birth, awarded him a triumphal
+procession. Florence bought the estates once confiscated from his
+father and begged him to accept them as a meager gift to one "who for
+centuries had no equal and could scarcely find one in the ages to
+come." The climax came in 1341 when both the University of Paris and
+the Roman Senate invited him to present himself and receive the poet's
+crown, in revival of an old and all but forgotten ceremony of special
+honor. The invitation from Rome was accepted and the celebration
+attending the coronation was one of the most splendid of the age. In
+1350 Petrarch became acquainted with Boccaccio and thenceforth there
+existed the warmest friendship between these two great exponents of
+Renaissance ideals and achievement. In 1369 he retired to Arquà, near
+Padua, where he died in 1374.
+
+Besides his poems Petrarch wrote a great number of letters, some in
+Latin and some in Italian. Letter-writing was indeed a veritable
+passion with him; and he not only wrote freely but was careful to
+preserve copies of what he wrote. His prose correspondence has been
+classified in four divisions. The largest one comprises three hundred
+forty-seven letters, written between the years 1332 and 1362, and
+given the general title of _De Rebus Familiaribus_, because in them
+only topics presumably of everyday interest were discussed and without
+particular attention to style. The second group, the so-called
+_Epistolæ Variæ_, numbers about seventy. The third, the _Epistolæ de
+Rebus Senilibus_ ("Letters of Old Age"), includes one hundred
+twenty-four letters written during the last twelve years of the poet's
+life. The fourth, comprising about twenty letters, was made up of
+epistles containing such sharp criticism of the papal régime at
+Avignon that the author thought it best to suppress the names of those
+to whom they were addressed. Their general designation, therefore, is
+_Epistolæ sine Titulo_. The following passages are taken from a letter
+found in the _Epistolæ Variæ_. It was written to a literary friend,
+August 18, 1360, while Petrarch was at Milan, uncertain whither the
+political storms of the period would finally drive him. In the portion
+which precedes that given below the writer has been commenting on
+various invitations which had reached him from friends in Padua,
+Florence, and even beyond the Alps. This gives him occasion to lament
+the unsettled conditions of his times and to voice the longing of the
+scholar for peace and quiet. Thence he proceeds to speak of matters
+which reveal in an interesting way his passionate love for the
+beauties of classical literature and his sympathy with its dominant
+ideas. Cicero was his favorite Latin author; after him, Vergil and
+Ovid. Greek literature, unfortunately, it was impossible for him to
+know at first hand. In spite of a lifelong desire, and at least one
+determined effort (which is referred to in the letter below), he never
+acquired even a rudimentary reading knowledge of the Greek language.
+At best he could only read fragments of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle in
+extremely faulty Latin translations.[619]
+
+     Source--Franciscus Petrarca, _Epistolæ de Rebus Familiaribus
+     et Variæ_ ["Letters of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous
+     Letters"], edited by J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol.
+     III., pp. 364-371. Adapted from translation in Merrick
+     Whitcomb, _Source Book of the Italian Renaissance_
+     (Philadelphia, 1903), pp. 14-21 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Petrarch's longing for peace and seclusion]
+
+   If you should ask me, in the midst of these opinions of my friends,
+   what I myself think of the matter, I can only reply that I long for
+   a place where solitude, leisure, repose, and silence reign, however
+   far from wealth and honors, power and favors. But I confess I know
+   not where to find it. My own secluded nook, where I have hoped not
+   only to live, but even to die, has lost all the advantages it once
+   possessed, even that of safety. I call to witness thirty or more
+   volumes, which I left there recently, thinking that no place could
+   be more secure, and which, a little later, having escaped from the
+   hands of robbers and returned, against all hope, to their master,
+   seem yet to blanch and tremble and show upon their foreheads the
+   troubled condition of the place whence they have escaped. Therefore
+   I have lost all hope of revisiting this charming retreat, this
+   longed-for country spot. Still, if the opportunity were offered me,
+   I should seize it with both hands and hold it fast. I do not know
+   whether I still possess a glimmer of hope, or am feigning it for
+   self-deception, and to feed my soul's desire with empty
+   expectation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Drawbacks of even Milan and Padua]
+
+   But I proceed, remembering that we had much conversation on this
+   point last year, when we lived together in the same house, in this
+   very city [Milan]; and that after having examined the matter most
+   carefully, in so far as our light permitted, we came to the
+   conclusion that while the affairs of Italy, and of Europe, remain
+   in this condition, there is no place safer and better for my needs
+   than Milan, nor any place that suits me so well. We made exception
+   only of the city of Padua, whither I went shortly after and whither
+   I shall soon return; not that I may obliterate or diminish--that I
+   should not wish--but that I may soften the regret which my absence
+   causes the citizens of both places. I know not whether you have
+   changed your opinion since that time; but for me I am convinced
+   that to exchange the tumult of this great city and its annoyances
+   for the annoyances of another city would bring me no advantage,
+   perhaps some inconvenience, and beyond a doubt, much fatigue. Ah,
+   if this tranquil solitude, which, in spite of all my seeking, I
+   never find, as I have told you, should ever show itself on any
+   side, you will hear, not that I have gone, but that I have flown,
+   to it....
+
+   In the succeeding paragraph of your letter you jest with much
+   elegance, saying that I have been wounded by Cicero without having
+   deserved it, on account of our too great intimacy.[620] "Because,"
+   you say, "those who are nearest to us most often injure us, and it
+   is extremely rare that an Indian does an injury to a Spaniard."
+   True it is. It is on this account that in reading of the wars of
+   the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, and in contemplating the troubles
+   of our own people with our neighbors, we are never struck with
+   astonishment; still less so at the sight of the civil wars and
+   domestic troubles which habit has made of so little account that
+   concord itself would more easily cause surprise. But when we read
+   that the king of Scythia has come to blows with the king of Egypt,
+   and that Alexander of Macedonia has penetrated to the ends of
+   India, we experience a sensation of astonishment which the reading
+   of our histories, filled as they are with the deeds of Roman
+   bravery in their distant expeditions, does not afford. You bring me
+   consolation, in representing me as having been wounded by Cicero,
+   to whom I am fondly attached, a thing that would probably never
+   happen to me, at the hands of either Hippocrates[621] or
+   Albumazar....[622]
+
+     [Sidenote: Common indifference to people and events near at hand]
+
+   You ask me to lend you the copy of Homer that was on sale at Padua,
+   if, as you suppose, I have purchased it (since, you say, I have for
+   a long time possessed another copy) so that our friend Leo[623] may
+   translate it from Greek into Latin for your benefit and for the
+   benefit of our other studious compatriots. I saw this book, but
+   neglected the opportunity of acquiring it, because it seemed
+   inferior to my own. It can easily be had with the aid of the person
+   to whom I owe my friendship with Leo; a letter from that source
+   would be all-powerful in the matter, and I will myself write him.
+
+     [Sidenote: A request for a copy of Homer]
+
+     [Sidenote: Fondness for Greek literature]
+
+   If by chance the book escape us, which seems to be very unlikely, I
+   will let you have mine. I have been always fond of this particular
+   translation and of Greek literature in general, and if fortune had
+   not frowned upon my beginnings, in the sad death of my excellent
+   master, I should be perhaps to-day something more than a Greek
+   still at his alphabet. I approve with all my heart and strength
+   your enterprise, for I regret and am indignant that an ancient
+   translation, presumably the work of Cicero, the commencement of
+   which Horace inserted in his _Ars Poetica_,[624] should have been
+   lost to the Latin world, together with many other works. It angers
+   me to see so much solicitude for the bad and so much neglect of the
+   good. But what is to be done? We must be resigned....
+
+     [Sidenote: Difficulty of translating works of literature]
+
+     [Sidenote: Longing for the translation of Homer]
+
+   I wish to take this opportunity of warning you of one thing, lest
+   later on I should regret having passed it over in silence. If, as
+   you say, the translation is to be made literally in prose, listen
+   for a moment to the opinion of St. Jerome as expressed in his
+   preface to the book, _De Temporibus_, by Eusebius of Cæsarea, which
+   he translated into Latin.[625] Here are the very words of this
+   great man, well acquainted with these two languages, and indeed
+   with many others, and of special fame for his art of translating:
+   _If any one_, he says, _refuses to believe that translation lessens
+   the peculiar charm of the original, let him render Homer into
+   Latin, word for word; I will say further, let him translate it into
+   prose in his own tongue, and he will see a ridiculous array and the
+   most eloquent of poets transformed into a stammerer._ I tell you
+   this for your own good, while it is yet time, in order that so
+   important a work may not prove useless. As for me, I wish the work
+   to be done, whether well or ill. I am so famished for literature
+   that just as he who is ravenously hungry is not inclined to quarrel
+   with the cook's art, so I await with a lively impatience whatever
+   dishes are to be set before my soul. And in truth, the morsel in
+   which the same Leo, translating into Latin prose the beginning of
+   Homer, has given me a foretaste of the whole work, although it
+   confirms the sentiment of St. Jerome, does not displease me. It
+   possesses, in fact, a secret charm, as certain viands, which have
+   failed to take a moulded shape, although they are lacking in form,
+   preserve nevertheless their taste and odor. May he continue with
+   the aid of Heaven, and may he give us Homer, who has been lost to
+   us!
+
+     [Sidenote: A loan of a volume of Plato]
+
+   In asking of me the volume of Plato which I have with me, and which
+   escaped the fire at my transalpine country house, you give me proof
+   of your ardor, and I shall hold this book at your disposal,
+   whenever the time shall come. I wish to aid with all my power such
+   noble enterprises. But beware lest it should be unbecoming to unite
+   in one bundle these two great princes of Greece, lest the weight of
+   these two spirits should overwhelm mortal shoulders. Let your
+   messenger undertake, with God's aid, one of the two, and first him
+   who has written many centuries before the other. Farewell.
+
+
+82. Petrarch's Letter to Posterity
+
+The following is a letter of Petrarch addressed, by a curious whim, to
+Posterity. It gives an excellent idea of the poet's opinion of himself
+and reveals the sort of things that interested the typical man of
+culture in the early Renaissance period. It is supposed to have been
+written in the year 1370, when Petrarch had completed the sixty-sixth
+year of his life. The letter betrays a longing for individual fame
+which was common in classical times and during the Renaissance, but
+not in the Middle Ages.
+
+     Source--Franciscus Petrarca, _Epistolæ de Rebus Familiaribus
+     et Variæ_ ["Letters of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous
+     Letters"], edited by J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol. I.,
+     pp. 1-11. Translated in James H. Robinson and Henry W. Rolfe,
+     _Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters_ (New
+     York, 1898), pp. 59-76 _passim_.
+
+   _Francis Petrarch, to Posterity, greeting_:
+
+   It is possible that some word of me may have come to you, though
+   even this is doubtful, since an insignificant and obscure name will
+   scarcely penetrate far in either time or space. If, however, you
+   should have heard of me, you may desire to know what manner of man
+   I was, or what was the outcome of my labors, especially those of
+   which some description or, at any rate, the bare titles may have
+   reached you.
+
+     [Sidenote: Petrarch's early life]
+
+   To begin, then, with myself. The utterances of men concerning me
+   will differ widely, since in passing judgment almost every one is
+   influenced not so much by truth as by preference, and good and evil
+   report alike know no bounds. I was, in truth, a poor mortal like
+   yourself, neither very exalted in my origin, nor, on the other
+   hand, of the most humble birth, but belonging, as Augustus Cæsar
+   says of himself, to an ancient family. As to my disposition, I was
+   not naturally perverse or wanting in modesty, however the contagion
+   of evil associations may have corrupted me.
+
+   My youth was gone before I realized it; I was carried away by the
+   strength of manhood. But a riper age brought me to my senses and
+   taught me by experience the truth I had long before read in books,
+   that youth and pleasure are vanity--nay, that the Author of all
+   ages and times permits us miserable mortals, puffed up with
+   emptiness, thus to wander about, until finally, coming to a tardy
+   consciousness of our sins, we shall learn to know ourselves.
+
+     [Sidenote: Physical appearance]
+
+   In my prime I was blessed with a quick and active body, although
+   not exceptionally strong; and while I do not lay claim to
+   remarkable personal beauty, I was comely enough in my best days. I
+   was possessed of a clear complexion, between light and dark,
+   lively eyes, and for long years a keen vision, which, however,
+   deserted me, contrary to my hopes, after I reached my sixtieth
+   birthday, and forced me, to my great annoyance, to resort to
+   glasses.[626] Although I had previously enjoyed perfect health, old
+   age brought with it the usual array of discomforts.
+
+     [Sidenote: Preference for plain and sensible living]
+
+   My parents were honorable folk, Florentine in their origin, of
+   medium fortune, or, I may as well admit it, in a condition verging
+   upon poverty. They had been expelled from their native city,[627]
+   and consequently I was born in exile, at Arezzo, in the year 1304
+   of this latter age, which begins with Christ's birth, July the
+   20th, on a Monday, at dawn. I have always possessed an extreme
+   contempt for wealth; not that riches are not desirable in
+   themselves, but because I hate the anxiety and care which are
+   invariably associated with them. I certainly do not long to be able
+   to give gorgeous banquets. I have, on the contrary, led a happier
+   existence with plain living and ordinary fare than all the
+   followers of Apicius,[628] with their elaborate dainties. So-called
+   convivia, which are but vulgar bouts, sinning against sobriety and
+   good manners, have always been repugnant to me. I have ever felt
+   that it was irksome and profitless to invite others to such
+   affairs, and not less so to be bidden to them myself. On the other
+   hand, the pleasure of dining with one's friends is so great that
+   nothing has ever given me more delight than their unexpected
+   arrival, nor have I ever willingly sat down to table without a
+   companion. Nothing displeases me more than display, for not only is
+   it bad in itself and opposed to humility, but it is troublesome
+   and distracting.
+
+     [Sidenote: Intimacy with renowned men]
+
+   In my familiar associations with kings and princes, and in my
+   friendship with noble personages, my good fortune has been such as
+   to excite envy. But it is the cruel fate of those who are growing
+   old that they can commonly only weep for friends who have passed
+   away. The greatest kings of this age have loved and courted me.
+   They may know why; I certainly do not. With some of them I was on
+   such terms that they seemed in a certain sense my guests rather
+   than I theirs; their lofty position in no way embarrassing me, but,
+   on the contrary, bringing with it many advantages. I fled, however,
+   from many of those to whom I was greatly attached; and such was my
+   innate longing for liberty that I studiously avoided those whose
+   very name seemed incompatible with the freedom that I loved.
+
+   I possessed a well-balanced rather than a keen intellect--one prone
+   to all kinds of good and wholesome study, but especially inclined
+   to moral philosophy and the art of poetry. The latter, indeed, I
+   neglected as time went on, and took delight in sacred literature.
+   Finding in that a hidden sweetness which I had once esteemed but
+   lightly, I came to regard the works of the poets as only amenities.
+
+     [Sidenote: Admiration for antiquity]
+
+   Among the many subjects that interested me, I dwelt especially upon
+   antiquity, for our own age has always repelled me, so that, had it
+   not been for the love of those dear to me, I should have preferred
+   to have been born in any other period than our own. In order to
+   forget my own time, I have constantly striven to place myself in
+   spirit in other ages, and consequently I delighted in history. The
+   conflicting statements troubled me, but when in doubt I accepted
+   what appeared most probable, or yielded to the authority of the
+   writer.
+
+     [Sidenote: Attitude toward literary style]
+
+   My style, as many claimed, was clear and forcible; but to me it
+   seemed weak and obscure. In ordinary conversation with friends, or
+   with those about me, I never gave thought to my language, and I
+   have always wondered that Augustus Cæsar should have taken such
+   pains in this respect. When, however, the subject itself, or the
+   place or the listener, seemed to demand it, I gave some attention
+   to style, with what success I cannot pretend to say; let them judge
+   in whose presence I spoke. If only I have lived well, it matters
+   little to me how I talked. Mere elegance of language can produce at
+   best but an empty renown....
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[601] Dante represents the commentaries composing the _Convito_ as in
+the nature of a banquet, the "meats" of which were to be set forth in
+fourteen courses, corresponding to the fourteen _canzoni_, or lyric
+poems, which were to be commented upon. As a matter of fact, for some
+unknown reason, the "banquet" was broken off at the end of the third
+course. "At the beginning of every well-ordered banquet" observes the
+author in an earlier passage (Bk. II., Chap. 1) "the servants are wont
+to take the bread given out for it, and cleanse it from every speck."
+Dante has just cleansed his viands from the faults of egotism and
+obscurity,--the "accidental impurities"; he now proceeds to clear them
+of a less superficial difficulty, i.e., the fact that in serving them
+use is made of the Italian rather than the Latin language.
+
+[602] The date of the composition of the _De Vulgari Eloquentia_ is
+unknown, but there are reasons for assigning the work to the same
+period in the author's life as the _Convito_. Like the _Convito_, it
+was left incomplete; four books were planned, but only the first and a
+portion of the second were written. In it an effort was made to
+establish the dominance of a perfect and imperial Italian language
+over all the dialects. The work itself was written in Latin, probably
+to command the attention of scholars whom Dante hoped to convert to
+the use of the vernacular.
+
+[603] The author conceives of the _canzoni_ as masters and the
+commentaries as servants.
+
+[604] That is, any poetical composition.
+
+[605] Some students of Dante hold that this phrase about Homer should
+be rendered "does not admit of being turned"; but others take it in
+the absolute sense and base on it an argument against Dante's
+knowledge of Greek literature.
+
+[606] The Book of Psalms.
+
+[607] The _canzoni_ were in Italian and a Latin commentary would have
+been useless to scholars of other nations, because they could not have
+understood the _canzoni_ to which it referred.
+
+[608] The Provençal language--the peculiar speech of southeastern
+France, whence comes the name Languedoc. _Oc_ is the affirmative
+particle "yes."
+
+[609] _Si_ is the Italian affirmative particle. In the _Inferno_ Dante
+refers to Italy as "that lovely country where the _si_ is sounded"
+(XXX., 80).
+
+[610] That is, prose shows the true beauty of a language more
+effectively than poetry, in which the attention is distracted by the
+ornaments of verse.
+
+[611] The author refers to Cicero's philosophical treatise _De Finibus
+Bonorum et Malorum_.
+
+[612] For example, Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254) declared: "Two
+lights, the sun and the moon, illumine the globe; two powers, the
+papal and the royal, govern it; but as the moon receives her light
+from the more brilliant star, so kings reign by the chief of the
+Church, who comes from God."
+
+[613] The arguments disposed of by the author, in addition to those
+treated in the passages here presented, are: the precedence of Levi
+over Judah (Gen., xxix. 34, 35), the election and deposition of Saul
+by Samuel (1 Sam., x. 1; xv. 23; xv. 28), the oblation of the Magi
+(Matt., ii. 11), the two swords referred to by Peter (Luke, xxii. 38),
+the donation of Constantine, the summoning of Charlemagne by Pope
+Hadrian, and finally the argument from pure reason.
+
+[614] This was the common mediæval designation of Aristotle.
+
+[615] For Dante's conception of the terrestrial and the celestial
+paradise see the _Paradiso_ in the _Divina Commedia_.
+
+[616] These were the lay and ecclesiastical princes in whom was vested
+the right of choosing the Emperor. The electoral college was first
+clearly defined in the Golden Bull issued by Charles IV. in 1356 [see
+p. 409]. Its composition in Dante's time is uncertain.
+
+[617] Dante's ideal solution was the harmonious rule of the two powers
+by the acknowledgment of filial relationship between pope and emperor,
+on the basis of a recognition of the different and essentially
+irreconcilable character of their functions.
+
+[618] George B. Adams, _Mediæval Civilization_ (New York, 1904), pp.
+375-377.
+
+[619] "There was no apparatus for the study of Greek at that time.
+Oral instruction from Greek or Byzantine scholars was the only
+possible means of access to the great writers of the past. Such
+instruction was difficult to secure, as Petrarch's efforts and failure
+prove."--Robinson and Rolfe, _Petrarch_, p. 237.
+
+[620] This is a humorous allusion to the fact that Petrarch had
+recently received an injury from the fall of a heavy volume of
+Cicero's _Letters_.
+
+[621] A renowned Greek physician of the fifth century B.C.
+
+[622] A famous Arabian astronomer of the ninth century A.D.
+
+[623] Leo Pilatus, a translator.
+
+[624] Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 B.C.), one of the literary lights
+of the Augustan Age, was a younger contemporary of Cicero. His _Ars
+Poetica_ was a didactic poem setting forth the correct principles of
+poetry as an art.
+
+[625] Eusebius, bishop of Cæsarea in Palestine, is noted chiefly as
+the author of an Ecclesiastical History which is in many ways our most
+important source of information on the early Christian Church. He
+lived about 250-339. St. Jerome was a great Church father of the later
+fourth century. His name is most commonly associated with the
+translation of the Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek into the
+Latin language. The resulting form of the Scriptures was the _Editio
+Vulgata_ (the Edition Commonly Received), whence our English term
+"Vulgate."
+
+[626] Eyeglasses were but beginning to come into use in Petrarch's
+day.
+
+[627] Petrarch's father and Dante were banished from Florence upon the
+same day, January 27, 1302 [see p. 446].
+
+[628] Marcus Gavius Apicius was a celebrated epicure of the time of
+Augustus and Tiberius. He was the author of a famous cook-book
+intended for the gratification of high-livers. Though worth a fortune,
+he was haunted by a fear of starving to death and eventually poisoned
+himself to escape such a fate. There was another Apicius in the third
+century who compiled a well-known collection of recipes for cooking,
+in ten books, entitled _De Re Coquinaria_. It is not quite clear which
+Apicius Petrarch had in mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+FORESHADOWINGS OF THE REFORMATION
+
+
+83. The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI. (1384)
+
+The fourteenth century was an era of religious decline in England, as
+indeed more or less generally throughout western Europe. The papacy
+was at its lowest ebb, unable to command either respect or obedience,
+except among the clergy and certain of the common people; bishops and
+abbots had grown wealthy and worldly and were often utterly neglectful
+of their religious obligations; and among the masses the services of
+worship had frequently become mere hollow formalities. There were
+still many good men in the Church, men who in an unpretentious way
+sought to do their duty faithfully; but of large numbers--possibly the
+majority--of both the higher and lower clergy this could not be said.
+The dissatisfaction of the people with industrial conditions which
+prompted the uprising of 1381 was accompanied by an almost equal
+discontent with the shortcomings of the selfish and avaricious clergy.
+It was harder, of course, to arouse men to an active hostility to the
+existing ecclesiastical system than to the industrial régime, because
+the Church still maintained a very close hold upon the sentiments and
+attachments of the average individual. Still, there were people here
+and there who were outspoken for reform, and chief among these was
+John Wyclif.
+
+Wyclif was born in Yorkshire about 1320 and was educated at Oxford,
+where in time he became a leading teacher. He was one of those who saw
+clearly the evils of the times and did not lack the courage to speak
+out plainly against them. As early as 1366 he had denounced the claims
+of the papacy, in a pamphlet, _De Dominio Divino_, declaring that the
+pope ought to have no authority whatsoever over states and
+governments. This position he never yielded and it became one of the
+cardinal features of his teaching. He attacked the clergy for their
+wealth, their self-seeking, and their subservience to the pope, and
+hurled denunciation at the whole body of friars and vendors of
+indulgences with whom England was thronged. He even assailed the
+doctrines of the Church, particularly as to transubstantiation, the
+efficacy of confession to priests, and the nature of the sacraments.
+His teachings were very acceptable to large numbers of people who were
+disgusted with existing conditions, and hence he soon came to have a
+considerable body of followers, known as the Lollards, who, though not
+regularly organized into a sect, carried on in later times the work
+which Wyclif and his "poor priests" had begun.
+
+In 1377 Pope Gregory XI. issued a bull in which he roundly condemned
+Wyclif and reproved the University of Oxford for not taking active
+steps to suppress the growing heresy; but it had little or no effect.
+In 1378 Gregory died and two popes were elected to succeed
+him--Clement VII. at Avignon and Urban VI. at Rome [see p. 389]. The
+Schism that resulted prevented further action for a time against
+Wyclif. In England, however, the uprising of 1381 aroused the
+government to the expediency of suppressing popular agitators, and in
+a church council at London, May 19, 1382, Wyclif's doctrines were
+formally condemned. In 1383 Oxford was compelled to banish all the
+Lollards from her walls and by the time of Wyclif's death in 1384 the
+new belief seemed to be pretty thoroughly suppressed. In reality it
+lived on by the more or less secret attachment of thousands of people
+to it, and became one of the great preparatory forces for the English
+Reformation a century and a half later. The document given below is a
+modernized version of a letter written by Wyclif to Pope Urban VI. in
+1384 in response to a summons to appear at Rome to be tried for
+heresy. The letter was written in Latin and the English translation
+(given below) prepared by the writer's followers for distribution
+among Englishmen represents somewhat of an enlargement of the original
+document. When Wyclif wrote the letter he was in the last year of his
+life and was so disabled by paralysis that a journey to Rome was quite
+impossible.
+
+     Source--Text in Thomas Arnold, _Select English Works of John
+     Wyclif_ (Oxford, 1869), Vol. III., pp. 504-506. Adapted, with
+     modernized spelling, in Guy Carleton Lee, _Source Book of
+     English History_ (New York, 1900), pp. 212-214.
+
+   I have joyfully to tell what I hold, to all true men that believe,
+   and especially to the pope; for I suppose that if my faith be
+   rightful and given of God, the pope will gladly confirm it; and if
+   my faith be error, the pope will wisely amend it.
+
+   I suppose over this that the gospel of Christ be heart of the corps
+   [body] of God's law; for I believe that Jesus Christ, that gave in
+   His own person this gospel, is very God and very man, and by this
+   heart passes all other laws.
+
+     [Sidenote: The pope's high obligation]
+
+   I suppose over this that the pope be most obliged to the keeping of
+   the gospel among all men that live here; for the pope is highest
+   vicar that Christ has here in earth. For moreness of Christ's vicar
+   is not measured by worldly moreness, but by this, that this vicar
+   follows more Christ by virtuous living; for thus teacheth the
+   gospel, that this is the sentence of Christ.
+
+     [Sidenote: Christ's earthly poverty]
+
+   And of this gospel I take as believe, that Christ for time that He
+   walked here, was most poor man of all, both in spirit and in having
+   [possessions]; for Christ says that He had nought for to rest His
+   head on. And Paul says that He was made needy for our love. And
+   more poor might no man be, neither bodily nor in spirit. And thus
+   Christ put from Him all manner of worldly lordship. For the gospel
+   of John telleth that when they would have made Christ king, He fled
+   and hid Him from them, for He would none such worldly highness.
+
+     [Sidenote: How far men ought to follow the pope]
+
+     [Sidenote: The pope exhorted to give up temporal authority]
+
+   And over this I take it as believe, that no man should follow the
+   pope, nor no saint that now is in heaven, but in as much as he [the
+   pope] follows Christ. For John and James erred when they coveted
+   worldly highness; and Peter and Paul sinned also when they denied
+   and blasphemed in Christ; but men should not follow them in this,
+   for then they went from Jesus Christ. And this I take as wholesome
+   counsel, that the pope leave his worldly lordship to worldly lords,
+   as Christ gave them,--and more speedily all his clerks [clergy] to
+   do so. For thus did Christ, and taught thus His disciples, till the
+   fiend [Satan] had blinded this world. And it seems to some men
+   that clerks that dwell lastingly in this error against God's law,
+   and flee to follow Christ in this, been open heretics, and their
+   fautors [supporters] been partners.
+
+     [Sidenote: The pope should not demand what is contrary to the
+   divine will]
+
+   And if I err in this sentence, I will meekly be amended
+   [corrected], yea, by the death, if it be skilful [necessary], for
+   that I hope were good to me. And if I might travel in mine own
+   person, I would with good will go to the pope. But God has needed
+   me to the contrary, and taught me more obedience to God than to
+   men. And I suppose of our pope that he will not be Antichrist, and
+   reverse Christ in this working, to the contrary of Christ's will;
+   for if he summon against reason, by him or by any of his, and
+   pursue this unskilful summoning, he is an open Antichrist. And
+   merciful intent excused not Peter, that Christ should not clepe
+   [call] him Satan; so blind intent and wicked counsel excuses not
+   the pope here; but if he ask of true priests that they travel more
+   than they may, he is not excused by reason of God, that he should
+   not be Antichrist. For our belief teaches us that our blessed God
+   suffers us not to be tempted more than we may; how should a man ask
+   such service? And therefore pray we to God for our Pope Urban the
+   Sixth, that his old [early] holy intent be not quenched by his
+   enemies. And Christ, that may not lie, says that the enemies of a
+   man been especially his home family; and this is sooth of men and
+   fiends.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+[Note--The numbers refer to pages.]
+
+
+     Aachen, Charlemagne's capital, 108, 110;
+       basilica at, 113;
+       assembly at, 119;
+       capitulary for the _missi_ promulgated from, 135;
+       in territory assigned to Lothair, 155.
+
+     Abbeville, English and French armies at, 427.
+
+     Abbo, account of siege of Paris, 165, 168-171.
+
+     Abbot, character and duties of, defined in Benedictine Rule,
+         84-86.
+
+     Abelard, at Paris, 340.
+
+     Abu-Bekr, Mohammed's successor, 97.
+
+     _Acta Sanctorum_, quoted, 256-258.
+
+     Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, 177;
+       speech at Senlis, 178-179;
+       urges election as true basis of Frankish kingship, 179;
+       opposes candidacy of Charles of Lower Lorraine, 179-180;
+       speaks in behalf of Hugh Capet, 180.
+
+     Adrianople, battle of, importance, 37-38;
+       described by Ammianus Marcellinus, 38-41.
+
+     Ægidius, "king of the Romans," 50-51.
+
+     Ælfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great, 187.
+
+     Agincourt, English victory at, 440.
+
+     Agius, bishop of Orleans, 167.
+
+     Agriculture, among the early Germans, 21, 29.
+
+     Aids, nature of, 222;
+       defined by Norman custom, 222-223;
+       specified in Great Charter, 306-307.
+
+     Ain Tulut, battle of, 317.
+
+     Aix-la-Chapelle (see Aachen).
+
+     Alaf [Alavivus], a Visigothic chieftain, 34.
+
+     Alaric, king of the Visigoths, 51;
+       Syagrius takes refuge with, 51;
+       delivers Syagrius to Clovis, 51;
+       interview with Clovis, 54-55;
+       defeated and slain by Clovis near Poitiers, 56.
+
+     Albar, 201.
+
+     Alcuin, brought to Charlemagne's court, 113;
+       in the Palace School, 144.
+
+     Alemanni, defeated by Clovis at Strassburg, 53.
+
+     Alessandria, founded, 399.
+
+     Alexander II., approves William the Conqueror's project to invade
+         England, 234.
+
+     Alexander III., 399.
+
+     Alexander V., elected pope, 390.
+
+     Alexius Comnenus, appeals to Urban II., 283.
+
+     Alfonso XI., of Castile, 421.
+
+     Alfred the Great, biography by Asser, 181;
+       becomes king of the English, 182;
+       fights the Danes at Wilton, 182;
+       constructs a navy, 183;
+       defeats Danes at Swanwich, 183;
+       in refuge at Athelney, 184;
+       meets English people at Egbert's stone, 184;
+       defeats Danes at Ethandune, 184;
+       peace of Guthrum and, 185;
+       negotiates treaty of Wedmore, 185;
+       interest in education, 185;
+       literary activity, 186, 193;
+       care for his children, 187;
+       varied pursuits, 187;
+       piety, 188;
+       regret at lack of education, 189;
+       search for learned men, 190-191;
+       letter to Bishop Werfrith, 191-194;
+       laws, 194-195.
+
+     Alith, mother of St. Bernard, 251-252.
+
+     Alp Arslan, defeats Eastern emperor at Manzikert, 282.
+
+     Amalric, king of the Visigoths, 56.
+
+     Amboise, 55.
+
+     Ammianus Marcellinus, author of a Roman History, 34;
+       facts concerning life, 34;
+       quoted, 34-37, 38-41, 43-46.
+
+     Amusements, of the early Germans, 30-31.
+
+     Anagni, Boniface VIII. taken captive at, 385.
+
+     Angelo, companion of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     Angers, Northmen at, 167.
+
+     Angilbert, a Carolingian poet, 151.
+
+     Angoulême, captured by Clovis, 56-57.
+
+     _Annales Bertiniani_, scope, 165;
+       quoted, 156, 165-168.
+
+     _Annales Laureshamensis_, quoted, 132-133.
+
+     _Annales Laurissenses Minores_, quoted, 106-107.
+
+     _Annales Xantenses_, quoted, 158-163.
+
+     Annals, origin and character of, 157-158.
+
+     Annates, defined, 389.
+
+     Antioch, crusaders arrive at, 293;
+       siege and capture of, 293-296.
+
+     Apicius, Marcus Gavius, 471.
+
+     Arabs, overrun Syria, 282.
+
+     Arezzo, Petrarch born at, 461, 464, 471.
+
+     Arianism, adopted by Germans, 50;
+       refuted by ordeal of hot water, 198-200.
+
+     Aristotle, Dante cites, 460.
+
+     Arles, Council of, 72.
+
+     Armagnacs, in later Hundred Years' War, 440.
+
+     Armenia, crusaders in, 293.
+
+     Arnold Atton, forfeiture of fief, 227-228.
+
+     Arnold of Bonneval, 251.
+
+     Arpent, a land measure, 129.
+
+     Arras, treaty of, 439.
+
+     Arteveld, James van, connection with Hundred Years' War, 422.
+
+     Articles of the Barons, relation to the Great Charter, 304.
+
+     Asnapium, inventory of, 127-129.
+
+     Assam, conquered by the crusaders, 293.
+
+     Assembly, the German, 26-27;
+       the Saxon, 123.
+
+     Asser, biography of Alfred the Great, 181, 186.
+
+     Assisi, birth-place of St. Francis, 362-363.
+
+     Athanaric, a Visigothic chieftain, 33-34.
+
+     Athelney, Alfred in refuge at, 184.
+
+     Augustine, sent to Britain by Pope Gregory, 72-73;
+       constituted abbot, 74;
+       lands at Thanet, 75;
+       preaches to King Ethelbert, 76;
+       life at Canterbury, 77.
+
+     Augustus, 32.
+
+     Aurelian, cedes Dacia to the Visigoths, 33.
+
+     _Ausculta Fili_, issued by Boniface VIII., 384.
+
+     Auvillars, forfeited by Arnold Atton, 227.
+
+     Avignon, popes resident at, 389.
+
+     Aylesford, Horsa slain in battle at, 71.
+
+
+     Babylon (Cairo), St. Louis advances on, 318.
+
+     Babylonian Captivity, begins, 385, 389.
+
+     Ban, of the emperor, 138.
+
+     Basel, Council of, 391, 393.
+
+     Battle Abbey, founded by William the Conqueror, 242.
+
+     Baugulf, Charlemagne's letter to, 145-148.
+
+     Bavaria, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, 115.
+
+     Bayeux, Odo, bishop of, imprisoned, 243.
+
+     Beatrice, Dante's love affair with, 446.
+
+     Beauchamp, William de, 302.
+
+     Beaumont, birth of Froissart at, 418.
+
+     Bede, facts regarding life of, 68;
+       "Ecclesiastical History of the English People," 68;
+       account of the Saxon invasion, 69-72;
+       account of Augustine's mission to Britain, 73-77.
+
+     Bedford, castle of, English barons at, 301-302.
+
+     Bellona, Roman goddess of war, 39.
+
+     Benedict XIII., deposed from papacy, 391.
+
+     Benedictine Rule, nature and purpose, 84;
+       translation of, 84;
+       quoted, 84-90;
+       character and duties of the abbot, 84-86, 89;
+       the monks to be called in council, 87;
+       the Rule always to be obeyed, 87;
+       monks to own no property individually, 87-88;
+       daily manual labor, 88;
+       reading during Lent, 89;
+       hospitality, 89.
+
+     Benefice, origin and development, 206;
+       relation to vassalage, 207;
+       example of grant, 207-210.
+
+     Beowulf, 188.
+
+     Bernardone, Pietro, father of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     _Bernardus Clarævallensis_ (by William of St. Thierry), quoted,
+         251-256, 258-260.
+
+     Berno, abbot of Cluny, 248.
+
+     Bertha, queen of Kent, 72, 75.
+
+     Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne, 151.
+
+     Biography, character of, in Middle Ages, 108.
+
+     Blanche of Castile, mother of St. Louis, 311, 313-314.
+
+     Boccaccio, Petrarch's acquaintance with, 464.
+
+     Boëthius, 186.
+
+     Bohemia, king of, an elector of the Empire, 410.
+
+     Bohemians, Louis the German makes expedition against, 160-161.
+
+     Bohemond of Tarentum, 294-295.
+
+     Bologna, University of, 340.
+
+     Boniface, anoints Pepin the Short, 107.
+
+     Boniface VIII., conflict with Philip the Fair, 383-384;
+       issues bull _Clericis Laicos_, 384;
+       issues bull _Unam Sanctam_, 385;
+       death, 385.
+
+     Boulogne, count of, uncle of St. Louis, 314.
+
+     Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of, promulgated, 394;
+       quoted, 395-397.
+
+     Bouvines, King John's defeat at, 297, 403.
+
+     Brackley, English barons meet at, 300.
+
+     Bretigny, treaty of, negotiated, 439;
+       provisions of, 441-442.
+
+     Britain, Saxon invasion of, 68-72;
+       shores infested by Angle and Saxon seafarers, 68;
+       Roman garrisons withdrawn from, 68;
+       Saxons invited into, 69;
+       Saxon settlement in, 70;
+       Saxons conquer, 71-72;
+       Christianity in, 72;
+       Augustine sent to, 73-74;
+       conversion of Saxon population begins, 75-77.
+
+     Britons, menaced by Picts and Scots, 68;
+       decide to call in the Saxons, 68-69;
+       conquered by the Saxons, 71-72;
+       early Christianization of, 72.
+
+     Brittany, Northmen in, 166.
+
+     Brussels, conference at, 422-423.
+
+     Buchonian Forest, 57, 58.
+
+     Burchard, bishop of Chartres, 167.
+
+     Burgundians, faction in Hundred Years' War, 440.
+
+
+     Cæsar, Julius, describes the Germans in his "Commentaries,"
+         19-22;
+       conquest of Gaul, 19, 32.
+
+     Calais, treaty of Bretigny revised at, 439-440.
+
+     Calixtus II., concessions made by, in Concordat of Worms,
+         279-280.
+
+     Camargue, Northmen establish themselves at, 168.
+
+     Campus Martius, 52;
+       Merovingian kings at, 106-107.
+
+     Cannæ, battle of, 41.
+
+     Canossa, Henry IV. arrives at, 274;
+       Henry IV.'s penance at, 276;
+       oath taken by Henry IV. at, 277-278.
+
+     Canterbury, capital of Kent, 76;
+       life of Augustine's band at, 77;
+       Plegmund archbishop of, 190;
+       Christchurch monastery built at, 242.
+
+     _Capellani_, functions of, 190.
+
+     _Capitulare Missorum Generale_, promulgated by Charlemagne, 135;
+       scope, 135;
+       translation of, 135;
+       quoted, 135-141;
+       character and functions of the _missi_, 135-137;
+       new oath to Charlemagne as emperor, 137;
+       administration of justice, 138-139;
+       obligations of the clergy, 139;
+       murder, 140.
+
+     Capitulary, Charlemagne's concerning the Saxon territory,
+         118-123;
+       nature of, 119-120;
+       Charlemagne's concerning the royal domains, 124-127;
+       Charlemagne's for the _missi_, 134-141;
+       nature of, in ninth century, 174;
+       Carloman's concerning the preservation of order, 174-176.
+
+     _Capitulum Saxonicum_, issued by Charlemagne, 119.
+
+     Cappadocia, crusaders in, 293.
+
+     Cardinals, college of, instituted, 269;
+       and Great Schism, 389-391.
+
+     Carloman, capitulary concerning the preservation of order,
+         174-176;
+       functions of the _missi_, 175;
+       obligations of officials, 176.
+
+     _Carmina Burana_, source for mediæval students' songs, 352.
+
+     Carolingians, origin of, 105-106;
+       age of Charlemagne, 108-148;
+       disorders in reigns of, 149-163;
+       menaced by Norse invasions, 163-173;
+       efforts to preserve order, 173-176;
+       growing inability to cope with conditions, 174;
+       replaced by Capetian dynasty, 177-180.
+
+     Carthusians, 246.
+
+     _Castellanerie_, defined, 216.
+
+     Celestine III., 381.
+
+     _Cens_, payment of, in Lorris, 328.
+
+     _Census_, 209.
+
+     _Centenarius_, functions of, 176.
+
+     Chalcedon, Council of, 80.
+
+     Châlons-sur-Saône, immunity of monastery at, confirmed by
+         Charlemagne, 212-214.
+
+     Champagne, county of, 215;
+       Joinville's residence in, 312.
+
+     Charibert, 75.
+
+     Charlemagne, employs Einhard at court, 108;
+       biography of, 109;
+       personal appearance, 109-110;
+       manner of dress, 111;
+       fondness for St. Augustine's _De Civitate Dei_, 111;
+       everyday life, 112;
+       education, 112-113;
+       interest in religion, 113;
+       charities, 114;
+       policy of Germanic consolidation, 115;
+       conquers Lombardy, Bavaria, and the Spanish March, 115;
+       war with the Saxons, 115-118;
+       transplants Saxons into Gaul, 117-118;
+       peace with Saxons, 118;
+       issues capitularies concerning the Saxon territory, 119;
+       capitulary concerning the royal domains, 124-127;
+       revenues, 124;
+       interest in agriculture, 124;
+       inventory of a royal estate, 127-129;
+       appealed to by Pope Leo III., 130;
+       goes to Rome, 130;
+       crowned emperor by Leo, 130, 132-134;
+       significance of the coronation, 131-133;
+       issues capitulary for the _missi_, 134;
+       new oath to, as emperor, 137;
+       provisions for administration of justice, 138-139;
+       legislation for clergy, 139-140;
+       letter to Abbot Fulrad, 142-144;
+       builds up Palace School, 144-145;
+       provides for elementary and intermediate education, 145;
+       confirms immunity of monastery of Châlons-sur-Saône, 212-214.
+
+     Charles Martel, victor at Tours, 105;
+       Frankish mayor of the palace, 105;
+       makes office hereditary, 105.
+
+     Charles the Fat, Emperor, 168;
+       Odo's mission to, 170-171;
+       buys off the Northmen, 171;
+       deposition and death, 171.
+
+     Charles, son of Charlemagne, anointed by Leo, 134.
+
+     Charles the Bald, of France, birth, 149;
+       combines with Louis against Lothair, 150-151;
+       takes oath of Strassburg, 152-154;
+       lands received by treaty of Verdun, 155-156;
+       buys off the Northmen, 159;
+       capitularies, 174.
+
+     Charles the Simple, of France, yields Normandy to Rollo, 172.
+
+     Charles of Lower Lorraine, claimant to French throne, 177;
+       candidacy opposed by Adalbero, 179-180.
+
+     Charles IV., Emperor, founds University of Prague, 345;
+       promulgates Golden Bull, 410.
+
+     Charles IV. (the Fair), of France, 419.
+
+     Charles VI. of France, 440;
+       and the Great Schism, 390.
+
+     Charles VII. of France, convenes council at Bourges, 394;
+       dauphin of France, 440-441.
+
+     Charles, count of Anjou, 321.
+
+     Charles, of Luxemburg, slain at Crécy, 433.
+
+     Charter, conditions of grant to towns, 326;
+       of Laon, 327-328;
+       of Lorris, 328-330.
+       (See _Magna Charta_.)
+
+     Châtillon, St. Bernard educated at, 252;
+       begins monastic career at, 254.
+
+     Childebert, conquers Septimania, 57
+
+     Childeric I., father of Clovis, 50.
+
+     Childeric III., last Merovingian king, 105;
+       deposed, 107.
+
+     Chippenham, Danes winter at, 184;
+       siege of, 184;
+       treaty of, 185.
+
+     _Chronica Majora_ (by Roger of Wendover), scope of, 298;
+       quoted, 298-303.
+
+     _Chronica Majora_ (by Matthew Paris), value of, 404;
+       quoted, 405-409.
+
+     _Chroniques_ (by Froissart), character of, 418;
+       quoted, 418-439.
+
+     Church, development of, 78-96;
+       origin of papacy, 78-79;
+       Pope Leo's sermon on the Petrine supremacy, 80-83;
+       rise of monasticism, 83-84;
+       the Benedictine Rule, 84-90;
+       papacy of Gregory the Great, 90-91;
+       Gregory's description of the functions of the secular clergy,
+           91-96;
+       Charlemagne's zeal for promotion of, 113;
+       Charlemagne's extension into Saxony, 118-123;
+       influence on development of annalistic writings, 157;
+       education intrusted to, by Charlemagne, 146;
+       to aid in suppressing disorder, 175-176;
+       illiteracy of English clergy in Alfred's day, 190-192;
+       influence on use of ordeals, 197;
+       use of _precarium_, 206-207;
+       favored by grants of immunity, 210;
+       efforts to discourage private warfare, 228-229;
+       decrees the Peace of God, 229;
+       decrees the Truce of God, 229;
+       reform through Cluniac movement, 246;
+       conditions in St. Bernard's day, 250;
+       Gregory VII.'s conception of the papal authority, 262-264;
+       Gregory VII. avows purpose to correct abuses in, 267;
+       college of cardinals instituted, 269;
+       issue of lay investiture, 265-278;
+       Concordat of Worms, 278-281;
+       liberties in England granted in Great Charter, 305;
+       patronage of universities, 340;
+       menaced by abuses, 360;
+       rise of the mendicant orders, 360;
+       St. Francis's attitude toward, 375, 377-378;
+       use of excommunication and interdict, 380;
+       _Unam Sanctam_, 383-388;
+       Great Schism, 389-390;
+       Council of Pisa, 390-391;
+       Council of Constance, 391, 393;
+       Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 393-397;
+       decline in England in fourteenth century, 474;
+       Wyclif's efforts to regenerate, 475-477.
+
+     Cicero, Dante cites, 451;
+       Petrarch's reading of, 466.
+
+     _Cimbri_, 32.
+
+     Cistercians, 246, 250.
+
+     Cîteaux, 246;
+       St. Bernard decides to join, 252, 254;
+       St. Bernard goes forth from, 256.
+
+     Cities (see Towns), Frederick Barbarossa and Lombard, 398-399;
+       rights of guaranteed by Peace of Constance, 400-402.
+
+     Clairvaux, St. Bernard founds monastery at, 256-257;
+       description of by William of St. Thierry, 258-260;
+       marvelous works accomplished at, 259;
+       piety of monks at, 259.
+
+     Claudius Claudianus, at the court of Honorius, 42;
+       description of the Huns, 43.
+
+     Clement VII., elected pope, 389;
+       dies, 390.
+
+     Clergy (see Church), Charlemagne's general legislation for,
+         139-140;
+       Pope Gregory I.'s exhortation to, 91-96;
+       Charlemagne's provisions for, in Saxony, 120-123;
+       temporal importance in Charlemagne's empire, 141-142;
+       work of education committed to by Charlemagne, 146;
+       illiteracy in Alfred's day, 186, 191-192;
+       grants of immunity to, 210-214;
+       protected by Peace of God, 230-231;
+       worldliness of, in England before the Conquest, 239.
+
+     _Clericis Laicos_, issued by Boniface VIII., 384.
+
+     Clermont, Council of, confirms Peace and Truce of God, 229;
+       Pope Urban's speech at, 283-288;
+       first crusade proclaimed at, 287-288.
+
+     Cloderic, receives deputation from Clovis, 57;
+       has his father slain, 57;
+       himself slain, 58.
+
+     Clotilde, wife of Clovis, 49;
+       labors for his conversion, 53;
+       calls Remigius to the court, 54.
+
+     Clovis, conversion of, 49;
+       becomes king of the Salian Franks, 50;
+       advances against Syagrius, 51;
+       defeats him at Soissons, 51;
+       requests King Alaric to surrender the refugee, 51;
+       has Syagrius put to death, 51;
+       episode of the broken vase, 51-52;
+       decides to become a Christian, 53;
+       wins battle of Strassburg, 53;
+       baptized with his warriors, 54;
+       interview with Alaric, 54-55;
+       resolves to conquer southern Gaul, 55;
+       campaign against Alaric, 55-57;
+       victory at Vouillé, 56;
+       takes possession of southern Gaul, 56;
+       captures Angoulême, 57;
+       sends deputation to Cloderic, 57;
+       takes Cloderic's kingdom, 58;
+       slays Ragnachar and Richar, 58-59;
+       death at Paris, 59.
+
+     Cluny, establishment of monastery at, 245;
+       growth and influence, 246;
+       charter issued for, 247-249;
+       land and other property yielded to, 247-248;
+       Berno to be abbot, 248;
+       relations with the papacy, 249;
+       charitable activity, 249.
+
+     Cologne, 57;
+       university founded at, 345.
+
+     _Comitatus_, among the early Germans, 27-28;
+       a prototype of vassalage, 205.
+
+     Commendation, defined, 205;
+       Frankish formula for, 205-206.
+
+     Commerce, freedom guaranteed by
+       Great Charter, 308-309;
+       encouraged in charter of Lorris, 329.
+
+     Commune (see Towns), 326.
+
+     Compiègne, 171.
+
+     Compurgation, defined, 196.
+
+     Conrad IV., 334.
+
+     Constance, Council of, assembles, 391;
+       declarations of, 393.
+
+     Constance, Peace of, 398-402.
+
+     Constantine, 78.
+
+     Constantine VI., deposed at Constantinople, 131-132.
+
+     Constantinople, threatened by Seljuk Turks, 282.
+
+     Corbei, 191;
+       French barons assemble at, 314.
+
+     _Corvée_, provision for in charter of Lorris, 330.
+
+     Councils, Church, powers of declared at Pisa and Constance,
+         392-393;
+       provisions for in Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 396-397.
+
+     Count, duties, 123, 134;
+       restrictions on by grants of immunity, 211.
+
+     Count of the Palace, 112.
+
+     Crécy, English take position at, 427-428;
+       French advance to, 427, 430-431;
+       English prepare for battle, 431-432;
+       the French defeated at, 433-436.
+
+     Crime, in the Salic law, 62-65;
+       in Charlemagne's _De Partibus Saxoniæ_, 123;
+       in Charlemagne's _Capitulare Missorum Generale_, 140-141;
+       Carloman's regulations for suppression of, 175-176;
+       in Alfred's legislation, 194-195;
+       penalties for in Peace and Truce of God, 230-232;
+       protection of scholars against, 343.
+
+     Crusade, Gregory VII.'s plan for, 283;
+       Urban II.'s speech in behalf of, 284-288;
+       first crusade proclaimed, 287-288;
+       motives for, 288;
+       starting of the crusaders, 289-291;
+       letters of crusaders, 291-292;
+       Stephen of Blois to his wife, 292-296;
+       early achievements of, 293;
+       of St. Louis to Egypt, 313, 318-322.
+
+     Cyprus, St. Louis in, 316;
+       departs from, 317.
+
+
+     Dacia, ceded to the Visigoths, 33.
+
+     Danelaw, 185.
+
+     Danes (see Northmen), earliest visits to England, 181;
+       defeat Alfred the Great at Wilton, 182;
+       winter at Exeter, 183;
+       defeated by Alfred at Swanwich, 183;
+       winter at Chippenham, 184;
+       defeated by Alfred at Ethandune, 184;
+       treaties of peace with Alfred, 185.
+
+     Dante, career of, 446;
+       attachment to Holy Roman Empire, 446;
+       relation to Renaissance, 446-447;
+       defends Italian as a literary language, 447-452;
+       conception of imperial power, 452-453;
+       _De Monarchia_ quoted, 453-462.
+
+     Danube, Visigoths cross, 34-37.
+
+     Dauphiné, origin of, 395.
+
+     _De Bello Gallico_ (by Julius Cæsar), character of, 20;
+       quoted, 20-22;
+       used by Tacitus, 23.
+
+     Debt, in the Salic law, 66;
+       collection of among students, 342.
+
+     _Décime_, defined, 389.
+
+     _De Civitate Dei_ (by St. Augustine), Charlemagne's regard for,
+         111.
+
+     _De Divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergæ reginæ_ (by Hincmar),
+         quoted, 200-201.
+
+     _De Domino Divino_ (by Wyclif), nature of, 474.
+
+     _De Gestis Regum Anglorum_ (by William of Malmesbury), scope,
+         235;
+       quoted, 235-241, 289-290.
+
+     Degrees, university, 340.
+
+     _De Litteris Colendis_, addressed by Charlemagne to Abbot
+         Baugulf, 145;
+       quoted, 146-148;
+       work of education committed to the clergy, 146-147;
+       education essential to interpretation of Scriptures, 147.
+
+     Demesne, 125.
+
+     _De Monarchia_ (by Dante), nature of, 452-453;
+       quoted, 453-462.
+
+     _De odio et âtia_, writ of, 307-308.
+
+     _De Partibus Saxoniæ_, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, 119;
+       quoted, 120-123;
+       churches as places of refuge, 120;
+       offenses against the Church, 121;
+       penalties for persistence in paganism, 122;
+       fugitive criminals, 123;
+       public assemblies, 123.
+
+     _De Rebus Familiaribus_ (by Petrarch), quoted, 465-473.
+
+     _De Rebus Gestis Ælfredi Magni_ (by Asser), quoted, 182-185,
+         186-191.
+
+     _De Temporibus_ (by Eusebius), preface to, cited by Petrarch,
+         468.
+
+     _De Villis_, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, 124;
+       translation of, 124;
+       quoted, 124-127;
+       reports to be made by the stewards, 125;
+       equipment, 125-127;
+       produce due the king, 127.
+
+     _De Vulgari Eloquentia_ (by Dante), 447-448.
+
+     Deusdedit, 262.
+
+     _Dictatus Papæ_, authorship of, 262;
+       quoted, 262-264.
+
+     Diedenhofen, Louis, Lothair, and Charles meet at, 158.
+
+     _Divina Commedia_ (by Dante), 446.
+
+     Domains, Charlemagne's capitulary concerning, 124-127;
+       specimen inventory of property, 127-129.
+
+     Domesday Survey, 243.
+
+     Dominicans, founded, 360.
+
+     Dordrecht, burned by the Northmen, 159;
+       again taken, 161.
+
+     Dorset, Danes land in, 181.
+
+     Dorylæum, Turks defeated at, 293.
+
+     Druids, among the Gauls, 20-21.
+
+     Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, 165.
+
+
+     Easter tables, origin of mediæval annals, 157.
+
+     Eastern Empire, menaced by Seljuk Turks, 282-283, 285.
+
+     Ebolus, abbot of St. Germain des Près, 169-170.
+
+     Edington (see Ethandune).
+
+     Education, decline among the Franks, 144-147;
+       Charlemagne's provisions for, 145-148;
+       the Palace School, 144;
+       decline after Charlemagne, 145;
+       entrusted by Charlemagne to the clergy, 146;
+       Alfred's interest in, 185;
+       of Alfred's children, 187;
+       Alfred's labors in behalf of, 189-191;
+       Alfred laments decline of, 192;
+       universities in the Middle Ages, 339-359.
+
+     Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, 187.
+
+     Edward the Confessor, death of, 233.
+
+     Edward III., claim to French throne, 421;
+       takes title of king of France, 421-424;
+       wins battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       takes position at Crécy, 427;
+       prepares for battle, 429;
+       defeats French army, 433-436;
+       new invasion of France, 439;
+       concludes treaty of Bretigny, 439-442.
+
+     Edward, the Black Prince, wins his spurs at Crécy, 434-435;
+       besieges and sacks Limoges, 436-439.
+
+     Egbert's stone, Alfred meets English people at, 184.
+
+     Einhard, describes weakness of later Merovingians, 106-107;
+       career of, 108;
+       author of _Vita Caroli Magni_, 109;
+       sketch of Charlemagne, 109-114;
+       account of the Saxon war, 116-118;
+       statement regarding Charlemagne's coronation, 133.
+
+     Elbe, German boundary in Charlemagne's day, 330.
+
+     Electors, of Holy Roman Empire, provisions of Golden Bull
+         regarding, 409-416.
+
+     Ely, bishop of, 300.
+
+     Empire (see Eastern Empire; Holy Roman Empire, and the names of
+         emperors).
+
+     England, ravaged by the Danes, 181;
+       Alfred the Great becomes king, 182;
+       Alfred's wars with the Danes, 182-185;
+       navy founded by Alfred, 183;
+       treaty of Wedmore, 185;
+       decadence of learning, 186;
+       Alfred brings learned men to, 190-191;
+       Alfred writes to Bishop Werfrith on state of learning in,
+           191-194;
+       William the Conqueror's claim to throne of, 234;
+       Harold becomes king of, 234;
+       William the Conqueror prepares to invade, 234;
+       battle of Hastings, 235-238;
+       Saxons and Normans, 238-241;
+       William the Conqueror's government of, 241-244;
+       reign of King John, 297-298;
+       the winning of the Great Charter, 298-303;
+       provisions of the Charter, 305-310;
+       Edward III. claims French throne, 421-423;
+       naval battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       battle of Crécy, 427-436;
+       the Black Prince sacks Limoges, 436-439;
+       treaty of Bretigny, 439, 441-442;
+       treaty of Troyes, 440, 443;
+       religious decline in fourteenth century, 474;
+       Wyclif's career, 474-475.
+
+     _Epistolæ de Rebus Senilibus_ (by Petrarch), 464.
+
+     _Epistolæ sine Titulo_ (by Petrarch), 464.
+
+     _Epistolæ Variæ_ (by Petrarch), 464.
+
+     Erfurt, University of, founded, 345.
+
+     _Établissements de St. Louis_, quoted, 217, 223-224.
+
+     Ethandune, Alfred defeats Danes at, 184.
+
+     Ethelbert, king of Kent, 72;
+       accepts Christianity, 73, 77;
+       power of, 74;
+       receives Augustine, 76;
+       encourages missionary effort, 77.
+
+     Ethelred I., king of the English, 182.
+
+     Ethelstan, of Mercia, 190.
+
+     Ethelwerd, son of Alfred the Great, 186.
+
+     Eugene IV., and Council of Basel, 393.
+
+     Eurie, king of the Northmen, 166;
+       defeated by Louis the German, 166.
+
+     Eusebius, author of _De Temporibus_, 468.
+
+     Excommunication, nature of, 380;
+       of Henry IV. by Gregory VII., 272;
+       of Frederick II. by Gregory IX., 406.
+
+     Exeter, Danes winter at, 183.
+
+
+     Fealty, ceremony of, 216-217;
+       described in an English law book, 218;
+       rendered to count of Flanders, 218-219;
+       ordinance of St. Louis on, 219.
+
+     Feudalism, importance of, in mediæval history, 203;
+       most perfectly developed in France, 203-204;
+       essential elements, 204;
+       origins of vassalage, 204-205;
+       formula for commendation, 205-206;
+       development of the benefice, 206-207;
+       example of grant of a benefice, 207-210;
+       origins and nature of the immunity, 210-211;
+       formula for grant of immunity, 211-212;
+       an immunity confirmed by Charlemagne, 212-214;
+       nature of the fief, 214;
+       specimen grants of fiefs, 215-216;
+       complexity of the system, 216;
+       ceremonies of homage and fealty, 216-217;
+       homage defined, 217;
+       fealty described, 218;
+       homage and fealty illustrated, 218-219;
+       ordinance of St. Louis on homage and fealty, 219;
+       obligations of lords and vassals, 220-221;
+       rights of the lord, 221-228;
+       aids, 222-223;
+       military service involved, 223-224;
+       wardship and marriage, 224-225;
+       reliefs, 225-226;
+       forfeiture, 226-228;
+       militant character of feudal period, 228-229;
+       efforts to reduce private war, 229;
+       the Peace and Truce of God, 229-232;
+       provisions of Great Charter concerning, 306-307.
+
+     Fief, relation to benefice, 207;
+       nature, 214;
+       specimen grants, 215-216.
+
+     Fitz-Walter, Robert, besieges castle of Northampton, 301.
+
+     Flanders, influence on Hundred Years' War, 419;
+       allied with Edward III., 421-423.
+
+     Flanders, William, count of, homage and fealty to, 218-219.
+
+     Florence, Dante born at, 445.
+
+     Fontaines, St. Bernard born at, 251.
+
+     Fontenay, Charles and Louis defeat Lothair at, 150.
+
+     Forfeiture, nature, 226-227;
+       case of Arnold Atton, 227-228.
+
+     Formula, for commendation, 205-206;
+       for grant of a benefice, 207-210;
+       for grant of immunity to a bishop, 211-212.
+
+     France, Hugh Capet becomes king, 177-180;
+       geographical extent in 987, 180;
+       feudalism most perfectly developed in, 203-204;
+       over-population of described by Pope Urban, 286;
+       in times of Louis IX., 311-324;
+       treaty of Paris (1229), 322;
+       rise of municipalities in, 325-326;
+       interdict laid on by Innocent III., 380-383;
+       Philip the Fair's contest with Boniface VIII., 383-388;
+       States General meets, 385;
+       responsibility for Great Schism, 389-390;
+       Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 393-397;
+       disputed succession in 1328, 419-420;
+       Edward III. takes title of king, 421-423;
+       naval battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       battle of Crécy, 427-436;
+       siege and sack of Limoges, 436-439;
+       treaty of Bretigny, 439, 441-442;
+       treaty of Troyes, 440, 443.
+
+     _Francia Occidentalis_, 155.
+
+     _Francia Orientalis_, 155.
+
+     _Francia_, territorial extent, 152, 155.
+
+     Francis I., Concordat of, 394.
+
+     Franciscans, founded, 360, 361;
+       life of St. Francis, 363-373;
+       Rule of St. Francis, 373-376;
+       Will of St. Francis, 376-378.
+
+     Frankfort, electors of Empire to assemble at, 412.
+
+     Franks, conquer northern Gaul, 49;
+       become Christians, 49, 54;
+       character of conversion, 50;
+       close relations with papacy, 50;
+       Clovis becomes king of the Salians, 50;
+       defeat Syagrius at Soissons, 51;
+       defeat Alaric near Poitiers, 56;
+       Salic law, 59-67;
+       decadence of Merovingians, 105;
+       rise of Mayor of the Palace, 105;
+       early mayors, 105;
+       Pepin the Short becomes king, 105-107;
+       the age of Charlemagne, 108-148;
+       the war with the Saxons, 114-118;
+       Charlemagne's capitularies, 118-127, 134-141;
+       Charlemagne crowned emperor, 130-134;
+       decay of learning among, 144;
+       Carolingian Renaissance, 144-148;
+       disorder among in ninth century, 157-163;
+       menaced by invasions of Northmen, 160-163;
+       decline of monarchy in ninth century, 173;
+       rise of feudalism among, 173-174.
+
+     Freckenhorst, sacred relics brought to, 163.
+
+     Frederick, bishop of Hamburg, issues charter for a colony,
+         332-333.
+
+     Frederick Barbarossa, grants privileges to students and masters,
+         341-343;
+       and the Italian communes, 398-399;
+       destroys Milan, 399;
+       defeated at Legnano, 399;
+       agrees to Peace of Constance, 399-400.
+
+     Frederick II., accession of, 402-403;
+       character, 403-404;
+       suspected of heresy, 405;
+       excommunicated, 406, 408-409.
+
+     Friars, conditions determining rise of, 360;
+       unlike monks, 360-361;
+       relations with papacy and local clergy, 361;
+       system of organization, 361;
+       career of St. Francis, 362-378;
+       Rule of St. Francis, 373-376;
+       Will of St. Francis, 376-378.
+
+     Fridigern, leader of branch of Visigoths, 33-34, 38, 39.
+
+     Friesland (see Frisia).
+
+     Frisia, Northmen in, 159, 162, 166.
+
+     Froissart, Sire de, "Chronicles" of, 417-418.
+
+     Fulbert of Chartres, letter to William of Aquitaine, 220-221.
+
+     Fulcher of Chartres, version of Pope Urban's speech, 286;
+       account of starting of crusaders, 290-291.
+
+     Fulda, Einhard educated at, 108, 145.
+
+     Fulrad, Charlemagne's letter to, 142-144;
+       summoned to assembly at Strassfurt, 143;
+       troops and equipment to be brought, 143;
+       gifts for the Emperor, 143-144.
+
+
+     Gaiseric, 112.
+
+     Galicia, Northmen visit, 166.
+
+     Gâtinais, 329.
+
+     _Gau_, 25.
+
+     Gaul, conquered by Julius Cæsar, 19, 32;
+       invaded by Cimbri and Teutons, 32;
+       Syagrius's kingdom in, 51;
+       the Franks take possession in the north, 51;
+       Clovis overthrows Visigothic power in south, 55-57;
+       monasteries established in, 83;
+       Charlemagne transplants Saxons into, 117-118;
+       Northmen devastate, 159;
+       survival of Roman immunity in, 210.
+
+     Geoffrey of Clairvaux, 251.
+
+     _Germania_ (by Tacitus), nature and purpose, 23;
+       contents, 24;
+       translation and editions, 24;
+       quoted, 24-31.
+
+     Germans, described by Cæsar, 19-22;
+       religion, 21;
+       system of land tenure, 21;
+       magistrates and war leaders, 22;
+       hospitality, 22;
+       described by Tacitus, 23-31;
+       location in Cæsar's day, 20;
+       physical characteristics, 24;
+       use of iron, 24;
+       weapons, 24-25;
+       mode of fighting, 25-26, 40;
+       ideas of military honor, 25, 64;
+       kingship, 26;
+       tribal assemblies, 26-27;
+       investment with arms, 27;
+       the _princeps_ and _comitatus_, 27, 28;
+       love of war, 28-29;
+       agriculture, 21, 29;
+       life in times of peace, 29;
+       absence of tax systems, 29;
+       lack of cities and city life, 29;
+       villages, 30;
+       food and drink, 30;
+       amusements, 30;
+       slavery, 31;
+       early contact with the Romans, 32-33;
+       defeat Varus, 32;
+       put Romans on the defensive, 32;
+       filter into the Empire, 33;
+       invasions begin, 33;
+       generally Christianized before invasion of Empire, 48;
+       character of their conversion, 49-50;
+       ideas of law, 59-60;
+       influenced by contact with Romans, 60;
+       codification of law, 60;
+       legal ideas and methods, 196;
+       compurgation,196;
+       use of the ordeal, 196-197.
+
+     Germany, Henry IV.'s position in, 264-265;
+       Henry V.'s government of, 278;
+       question of lay investiture in, 265-281;
+       colonization toward the east, 331-332;
+       colony chartered by bishop of Hamburg, 331-333;
+       decline of imperial power, 334;
+       chaotic conditions, 334;
+       rise of municipal leagues, 334;
+       the Rhine League, 335-338;
+       rise of universities in, 345;
+       in Frederick Barbarossa's period, 398-399;
+       under Frederick II., 402-409;
+       conditions after Frederick II., 409-410;
+       Golden Bull of Charles IV., 410-416.
+
+     Genghis Khan, empire of, 316.
+
+     Ghent, Council at, 423-424.
+
+     Gildas, story of Saxon invasion of Britain, 68.
+
+     Gillencourt, granted to Jocelyn d'Avalon, 216.
+
+     Gisela, 173.
+
+     Gloucester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, 242.
+
+     Godfrey of Bouillon, 289.
+
+     Golden Bull, promulgated by Charles IV.,
+       409;
+       character of, 409.
+
+     Gozlin, bishop of Paris, 168.
+
+     _Grâce expectative_, nature of, 396.
+
+     Gratian, 35, 38.
+
+     Great Council, in William the Conqueror's time, 242;
+       provisions of Great Charter concerning, 306;
+       composition, 307.
+
+     Greek fire, nature of, 319;
+       used by the Saracens, 319-321.
+
+     Gregory of Nazianzus, cited by Pope Gregory, 93.
+
+     Gregory of Tours, facts regarding career, 47;
+       author of _Ecclesiastical History of the Franks_, 47-48;
+       opportunities for knowledge, 48;
+       account of Frankish affairs quoted, 50-59;
+       account of ordeal by hot water quoted, 198-200.
+
+     Gregory I. (the Great), plans conversion of Saxons, 72;
+       sends Augustine to Britain, 72-73;
+       becomes pope, 73, 90;
+       letter of encouragement to Augustine's band, 74;
+       early career, 90;
+       qualifications, 90-91;
+       author of the _Pastoral Rule_, 91;
+       describes the functions of the secular clergy, 91-96;
+       attitude toward worldly learning, 95;
+       _Pastoral Rule_ translated by Alfred, 186, 193.
+
+     Gregory IV., 158.
+
+     Gregory VI., 261.
+
+     Gregory VII., early career, 261;
+       becomes pope, 261, 269;
+       conceptions of papal authority, 262-264;
+       breach with Henry IV., 264;
+       letter to Henry IV., 265-269;
+       claim to authority over temporal princes, 266;
+       avows purpose to correct abuses in the Church, 267;
+       disposed to treat Henry IV. fairly, 268;
+       letter to, from Henry IV., 269-272;
+       charges against, by Henry IV., 272;
+       deposes him, 272-273;
+       meets Henry IV. at Canossa, 274, 275;
+       absolves him, 276;
+       project for a crusade, 283.
+
+     Gregory IX., 403, 406.
+
+     Gregory XI., removes to Rome, 389;
+       bull concerning Lollards, 475.
+
+     Gregory XII., abdicates papacy, 391.
+
+     Grimbald, brought from Gaul by Alfred, 190.
+
+     Guienne, English and French dispute possession of, 419.
+
+     Guiscard, Roger, 341.
+
+     Guthrum, peace of Alfred and, 185;
+       becomes a Christian, 185.
+
+
+     Hadrian, I., 111, 130.
+
+     Hamburg, pillaged by the Slavs, 331;
+       bishop of, grants charter for a colony, 331-333.
+
+     Hanseatic League, 334.
+
+     Harold Hardrada, defeated at Stamford Bridge, 234.
+
+     Harold, son of Godwin, chosen king of England, 234;
+       position disputed by William the Conqueror, 234;
+       defeats Harold Hardrada, 234;
+       takes station at Hastings, 234;
+       valor and death, 237.
+
+     Hastings, English take position at, 234;
+       they prepare for battle, 235;
+       the Normans prepare, 236;
+       William's strategem, 236-237.
+
+     Heidelberg, University of, founded, 345;
+       charter of, 345-350;
+       modelled on University of Paris, 346;
+       internal government, 347-348;
+       jurisdiction of bishop of Worms, 348;
+       exemptions enjoyed by students, 349;
+       rates for lodgings, 350.
+
+     Hell, portrayed in the Koran, 103-104.
+
+     Hengist, legendary leader of Saxons, 71;
+       ancestry, 71.
+
+     Henry of Champagne, grants fief to bishop of Beauvais, 215.
+
+     Henry I. of England, charter of, 298, 304, 306.
+
+     Henry III. of England, concludes treaty of Paris with St. Louis,
+         322.
+
+     Henry V. of England, in Hundred Years' War, 440;
+       marries daughter of Charles VI., 441;
+       awarded French crown by treaty of Troyes, 443.
+
+     Henry I. of Germany, movement against the Slavs, 331.
+
+     Henry III. of Germany, 273.
+
+     Henry IV. of Germany, controversy opens with Gregory VII., 264;
+       wins battle on the Unstrutt, 265;
+       letter of Gregory VII. to, 265-269;
+       exhorted to confess and repent sins, 266, 268;
+       reply to letter of Gregory VII., 269-272;
+       rejects papal claim to temporal supremacy, 270;
+       excommunicated by Gregory VII., 272;
+       deposed by him, 272-273;
+       penance at Canossa, 273-277;
+       oath of, 277-278.
+
+     Henry V. of Germany, succeeds Henry IV., 278;
+       his spirit of independence, 278;
+       invasion of Italy, 278;
+       compact with Paschal II., 278;
+       party to Concordat of Worms, 279-281.
+
+     Henry VI. of Germany, 400, 402.
+
+     Henry VII. of Germany, 433.
+
+     Hermaneric, king of the Ostrogoths, 33.
+
+     Hide, a land measure, 242.
+
+     Hildebrand (see Gregory VII.).
+
+     Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, 165;
+       description of ordeal by cold water, 200-201.
+
+     Hippo, St. Augustine bishop of, 112.
+
+     _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ (by the Venerable Bede),
+         scope and character, 68;
+       quoted, 69-72, 73-77;
+       translation of, 69.
+
+     _Historia Ecclesiastica Francorum_ (by Gregory of Tours), scope
+         and character, 48-49;
+       quoted, 50-59.
+
+     _Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem_ (by Raimond of
+         Agiles), quoted, 201-202.
+
+     _Historia Iherosolimitana_ (by Robert the Monk), quoted, 284-288.
+
+     _Historia Iherosolimitana_ (by Fulcher of Chartres), quoted,
+         290-291.
+
+     _Historiarum Libri IV._ (by Nithardus), scope, 151;
+       quoted, 151-154.
+
+     _Historiarum Libri IV._ (by Richer), scope, 178;
+       quoted, 178-180.
+
+     _Histoire de Saint Louis_ (by Joinville), character, 312;
+       quoted, 313-324.
+
+     Hollanders, receive charter from bishop of Hamburg, 332-333;
+       fiscal obligations, 332;
+       judicial immunity, 333.
+
+     Holy Roman Empire, coronation of Charlemagne, 130-134;
+       character and significance, 131-132;
+       difficulty of holding together, 149;
+       disordered condition in ninth century, 157-163;
+       Henry IV.'s position in, 264-265;
+       question of lay investiture in, 265-281;
+       Henry V., emperor, 278;
+       Concordat of Worms, 278-281;
+       weakening of central authority, 334;
+       chaotic condition, 334;
+       rise of municipal leagues, 334;
+       the Rhine League, 335-338;
+       in 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, 398-416;
+       Frederick Barbarossa at head of, 398;
+       Peace of Constance, 399-402;
+       accession of Frederick II., 403;
+       II., 403;
+       Dante's attachment to, 446;
+       Dante's defense of in _De Monarchia_, 452-462.
+
+     Homage, ceremony of, 216-217;
+       a Norman definition of, 217;
+       rendered to count of Flanders, 218-219;
+       ordinance of St. Louis on, 219.
+
+     Homer, Dante's knowledge of, 449;
+       Petrarch interested in, 467.
+
+     Homicide, in the Salic law, 65.
+
+     Honorius III., St. Francis promises allegiance to, 375.
+
+     Horace, alluded to by Petrarch, 468.
+
+     Horsa, legendary leader of Saxons, 71;
+       death, 71;
+       ancestry, 71.
+
+     _Hôte_, defined, 329.
+
+     House of Commons, origin of, 307.
+
+     House of Lords, origin of, 307.
+
+     Hugh Capet, establishes Capetian dynasty, 177;
+       Adalbero urges election as king, 178-180;
+       crowned at Noyon, 180;
+       extent of dominions, 180.
+
+     Humanism, rise of, 445;
+       Petrarch's love of the classics, 465-469.
+
+     Humber River, 71, 74, 191.
+
+     Hundred Years' War, causes, 418-419;
+       Edward III. and the Flemings, 421-424;
+       naval battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       battle of Crécy, 427-436;
+       siege and sack of Limoges, 436-439;
+       treaty of Bretigny, 439, 441-442;
+       treaty of Troyes, 440, 443.
+
+     Huns, threaten the Goths, 33-34, 42;
+       characterized by Claudius Claudianus, 43;
+       described by Ammianus Marcellinus, 43-46;
+       physical appearance, 44;
+       dress, 44;
+       mode of fighting, 45;
+       nomadic character, 45;
+       greed and quarrelsomeness, 46.
+
+
+     Iacinthus, 199.
+
+     _Il Convito_ (by Dante), character of, 447;
+       quoted, 447-452.
+
+     Immunity, in Roman law, 210;
+       feudal, 210-211;
+       formula for grant to bishop, 211-212;
+       grant to a monastery confirmed by Charlemagne, 212-214;
+       in an East German colony, 333.
+
+     Incendiarism, in the Salic law, 63;
+       in the Burgundian law, 63.
+
+     Ingeborg, wife of Philip Augustus, 380-381.
+
+     Ingelheim, 108.
+
+     Inghen, Marsilius, rector of University of Heidelberg, 345.
+
+     Inheritance, in the Salic law, 66.
+
+     Innocent III., King John's surrender to, 297;
+       confirms privileges of University of Paris, 341;
+       approves work of St. Francis, 362;
+       lays interdict on France, 380-383.
+
+     Innocent IV., 403, 454.
+
+     _In Rufinum_ (by Claudius Claudianus), quoted, 43.
+
+     Interdict, nature of, 380;
+       laid on France, 380-383.
+
+     Interregnum, 334;
+       end of, 409-410.
+
+     Investiture, lay, 261;
+       Henry IV.'s disregard of Gregory VII.'s decrees concerning,
+         265;
+       Paschal II.'s decree prohibiting, 278;
+       agreement of 1111 concerning, 278;
+       settlement of by Concordat of Worms, 279-281.
+
+     Ireland, Christianity in, 72.
+
+     Irene, deposes Constantine VI., 132.
+
+     Irmensaule, destroyed by Charlemagne, 122.
+
+     Irnerius, teacher of law at Bologna, 340.
+
+     Isabella, mother of Edward III., 418-419;
+       excluded from French throne, 420.
+
+     Islam (see Koran, Mohammed).
+
+     Italian (language), Dante's defense of, 446-452.
+
+     Italy, Frederick Barbarossa and communes of, 398-399.
+
+
+     Jerusalem, captured by Arabs, 282;
+       by the Seljuk Turks, 282.
+
+     Jeufosse, Northmen winter at, 167.
+
+     Jocelyn d'Avalon, receives fief from Thiebault of Troyes, 216.
+
+     John, bishop of Ravenna, 91.
+
+     John the Old Saxon, brought from Gaul by Alfred, 191.
+
+     John, of England, character of reign, 297;
+       conference of magnates in opposition to, 298;
+       arranges truce with them, 299;
+       takes the cross, 300;
+       scorns the demands of the barons, 301;
+       loses London, 302;
+       consents to terms of Great Charter, 303.
+
+     John XXIII., elected pope, 390;
+       deposed, 391.
+
+     John, king of Bohemia, 421.
+
+     John II. of France, taken captive at Poitiers, 439;
+       later career, 442.
+
+     John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 440.
+
+     Joinville, Sire de, sketch of, 312;
+       biographer of St. Louis, 312.
+
+     Judith of Bavaria, 149.
+
+     Julian the Apostate, 271.
+
+     Jurats, in Laon, 328.
+
+     Jury, not provided for in Great Charter, 308.
+
+     Justice, among the early Germans, 22;
+       among the Franks, 61-67;
+       among the Saxons, 121-123;
+       Charlemagne's provision for in capitulary for the _missi_,
+         138-139;
+       compurgation, 196;
+       ordeal, 196-197;
+       administration of in the universities, 342, 344, 349.
+
+     Jutes, settle in Kent, 70.
+
+
+     Karlmann, son of Charles Martel, 105.
+
+     Kent, Saxons and Jutes settle in, 70;
+       Ethelbert, king of, 72, 74.
+
+     Kingship, among the early Germans, 26.
+
+     Knut VI., king of Denmark, 380.
+
+     Koran, origin of, 97;
+       scope and character, 98;
+       essential teachings, 98;
+       translation, 99;
+       quoted, 99-104;
+       opening prayer, 99;
+       unity of God, 99;
+       the resurrection, 100;
+       the coming judgment, 100;
+       reward of the righteous, 101;
+       fate of the wicked, 101;
+       pleasures of paradise, 102-103;
+       torments of hell, 103-104.
+
+     Kutuz, defeats Tartars, 317.
+
+
+     La Broyes, Philip VI. at castle of, 435.
+
+     La Ferté-sur-Aube, 216;
+       St. Bernard at, 256.
+
+     _L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_, quoted, 217, 222-223, 224-225.
+
+     Laon, 171;
+       charter of, 327-328.
+
+     Law, character of among the early Germans, 27, 59-60;
+       codification under Roman influence, 60;
+       the Salic code, 60-67;
+       of Alfred the Great, 194-195;
+       revival of Roman, 339-340;
+       study of at University of Bologna, 340.
+
+     Learning, revival under Charlemagne, 144-148;
+       decline after Charlemagne, 145;
+       Alfred on state of in England, 191-194;
+       decadence in England before the Conquest, 239;
+       revival in thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 445;
+       Petrarch's love of the classics, 465-469.
+
+     _Legend of the Three Companions_, quoted, 363-368, 376-378.
+
+     Legnano, Frederick Barbarossa defeated at, 399.
+
+     Leo I. (the Great), elected pope, 78;
+       sermon on the Petrine supremacy, 80-83.
+
+     Leo III., 111;
+       driven from Rome, 130;
+       appeals to Charlemagne, 130;
+       crowns Charlemagne emperor, 130, 132-134.
+
+     Leo IV., 160.
+
+     Leo IX., 261.
+
+     Leo, author of the _Mirror of Perfection_, 363.
+
+     Liberal Arts, place in Charlemagne's system of education, 145;
+       Alfred laments his ignorance of, 189, 339.
+
+     _Liber Regulæ Pastoralis_ (by Pope Gregory I.), nature and value,
+         91;
+       translation of, 91;
+       quoted, 91-96;
+       qualities of the ideal pastor, 91-93, 96;
+       admonitions for various sorts of people, 94-95;
+       translated by Alfred, 186, 193.
+
+     _Libri Miraculorum_ (by Gregory of Tours), quoted, 198-200.
+
+     Liège, Henry IV. dies at, 278.
+
+     Limoges, siege of by the Black Prince, 436-439.
+
+     Limousin, 437.
+
+     Lindisfarne, plundered by Danes, 181.
+
+     _Little Flowers of St. Francis_, 363.
+
+     Loire, Clovis and Alaric meet on, 55;
+       Clovis's campaign beyond, 55-56;
+       Northmen on, 167.
+
+     Lollards, tenets of, 475.
+
+     Lombard League, formation of, 399;
+       Frederick Barbarossa's war upon, 399;
+       provisions of Peace of Constance regarding, 400-402.
+
+     Lombards, conquered by Charlemagne, 112, 115.
+
+     London, sacked by Danes, 181;
+       King John at, 299;
+       army of the barons arrives at, 302;
+       surrendered to the barons, 302;
+       treaty of, 439;
+       Wyclif's doctrines condemned in council at, 475.
+
+     Lorris, model of franchise towns, 327;
+       charter of, 328-330.
+
+     Lorsch, monastery at, 106;
+       _Lesser Annals_ of, 106.
+
+     Lothair, Charles and Louis combine against, 150;
+       defeated at Fontenay, 150;
+       oaths of Strassburg directed against, 151-154;
+       makes overtures for peace, 154;
+       lands received by treaty of Verdun, 155-156.
+
+     Lotharingia, 155.
+
+     Louis the Pious, capitulary on education, 145;
+       divides the Empire, 149.
+
+     Louis the German, combines with Charles the Bald against Lothair,
+         150-151;
+       takes oath at Strassburg, 152-153;
+       lands received by treaty of Verdun, 155-156;
+       advances against the Wends, 158, 159, 160;
+       expeditions against the Bohemians, 160-161;
+       defeats the Northmen, 166.
+
+     Louis the Stammerer, 174.
+
+     Louis V., last direct Carolingian, 177.
+
+     Louis VI. of France, ratifies charter of Laon, 327.
+
+     Louis VII. of France, 215;
+       grants charter to Lorris, 327.
+
+     Louis IX. of France, early career, 311, 313-314;
+       character, 311-312;
+       difficulties at beginning of reign, 314;
+       takes the cross, 314-315;
+       emulated by prominent nobles, 315;
+       in Cyprus, 316;
+       receives deputation from Khan of Tartary, 316-317;
+       arrival in Egypt, 318;
+       advances on Babylon (Cairo), 318;
+       operations on the lower Nile, 318-322;
+       negotiates treaty of Paris, 322;
+       personal traits, 323;
+       methods of dispensing justice, 323-324.
+
+     Louis X. of France, 419.
+
+     Louis XI. of France, seeks to revoke Pragmatic Sanction of
+         Bourges, 394.
+
+     Louis IV., Emperor, allied with Edward III., 421.
+
+     Luidhard, 75.
+
+     Luitbert, brings sacred relics to the Freckenhorst, 163.
+
+     Lyons, Council of, Frederick II. excommunicated at, 407.
+
+
+     Mâcon, 248.
+
+     Magdeburg, established, 331.
+
+     _Magna Charta_, the winning of, 298-303;
+       agreed to at Runnymede, 303;
+       importance and character, 303-304;
+       translations, 305;
+       quoted, 305-310;
+       liberties of the English church, 305;
+       rate of reliefs, 306;
+       aids, 306;
+       the Great Council, 307;
+       writ _de odio et âtia_, 307-308;
+       personal liberties and prerogatives, 308;
+       freedom of commercial intercourse, 308-309;
+       means of enforcement, 309.
+
+     _Magna Moralia_, written by Pope Gregory, 91.
+
+     Mainz, a capital of Rhine League, 337;
+       archbishop of, to summon electors of the Empire, 412.
+
+     _Mallus_, character, 61;
+       summonses to, 61;
+       complaint to be made before, 63.
+
+     Manichæus, 388.
+
+     Manzikert, Eastern emperor defeated at, 282.
+
+     Mapes, Walter, _Latin Poems_ attributed to, a source for mediæval
+         students' songs, 352.
+
+     Marcomanni, 32, 35.
+
+     Marriage, of heiresses, right of lord to control, 224-225.
+
+     Marseilles, St. Louis's companions embark at, 315.
+
+     Marshall, William, surety for King John, 300-301.
+
+     Martian, 69.
+
+     Martin V., elected pope, 391;
+       and Council of Siena, 395.
+
+     Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, 234.
+
+     Matilda, Countess, ally of Gregory VII., 274.
+
+     Matthew Paris, 292;
+       _Greater Chronicle_ of, quoted, 405-409.
+
+     Maurice, 73.
+
+     May-field, character of in Charlemagne's time, 142.
+
+     Mayor of the Palace, rise of, 105;
+       office made hereditary, 105;
+       accession of Pepin the Short, 105;
+       latter becomes king, 107.
+
+     Merovingians, decadence of, 105-106;
+       end with Childeric III., 105.
+
+     Merovius, ancestor of Clovis, 50.
+
+     Metz, 154;
+       diet of, 410;
+       electors of Empire to meet at, 416.
+
+     Milan, Frederick Barbarossa destroys, 398-399.
+
+     _Ministeriales_, functions of, 188.
+
+     _Missaticæ_, 135.
+
+     _Missi dominici_, 123;
+       Charlemagne's capitulary for, 134;
+       character and functions, 134-137;
+       employed by Charles Martel and Pepin the Short, 135;
+       to promulgate royal decrees, 141;
+       abuses of, 175-176;
+       in ninth century, 175-176.
+
+     Moesia, Visigoths settle in, 34.
+
+     Mohammed, sayings comprised in Koran, 97;
+       principal teachings, 98.
+
+     Monastery, formula for grant of _precarium_ by, 209-210;
+       grant of immunity confirmed to, 212-214.
+
+     Monasticism, rise of, 83-84;
+       character of in the East and West, 83;
+       abbey of St. Martin established, 83;
+       Monte Cassino established by St. Benedict, 84;
+       the Benedictine rule, 84-90;
+       character and functions of the abbot, 84-86;
+       prohibition of individual property-holding, 87;
+       manual labor, 88;
+       reading and study, 89;
+       hospitality, 89;
+       decadence in eighth and ninth centuries, 245;
+       the Cluniac reform, 245-246;
+       St. Bernard's reformation of, 250;
+       founding of Clairvaux, 256-258.
+
+     Monotheism, set forth in the Koran, 99.
+
+     Monte Cassino, monastery founded at, 84;
+       Karlmann withdraws to, 105.
+
+     Montlhéri, St. Louis at, 314;
+       English army at, 439.
+
+     Mortmain, prohibited by charter of Laon, 328.
+
+     Murder, Charlemagne's legislation on, 141.
+
+
+     Nantes, pillaged by Northmen, 165.
+
+     Nazianzus, Gregory, bishop of, 93.
+
+     Nerva, 34.
+
+     New Forest, of William the Conqueror, 244.
+
+     Nicæa, Council of, 198;
+       Seljuk Turks established at, 282;
+       crusaders converge at, 290.
+
+     Nice, Visigoths advance toward, 38.
+
+     Nicholas II., 269.
+
+     Nile, St. Louis's operations on, 318.
+
+     Nithardus, author of _Historiarum Libri IV._, 151;
+       career, 151.
+
+     Nogaret, William of, captures Boniface VIII., 385.
+
+     Noménoé, conflicts with Charles the Bald, 167.
+
+     Normans, rapid civilization of, 233;
+       retain adventuresome disposition, 233;
+       in battle of Hastings, 236-238;
+       described by William of Malmesbury, 238-241.
+
+     Normandy, ceded by Charles the Simple to Rollo, 172;
+       improvement under Norman régime, 173;
+       William the Bastard becomes duke of, 233-234;
+       English and French dispute possession of, 419.
+
+     Northampton, castle of, besieged by the English barons, 301.
+
+     Northmen, in Frisia and Gaul, 159-160;
+       in Frisia and Saxony, 162;
+       burn church of St. Martin at Tours, 162, 167;
+       motives of the Norse invasions, 163;
+       pillage, Nantes, 165;
+       winter at Rhé, 165;
+       ascend Garonne, 166;
+       in Spain, 166;
+       at Paris, 166;
+       in Frisia and Brittany, 166;
+       threaten Orleans, 167;
+       at Angers, 167;
+       pillage Orleans, 167;
+       plunder Pisa, 168;
+       besiege Paris, 168-171;
+       bought off by Charles the Fat, 171;
+       receive Normandy from Charles the Simple, 172;
+       become Christians, 173. (See Danes.)
+
+     Notre Dame, cathedral school of, 340.
+
+     Noyon, Hugh Capet crowned at, 180.
+
+     Nuremberg, diet of, 410.
+
+
+     Odo, becomes king of France, 168, 177;
+       defense of Paris, 169-170;
+       mission to Charles the Fat, 170-171.
+
+     Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned by William the Conqueror, 243.
+
+     Oppenheim, convention of, 274.
+
+     Ordeal, nature of, 197;
+       use among Germanic peoples, 197;
+       various forms, 197;
+       an Arian presbyter tested by, 198-200;
+       by cold water described, 200-201;
+       Peter Bartholomew subjected to by fire, 201-202.
+
+     Origen, 387.
+
+     Orleans, threatened by the Northmen, 167;
+       pillaged by them, 167.
+
+     Orosius, 186.
+
+     Ostrogoths, fall before the Huns, 33.
+
+     Otger, archbishop of Mainz, 152, 160.
+
+     Otto I. of Germany, 331.
+
+     Otto II. of Germany, loses ground to the Slavs, 331.
+
+     Otto III. of Germany, 403.
+
+     Otto IV. of Germany, 401;
+       crowned at Rome, 403;
+       defeated at Bouvines, 403.
+
+     Oxford, Wyclif educated at, 474;
+       banishes Lollards, 475.
+
+
+     Paderborn, Frankish assembly at, 119;
+       Pope Leo III. meets Charlemagne at, 130.
+
+     _Pagus_, 25.
+
+     Paradise, portrayed in the Koran, 102-103.
+
+     Palace School, origin of, 144;
+       enlargement by Charlemagne, 112-113, 144-145.
+
+     Papacy, views on origin of, 78-79;
+       reasons for growth, 78-79;
+       theory of Petrine supremacy, 79;
+       Pope Leo's sermon, 80-83;
+       Gregory becomes pope, 73, 90;
+       his literary efforts, 91;
+       describes functions of secular clergy, 91-96;
+       Pope Zacharias sanctions deposition of Merovingian line, 107;
+       Pope Leo III. crowns Charlemagne emperor, 130-134;
+       Cluny's relations with, 249;
+       Gregory VII.'s conception of, 262-264;
+       Gregory VII.'s claim to authority over temporal princes, 266;
+       Henry IV.'s rejection of claim of, 270;
+       Calixtus II. agrees to Concordat of Worms, 278-281;
+       relations of friars with, 361;
+       St. Francis's attitude towards, 375, 377-378;
+       and temporal powers in later Middle Ages, 380-397;
+       contest of Innocent III. and Philip Augustus, 380-383;
+       Boniface VIII.'s bull _Unam Sanctam_, 383-388;
+       Babylonian Captivity, 383, 389;
+       Great Schism, 389-390;
+       declarations of Councils of Pisa and Constance, 390-393;
+       provisions of Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges regarding powers
+         of, 395-397;
+       conflicts with Frederick II., 405-409;
+       Dante enumerates theories in defense of, 453-455;
+       defines true position of, 456-462;
+       Wyclif's ideas concerning, 475-477.
+
+     Paris, Clovis's capital, 57;
+       his death at, 59;
+       Northmen at, 166;
+       Northmen prepare to besiege, 168;
+       attack upon, 169-171;
+       importance of siege, 171;
+       treaty of (1259), 322;
+       treaty of (1396), 439.
+
+     Paris, University of, origin, 340;
+       privileges granted to students by Philip Augustus, 341,
+         343-345;
+       Heidelberg modelled on, 346;
+       case of Great Schism laid before, 390;
+       proposals regarding Schism, 371-392.
+
+     Paschal II., accession to papacy, 278;
+       decree prohibiting lay investiture, 278;
+       relations with Henry V., 278.
+
+     _Patrocinium_, a prototype of vassalage, 204.
+
+     Paul the Deacon, in Charlemagne's Palace School, 144.
+
+     Paulinus of Aquileia, in Charlemagne's Palace School, 144.
+
+     Pavia, taken by Charlemagne, 112.
+
+     Peace of God, decreed by Church councils, 229;
+       decree of Council of Toulouges, 229-232.
+
+     Pelagius II., sends Gregory to Constantinople, 90.
+
+     Penalties, in the Salic law, 62-65;
+       in Charlemagne's _De Partibus Saxoniæ_, 121-123;
+       in Alfred's legislation, 194-195;
+       for violation of an immunity, 214;
+       for violation of Peace and Truce of God, 230-232.
+
+     Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, 105;
+       mayor of the palace, 105;
+       sends deputation to Pope Zacharias, 106;
+       crowned by Pope Stephen III., 106;
+       advised to take title of king, 107;
+       anointed by Boniface at Soissons, 107.
+
+     Pepin, grandson of Louis the Pious, 152, 158.
+
+     Peter Bartholomew, subjected to ordeal by fire, 198, 201-202.
+
+     Peter of Catana, minister-general of Franciscans, 370.
+
+     Peter of Pisa, brought to Charlemagne's court, 112;
+       in the Palace School, 144.
+
+     Petrarch, career of, 462-463;
+       part in the Renaissance, 463;
+       writings, 464-465;
+       love of the classics, 465-469;
+       letter to Posterity, 469-473.
+
+     Petrine Supremacy, theory of, 79;
+       Pope Leo's sermon on, 80-83;
+       mediæval acceptance of, 79;
+       theory of stated by Gregory VII., 267;
+       allusion to in _Unam Sanctam_, 386;
+       Dante's conception of, 456-457.
+
+     Pfahlburgers, provision of Rhine League concerning, 337.
+
+     Philip II. (Augustus) of France, privileges granted to students
+         by, 343-345;
+       contest with Innocent III., 380-383;
+       imposes Saladin tithe, 390.
+
+     Philip IV. (the Fair) of France, contest with Boniface VIII.,
+         383-385;
+       convenes States General, 385;
+       sons of, 419.
+
+     Philip V. of France, 419.
+
+     Philip VI. of France, acquires the Dauphiné, 395;
+       accession of, 420;
+       advances with army to Crécy, 430-431;
+       defeated at Crécy, 433-436.
+
+     Philip of Hohenstaufen, 402-403.
+
+     Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 440.
+
+     Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 440.
+
+     Philippa, wife of Edward III., 425.
+
+     Piacenza, Council of, 283.
+
+     Picts, menace the Britons, 68;
+       Saxons called in against, 69;
+       Saxons ally with, 71.
+
+     Pilgrimages, to Jerusalem, 282-283.
+
+     Pisa, Council of, convened, 390;
+       declarations of, 392-393.
+
+     Plato, Petrarch loans a volume of, 469.
+
+     Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury, 190.
+
+     Pliny the Elder, probably used by Tacitus, 23.
+
+     Poitiers, 55, 56;
+       battle of, 418.
+
+     Pontus, 35.
+
+     Posidonius of Rhodes, probably used by Tacitus, 23.
+
+     Prague, University of founded, 345.
+
+     _Precarium_, nature of, 206;
+       prototype of the benefice, 206-207;
+       example of grant, 207-210.
+
+     _Principes_, among the early Germans, 27-28;
+       conduct in battle, 28.
+
+     Prudence, bishop of Troyes, 165.
+
+
+     Quadi, 35.
+
+     _Quadrivium_, 145, 339.
+
+
+     Ragnachar, kinsman of Clovis, 51;
+       slain, 58-59.
+
+     Raymond of Agiles, account of ordeal by fire, 201-202.
+
+     Raymond, count of Toulouse, letter to Arnold Atton, 227-228.
+
+     Raymond of St. Gilles, 294-295.
+
+     Ravenna, Dante's death at, 446.
+
+     Reformation, foreshadowings of, 474-477.
+
+     _Regalia_, in Concordat of Worms, 279-280;
+       claimed by Frederick Barbarossa, 398;
+       grant of to Lombard cities, 400-401.
+
+     Relief, defined, 223, 225;
+       origin, 225-226;
+       examples, 226;
+       rate fixed by Great Charter, 306.
+
+     Religion, of the early Germans, 21;
+       rise of Mohammedanism, 97-104;
+       the Koran quoted, 99-104;
+       Charlemagne's zeal for, 113.
+
+     Remigius, bishop of Rheims, 54.
+
+     Renaissance (Carolingian), conditions preceding, 144;
+       Charlemagne's part in, 145-146.
+
+     Renaissance (Italian), nature of, 444-445;
+       career of Dante, 446-447;
+       Dante's defense of Italian as literary language, 446-452;
+       Dante's conception of the imperial power, 452-462;
+       career and writings of Petrarch, 462-465;
+       Petrarch's love of the classics, 465-469;
+       his letter to Posterity, 469-473.
+
+     _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt_ (by Ammianus Marcellinus),
+         quoted, 34-37, 38-41, 43-46.
+
+     _Reserve_, nature of, 396.
+
+     Resurrection, portrayed in the Koran, 100.
+
+     Rhé, Northmen winter at, 165.
+
+     Rhine, the Roman frontier, 19-20;
+       trade in vicinity of, 30, 32.
+
+     Rhine League, conditions influencing formation, 334;
+       instituted at Worms, 335;
+       restrictions imposed on members, 335;
+       treatment of enemies of, 335-336;
+       capitals, 337;
+       governing body, 337;
+       military preparations, 338.
+
+     Richar, slain by Clovis, 59.
+
+     Richer, author of _Four Books of Histories_, 178.
+
+     Rivo Torto, St. Francis at, 369.
+
+     Robert I., 169, 177.
+
+     Robert the Strong, 168, 177.
+
+     Robert the Monk, version of Pope Urban's speech, 283-288.
+
+     Robert of Artois, connection with Hundred Years' War, 423.
+
+     Robertians, 168;
+       rivalry with Carolingians, 177.
+
+     Roger de Hoveden, 292.
+
+     Roger of Wendover, account of the winning of the Great Charter,
+         298-303, 404.
+
+     Roland, Song of, 236.
+
+     Rollo, receives Normandy from Charles the Simple, 172;
+       baptized, 172;
+       improvement of Normandy, 173.
+
+     Romans, conquest of Gaul by, 19;
+       travelers and traders in Germany, 23, 32;
+       defeat of Varus, 32;
+       put on the defensive, 32;
+       early contact with the Germans, 32-33;
+       alarmed by reports of Gothic restlessness, 35;
+       mistreat the Visigoths, 37;
+       defeated at Adrianople, 39-41;
+       withdraw garrisons from Britain, 68.
+
+     Roman Empire, filtration of Germans into, 33;
+       efforts to enlarge to the northward, 19, 32;
+       Visigoths desire to enter, 34;
+       Visigoths settle in, 36-37;
+       relation of Charlemagne's empire to, 131-132.
+
+     Romanus Diogenes, defeated at Manzikert, 282.
+
+     Rome, development of papacy at, 78-79;
+       Pepin the Short sends deputation to, 106;
+       Charlemagne's visits to, 111, 114;
+       Charlemagne crowned at, 130, 132-134;
+       plundered by the Saracens, 160.
+
+     Romulus Augustulus, 131.
+
+     Roncesvalles, Count Roland slain at, 236.
+
+     Rorik, leader of Northmen, 161.
+
+     Rouen, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned at, 243.
+
+     Rudolph I., of Hapsburg, elected emperor, 409.
+
+     _Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales_, quoted, 156.
+
+     Rufinus, companion of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     Rule, of St. Francis, drawn up, 373-374;
+       quoted, 375-376.
+
+     Runnymede, Great Charter promulgated at, 303.
+
+     Rupert I., founds University of Heidelberg, 345.
+
+
+     _Sacrosancta_, decree of, 391.
+
+     St. Albans, 298.
+
+     St. Andrew, monastery of, established, 90.
+
+     St. Augustine, author of _De Civitate Dei_, 111.
+
+     St. Benedict, career of, 84;
+       service to European monasticism, 84;
+       Rule of, 84-90.
+
+     St. Bernard, times of, 250;
+       founds Clairvaux, 250;
+       biography of, 251;
+       birth and parentage, 251;
+       early traits, 252;
+       decides to become a monk, 252-253;
+       at Châtillon, 254;
+       enters Cîteaux,254;
+       obtains ability to reap, 255;
+       piety and knowledge of Scriptures, 255-256;
+       goes forth from Cîteaux, 256;
+       founds monastery at Clairvaux, 256-257.
+
+     St. Bonaventura, author of official life of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, treaty of, 172.
+
+     St. David, 181.
+
+     St. Dionysius, 387.
+
+     St. Dominic, founder of Dominican order, 360.
+
+     St. Edmund's, magnates of England assemble at, 298.
+
+     St. Francis, early career, 362;
+       sources of information on, 362;
+       youthful follies, 364;
+       redeeming qualities, 364;
+       change in manner of life, 365-366;
+       zeal in charity, 366-367;
+       begs alms at Rome, 367;
+       overcomes aversion to lepers, 368;
+       refuses to dwell in an adorned cell, 369;
+       humiliates himself publicly, 370-371;
+       love for the larks, 371-372;
+       regard for all created things, 372-373;
+       draws up his Rule, 373-374;
+       the Rule quoted, 375;
+       the will of, 376-378;
+       attitude toward the existing Church, 375, 377-378;
+       enjoins poverty and labor, 377-379.
+
+     St. Germain des Prés, 165, 169.
+
+     St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, 56.
+
+     St. Jerome, translation of Scriptures, 193;
+       cited by Petrarch, 468.
+
+     St. Louis (see Louis IX.).
+
+     St. Marcellus, Church of, 212.
+
+     St. Martin (of Tours), career of, 48;
+       shrine of visited by pilgrims, 48;
+       Clovis's respect for, 55, 57;
+       church at Canterbury dedicated to, 77;
+       monastery at Tours dedicated to, 83;
+       church of burned by Northmen, 162, 167.
+
+     St. Peter, Christ's commission to, 79, 81.
+
+     St. Peter, Church of, Charlemagne's gifts to, 114;
+       Charlemagne crowned in, 133;
+       fortified, 161.
+
+     St. Quentin, Fulrad abbot of, 142;
+       Dudo, dean of, 165.
+
+     Savigny, granted as fief to bishop of Beauvais, 215.
+
+     Saisset, Bernard, offends Philip the Fair, 384.
+
+     Salerno, University of, 341.
+
+     Salic law, cited, 25;
+       date, 60;
+       character, 60;
+       editions and translation, 61;
+       monetary system in, 61;
+       summonses to meetings of the local courts, 61;
+       theft, 62;
+       robbery with assault, 63;
+       incendiarism, 63;
+       deeds of violence, 63;
+       use of poison or witchcraft, 64;
+       slander, 64;
+       trespass, 65;
+       homicide, 65;
+       right of migration, 66;
+       debt, 66;
+       inheritance, 66-67;
+       wergeld, 67.
+
+     Saracens, plunder Rome, 160;
+       Italian league against, 160;
+       renew devastation, 161;
+       in possession of the Holy Land, 282;
+       combats with crusaders, 292-296;
+       project to turn the Tartars against, 317;
+       operations against St. Louis, 318-322;
+       Frederick II. accused of friendly relations with, 405-407.
+
+     Saxon Chronicle, quoted, 241-244.
+
+     Saxons, conquer Britain while yet pagans, 49;
+       infest British coasts, 68;
+       appear at Thanet, 69;
+       called in by Britons, 69;
+       settlement in Britain, 70;
+       ally with Picts, 71;
+       conquest of Britain, 71-72;
+       pagan character, 72;
+       Christianization begun, 73-77;
+       in Charlemagne's day, 115-117;
+       problem of conquest, 115-116;
+       lack of natural frontier, 117;
+       faithlessness, 117;
+       transplanted in part to Gaul, 117;
+       Charlemagne's peace with, 118;
+       massacre at Verden, 117;
+       formula for acceptance of Christianity, 118;
+       Charlemagne's capitularies concerning, 118-123;
+       provisions for establishment of Christianity among, 120-122;
+       penalties for persistence in paganism, 122;
+       fugitive criminals, 123;
+       public assemblies, 123.
+
+     Scheldt River, 58.
+
+     Schism, Great, origin, 389-390;
+       plans of University of Paris to end, 391-392;
+       Councils of Pisa and Constance, 390-393;
+       stops proceedings against Wyclif, 475.
+
+     Schools (see Education).
+
+     Scots, menace the Britons, 68;
+       Saxons called in against, 69.
+
+     Scutage, increased by King John, 297;
+       method of raising specified in Great Charter, 306.
+
+     Scythia, 43.
+
+     Seine, Northmen on, 166, 168.
+
+     Seligenstadt, Einhard at, 109.
+
+     Selwood, Alfred at, 184.
+
+     Senlis, meeting of Frankish magnates at, 178.
+
+     Sens, given over to Northmen to plunder, 171.
+
+     Septimania, conquered by Childebert, 57.
+
+     Septuagint, 192.
+
+     Serfs, fugitive, 138.
+
+     Sergius II., 158.
+
+     Senlac (see Hastings).
+
+     Siegfred, leads siege of Paris, 168.
+
+     Siena, Council of, 395.
+
+     Sigibert the Lame, slain by son's agents, 57.
+
+     Sigismund, appealed to by John XXIII., 391.
+
+     Simony, 261;
+       Henry IV.'s councilors condemned for, 264.
+
+     Slander, in the Salic law, 64.
+
+     Slavery, among the early Germans, 31.
+
+     Slavs, location in Charlemagne's day, 330;
+       German encroachment upon, 331.
+
+     Sluys, naval battle of, 424-427.
+
+     Soana, Hildebrand born at, 261.
+
+     Soissons, capital of Syagrius's kingdom, 51;
+       Clovis defeats Syagrius at, 51;
+       episode of the broken vase, 51-52;
+       Pepin the Short anointed at, 107;
+       council at, 381.
+
+     _Solidus_, value, 61.
+
+     Spain, invaded by Northmen, 166.
+
+     Spanish March, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, 115.
+
+     _Speculum Perfectionis_ (by Brother Leo), quoted, 368-373.
+
+     Speyer, Henry IV. flees from, 274.
+
+     Stamford, English barons meet at, 300.
+
+     Stamford Bridge, Harold Hardrada defeated at, 234.
+
+     Stephen, abbot of Cîteaux, 254.
+
+     Stephen III., crowns Pepin the Short, 106.
+
+     Stephen IX., 261.
+
+     Stephen of Blois, sketch of, 292;
+       letter to his wife, 292-296;
+       recounts experiences of crusaders, 293;
+       describes siege of Antioch, 293-296.
+
+     Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, 298, 299.
+
+     Strassburg, battle of won by Clovis, 49, 50, 53;
+       results, 53-54;
+       oaths of Charles and Louis at, 150, 152-154;
+       linguistic and historical significance, 150-151.
+
+     Strassfurt, Frankish assembly at, 142.
+
+     Students, privileges granted to by Frederick I., 341-343;
+       by Philip Augustus, 343-345;
+       itinerant character of, 351-352;
+       songs of, 353-359.
+
+     Subasio, Mount, St. Francis seeks seclusion at, 370.
+
+     Suetonius, 34;
+       as model for Einhard, 109.
+
+     Suevi, described by Cæsar, 21.
+
+     Swanwich, Danes defeated at, 183.
+
+     Syagrius, "king of the Romans," 50-51;
+       defeated by Clovis at Soissons, 51;
+       takes refuge with Alaric, 51;
+       surrendered and put to death, 51.
+
+     Sylvester II. (Gerbert), 283.
+
+     Syria, overrun by Arabs, 282;
+       partially recovered, 282;
+       conquered by Seljuk Turks, 282;
+       described by Pope Urban, 286;
+       crusaders in, 293-296.
+
+
+     Tacitus, describes the Germans in his _Germania_, 23-31;
+       sources of information, 23;
+       object in writing, 23-24.
+
+     Tartary, Khan of, sends deputation to St. Louis, 316-317.
+
+     Taxation, not developed among the early Germans, 29.
+
+     Templars, in England, 299;
+       Turks attack, 319.
+
+     Tertullian, 72.
+
+     Tescelin, father of St. Bernard, 251.
+
+     Teutoberg Forest, Varus defeated at, 32.
+
+     _Teutones_, 32.
+
+     Thames, Danes appear on, 181.
+
+     Thanet, Saxons appear at, 69;
+       conceded to them by Vortigern, 70;
+       population, 75;
+       Augustine lands at, 75.
+
+     Theft, in the Salic law, 62;
+       Charlemagne's legislation on, 141.
+
+     Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes, grants fief to Jocelyn
+         d'Avalon, 216.
+
+     Thrace, selected as a haven by the Visigoths, 35;
+       conceded to them by Valens, 36.
+
+     Toulouges, Council of, decrees Peace and Truce of God, 229-232.
+
+     Toulouse, Visigothic capital, 51;
+       Syagrius takes refuge at, 51.
+
+     Tours, Gregory, bishop of, 47-48;
+       monastery and shrine of St. Martin at, 48;
+       Alaric and Clovis meet near, 55;
+       monastery at dedicated to St. Martin, 83;
+       truce of, 439.
+
+     Towns, lack of among the early Germans, 29;
+       prevalence in Græco-Roman world, 29;
+       use of in France, 325;
+       origins of, 325-326;
+       classes of, 326-327;
+       charter of Laon, 327-328;
+       charter of Lorris, 328-330.
+
+     Trajan, wars in the Rhine country, 23.
+
+     Trespass, in the Salic law, 65.
+
+     Tribur, conference of German nobles at, 274-275.
+
+     _Trivium_, 145, 339.
+
+     Troyes, county of, 215.
+
+     Troyes, treaty of, negotiated, 440-441;
+       provisions of, 443.
+
+     Truce of God, decreed by church councils, 229;
+       decree of Council of Toulouges, 229-232;
+       reissued by Council of Clermont, 286.
+
+     Turks, Seljuk, invasions of, 282;
+       ravages depicted by Pope Urban, 285;
+       defeated by crusaders, 293;
+       attack the Templars, 318;
+       operations against St. Louis, 318-322.
+
+
+     _Unam Sanctam_, issued by Boniface VIII., 383-385;
+       quoted, 385-388.
+
+     Universities, origins of in Middle Ages, 339;
+       patronage of by Church and temporal powers, 340;
+       privileges granted to students by Frederick I., 341-343;
+       by Philip Augustus, 343-345;
+       rise in Germany, 345;
+       charter of Heidelberg, 345-350;
+       student songs, 351-359.
+
+     Unstrutt, Henry IV.'s victory at, 265.
+
+     Urban II., appealed to by Alexius Comnenus, 283;
+       speech at Clermont, 283-288;
+       appeal to the French, 284-285;
+       enumerates reasons for a crusade, 285-287;
+       results of speech, 287-288.
+
+     Urban VI., approves foundation of University of Heidelberg, 346;
+       elected pope, 389;
+       Wyclif's letter to, 475-477.
+
+
+     Valens, Visigoths send embassy to, 35;
+       flattered into acceding to their request, 36;
+       seeks to quell Visigothic uprising, 37-38;
+       rash resolve to attack, 38;
+       defeat, 41.
+
+     Valentinian I., 35.
+
+     Valentinian III., 69.
+
+     Varus, defeated at the Teutoberg Forest, 32.
+
+     Vassalage, origins, 204-205;
+       relations with _patrocinium_ and _comitatus_, 205;
+       commendation defined, 205;
+       formula for commendation, 205-206;
+       relation to benefice, 207;
+       obligations of, 220-221.
+
+     Vecta, 71.
+
+     Venice, treaty of, 399.
+
+     Verden, massacre of Saxons at, 117.
+
+     Verdun, treaty of, 154-156;
+       territorial division by, 155.
+
+     _Vicarius_, functions, 176.
+
+     Victgilsus, 71.
+
+     Vienna, University of, founded, 345.
+
+     Villages, among the early Germans, 30.
+
+     _Villes franches_, nature of, 326-327.
+
+     _Villes libres_, nature of, 326;
+       Laon as an example, 327-328.
+
+     Vincennes, 323.
+
+     Viscount, functions, 176.
+
+     Visigoths, invasion of the Roman Empire described by Ammianus
+         Marcellinus, 32-41;
+       receive Dacia from Aurelian, 33;
+       threatened by the Huns, 33;
+       select Thrace as a haven, 35;
+       send embassy to Valens, 35;
+       receive the desired permission, 36;
+       cross the Danube, 36-37;
+       terms of the settlement, 37;
+       mistreated by the Romans, 37;
+       rise in revolt, 37;
+       Valens resolves to attack, 38;
+       advance toward Nice, 38;
+       defeat the Romans at Adrianople, 39-41;
+       Alaric, king of, 51, 54-55;
+       defeated by Clovis, 56;
+       Amalaric, king of, retreats to Spain, 56;
+       new capital at Toledo, 56.
+
+     _Vita Caroli Magni_ (by Einhard), purpose, 109;
+       value, 109;
+       translation of, 109, 116;
+       quoted, 109-114, 116-118.
+
+     _Vitæ Pontificorum Romanorum_, quoted, 133-134.
+
+     Vortigern, king of the Britons, 68;
+       invites Saxons into Britain, 69.
+
+     Vortimer, 71.
+
+     Vulcan, worshipped by the Germans, 21, 26.
+
+     Vouillé, Clovis defeats Alaric at, 56.
+
+     Vulgate, 193;
+       origin of, 468.
+
+
+     Wager of battle, discouraged by the Church, 197.
+
+     Wales, Christianity in, 72.
+
+     Wardship, nature of, 224;
+       conditions of prescribed by Norman custom, 224-225;
+       conditions of defined in Great Charter, 306.
+
+     Warfare, of the early Germans, 22, 25-26, 28-29;
+       of the Huns, 45;
+       prevalence in feudal times, 228-229;
+       efforts to restrict, 229;
+       decline of feudal, 428.
+
+     Weapons, of the early Germans, 24;
+       of the Huns, 45.
+
+     Wedmore, treaty of, 185.
+
+     Wends, 158, 159, 160.
+
+     Werfrith, bishop of Worcester, 189;
+       Alfred's letter to, 191-194.
+
+     Wergeld, 65;
+       in the Salic law, 67, 141.
+
+     Werwulf, of Mercia, 190.
+
+     Westminster, William the Conqueror wears crown at, 242.
+
+     Widukind, account of Saxon conquest, 116.
+
+     William of Aquitaine, letter of Fulbert of Chartres to, 220-221.
+
+     William the Conqueror, power as duke of Normandy, 233;
+       claims to throne of England, 234;
+       prepares to invade England, 234;
+       makes ready for battle, 236;
+       his strategem at Hastings, 236-237;
+       his valor in battle, 237;
+       his government described in the Saxon Chronicle, 241-244;
+       religious zeal, 242;
+       extent of his authority, 243;
+       forest laws, 244.
+
+     William, count of Flanders, homage and fealty to, 218-219.
+
+     William of Holland, claimant to imperial title, 334.
+
+     William of Jumièges, 165.
+
+     William of Malmesbury, sketch of, 235;
+       author of _Chronicle of the Kings of England_, 235, 288.
+
+     William the Pious, issues charter for monastery at Cluny, 245;
+       motives for benefaction, 247;
+       land and other property ceded, 247-248.
+
+     William of St. Thierry, biographer of St. Bernard, 251, 258.
+
+     Wilton, Alfred fights the Danes at, 182.
+
+     Winchester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, 242;
+       King John holds court at, 299.
+
+     Witan, 194.
+
+     Witchcraft, in the Salic law, 64.
+
+     Woden, 26, 49, 50, 71, 72, 119, 197.
+
+     Worcester, Werfrith, bishop of, 189.
+
+     Worms, 154;
+       council at decrees that Gregory VII. should abdicate, 270;
+       diet at, 279;
+       Concordat of, 279-281;
+       Rhine League formed at, 335;
+       with Mainz, to be League's capital, 337;
+       jurisdiction of bishop of over University of Heidelberg, 348,
+         350.
+
+     Wyclif, career of, 474-475.
+
+
+     Zacharias, consulted by Pepin the Short, 106;
+       advises him to take title of king, 107.
+
+     Zaid, collects sayings of Mohammed, 97.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY
+
+From Charlemagne to the Present Day
+
+By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D., Professor of European History,
+Indiana University, in consultation with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.,
+Professor of History, Harvard University.
+
+$1.50
+
+Essentials in Mediaeval History $1.00
+
+The difficulties usually encountered in treating mediaeval and modern
+history are here overcome by an easy and satisfactory method. By this
+plan Italy, France, Germany, and England are taken up in turn as each
+becomes the central figure on the world's stage. The first part of the
+book is devoted to the period previous to the Reformation; the second
+to modern history from the Reformation to the French Revolution; and
+the remainder to the century and a quarter since the occurrence of
+that great event. This arrangement gives an opportunity to discuss the
+greatness of England, the unification of Italy and of Germany, and the
+present organization of Europe under control of the concert of powers,
+on the same plane as the Crusades, or the Thirty Years' War, or the
+age of Louis XIV.
+
+¶ The three most difficult problems in mediaeval history--the feudal
+state, the church, and the rivalry between the empire and the
+church--are here discussed with great clearness and brevity. The
+central idea of the book is the development of the principle of
+national independence in both politics and religion from the earlier
+condition of a world empire.
+
+¶ For the convenience of those wishing a text-book on Mediaeval
+History alone, the period from Charlemagne to the close of the
+fifteenth century is issued in separate form.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER'S BRIEF HISTORY OF THE NATIONS
+
+By GEORGE PARK FISHER, LL.D., Emeritus Professor in Yale University
+
+$1.50
+
+This is an entirely independent work, written, expressly to meet the
+demand for a compact and acceptable text-book on General History for
+secondary schools and lower classes in colleges. Some of the
+distinctive qualities which will commend this book to teachers and
+students are as follows:
+
+¶ It narrates in fresh, vigorous, and attractive style the most
+important facts of history in their due order and connection. It
+explains the nature of historical evidence, and records only well
+established judgments respecting persons and events. It delineates the
+progress of peoples and nations in civilization as well as the rise
+and succession of dynasties.
+
+¶ It connects, in a single chain of narration, events related to each
+other in the contemporary history of different nations and countries.
+It is written from the standpoint of the present, and incorporates the
+latest discoveries of historical explorers and writers.
+
+¶ It is illustrated by numerous colored maps, genealogical tables, and
+artistic reproductions of architecture, sculpture, painting, and
+portraits of celebrated men, representing every period of the world's
+history.
+
+
+FISHER'S OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
+
+Revised, $2.40
+
+Also published in three parts, price, each, $1.00. Part I, Ancient
+History. Part II, Mediaeval History. Part III, Modern History.
+
+A new and revised edition of this standard work. Soon after the
+publication of the first edition of this history the author was
+honored by the University of Edinburgh with the degree of Doctor of
+Laws, in recognition of his services in the cause of historical
+research. In this edition the book is brought fully up to date in all
+particulars.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN ANCIENT HISTORY
+
+From the Earliest Records to Charlemagne. By ARTHUR MAYER WOLFSON,
+Ph.D., First Assistant in History, DeWitt Clinton High School, New
+York. In consultation with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., Professor of
+History, Harvard University
+
+$1.50
+
+This volume belongs to the Essentials in History Series, which follows
+the plan recommended by the Committee of Seven, and adopted by the
+College Entrance Examination Board, and by the New York State
+Education Department. The pedagogic apparatus is amply sufficient for
+any secondary school.
+
+¶ The essentials in ancient history are presented as a unit, beginning
+with the earliest civilization in the East, and ending with the
+establishment of the Western Empire by Charlemagne. More attention is
+paid to civilization than to mere constitutional development, the
+latter being brought out in the narrative, rather than as a series of
+separate episodes.
+
+¶ A departure has been made from the time-honored method of carrying
+the subject down to the end of Greek political life before beginning
+the story of Rome. The history of the two civilizations is not
+entirely distinct; hence, it has seemed wise, after completing the
+account of the life and work of Alexander, to tell the story of the
+beginnings of Rome. Afterwards the history of the East is resumed, and
+carried on to the point where it merges into that of Rome. Should any
+teacher, however, prefer the old method of treating the two nations,
+he has only to take up Chapters XXIV and XXV before Chapters XVIII to
+XXIII. The Roman Empire, a very important but much neglected period of
+history, is brought out in its just proportions, and with reference to
+the events which had the greatest influence.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN AMERICAN HISTORY
+
+From the Discovery to the Present Day. By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.,
+Professor of History, Harvard University
+
+$1.50
+
+Professor Hart was a member of the Committee of Seven, and
+consequently is exceptionally qualified to supervise the preparation
+of a series of text-books which carry out the ideas of that Committee.
+The needs of secondary schools, and the entrance requirements to all
+colleges, are fully met by the Essentials in History Series.
+
+¶ This volume reflects in an impressive manner the writer's broad
+grasp of the subject, his intimate knowledge of the relative
+importance of events, his keen insight into the cause and effect of
+each noteworthy occurrence, and his thorough familiarity with the most
+helpful pedagogical features--all of which make the work unusually
+well suited to students.
+
+¶ The purpose of the book is to present an adequate description of all
+essential things in the upbuilding of the country, and to supplement
+this by good illustrations and maps. Political geography, being the
+background of all historical knowledge, is made a special topic, while
+the development of government, foreign relations, the diplomatic
+adjustment of controversies, and social and economic conditions have
+been duly emphasized.
+
+¶ All sections of the Union, North, East, South, West, and Far West,
+have received fair treatment. Much attention is paid to the causes and
+results of our various wars, but only the most significant battles and
+campaigns have been described. The book aims to make distinct the
+character and public services of some great Americans, brief accounts
+of whose lives are given in special sections of the text. Towards the
+end a chapter sums up the services of America to mankind.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN ENGLISH HISTORY
+
+From the Earliest Records to the Present Day. By ALBERT PERRY WALKER,
+A.M., Master in History, English High School, Boston. In consultation
+with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., Professor of History, Harvard
+University
+
+$1.50
+
+Like the other volumes of the Essentials in History Series, this
+text-book is intended to form a year's work in secondary schools,
+following out the recommendation of the Committee of Seven, and
+meeting the requirements of the College Entrance Examination Board,
+and of the New York State Education Department. It contains the same
+general features, the same pedagogic apparatus, and the same topical
+method of treatment. The text is continuous, the sectional headings
+being placed in the margin. The maps and illustrations are worthy of
+special mention.
+
+¶ The book is a model of good historical exposition, unusually clear
+in expression, logical and coherent in arrangement, and accurate in
+statement. The essential facts in the development of the British
+Empire are vividly described, and the relation of cause and effect is
+clearly brought out.
+
+¶ The treatment begins with a brief survey of the whole course of
+English history, deducing therefrom three general movements: (1) the
+fusing of several races into the English people; (2) the solution by
+that people of two great problems: free and democratic home
+government, and practical, enlightened government of foreign
+dependencies; and (3) the extreme development of two great fields of
+industry, commerce and manufacture. The narrative follows the
+chronological order, and is full of matter which is as interesting as
+it is significant, ending with a masterly summary of England's
+contribution to civilization.
+
+
+
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY ENGLISH PROSE
+
+Critical Essays
+
+Edited with Introductions and Notes by THOMAS H. DICKINSON, Ph.D., and
+FREDERICK W. ROE, A.M., Assistant Professors of English, University of
+Wisconsin.
+
+$1.00
+
+This book for college classes presents a series of ten selected
+essays, which are intended to trace the development of English
+criticism in the nineteenth century. The choice of material has been
+influenced by something more than mere style. An underlying coherence
+in content, typical of the thought of the era in question, may be
+traced throughout. With but few exceptions the selections are given in
+their entirety.
+
+¶ The essays cover a definite period, and exhibit the individuality of
+each author's method of criticism. In each case they are those most
+typical of the author's critical principles, and at the same time
+representative of the critical tendencies of his age. The
+subject-matter provides interesting material for intensive study and
+class room discussion, and each essay is an example of excellent,
+though varying, style.
+
+¶ They represent not only the authors who write, but the authors who
+are treated. The essays provide the best things that have been said by
+England's critics on Swift, on Scott, on Macaulay, and on Emerson.
+
+¶ The introductions and notes provide the necessary biographical
+matter, suggestive points for the use of the teacher in stimulating
+discussion of the form or content of the essays, and such aids as will
+eliminate those matters of detail that might prove stumbling blocks to
+the student. Though the essays are in chronological order, they may be
+treated at random according to the purposes of the teacher.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE
+
+By JAMES WILFORD GARNER, Ph.D., Professor of Political Science,
+University of Illinois
+
+$2.50
+
+This systematic treatise on the science of government covers a wider
+range of topics on the nature, origin, organization, and functions of
+the state than is found in any other college textbook published in the
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+topics is based on a wide reading of the best literature on the
+subject in English, German, French, and Italian, and the student has
+opportunity to profit by this research work through the bibliographies
+placed at the head of each chapter, as well as by means of many
+additional references in the footnotes.
+
+¶ An introductory chapter is followed by chapters on the nature and
+essential elements of the state; on the various theories concerning
+the origin of the state; on the forms of the state; on the forms of
+government, including a discussion of the elements of strength and
+weakness of each; on sovereignty, its nature, its essential
+characteristics, and its abiding place in the state; on the functions
+and sphere of the state, including the various theories of state
+activity; and on the organization of the state. In addition there are
+chapters on constitutions, their nature, forms, and development; on
+the distribution of the powers of government; on the electorate; and
+on citizenship and nationality.
+
+¶ Before stating his own conclusions the author gives an impartial
+discussion of the more important theories of the origin, nature, and
+functions of the state, and analyzes and criticises them in the light
+of the best scientific thought and practice. Thus the pupil becomes
+familiar with the history of the science as well as with its
+principles as recognized to-day.
+
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Source Book of Mediæval History, Edited by
+Frederic Austin Ogg</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: A Source Book of Mediæval History</p>
+<p>       Documents Illustrative of European Life and Institutions from the German Invasions to the Renaissance</p>
+<p>Editor: Frederic Austin Ogg</p>
+<p>Release Date: March 21, 2012  [eBook #39227]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIæVAL HISTORY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Melissa McDaniel<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.archive.org">http://www.archive.org</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="tnbox">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></p>
+<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
+Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original
+document have been preserved.</p>
+</div>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #f6f2f2;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/sourcebookofmedi00oggfuoft">
+      http://www.archive.org/details/sourcebookofmedi00oggfuoft</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1><span class="s08">A SOURCE BOOK OF</span><br /><br />
+MEDIÆVAL HISTORY<br /><br />
+
+<span class="s05">DOCUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF EUROPEAN LIFE AND</span><br />
+<span class="s05">INSTITUTIONS FROM THE GERMAN INVASIONS</span><br />
+<span class="s05">TO THE RENAISSANCE</span></h1>
+
+<p class="p4 center">EDITED BY<br />
+FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG, A.M.<br /><br />
+
+<span class="s07">ASSISTANT IN HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY</span><br />
+<span class="s07">AND INSTRUCTOR IN SIMMONS COLLEGE</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter p4">
+<img src="images/logo100.jpg" width="100" height="109" alt="Printer's Logo" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4 center">NEW YORK &middot; : &middot; CINCINNATI &middot; : &middot; CHICAGO</p>
+
+<p class="center b11">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p6 center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1907, by</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG</span></p>
+
+<p class="center s08"><span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers' Hall, London</span><br />
+<span class="s08">W. P. 4</span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This book has been prepared in consequence of a conviction, derived
+from some years of teaching experience, (1) that sources, of
+proper kind and in carefully regulated amount, can profitably be
+made use of by teachers and students of history in elementary college
+classes, in academies and preparatory schools, and in the more advanced
+years of the average high school, and (2) that for mediæval
+history there exists no published collection which is clearly adapted
+to practical conditions of work in such classes and schools.</p>
+
+<p>It has seemed to me that a source book designed to meet the requirements
+of teachers and classes in the better grade of secondary
+schools, and perhaps in the freshman year of college work, ought to
+comprise certain distinctive features, first, with respect to the character
+of the selections presented, and, secondly, in regard to general
+arrangement and accompanying explanatory matter. In the choice
+of extracts I have sought to be guided by the following considerations:
+(1) that in all cases the materials presented should be of real
+value, either for the historical information contained in them or for
+the more or less indirect light they throw upon mediæval life or conditions;
+(2) that, for the sake of younger students, a relatively large proportion
+of narrative (annals, chronicles, and biography) be introduced
+and the purely documentary material be slightly subordinated; (3) that,
+despite this principle, documents of vital importance, such as <i>Magna
+Charta</i> and <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, which cannot be ignored in even the most
+hasty or elementary study, be presented with some fulness; and (4) that,
+in general, the rule should be to give longer passages from fewer sources,
+rather than more fragmentary ones from a wider range.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the manner of presenting the selections, I have
+sought: (1) to offer careful translations&mdash;some made afresh from the
+printed originals, others adapted from good translations already available&mdash;but
+with as much simplification and modernization of language
+as close adherence to the sense will permit. Literal, or nearly literal,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span>
+translations are obviously desirable for maturer students, but, because
+of the involved character of mediæval writings, are rarely readable,
+and are as a rule positively repellent to the young mind; (2) to provide
+each selection, or group of selections, with an introductory explanation,
+containing the historical setting of the extract, with perhaps
+some comment on its general significance, and also a brief sketch of
+the writer, particularly when he is an authority of exceptional importance,
+as Einhard, Joinville, or Froissart; and (3) to supply, in foot-notes,
+somewhat detailed aid to the understanding of obscure allusions,
+omitted passages, and especially place names and technical terms.</p>
+
+<p>For permission to reprint various translations, occasionally verbatim
+but usually in adapted form, I am under obligation to the following:
+Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin and Co., publishers of Miss Henry's translation
+of Dante's <i>De Monarchia</i>; Messrs. Henry Holt and Co.,
+publishers of Lee's <i>Source Book of English History</i>; Messrs. Ginn and
+Co., publishers of Robinson's <i>Readings in European History</i>; Messrs.
+Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers of Thatcher and McNeal's <i>Source
+Book for Mediæval History</i>; Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons, publishers
+of Robinson and Rolfe's <i>Petrarch</i>; and Professor W. E. Lingelbach, of
+the University of Pennsylvania, representing the University of Pennsylvania
+<i>Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European
+History</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the preparation of the book I have received invaluable assistance
+from numerous persons, among whom the following, at least, should
+be named: Professor Samuel B. Harding, of the University of Indiana,
+who read the entire work in manuscript and has followed its progress
+from the first with discerning criticism; Professor Charles H. Haskins,
+of Harvard University, who has read most of the proof-sheets, and
+whose scholarship and intimate acquaintance with the problems of
+history teaching have contributed a larger proportion of whatever
+merits the book possesses than I dare attempt to reckon up; and
+Professors Charles Gross and Ephraim Emerton, likewise of Harvard,
+whose instruction and counsel have helped me over many hard places.</p>
+
+<p>The final word must be reserved for my wife, who, as careful amanuensis,
+has shared the burden of a not altogether easy task.</p>
+
+<p class="left65">
+FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cambridge, Mass.</span>
+</p>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<h3>THE NATURE AND USE OF HISTORICAL SOURCES</h3>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If one proposes to write a history of the times of Abraham Lincoln,
+how shall one begin, and how proceed? Obviously, the first thing
+needed is information, and as much of it as can be had. But how shall
+information, accurate and trustworthy, be obtained? Of course there
+are plenty of books on Lincoln, and histories enough covering the
+period of his career to fill shelf upon shelf. It would be quite possible
+to spread some dozens of these before one's self and, drawing simply
+from them, work out a history that would read well and perhaps
+have a wide sale. And such a book might conceivably be worth while.
+But if you were reading it, and were a bit disposed to query into the
+accuracy of the statements made, you would probably find yourself
+wondering before long just where the writer got his authority for this
+or that assertion; and if, in foot-note or appendix, he should seem to
+satisfy your curiosity by citing some other biography or history, you
+would be quite justified in feeling that, after all, your inquiry remained
+unanswered,&mdash;for whence did this second writer get <i>his</i> authority? If
+<span class="sidebar">The question
+of authority
+in a book
+of history</span>
+you were thus persistent you would probably get hold of the volume
+referred to and verify, as we say, the statements of fact
+or opinion attributed to it. When you came upon them
+you might find it there stated that the point in question
+is clearly established from certain of Lincoln's own letters or
+speeches, which are thereupon cited, and perhaps quoted in part.
+At last you would be satisfied that the thing must very probably be
+true, for there you would have the words of Lincoln himself upon it;
+or, on the other hand, you might discover that your first writer had
+merely adopted an opinion of somebody else which did not have behind
+it the warrant of any first-hand authority. In either case you might
+well wonder why, instead of using and referring only to books of other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span>
+later authors like himself, he did not go directly to Lincoln's own works,
+get his facts from them, and give authority for his statements at first
+hand. And if you pushed the matter farther it would very soon occur
+to you that there are some books on Lincoln and his period which are
+not carefully written, and therefore not trustworthy, and that your
+author may very well have used some of these, falling blindly into their
+errors and at times wholly escaping the correct interpretation of things
+which could be had, in incontrovertible form, from Lincoln's own pen,
+or from the testimony of his contemporaries. In other words, you
+would begin to distrust him because he had failed to go to the
+"sources" for his materials, or at least for a verification of them.</p>
+
+<p>How, then, shall one proceed in the writing of history in order to
+make sure of the indispensable quality of accuracy? Clearly, the first
+thing to be borne in mind is the necessity of getting information through
+channels which are as direct and immediate as possible. Just as in
+ascertaining the facts regarding an event of to-day it would be desirable
+to get the testimony of an eye-witness rather than an account
+after it had passed from one person to another, suffering more or less
+distortion at every step, so, in seeking a trustworthy description of the
+<span class="sidebar">The superiority
+of direct
+sources of
+knowledge</span>
+battle of Salamis or of the personal habits of Charlemagne,
+the proper course would be to lay hold first of
+all of whatever evidence concerning these things has
+come down from Xerxes's or Charlemagne's day to our own, and to put
+larger trust in this than in more recent accounts which have been played
+upon by the imagination of their authors and perhaps rendered wholly
+misleading by errors consciously or unconsciously injected into them.
+The writer of history must completely divest himself of the notion that
+a thing is true simply because he finds it in print. He may, and
+should, read and consider well what others like himself have written
+upon his subject, but he should be wary of accepting what he finds in
+such books without himself going to the materials to which these
+writers have resorted and ascertaining whether they have been used
+with patience and discrimination. If his subject is Lincoln, he should,
+for example, make sure above everything else, of reading exhaustively
+the letters, speeches, and state papers which have been preserved,
+in print or in manuscript, from Lincoln's pen. Similarly, he should
+examine with care all letters and communications of every kind transmitted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span>
+to Lincoln. Then he should familiarize himself with the writings
+of the leading men of Lincoln's day, whether in the form of letters,
+diaries, newspaper and magazine articles, or books. The files, indeed,
+of all the principal periodicals of the time should be gone through in
+quest of information or suggestions not to be found in other places.
+And, of course, the vast mass of public and official records would be
+invaluable&mdash;the journals of the two houses of Congress, the dispatches,
+orders, and accounts of the great executive departments, the arguments
+before the courts, with the resulting decisions, and the all but numberless
+other papers which throw light upon the practical conditions and
+achievements of the governing powers, national, state, and local. However
+much one may be able to acquire from the reading of later biographies
+and histories, he ought not to set about the writing of a new
+book of the sort unless he is willing to toil patiently through all these
+first-hand, contemporary materials and get some warrant from them,
+as being nearest the events themselves, for everything of importance
+that he proposes to say. This rule is equally applicable and urgent
+whatever the subject in hand&mdash;whether the age of Pericles, the Roman
+Empire, the Norman conquest of England, the French Revolution, or
+the administrations of George Washington&mdash;though, obviously, the
+character and amount of the contemporary materials of which one can
+avail himself varies enormously from people to people and from period
+to period.</p>
+
+<p>History is unlike many other subjects of study in that our knowledge
+of it, at best, must come to us almost wholly through indirect
+means. That is to say, all our information regarding the past, and most
+of it regarding our own day, has to be obtained, in one form or another,
+through other people, or the remains that they have left behind them.
+No one of us can know much about even so recent an event as the
+<span class="sidebar">Indirect
+character of
+all historical
+knowledge</span>
+Spanish-American War, except by reading newspapers,
+magazines and books, talking with men who had part
+in it, or listening to public addresses concerning it&mdash;all
+indirect means. And, of course, when we go back of the memory of
+men now living, say to the American Revolution, nobody can lay claim
+to an iota of knowledge which he has not acquired through indirect
+channels. In physics or chemistry, if a student desires, he can reproduce
+in the laboratory practically any phenomenon which he finds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span>
+described in his books; he need not accept the mere word of his text
+or of his teacher, but can actually behold the thing with his own eyes.
+Such experimentation, however, has no place in the study of history,
+for by no sort of art can a Roman legion or a German comitatus or the
+battle of Hastings be reproduced before mortal eye.</p>
+
+<p>For our knowledge of history we are therefore obliged to rely absolutely
+upon human testimony, in one form or another, the value of
+such testimony depending principally upon the directness with which
+it comes to us from the men and the times under consideration. If it
+reaches us with reasonable directness, and represents a well authenticated
+means of studying the period in question from the writings or other
+<span class="sidebar">An "historical
+source"
+defined</span>
+traces left by that period, it is properly to be included
+in the great body of materials which we have come to
+call historical sources. An historical source may be
+defined as any product of human activity or existence that can be
+used as direct evidence in the study of man's past life and institutions.
+A moment's thought will suggest that there are "sources" of numerous
+and widely differing kinds. Roughly speaking, at least, they fall into
+two great groups: (1) those in writing and (2) those in some form other
+than writing. The first group is by far the larger and more important.
+Foremost in it stand annals, chronicles, and histories, written from time
+to time all along the line of human history, on the cuneiform
+tablets of the Assyrians or the parchment rolls of the mediæval monks,
+in the polished Latin of a Livy or the sprightly French of a Froissart.
+Works of pure literature also&mdash;epics, lyrics, dramas, essays&mdash;because
+of the light that they often throw upon the times in which they were
+written, possess a large value of the same general character. Of nearly
+equal importance is the great class of materials which may be called
+documentary&mdash;laws, charters, formulæ, accounts, treaties, and official
+<span class="sidebar">Written
+sources</span>
+orders or instructions. These last are obviously of
+largest value in the study of social customs, land
+tenures, systems of government, the workings of courts, ecclesiastical
+organizations, and political agencies&mdash;in other words, of <i>institutions</i>&mdash;just
+as chronicles and histories are of greatest service in unraveling the
+<i>narrative</i> side of human affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Of sources which are not in the form of writing, the most important
+are: (1) implements of warfare, agriculture, household economy, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span>
+the chase, large quantities of which have been brought to light in
+various parts of the world, and which bear witness to the manner of
+life prevailing among the peoples who produced and used them; (2) coins,
+hoarded up in treasuries or buried in tombs or ruins of one sort or another,
+<span class="sidebar">Sources
+other than
+in writing</span>
+frequently preserving likenesses of important sovereigns, with
+dates and other materials of use especially in fixing
+chronology; (3) works of art, surviving intact or with
+losses or changes inflicted by the ravages of weather
+and human abuse&mdash;the tombs of the Egyptians, the sculpture of the
+Greeks, the architecture of the Middle Ages, or the paintings of the
+Renaissance; (4) other constructions of a more practical character,
+particularly dwelling-houses, roads, bridges, aqueducts, walls, gates,
+fortresses, and ships,&mdash;some well preserved and surviving as they were
+first fashioned, others in ruins, and still others built over and more or
+less obscured by modern improvement or adaptation.</p>
+
+<p>These are some of the things to which the writer of history must go
+for his facts and for his inspiration, and it is to these that the
+student, whose business is to learn and not to write, ought occasionally
+to resort to enliven and supplement what he finds in the books. As
+there are many kinds of sources, so there are many ways in which such
+materials may be utilized. If, for example, you are studying the life of
+the Greeks and in that connection pay a visit to a museum of fine arts
+and scrutinize Greek statuary, Greek vases, and Greek coins, you
+are very clearly using sources. If your subject is the church life of
+the later Middle Ages and you journey to Rheims or Amiens or Paris
+to contemplate the splendid cathedrals in these cities, with their spires
+<span class="sidebar">Various
+ways of using
+sources</span>
+and arches and ornamentation, you are, in every
+proper sense, using sources. You are doing the same
+thing if you make an observation trip to the Egyptian
+pyramids, or to the excavated Roman forum, or if you traverse the
+line of old Watling Street&mdash;nay, if you but visit Faneuil Hall, or tramp
+over the battlefield of Gettysburg. Many of these more purely "material"
+sources can be made use of only after long and sometimes
+arduous journeys, or through the valuable, but somewhat less
+satisfactory, medium of pictures and descriptions. Happily, however,
+the art of printing and the practice of accumulating enormous
+libraries have made possible the indefinite duplication of <i>written</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span>
+sources, and consequently the use of them at almost any time and in
+almost any place. There is but one Sphinx, one Parthenon, one Sistine
+Chapel; there are not many Roman roads, feudal castles, or Gothic
+cathedrals; but scarcely a library in any civilized country is without
+a considerable number of the monumental <i>documents</i> of human history&mdash;the
+funeral oration of Pericles, the laws of Tiberius Gracchus, Magna
+Charta, the theses of Luther, the Bill of Rights, the Constitution of the
+United States&mdash;not to mention the all but limitless masses of histories,
+biographies, poems, letters, essays, memoirs, legal codes, and official
+records of every variety which are available for any one who seriously
+desires to make use of them.</p>
+
+<p>But why should the younger student trouble himself, or be troubled,
+with any of these things? Might he not get all the history he can be
+expected to know from books written by scholars who have given their
+lives to exploring, organizing, and sifting just such sources? There can
+be no question that schools and colleges to-day have the use of better
+text-books in history than have ever before been available, and that
+truer notions of the subject in its various relations can be had from even
+the most narrow devotion to these texts than could be had from the
+study of their predecessors a generation ago. If the object of studying
+history were solely to acquire facts, it would, generally speaking, be a
+waste of time for high school or younger college students to wander far
+from text-books. But, assuming that history is studied not alone for
+the mastery of facts but also for the broadening of culture, and for certain
+kinds of mental training, the properly regulated use of sources by the
+student himself is to be justified on at least three grounds: (1) Sources
+<span class="sidebar">The value
+of sources
+to the student</span>
+help to an understanding of the point of view of the men,
+and the spirit of the age under consideration. The
+ability to dissociate one's self from his own surroundings
+and habits of thinking and to put himself in the company of Cæsar, of
+Frederick Barbarossa, or of Innocent III., as the occasion may require,
+is the hardest, but perhaps the most valuable, thing that the student
+of history can hope to get. (2) Sources add appreciably to the vividness
+and reality of history. However well-written the modern description
+of Charlemagne, for example, the student ought to find a somewhat
+different flavor in the account by the great Emperor's own friend
+and secretary, Einhard; and, similarly, Matthew Paris's picture of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>
+the raving and fuming of Frederick II. at his excommunication by
+Pope Gregory ought to bring the reader into a somewhat more intimate
+appreciation of the character of the proud German-Sicilian emperor.
+(3) The use of sources, in connection with the reading of secondary
+works, may be expected to train the student, to some extent at least,
+in methods of testing the accuracy of modern writers, especially when
+the subject in hand is one that lends itself to a variety of interpretations.
+In the sources the makers of history, or those who stood close
+to them, are allowed to speak for themselves, or for their times, and the
+study of such materials not only helps plant in the student's mind the
+conception of fairness and impartiality in judging historical characters,
+but also cultivates the habit of tracing things back to their origins and
+verifying what others have asserted about them. So far as practicable
+the student of history, from the age of fourteen and onwards, should be
+encouraged to develop the critical or judicial temperament along with
+the purely acquisitive.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing a source book, such as the present one, the purpose is to
+further the study of the most profitable sources by removing some of
+the greater difficulties, particularly those of accessibility and language.
+Clearly impracticable as anything like historical "research" undoubtedly
+is for younger students, it is none the less believed that there are
+abundant first-hand materials in the range of history which such students
+will not only find profitable but actually enjoy, and that any
+<span class="sidebar">Simplicity
+of many
+mediæval
+sources</span>
+acquaintance with these things that may be acquired
+in earlier studies will be of inestimable advantage subsequently.
+It is furthermore believed, contrary to the
+assertions that one sometimes hears, that the history of the Middle
+Ages lends itself to this sort of treatment with scarcely, if any, less
+facility than that of other periods. Certainly Gregory's Clovis, Asser's
+Alfred, Einhard's Charlemagne, and Joinville's St. Louis are living personalities,
+no less vividly portrayed than the heroes of a boy's storybook.
+Tacitus's description of the early Germans, Ammianus's account
+of the crossing of the Danube by the Visigoths and his pictures of the
+Huns, Bede's narrative of the Saxon invasion of Britain, the affectionate
+letter Stephen of Blois to his wife and children, the portrayal
+of the sweet-spirited St. Francis by the Three Companions, and Froissart's
+free and easy sketch of the battle of Crécy are all interesting, easily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>
+comprehended, and even adapted to whet the appetite for a larger acquaintance
+with these various people and events. Even solid documents,
+like the Salic law, the Benedictine Rule, the Peace of Constance,
+and the Golden Bull, if not in themselves exactly attractive,
+may be made to have a certain interest for the younger student when
+he realizes that to know mediæval history at all he is under the imperative
+necessity of getting much of the framework of things either from
+such materials or from text-books which essentially reproduce them.
+It is hoped that at least a reasonable proportion of the selections
+herewith presented may serve in some measure to overcome for the
+student the remote and intangible character which the Middle Ages
+have much too commonly, though perhaps not unnaturally, been felt
+to possess.</p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec"><span class="s07">SECTION</span></td>
+<td class="td_pg"><span class="s07">PAGE</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.&mdash;THE EARLY GERMANS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">1.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A Sketch by Cæsar</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A Description by Tacitus</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER II.&mdash;THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">3.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">4.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Battle of Adrianople (378)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER III.&mdash;THE HUNS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">5.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Description by a Græco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER IV.&mdash;THE EARLY FRANKS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">6.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">7.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Law of the Salian Franks</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER V.&mdash;THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN
+BRITAIN</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">8.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">9.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Mission of Augustine (597)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER VI.&mdash;THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
+CHRISTIAN CHURCH</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">10.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">11.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Rule of St. Benedict</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">12.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER VII.&mdash;THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">13.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selections from the Koran</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_97">97</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER VIII.&mdash;THE BEGINNINGS OF THE
+CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF FRANKISH KINGS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">14.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER IX.&mdash;THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">15.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Charlemagne the Man</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">16.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The War with the Saxons (772-803)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">17.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">18.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">19.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;An Inventory of one of Charlemagne's Estates</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">20.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">21.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The General Capitulary for the <i>Missi</i> (802)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">22.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">23.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Carolingian Revival of Learning</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER X.&mdash;THE ERA OF THE LATER
+CAROLINGIANS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">24.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Oaths of Strassburg (842)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">25.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Treaty of Verdun (843)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">26.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">27.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Northmen in the Country of the Franks</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">28.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">29.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Election of Hugh Capet (987)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XI.&mdash;ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND
+IN PEACE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">30.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Danes in England</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">31.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Alfred's Interest in Education</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">32.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Alfred's Laws</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XII.&mdash;THE ORDEAL</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">33.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XIII.&mdash;THE FEUDAL SYSTEM</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">34.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">35.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Granting of Fiefs</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_214">214</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">36.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">37.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">38.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">39.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Peace and the Truce of God</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XIV.&mdash;THE NORMAN CONQUEST</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">40.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">41.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;William the Conqueror as Man and as King</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XV.&mdash;THE MONASTIC REFORMATION
+OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH
+CENTURIES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">42.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">43.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of Clairvaux</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">44.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A Description of Clairvaux</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XVI.&mdash;THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">45.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">46.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (1075)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">47.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (1076)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">48.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Henry IV. Deposed by Gregory (1076)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">49.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">50.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Concordat of Worms (1122)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XVII.&mdash;THE CRUSADES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">51.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (1095)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">52.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">53.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XVIII.&mdash;THE GREAT CHARTER</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">54.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Winning of the Great Charter</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">55.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Extracts from the Charter</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_303">303</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XIX.&mdash;THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">56.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by
+Joinville</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XX.&mdash;MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND
+ACTIVITY</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">57.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Some Twelfth Century Town Charters</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">58.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Colonization of Eastern Germany</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">59.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXI.&mdash;UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT
+LIFE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">60.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Privileges Granted to Students and Masters</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">61.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">62.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mediæval Students' Songs</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXII.&mdash;THE FRIARS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">63.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Life of St. Francis</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">64.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Rule of St. Francis</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">65.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Will of St. Francis</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_376">376</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXIII.&mdash;THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL
+POWERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">66.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">67.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">68.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">69.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXIV.&mdash;THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH,
+THIRTEENTH, AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">70.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Peace of Constance (1183)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">71.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of
+Frederick II.</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">72.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_409">409</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXV.&mdash;THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">73.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">74.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of
+France</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">75.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">76.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Battle of Crécy (1346)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_427">427</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">77.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Sack of Limoges (1370)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">78.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXVI.&mdash;THE BEGINNINGS OF THE
+ITALIAN RENAISSANCE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">79.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">80.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_452">452</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">81.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Petrarch's Love of the Classics</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_462">462</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">82.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Petrarch's Letter to Posterity</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_469">469</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_chap">CHAPTER XXVII.&mdash;FORESHADOWINGS OF THE
+REFORMATION</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="td_sec">83.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI.
+(1384)</td>
+<td class="td_pg"><a href="#Page_474">474</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2>A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIÆVAL<br />
+HISTORY</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I.<br />
+THE EARLY GERMANS</h3>
+
+<h4>1. A Sketch by Cæsar</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>One of the most important steps in the expansion of the Roman
+Republic was the conquest of Gaul by Julius Cæsar just before the middle
+of the first century <span class="s07">B.C.</span> Through this conquest Rome entered deliberately
+upon the policy of extending her dominion northward from
+the Mediterranean and the Alps into the regions of western and central
+Europe known to us to-day as France and Germany. By their wars
+in this direction the Romans were brought into contact with peoples
+concerning whose manner of life they had hitherto known very little.
+There were two great groups of these peoples&mdash;the Gauls and the
+Germans&mdash;each divided and subdivided into numerous tribes and clans.
+In general it may be said that the Gauls occupied what we now call
+France and the Germans what we know as Belgium, Holland, Denmark,
+Germany, and Austria. The Rhine marked a pretty clear boundary
+between them.</p>
+
+<p>During the years 58-50 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>, Julius Cæsar, who had risen to the
+proconsulship through a long series of offices and honors at Rome,
+served the state as leader of five distinct military expeditions in this
+country of the northern barbarians. The primary object of these
+campaigns was to establish order among the turbulent tribes of Gauls
+and to prepare the way for the extension of Roman rule over them.
+This great task was performed very successfully, but in accomplishing
+it Cæsar found it necessary to go somewhat farther than had at first
+been intended. In the years 55 and 54 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>, he made two expeditions
+to Britain to punish the natives for giving aid to their Celtic kinsfolk
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>
+in Gaul, and in 55 and 53 he crossed the Rhine to compel the Germans
+to remain on their own side of the river and to cease troubling the Gauls
+by raids and invasions, as they had recently been doing. When (about
+51 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>) he came to write his <i>Commentaries on the Gallic War</i>, it is
+very natural that he should have taken care to give a brief sketch of
+the leading peoples whom he had been fighting, that is, the Gauls, the
+Britons, and the Germans. There are two places in the <i>Commentaries</i>
+where the Germans are described at some length. At the beginning
+of Book IV. there is an account of the particular tribe known as the
+Suevi, and in the middle of Book VI. there is a longer sketch of the
+Germans in general. This latter is the passage translated below. Of
+course we are not to suppose that Cæsar's knowledge of the Germans
+was in any sense thorough. At no time did he get far into their
+country, and the people whose manners and customs he had an
+opportunity to observe were only those who were pressing down upon,
+and occasionally across, the Rhine boundary&mdash;a mere fringe of the
+great race stretching back to the Baltic and, at that time, far eastward
+into modern Russia. We may be sure that many of the more remote
+German tribes lived after a fashion quite different from that which
+Cæsar and his legions had an opportunity to observe on the Rhine-Danube
+frontier. Still, Cæsar's account, vague and brief as it is, has
+an importance that can hardly be exaggerated. These early Germans
+had no written literature and but for the descriptions of them left by
+a few Roman writers, such as Cæsar, we should know almost nothing
+about them. If we bear in mind that the account in the <i>Commentaries</i>
+was based upon very keen, though limited, observation, we can get out
+of it a good deal of interesting information concerning the early ancestors
+of the great Teutonic peoples of the world to-day.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="source">
+Source&mdash;Julius Cæsar, <i>De Bello Gallico</i> ["The Gallic War"], Bk. VI.,
+Chaps. 21-23.</p>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> The customs of the Germans differ widely from those of
+the Gauls;<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> for neither have they Druids to preside over religious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>
+services,<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> nor do they give much attention to sacrifices. They
+count in the number of their gods those only whom they can
+see, and by whose favors they are clearly aided;
+that is to say, the Sun, Vulcan,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and the Moon.
+<span class="sidebar">Their
+religion</span>
+Of other deities they have never even heard. Their whole life
+is spent in hunting and in war. From childhood they are trained
+in labor and hardship....</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> They are not devoted to agriculture, and the greater
+portion of their food consists of milk, cheese, and flesh. No one
+<span class="sidebar">Their system
+of land tenure</span>
+owns a particular piece of land, with fixed limits,
+but each year the magistrates and the chiefs
+assign to the clans and the bands of kinsmen who have assembled
+together as much land as they think proper, and in whatever
+place they desire, and the next year compel them to move to
+some other place. They give many reasons for this custom&mdash;that
+the people may not lose their zeal for war through habits
+established by prolonged attention to the cultivation of the
+soil; that they may not be eager to acquire large possessions,
+and that the stronger may not drive the weaker from their
+property; that they may not build too carefully, in order to
+avoid cold and heat; that the love of money may not spring up,
+from which arise quarrels and dissensions; and, finally, that the
+common people may live in contentment, since each person
+sees that his wealth is kept equal to that of the most powerful.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> It is a matter of the greatest glory to the tribes to lay
+waste, as widely as possible, the lands bordering their territory,
+thus making them uninhabitable.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> They regard it as the best
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>
+proof of their valor that their neighbors are forced to withdraw
+from those lands and hardly any one dares set foot there; at the
+same time they think that they will thus be more secure, since
+the fear of a sudden invasion is removed. When a tribe is either
+repelling an invasion or attacking an outside people, magistrates
+<span class="sidebar">Leaders and
+officers in war
+and peace</span>
+are chosen to lead in the war, and these are given
+the power of life and death. In times of peace
+there is no general magistrate, but the chiefs of
+the districts and cantons render justice among their own people
+and settle disputes.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Robbery, if committed beyond the borders
+of the tribe, is not regarded as disgraceful, and they say that it is
+practised for the sake of training the youth and preventing
+idleness. When any one of the chiefs has declared in an assembly
+that he is going to be the leader of an expedition, and that
+those who wish to follow him should give in their names, they
+who approve of the undertaking, and of the man, stand up and
+promise their assistance, and are applauded by the people.
+Such of these as do not then follow him are looked upon as
+deserters and traitors, and from that day no one has any faith
+in them.</p>
+
+<p>To mistreat a guest they consider to be a crime. They protect
+<span class="sidebar">German
+hospitality</span>
+
+from injury those who have come among them for
+any purpose whatever, and regard them as sacred.
+To them the houses of all are open and food is freely supplied.</p>
+<h4>2. A Description by Tacitus</h4>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Tacitus (54-119),<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> who is sometimes credited with being the
+greatest of Roman historians, published his treatise on the <i>Origin,
+Location, Manners, and Inhabitants of Germany</i> in the year 98. This
+was about a century and a half after Cæsar wrote his <i>Commentaries</i>.
+During this long interval we have almost no information as to how the
+Germans were living or what they were doing. There is much uncertainty
+as to the means by which Tacitus got his knowledge of them. We
+may be reasonably sure that he did not travel extensively through the
+country north of the Rhine; there is, in fact, not a shred of evidence
+that he ever visited it at all. He tells us that he made use of Cæsar's
+account, but this was very meager and could not have been of much
+service. We are left to surmise that he drew most of his information
+from books then existing but since lost, such as the writings of
+Posidonius of Rhodes (136-51 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>) and Pliny the Elder (23-79).
+These sources were doubtless supplemented by the stories of officials
+and traders who had been among the Germans and were afterwards
+interviewed by the historian. Tacitus's essay, therefore, while written
+with a desire to tell the truth, was apparently not based on first-hand
+information. The author nowhere says that he had <i>seen</i> this or that
+feature of German life. We may suppose that what he really did was
+to gather up all the stories and reports regarding the German barbarians
+which were already known to Roman traders, travelers, and soldiers,
+sift the true from the false as well as he could, and write out in first class
+Latin the little book which we know as the <i>Germania</i>. The theory that
+the work was intended as a satire, or sermon in morals, for the benefit
+of a corrupt Roman people has been quite generally abandoned, and
+this for the very good reason that there is nothing in either the treatise's
+contents or style to warrant such a belief. Tacitus wrote the book
+because of his general interest in historical and geographical subjects,
+and also, perhaps, because it afforded him an excellent opportunity to
+display a literary skill in which he took no small degree of pride. That
+it was published separately instead of in one of his larger histories may
+have been due to public interest in the subject during Trajan's wars in
+the Rhine country in the years 98 and 99. The first twenty-seven
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>
+chapters, from which the selections below are taken, treat of the Germans
+in general&mdash;their origin, religion, family life, occupations, military tactics,
+amusements, land system, government, and social classes; the last
+nineteen deal with individual tribes and are not so accurate or so valuable.
+It will be found interesting to compare what Tacitus says with
+what Cæsar says when both touch upon the same topic. In doing so it
+should be borne in mind that there was a difference in time of a century
+and a half between the two writers, and also that while Tacitus probably
+did not write from experience among the Germans, as Cæsar did, he
+nevertheless had given the subject a larger amount of deliberate study.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;C. Cornelius Tacitus, <i>De Origine, Situ, Moribus, ac Populis Germanorum</i>
+[known commonly as the "Germania"], Chaps. 4-24,
+<i>passim</i>. Adapted from translation by Alfred J. Church and William
+J. Brodribb (London, 1868), pp. 1-16. Text in numerous
+editions, as that of William F. Allen (Boston, 1882) and that of
+Henry Furneau (Oxford, 1894).</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> For my own part, I agree with those who think that the
+tribes of Germany are free from all trace of intermarriage with
+<span class="sidebar">Physical characteristics</span>
+foreign nations, and that they appear as a distinct,
+unmixed race, like none but themselves.
+Hence it is that the same physical features are to be observed
+throughout so vast a population. All have fierce blue eyes, reddish
+hair, and huge bodies fit only for sudden exertion. They are
+not very able to endure labor that is exhausting. Heat and thirst
+they cannot withstand at all, though to cold and hunger their
+climate and soil have hardened them.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Iron is not plentiful among them, as may be inferred from
+the nature of their weapons.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Only a few make use of swords or
+long lances. Ordinarily they carry a spear (which they call a
+<i>framea</i>), with a short and narrow head, but so sharp and easy to
+handle that the same weapon serves, according to circumstances,
+for close or distant conflict. As for the horse-soldier, he is satisfied
+with a shield and a spear. The foot-soldiers also scatter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span>
+showers of missiles, each man having several and hurling them
+to an immense distance, and being naked or lightly clad with a
+little cloak. They make no display in their equipment. Their
+shields alone are marked with fancy colors. Only a few have
+corselets,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and just one or two here and there a metal or leather
+<span class="sidebar">Their weapons
+and mode of
+fighting</span>
+helmet.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Their horses are neither beautiful nor
+swift; nor are they taught various wheeling
+movements after the Roman fashion, but are
+driven straight forward so as to make one turn to the right in
+such a compact body that none may be left behind another. On
+the whole, one would say that the Germans' chief strength is in
+their infantry. It fights along with the cavalry, and admirably
+adapted to the movements of the latter is the swiftness of certain
+foot-soldiers, who are picked from the entire youth of their
+country and placed in front of the battle line.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The number of
+these is fixed, being a hundred from each <i>pagus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and from this
+they take their name among their countrymen, so that what was
+at the outset a mere number has now become a title of honor.
+Their line of battle is drawn up in the shape of a wedge. To
+yield ground, provided they return to the attack, is regarded as
+prudence rather than cowardice. The bodies of their slain
+they carry off, even when the battle has been indecisive. To
+abandon one's shield is the basest of crimes. A man thus disgraced
+is not allowed to be present at the religious ceremonies, or
+to enter the council. Many, indeed, after making a cowardly
+escape from battle put an end to their infamy by hanging themselves.<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> They choose their kings<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> by reason of their birth, but their
+generals on the ground of merit. The kings do not enjoy unlimited
+or despotic power, and even the generals command more
+by example than by authority. If they are energetic, if they take
+a prominent part, if they fight in the front, they lead because
+they are admired. But to rebuke, to imprison, even to flog, is
+allowed to the priests alone, and this not as a punishment, or at
+the general's bidding, but by the command of the god whom
+they believe to inspire the warrior. They also carry with them
+<span class="sidebar">The Germans
+in battle</span>
+into battle certain figures and images taken
+from their sacred groves.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The thing that most
+strengthens their courage is the fact that their troops are not
+made up of bodies of men chosen by mere chance, but are arranged
+by families and kindreds. Close by them, too, are those
+dearest to them, so that in the midst of the fight they can hear
+the shrieks of women and the cries of children. These loved ones
+are to every man the most valued witnesses of his valor, and at
+the same time his most generous applauders. The soldier brings
+his wounds to mother or wife, who shrinks not from counting
+them, or even demanding to see them, and who provides food
+for the warriors and gives them encouragement.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> About matters of small importance the chiefs alone take
+counsel, but the larger questions are considered by the entire
+tribe. Yet even when the final decision rests with the people
+the affair is always thoroughly discussed by the chiefs. Except
+in the case of a sudden emergency, the people hold their assemblies
+on certain fixed days, either at the new or the full moon;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span>
+for these they consider the most suitable times for the transaction
+<span class="sidebar">Their popular
+assemblies</span>
+of business. Instead of counting by days, as we do,
+they count by nights, and in this way designate
+both their ordinary and their legal engagements. They regard
+the night as bringing on the day. Their freedom has one disadvantage,
+in that they do not all come together at the same time,
+or as they are commanded, but two or three days are wasted in
+the delay of assembling. When the people present think proper,
+they sit down armed. Silence is proclaimed by the priests who,
+on these occasions, are charged with the duty of keeping order.
+The king or the leader speaks first, and then others in order, as
+age, or rank, or reputation in war, or eloquence, give them right.
+The speakers are heard more because of their ability to persuade
+than because of their power to command. If the speeches are
+displeasing to the people, they reject them with murmurs; if they
+are pleasing, they applaud by clashing their weapons together,
+which is the kind of applause most highly esteemed.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> They transact no public or private business without being
+armed, but it is not allowable for any one to bear arms until he
+has satisfied the tribe that he is fit to do so. Then, in the presence
+of the assembly, one of the chiefs, or the young man's father, or
+some kinsman, equips him with a shield and a spear. These arms
+are what the toga is with the Romans, the first honor with which
+a youth is invested. Up to this time he is regarded as merely a
+member of a household, but afterwards as a member of the state.
+Very noble birth, or important service rendered by the father,
+secures for a youth the rank of chief, and such lads attach themselves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>
+to men of mature strength and of fully tested valor. It is no
+<span class="sidebar">The chiefs and
+their companions</span>
+shame to be numbered among a chief's companions.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The companions
+have different ranks in the band, according
+to the will of the chief; and there is great
+rivalry among the companions for first place in
+the chief's favor, as there is among the chiefs for the possession
+of the largest and bravest throng of followers. It is an honor, as
+well as a source of strength, to be thus always surrounded by a
+large body of picked youths, who uphold the rank of the chief in
+peace and defend him in war. The fame of such a chief and his
+band is not confined to their own tribe, but is spread among
+foreign peoples; they are sought out and honored with gifts in
+order to secure their alliance, for the reputation of such a band
+may decide a whole war.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> In battle it is considered shameful for the chief to allow
+any of his followers to excel him in valor, and for the followers
+not to equal their chief in deeds of bravery. To survive the chief
+and return from the field is a disgrace and a reproach for life.
+To defend and protect him, and to add to his renown by courageous
+fighting is the height of loyalty. The chief fights for
+victory; the companions must fight for the chief. If their native
+state sinks into the sloth of peace and quiet, many noble youths
+<span class="sidebar">The German
+love of war</span>
+voluntarily seek those tribes which are waging
+some war, both because inaction is disliked by
+their race and because it is in war that they win renown most
+readily; besides, a chief can maintain a band only by war, for
+the men expect to receive their war-horse and their arms from
+their leader. Feasts and entertainments, though not elegant, are
+plentifully provided and constitute their only pay. The means of
+such liberality are best obtained from the booty of war. Nor
+are they as easily persuaded to plow the earth and to wait for the
+year's produce as to challenge an enemy and earn the glory of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span>
+wounds. Indeed, they actually think it tame and stupid to
+acquire by the sweat of toil what they may win by their blood.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> When not engaged in war they pass much of their time in
+the chase, and still more in idleness, giving themselves up to
+sleep and feasting. The bravest and most warlike do no work;
+they give over the management of the household, of the home,
+and of the land to the women, the old men, and the weaker
+<span class="sidebar">Life in times
+of peace</span>
+members of the family, while they themselves
+remain in the most sluggish inactivity. It is
+strange that the same men should be so fond of idleness and yet
+so averse to peace.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> It is the custom of the tribes to make their
+chiefs presents of cattle and grain, and thus to give them the
+means of support.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The chiefs are especially pleased with gifts
+from neighboring tribes, which are sent not only by individuals,
+but also by the state, such as choice steeds, heavy armor, trappings,
+and neck-chains. The Romans have now taught them to
+accept money also.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> It is a well-known fact that the peoples of Germany have
+no cities, and that they do not even allow buildings to be erected
+close together.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> They live scattered about, wherever a spring, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span>
+a meadow, or a wood has attracted them. Their villages are not
+arranged in the Roman fashion, with the buildings connected
+and joined together, but every person surrounds his dwelling
+with an open space, either as a precaution against the disasters
+<span class="sidebar">Lack of cities
+and towns</span>
+of fire, or because they do not know how to build.
+They make no use of stone or brick, but employ
+wood for all purposes. Their buildings are mere rude masses,
+without ornament or attractiveness, although occasionally they
+are stained in part with a kind of clay which is so clear and
+bright that it resembles painting, or a colored design....</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> A liquor for drinking is made out of barley, or other grain,
+and fermented so as to be somewhat like wine. The dwellers
+<span class="sidebar">Their food
+and drink</span>
+
+along the river-bank<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> also buy wine from traders.
+Their food is of a simple variety, consisting of
+wild fruit, fresh game, and curdled milk. They satisfy their
+hunger without making much preparation of cooked dishes, and
+without the use of any delicacies at all. In quenching their
+thirst they are not so moderate. If they are supplied with as
+much as they desire to drink, they will be overcome by their
+own vices as easily as by the arms of an enemy.</p>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> At all their gatherings there is one and the same kind of
+amusement. This is the dancing of naked youths amid swords and
+<span class="sidebar">German
+amusements</span>
+lances that all the time endanger their lives. Experience
+gives them skill, and skill in turn gives
+grace. They scorn to receive profit or pay, for, however reckless
+their pastime, its reward is only the pleasure of the spectators.
+Strangely enough, they make games of chance a serious employment,
+even when sober, and so venturesome are they about winning
+or losing that, when every other resource has failed, on the
+final throw of the dice they will stake even their own freedom.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>
+He who loses goes into voluntary slavery and, though the younger
+and stronger of the players, allows himself to be bound and sold.
+Such is their stubborn persistency in a bad practice, though they
+themselves call it honor. Slaves thus acquired the owners trade
+off as speedily as possible to rid themselves of the scandal of
+such a victory.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II.<br />
+THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION</h3>
+<h4>3. The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The earliest invasion of the Roman Empire which resulted in the permanent
+settlement of a large and united body of Germans on Roman
+soil was that of the Visigoths in the year 376. This invasion was
+very far, however, from marking the first important contact of the German
+and Roman peoples. As early as the end of the second century
+<span class="s07">B.C.</span> the incursions of the Cimbri and Teutones (113-101) into southern
+Gaul and northern Italy had given Rome a suggestion of the danger
+which threatened from the northern barbarians. Half a century later,
+the Gallic campaigns of Cæsar brought the two peoples into conflict for
+the first time in the region of the later Rhine boundary, and had the
+very important effect of preventing the impending Germanization of
+Gaul and substituting the extension of Roman power and civilization in
+that quarter. Roman imperial plans on the north then developed along
+ambitious lines until the year 9 <span class="s07">A.D.</span>, when the legions of the Emperor
+Augustus, led by Varus, were defeated, and in large part annihilated, in
+the great battle of the Teutoberg Forest and the balance was turned
+forever against the Romanization of the Germanic countries. Thereafter
+for a long time a state of equilibrium was preserved along the
+Rhine-Danube frontier, though after the Marcomannic wars in the latter
+half of the second century the scale began to incline more and more
+against the Romans, who were gradually forced into the attitude of
+defense against a growing disposition of the restless Germans to push
+the boundary farther south.</p>
+
+<p>During the more than three and a half centuries intervening between
+the battle of the Teutoberg and the crossing of the Danube by the Visigoths,
+the intermingling of the two peoples steadily increased. On the
+one hand were numerous Roman travelers and traders who visited the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>
+Germans living along the frontier and learned what sort of people they
+were. The soldiers of the legions stationed on the Rhine and Danube
+also added materially to Roman knowledge in this direction. But much
+more important was the influx of Germans into the Empire to serve as
+soldiers or to settle on lands allotted to them by the government. Owing
+to a general decline of population, and especially to the lack of a sturdy
+middle class, Rome found it necessary to fill up her army with foreigners
+and to reward them with lands lying mainly near the frontiers, but often
+in the very heart of the Empire. The over-population of Germany furnished
+a large class of excellent soldiers who were ready enough to accept
+the pay of the Roman emperor for service in the legions, even if rendered,
+as it often was, against their kinsmen who were menacing the weakened
+frontier. From this source the Empire had long been receiving a large
+infusion of German blood before any considerable tribe came within its
+bounds to settle in a body. Indeed, if there had occurred no sudden and
+startling overflows of population from the Germanic countries, such as
+the Visigothic invasion, it is quite possible that the Roman Empire
+might yet have fallen completely into the hands of the Germans by
+the quiet and gradual processes just indicated. As it was, the pressure
+from advancing Asiatic peoples on the east was too great to be
+withstood, and there resulted, between the fourth and sixth centuries, a
+series of notable invasions which left almost the entire Western Empire
+parceled out among new Germanic kingdoms established by force on
+the ruins of the once invincible Roman power. The breaking of the
+frontier by the West Goths (to whom the Emperor Aurelian, in 270,
+had abandoned the rich province of Dacia), during the reign of Gratian
+in the West and of Valens in the East, was the first conspicuous step
+in this great transforming movement.</p>
+
+<p>The ferocious people to whose incursions Ammianus refers as the cause
+of the Visigothic invasion were the Huns [see <a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>], who had but
+lately made their first appearance in Europe. Already by 376 the Ostrogothic
+kingdom of Hermaneric, to the north of the Black Sea, had fallen
+before their onslaught, and the wave of conquest was spreading rapidly
+westward toward Dacia and the neighboring lands inhabited by the
+Visigoths. The latter people were even less able to make effectual resistance
+than their eastern brethren had been. Part of them had become
+Christians and were recognizing Fridigern as their leader, while the remaining
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span>
+pagan element acknowledged the sway of Athanaric. On the
+arrival of the Huns, Athanaric led his portion of the people into the
+Carpathian Mountains and began to prepare for resistance, while
+the Christians, led by Fridigern and Alaf (or Alavivus), gathered on
+the Danube and begged permission to take refuge across the river in
+Roman territory. Athanaric and his division of the Visigoths, having
+become Christians, entered the Empire a few years later and settled
+in Moesia.</p>
+
+<p>Ammianus Marcellinus, author of the account of the Visigothic invasion
+given below, was a native of Antioch, a soldier of Greek ancestry
+and apparently of noble birth, and a member of the Eastern emperor's
+bodyguard. Beyond these facts, gleaned from his <i>Roman History</i>, we
+have almost no knowledge of the man. The date of his birth is unknown,
+likewise that of his death, though from his writings it appears that he
+lived well toward the close of the fourth century. His <i>History</i> began
+with the accession of Nerva, 96 <span class="s07">A.D.</span>, approximately where the accounts
+by Tacitus and Suetonius end, and continued to the death of his master
+Valens in the battle of Adrianople in 378. It was divided into thirty-one
+books; but of these thirteen have been lost, and some of those which
+survive are imperfect. Although the narrative is broken into rather
+provokingly here and there by digressions on earthquakes and eclipses
+and speculations on such utterly foreign topics as the theory of the destruction
+of lions by mosquitoes, it nevertheless constitutes an invaluable
+source of information on the men and events of the era which it
+covers. Its value is greatest, naturally, on the period of the Visigothic
+invasion, for in dealing with these years the author could describe events
+about which he had direct and personal knowledge. Ammianus is to be
+thought of as the last of the old Roman school of historians.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i>, Bk.
+XXXI., Chaps. 3-4. Translated by Charles D. Yonge under the
+title of <i>Roman History during the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius,
+Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens</i> (London, 1862),
+pp. 584-586. Text in edition of Victor Gardthausen (Leipzig,
+1875), Vol. II., pp. 239-240.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime a report spread extensively through the other
+nations of the Goths [i.e., the Visigoths], that a race of men,
+hitherto unknown, had suddenly descended like a whirlwind
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span>
+from the lofty mountains, as if they had risen from some secret
+recess of the earth, and were ravaging and destroying everything
+that came in their way. Then the greater part of the population
+(which, because of their lack of necessities, had deserted
+Athanaric), resolved to flee and to seek a home remote from all
+knowledge of the barbarians; and after a long deliberation as to
+where to fix their abode, they resolved that a retreat into Thrace
+<span class="sidebar">Visigoths ask
+permission to
+settle within
+the Empire</span>
+was the most suitable, for these two reasons: first
+of all, because it is a district most abundant in
+grass; and in the second place, because, by the
+great breadth of the Danube, it is wholly separated from the barbarians
+[i.e., the Goths], who were already exposed to the thunderbolts
+of foreign warfare. And the whole population of the tribe
+adopted this resolution unanimously. Accordingly, under the
+command of their leader Alavivus, they occupied the banks of
+the Danube; and having sent ambassadors to Valens,<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> they humbly
+entreated that they might be received by him as his subjects,
+promising to live peaceably and to furnish a body of auxiliary
+troops, if any necessity for such a force should arise.</p>
+
+<p>While these events were passing in foreign countries, a terrible
+rumor arose that the tribes of the north were planning new and
+<span class="sidebar">Rumors of
+Gothic movements
+reach
+Rome</span>
+unprecedented attacks upon us,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> and that over
+the whole region which extends from the country
+of the Marcomanni and Quadi to Pontus,<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> a
+barbarian host composed of various distant nations which had
+suddenly been driven by force from their own country, was now,
+with all their families, wandering about in different directions
+on the banks of the river Danube.</p>
+
+<p>At first this intelligence was treated lightly by our people, because
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span>
+they were not in the habit of hearing of any wars in those
+remote regions until after they had been terminated either by victory
+or by treaty. But presently the belief in these occurrences
+grew stronger, being confirmed, moreover, by the arrival of
+the foreign ambassadors who, with prayers and earnest entreaties,
+<span class="sidebar">Their coming
+represented as
+a blessing to
+the Empire</span>
+begged that the people thus driven from
+their homes and now encamped on the other side of
+the river might be kindly received by us. The affair
+seemed a cause of joy rather than of fear, according to the skilful
+flatterers who were always extolling and exaggerating the good
+fortune of the Emperor; congratulating him that an embassy had
+come from the farthest corners of the earth unexpectedly, offering
+him a large body of recruits, and that, by combining the
+strength of his own nation with these foreign forces, he would
+have an army absolutely invincible; observing farther that, by
+the payment for military reinforcements which came in every
+year from the provinces, a vast treasure of gold might be accumulated
+in his coffers.</p>
+
+<p>Full of this hope, he sent several officers to bring this ferocious
+people and their wagons into our territory. And such great
+<span class="sidebar">The crossing of
+the Danube</span>
+pains were taken to gratify this nation, which was
+destined to overthrow the empire of Rome, that
+not one was left behind, not even of those who were stricken with
+mortal disease. Moreover, having obtained permission of the
+Emperor to cross the Danube and to cultivate some districts in
+Thrace, they crossed the stream day and night, without ceasing,
+embarking in troops on board ships and rafts, and canoes made
+of the hollow trunks of trees. In this enterprise, since the Danube
+is the most difficult of all rivers to navigate, and was at that time
+swollen with continual rains, a great many were drowned, who,
+because they were too numerous for the vessels, tried to swim
+across, and in spite of all their exertions were swept away by
+the stream.</p>
+
+<p>In this way, through the turbulent zeal of violent people, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>
+ruin of the Roman Empire was brought on. This, at all events,
+is neither obscure nor uncertain, that the unhappy officers who
+<span class="sidebar">Number of the
+invaders</span>
+
+were intrusted with the charge of conducting
+the multitude of the barbarians across the river,
+though they repeatedly endeavored to calculate their numbers,
+at last abandoned the attempt as useless; and the man who
+would wish to ascertain the number might as well attempt to
+count the waves in the African sea, or the grains of sand tossed
+about by the zephyr.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<h4>4. The Battle of Adrianople (378)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Before crossing the Danube the Visigoths had been required by the
+Romans to give up their arms, and also a number of their children to be
+held as hostages. In return it was understood that the Romans would
+equip them afresh with arms sufficient for their defense and with food
+supplies to maintain them until they should become settled in their
+new homes. So far as our information goes, it appears that the Goths
+fulfilled their part of the contract, or at least were willing to do so. But
+the Roman officers in Thrace saw an opportunity to enrich themselves
+by selling food to the famished barbarians at extortionate prices, and a
+few months of such practices sufficed to arouse all the rage and resentment
+of which the untamed Teuton was capable. In the summer of 378
+the Goths broke out in open revolt and began to avenge themselves by
+laying waste the Roman lands along the lower Danube frontier. The
+Eastern emperor, Valens, hastened to the scene of insurrection, but only
+to lose the great battle of Adrianople, August 9, 378, and to meet his own
+death. "The battle of Adrianople," says Professor Emerton, "was one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span>
+of the decisive battles of the world. It taught the Germans that they
+could beat the legions in open fight and that henceforth it was for them
+to name the price of peace. It broke once for all the Rhine-Danube
+frontier." Many times thereafter German armies, and whole tribes,
+were to play the rôle of allies of Rome; but neither German nor Roman
+could be blinded to the fact that the decadent empire of the south lay at
+the mercy of the stalwart sons of the northern wilderness.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i>, Bk.
+XXXI., Chaps. 12-14. Translated by Charles D. Yonge
+ [see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>], pp. 608-615 <i>passim</i>. Text in edition of Victor Gardthausen
+(Leipzig, 1875), Vol. II., pp. 261-269.</p>
+
+<p>He [Valens] was at the head of a numerous force, neither unwarlike
+nor contemptible, and had united with them many
+<span class="sidebar">The Goths approach
+the Roman
+army</span>
+veteran bands, among whom were several officers
+of high rank&mdash;especially Trajan, who a little
+while before had been commander of the forces.
+And as, by means of spies and observation, it was ascertained that
+the enemy was intending to blockade with strong divisions the
+different roads by which the necessary supplies must come, he
+sent a sufficient force to prevent this, dispatching a body of the
+archers of the infantry and a squadron of cavalry with all speed
+to occupy the narrow passes in the neighborhood. Three days
+afterwards, when the barbarians, who were advancing slowly
+because they feared an attack in the unfavorable ground which
+they were traversing, arrived within fifteen miles from the station
+of Nice<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> (which was the aim of their march), the Emperor, with
+wanton impetuosity, resolved on attacking them instantly, because
+those who had been sent forward to reconnoitre (what
+led to such a mistake is unknown) affirmed that the entire body
+of the Goths did not exceed ten thousand men....<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When the day broke which the annals mark as the fifth of the
+Ides of August [Aug. 9] the Roman standards were advanced
+with haste. The baggage had been placed close to the walls of
+Adrianople, under a sufficient guard of soldiers of the legions.
+The treasures and the chief insignia of the Emperor's rank were
+within the walls, with the prefect and the principal members of
+<span class="sidebar">The battle
+begins</span>
+the council.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Then, having traversed the broken
+ground which divided the two armies, as the
+burning day was progressing towards noon, at last, after marching
+eight miles, our men came in sight of the wagons of the enemy,
+which had been reported by the scouts to be all arranged in a circle.
+According to their custom, the barbarian host raised a fierce and
+hideous yell, while the Roman generals marshalled their line of
+battle. The right wing of the cavalry was placed in front; the
+chief portion of the infantry was kept in reserve....<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>And while arms and missiles of all kinds were meeting in
+fierce conflict, and Bellona,<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> blowing her mournful trumpet, was
+raging more fiercely than usual, to inflict disaster on the Romans,
+our men began to retreat; but presently, aroused by the reproaches
+of their officers, they made a fresh stand, and the battle
+increased like a conflagration, terrifying our soldiers, numbers
+of whom were pierced by strokes of the javelins hurled at them,
+and by arrows.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Then the two lines of battle dashed against each other, like the
+beaks of ships and, thrusting with all their might, were tossed to
+and fro like the waves of the sea. Our left wing had advanced
+actually up to the wagons, with the intent to push on still farther
+if properly supported; but they were deserted by the rest of
+the cavalry, and so pressed upon by the superior numbers of
+<span class="sidebar">The fury of
+the conflict</span>
+the enemy that they were overwhelmed and beaten down like
+the ruin of a vast rampart. Presently our infantry
+also was left unsupported, while the various
+companies became so huddled together that a soldier
+could hardly draw his sword, or withdraw his hand after he had
+once stretched it out. And by this time such clouds of dust arose
+that it was scarcely possible to see the sky, which resounded
+with horrible cries; and in consequence the darts, which were
+bearing death on every side, reached their mark and fell with
+deadly effect, because no one could see them beforehand so as
+to guard against them. The barbarians, rushing on with their
+enormous host, beat down our horses and men and left no spot
+to which our ranks could fall back to operate. They were so
+closely packed that it was impossible to escape by forcing a way
+through them, and our men at last began to despise death and
+again taking to their swords, slew all they encountered, while
+with mutual blows of battle-axes, helmets and breastplates were
+dashed in pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Then you might see the barbarian, towering in his fierceness,
+hissing or shouting, fall with his legs pierced through, or his
+right hand cut off, sword and all, or his side transfixed, and
+still, in the last gasp of life, casting around him defiant glances.
+The plain was covered with corpses, showing the mutual ruin of
+the combatants; while the groans of the dying, or of men fearfully
+wounded, were intense and caused much dismay on all sides. Amid
+all this great tumult and confusion our infantry were exhausted
+by toil and danger, until at last they had neither strength left to
+fight nor spirits to plan anything. Their spears were broken by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>
+the frequent collisions, so that they were forced to content themselves
+with their drawn swords, which they thrust into the
+<span class="sidebar">The Romans
+put to flight</span>
+dense battalions of the enemy, disregarding their
+own safety, and seeing that every possibility
+of escape was cut off from them.... The sun, now high
+in the heavens (having traversed the sign of Leo and reached
+the abode of the heavenly Virgo<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>) scorched the Romans, who
+were emaciated by hunger, worn out with toil, and scarcely able
+to support even the weight of their armor. At last our columns
+were entirely beaten back by the overpowering weight of the
+barbarians, and so they took to disorderly flight, which is the
+only resource in extremity, each man trying to save himself as
+best he could....</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely one third of the whole army escaped. Nor, except
+the battle of Cannæ, is so destructive a slaughter recorded in our
+annals;<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> though, even in the times of their prosperity, the Romans
+have more than once been called upon to deplore the
+uncertainty of war, and have for a time succumbed to evil
+Fortune.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III.<br />
+THE HUNS</h3>
+
+<h4>5. Descriptions by a Graeco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The Huns, a people of Turanian stock, were closely related to the ancestors
+of the Magyars, or the modern Hungarians. Their original
+home was in central Asia, beyond the great wall of China, and they were
+in every sense a people of the plains rather than of the forest or of the
+sea. From the region of modern Siberia they swept westward in successive
+waves, beginning about the middle of the fourth century, traversed
+the "gateway of the nations" between the Caspian Sea and the
+Ural Mountains, and fell with fury upon the German tribes (mainly the
+Goths) settled in eastern and southern Europe. The descriptions of
+them given by Claudius Claudianus and Ammianus Marcellinus set
+forth their characteristics as understood by the Romans a half-century
+or more before the invasion of the Empire by Attila. There is no
+reason to suppose that either of these authors had ever seen a Hun, or
+had his information at first hand. When both wrote the Huns were yet
+far outside the Empire's bounds. Tales of soldiers and travelers, which
+doubtless grew as they were told, must have supplied both the poet
+and the historian with all that they knew regarding the strange Turanian
+invaders. This being the case, we are not to accept all that they
+say as the literal truth. Nevertheless the general impressions which one
+gets from their pictures cannot be far wrong.</p>
+
+<p>Claudius Claudianus, commonly regarded as the last of the Latin
+classic poets, was a native of Alexandria who settled at Rome about
+395. For ten years after that date he occupied a position at the court
+of the Emperor Honorius somewhat akin to that of poet-laureate.
+Much of his writing was of a very poor quality, but his descriptions
+were sometimes striking, as in the stanza given below. On Ammianus
+Marcellinus see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Claudius Claudianus, <i>In Rufinum</i> ["Against Rufinus"], Bk. I.,
+323-331. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Auctores
+Antiquissimi</i>, Vol. X., pp. 30-31. Translated in Thomas Hodgkin,
+<i>Italy and Her Invaders</i> (Oxford, 1880), Vol. II., p. 2.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i>,
+Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 2-4 [see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>]. Translated in Hodgkin,
+<i>ibid.</i>, pp. 34-38.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<p>There is a race on Scythia's<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> verge extreme</p>
+<p>Eastward, beyond the Tanais'<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> chilly stream.</p>
+<p>The Northern Bear<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> looks on no uglier crew:</p>
+<p>Base is their garb, their bodies foul to view;</p>
+<p>Their souls are ne'er subdued to sturdy toil</p>
+<p>Or Ceres' arts:<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> their sustenance is spoil.</p>
+<p>With horrid wounds they gash their brutal brows,</p>
+<p>And o'er their murdered parents bind their vows.</p>
+<p>Not e'en the Centaur-offspring of the Cloud<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+<p>Were horsed more firmly than this savage crowd.</p>
+<p>Brisk, lithe, in loose array they first come on,</p>
+<p>Fly, turn, attack the foe who deems them gone.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+<p>The nation of the Huns, little known to ancient records, but
+spreading from the marshes of Azof to the Icy Sea,<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> surpasses
+all other barbarians in wildness of life. In the first days of infancy,
+deep incisions are made in the cheeks of their boys, in order
+that when the time comes for whiskers to grow there, the sprouting
+hairs may be kept back by the furrowed scars; and hence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span>
+they grow to maturity and to old age beardless. They all,
+however, have strong, well-knit limbs and fine necks. Yet they
+<span class="sidebar">Physical appearance
+of the
+Huns</span>
+are of portentous ugliness and so crook-backed
+that you would take them for some sort of two-footed
+beasts, or for the roughly-chipped stakes
+which are used for the railings of a bridge. And though they do
+just bear the likeness of men (of a very ugly type), they are so
+little advanced in civilization that they make no use of fire, nor
+of any kind of relish, in the preparation of their food, but feed
+upon the roots which they find in the fields, and the half-raw
+flesh of any sort of animal. I say half-raw, because they give it
+a kind of cooking by placing it between their own thighs and the
+backs of their horses. They never seek the shelter of houses,
+which they look upon as little better than tombs, and will enter
+only upon the direst necessity; nor would one be able to find
+among them even a cottage of wattled rushes; but, wandering at
+large over mountain and through forest, they are trained to endure
+from infancy all the extremes of cold, of hunger, and of
+thirst.</p>
+
+<p>They are clad in linen raiment, or in the skins of field-mice
+sewed together, and the same suit serves them for use in-doors
+<span class="sidebar">Their dress</span>
+and out. However dingy the color of it may
+become, the tunic which has once been hung around their necks
+is never laid aside nor changed until through long decay the rags
+of it will no longer hold together. Their heads are covered with
+bent caps, their hairy legs with the skins of goats; their shoes,
+never having been fashioned on a last, are so clumsy that they
+cannot walk comfortably. On this account they are not well
+adapted to encounters on foot; but on the other hand they
+are almost welded to their horses, which are hardy, though
+of ugly shape, and on which they sometimes ride woman's
+fashion. On horseback every man of that nation lives night and
+day; on horseback he buys and sells; on horseback he takes his
+meat and drink, and when night comes on he leans forward upon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span>
+the narrow neck of his horse and there falls into a deep sleep, or
+wanders into the varied fantasies of dreams.</p>
+
+<p>When a discussion arises upon any matter of importance they
+come on horseback to the place of meeting. No kingly sternness
+overawes their deliberations, but being, on the whole, well-contented
+with the disorderly guidance of their chiefs, they do
+not scruple to interrupt the debates with anything that comes
+into their heads. When attacked, they will sometimes engage
+in regular battle. Then, going into the fight in order of columns,
+<span class="sidebar">Their mode
+of fighting</span>
+they fill the air with varied and discordant cries.
+More often, however, they fight in no regular
+order of battle, but being extremely swift and sudden in their
+movements, they disperse, and then rapidly come together
+again in loose array, spread havoc over vast plains and, flying
+over the rampart, pillage the camp of their enemy almost before
+he has become aware of their approach. It must be granted
+that they are the nimblest of warriors. The missile weapons
+which they use at a distance are pointed with sharpened bones
+admirably fastened to the shaft. When in close combat they
+fight without regard to their own safety, and while the enemy
+is intent upon parrying the thrusts of their swords they throw a
+net over him and so entangle his limbs that he loses all power of
+walking or riding.</p>
+
+<p>Not one among them cultivates the ground, or ever touches a
+plow-handle. All wander abroad without fixed abodes, without
+<span class="sidebar">Their nomadic
+character</span>
+home, or law, or settled customs, like perpetual
+fugitives, with their wagons for their only habitations.
+If you ask them, not one can tell you what is his place
+of origin. They are ruthless truce-breakers, fickle, always ready
+to be swayed by the first breath of a new desire, abandoning
+themselves without restraint to the most ungovernable rage.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, like animals devoid of reason, they are utterly ignorant
+of what is proper and what is not. They are tricksters with
+words and full of dark sayings. They are never moved by either
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span>
+religious or superstitious awe. They burn with unquenchable
+thirst for gold, and they are so changeable and so easily moved
+to wrath that many times in the day they will quarrel with their
+comrades on no provocation, and be reconciled, having received
+no satisfaction.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV.<br />
+THE EARLY FRANKS</h3>
+
+<h4>6. The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The most important historical writer among the early Franks was
+a bishop whose full name was Georgius Florentius Gregorius, but who
+has commonly been known ever since his day as Gregory of Tours.
+The date of his birth is uncertain, but it was probably either 539 or
+540. He was not a Frank, but a man of mixed Roman and Gallic
+descent, his parentage being such as to rank him among the nobility
+of his native district, Auvergne. At the age of thirty-four he was elected
+bishop of Tours, and this important office he held until his death in
+594. During this long period of service he won distinction as an able
+church official, as an alert man of affairs, and as a prolific writer on
+ecclesiastical subjects. Among his writings, some of which have been
+lost, were a book on the Christian martyrs, biographies of several holy
+men of the Church, a commentary on the Psalms, and a treatise on
+the officers of the Church and their duties.</p>
+
+<p>But by far his largest and most important work was his <i>Ecclesiastical
+History of the Franks</i>, in ten books, written well toward the end of
+his life. It is indeed to be regarded as one of the most interesting pieces
+of literature produced in any country during the Middle Ages. For
+his starting point Gregory went back to the Garden of Eden, and what
+he gives us in his first book is only an amusing but practically worthless
+account of the history of the world from Adam to St. Martin of
+Tours, who died probably in 397. In the second book, however, he
+comes more within the range of reasonable tradition, if not of actual
+information, and brings the story down to the death of Clovis in 511.
+In the succeeding eight books he reaches the year 591, though it is
+thought by some that the last four were put together after the author's
+death by some of his associates. However that may be, we may rest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span>
+assured that the history grows in accuracy as it approaches the period
+in which it was written. Naturally it is at its best in the later books,
+where events are described that happened within the writer's lifetime,
+and with many of which he had a close connection. Gregory was
+a man of unusual activity and of wide acquaintance among the influential
+people of his day. He served as a counselor of several Frankish
+kings and was a prominent figure at their courts. The shrine of
+St. Martin of Tours<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> was visited by pilgrims from all parts of the Christian
+world and by conversation with them Gregory had an excellent
+opportunity to keep informed as to what was going on among the Franks,
+and among more distant peoples as well. He was thus fortunately situated
+for one who proposed to write the history of his times. As a
+bishop of the orthodox Church he had small regard for Arians and other
+heretics, and so was in some ways less broad-minded than we could
+wish; and of course he shared the superstition and ignorance of his age,
+as will appear in some of the selections below. Still, without his extensive
+history we should know far less than we now do concerning the
+Frankish people before the seventh century. He mixes legend with fact
+in a most confusing manner, but with no intention whatever to deceive.
+The men of the earlier Middle Ages knew no other way of writing
+history and their readers were not critical as we are to-day. The
+passages quoted below from Gregory's history give some interesting
+information concerning the Frankish conquerors of Gaul, and at the
+same time show something of the spirit of Gregory himself and of the
+people of his times.</p>
+
+<p>Particularly interesting is the account of the conversion of Clovis
+and of the Franks to Christianity. When the Visigoths, Ostrogoths,
+Vandals, Lombards, and Burgundians crossed the Roman frontiers
+and settled within the bounds of the old Empire they were all Christians
+in name, however much their conduct might be at variance with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span>
+their profession. The Franks, on the other hand, established themselves
+in northern Gaul, as did the Saxons in Britain, while they were
+yet pagans, worshipping Woden and Thor and the other strange deities
+of the Germans. It was about the middle of the reign of King Clovis,
+or, more definitely, in the year 496, that the change came. In his
+<i>Ecclesiastical History</i> Gregory tells us how up to this time all the influence
+of the Christian queen, Clotilde, had been exerted in vain to
+bring her husband to the point of renouncing his old gods. In his wars
+and conquests the king had been very successful and apparently he
+was pretty well satisfied with the favors these old gods had showered
+upon him and was unwilling to turn his back upon such generous
+patrons. But there came a time, in 496, in the course of the war with
+the Alemanni, when the tide of fortune seemed to be turning against
+the Frankish king. In the great battle of Strassburg the Franks were
+on the point of being beaten by their foe, and Clovis in desperation
+made a vow, as the story goes, that if Clotilde's God would grant him
+a victory he would immediately become a Christian. Whatever may
+have been the reason, the victory was won and the king, with characteristic
+German fidelity to his word, proceeded to fulfill his pledge.
+Amid great ceremony he was baptized, and with him three thousand
+of his soldiers the same day. The great majority of Franks lost little
+time in following the royal example.</p>
+
+<p>Two important facts should be emphasized in connection with this
+famous incident. The first is the peculiar character of the so-called
+"conversion" of Clovis and his Franks. We to-day look upon religious
+conversion as an inner experience of the individual, apt to be
+brought about by personal contact between a Christian and the person
+who is converted. It was in no such sense as this, however, that the
+Franks&mdash;or any of the early Germans, for that matter&mdash;were made
+Christian. They looked upon Christianity as a mere portion of Roman
+civilization to be adopted or let alone as seemed best; but if it were
+adopted, it must be by the whole tribe or nation, not by individuals
+here and there. In general, the German peoples took up Christianity,
+not because they became convinced that their old religions were false,
+but simply because they were led to believe that the Christian faith
+was in some ways better than their own and so might profitably be
+taken advantage of by them. Clovis believed he had won the battle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>
+of Strassburg with the aid of the Christian God when Woden and
+Thor were about to fail him; therefore he reasoned that it would be a
+good thing in the future to make sure that the God of Clotilde should
+always be on his side, and obviously the way to do this was to become
+himself a Christian. He did not wholly abandon the old gods, but
+merely considered that he had found a new one of superior power.
+Hence he enjoined on all his people that they become Christians; and
+for the most part they did so, though of course we are not to suppose
+that there was any very noticeable change in their actual conduct and
+mode of life, at least for several generations.</p>
+
+<p>The second important point to observe is that, whereas all of the other
+Germanic peoples on the continent had become Christians of the
+Arian type, the Franks accepted Christianity in its orthodox form such
+as was adhered to by the papacy. This was sheer accident. The
+Franks took the orthodox rather than the heretical religion simply
+because it was the kind that was carried to them by the missionaries,
+not at all because they were able, or had the desire, to weigh the two
+creeds and choose the one they liked the better. But though they
+became orthodox Christians by accident, the fact that they became
+such is of the utmost importance in mediæval history, for by being
+what the papacy regarded as true Christians rather than heretics they
+began from the start to be looked to by the popes for support. Their
+kings in time became the greatest secular champions of papal interests,
+though relations were sometimes far from harmonious. This virtual
+alliance of the popes and the Frankish kings is a subject which will
+repay careful study.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica Francorum</i>
+[Gregory of Tours, "Ecclesiastical History of the Franks"], Bk. II.,
+Chaps. 27-43 <i>passim</i>. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica,
+Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum</i>, Vol. I., Part 1, pp. 88-89, 90-95,
+98-100, 158-159.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> After all these things Childeric<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> died and his son Clovis ruled
+in his stead. In the fifth year of the new reign Syagrius, son of
+Ægidius, was governing as king of the Romans in the town of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>
+Soissons, where his father had held sway before him.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> Clovis
+now advanced against him with his kinsman Ragnachar, who
+also held a kingdom, and gave him an opportunity to select a
+field of battle. Syagrius did not hesitate, for he was not at all
+afraid to risk an encounter. In the conflict which followed,
+however, the Roman soon saw that his army was doomed to
+destruction; so, turning and fleeing from the field, he made all
+<span class="sidebar">The battle of
+Soissons (486)</span>
+haste to take refuge with King Alaric at Toulouse.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+Clovis then sent word to Alaric that he
+must hand over the defeated king at once if he did not wish to
+bring on war against himself. Fearing the anger of the Franks,
+therefore, as the Goths continually do, Alaric bound Syagrius
+with chains and delivered him to the messengers of King Clovis.
+As soon as the latter had the prisoner in his possession he put
+him under safe guard and, after seizing his kingdom, had him
+secretly slain.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>At this time the army of Clovis plundered many churches, for
+the king was still sunk in the errors of idolatry. Upon one occasion
+the soldiers carried away from a church, along with other
+ornaments of the sacred place, a remarkably large and beautiful
+vase. The bishop of that church sent messengers to the king to
+<span class="sidebar">The story of
+the broken
+vase</span>
+ask that, even if none of the other holy vessels
+might be restored, this precious vase at least
+might be sent back. To the messengers Clovis
+could only reply: "Come with us to Soissons, for there all the
+booty is to be divided. If when we cast lots the vase shall fall
+to me, I will return it as the bishop desires."</p>
+
+<p>When they had reached Soissons and all the booty had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span>
+brought together in the midst of the army the king called attention
+to the vase and said, "I ask you, most valiant warriors, to
+allow me to have the vase in addition to my rightful share."
+Then even those of his men who were most self-willed answered:
+"O glorious king, all things before us are thine, and we ourselves
+are subject to thy control. Do, therefore, what pleases thee best,
+for no one is able to resist thee." But when they had thus
+spoken, one of the warriors, an impetuous, jealous, and vain man,
+raised his battle-ax aloft and broke the vase in pieces, crying as
+he did so, "Thou shalt receive no part of this booty unless it fall
+to you by a fair lot." And at such a rash act they were all
+astounded.</p>
+
+<p>The king pretended not to be angry and seemed to take no
+notice of the incident, and when it happened that the broken
+vase fell to him by lot he gave the fragments to the bishop's
+messengers; nevertheless he cherished a secret indignation in
+his heart. A year later he summoned all his soldiers to come
+fully armed to the Campus Martius, so that he might make an
+<span class="sidebar">Clovis's
+revenge</span>
+inspection of his troops.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> After he had reviewed
+the whole army he finally came across the very
+man who had broken the vase at Soissons. "No one," cried out
+the king to him, "carries his arms so awkwardly as thou; for
+neither thy spear nor thy sword nor thy ax is ready for use," and
+he struck the ax out of the soldier's hands so that it fell to the
+ground. Then when the man bent forward to pick it up the
+king raised his own ax and struck him on the head, saying,
+"Thus thou didst to the vase at Soissons." Having slain him,
+he dismissed the others, filled with great fear....<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> The queen did not cease urging the king to acknowledge the
+true God and forsake idols, but all her efforts failed until at length
+a war broke out with the Alemanni.<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Then of necessity he was
+compelled to confess what hitherto he had wilfully denied. It
+happened that the two armies were in battle and there was great
+slaughter.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The army of Clovis seemed about to be cut in pieces.
+Then the king raised his hands fervently toward the heavens
+and, breaking into tears, cried: "Jesus Christ, who Clotilde declares
+to be the son of the living God, who it is said givest help to
+the oppressed and victory to those who put their trust in thee,
+I invoke thy marvellous help. If thou wilt give me victory over
+my enemies and I prove that power which thy followers say they
+have proved concerning thee, I will believe in thee and will be
+baptized in thy name; for I have called upon my own gods and
+it is clear that they have neglected to give me aid. Therefore I
+am convinced that they have no power, for they do not help those
+<span class="sidebar">Clovis decides
+to become a
+Christian (496)</span>
+who serve them. I now call upon thee, and I
+wish to believe in thee, especially that I may
+escape from my enemies." When he had offered
+this prayer the Alemanni turned their backs and began to flee.
+And when they learned that their king had been slain, they submitted
+at once to Clovis, saying, "Let no more of our people
+perish, for we now belong to you." When he had stopped the
+battle and praised his soldiers for their good work, Clovis returned
+in peace to his kingdom and told the queen how he had won the
+victory by calling on the name of Christ. These events took
+place in the fifteenth year of his reign.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> Then the queen sent secretly to the blessed Remigius, bishop
+of Rheims, and asked him to bring to the king the gospel of
+salvation. The bishop came to the court where, little by little,
+he led Clovis to believe in the true God, maker of heaven and
+earth, and to forsake the idols which could help neither him nor
+any one else. "Willingly will I hear thee, O holy father," declared
+the king at last, "but the people who are under my authority
+are not ready to give up their gods. I will go and consult them
+about the religion concerning which you speak." When he had
+come among them, and before he had spoken a word, all the people,
+through the influence of the divine power, cried out with
+one voice: "O righteous king, we cast off our mortal gods and
+we are ready to serve the God who Remigius tells us is immortal."</p>
+
+<p>When this was reported to the bishop he was beside himself
+with joy, and he at once ordered the baptismal font to be prepared.
+The streets were shaded with embroidered hangings;
+the churches were adorned with white tapestries, exhaling sweet
+odors; perfumed tapers gleamed; and all the temple of the
+<span class="sidebar">The baptism
+of Clovis and
+his warriors</span>
+baptistry was filled with a heavenly odor, so
+that the people might well have believed that
+God in His graciousness showered upon them the
+perfumes of Paradise. Then Clovis, having confessed that the
+God of the Trinity was all-powerful, was baptized in the name
+of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and was
+anointed with the holy oil with the sign of the cross. More than
+three thousand of his soldiers were baptized with him....</p>
+
+<p><b>35.</b> Now when Alaric, king of the Goths, saw that Clovis was
+conquering many nations, he sent messengers to him, saying, "If
+it please my brother, let us, with the favor of God, enter into an
+alliance." Clovis at once declared his willingness to do as Alaric
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>
+suggested and the two kings met on an island in the Loire, near
+the town of Amboise in the vicinity of Tours.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> There they talked,
+ate, and drank together, and after making mutual promises of
+friendship they departed in peace.</p>
+
+<p><b>37.</b> But Clovis said to his soldiers: "It is with regret that I see
+the Arian heretics in possession of any part of Gaul. Let us,
+with the help of God, march against them and, after having conquered
+them, bring their country under our own control." This
+proposal was received with favor by all the warriors and the
+army started on the campaign, going towards Poitiers, where
+<span class="sidebar">Clovis resolves
+to take the
+Visigoths'
+lands in Gaul</span>
+Alaric was then staying. As a portion of the
+troops passed through the territory about Tours,
+Clovis, out of respect for the holy St. Martin,
+forbade his soldiers to take anything from the country except
+grass for the horses. One soldier, having come across some hay
+which belonged to a poor man said, "Has, then, the king given us
+permission to take only grass? O well! hay is grass. To take it
+would not be to violate the command." And by force he took
+the hay away from the poor man. When, however, the matter
+was brought to the king's attention he struck the offender with
+his sword and killed him, saying, "How, indeed, may we hope
+for victory if we give offense to St. Martin?" This was enough
+thereafter to prevent the army from plundering in that country.</p>
+
+<p>When Clovis arrived with his forces at the banks of the Vienne
+he was at a loss to know where to cross, because the heavy rains
+<span class="sidebar">Miraculous incidents
+of the
+campaign</span>
+had swollen the stream. During the night he
+prayed that the Lord would reveal to him a
+passage. The following morning, under the
+guidance of God, a doe of wondrous size entered the river in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span>
+plain sight of the army and crossed by a ford, thus pointing out
+the way for the soldiers to get over. When they were in the
+neighborhood of Poitiers the king saw at some distance from his
+tent a ball of fire, which proceeded from the steeple of the church
+of St. Hilary<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> and seemed to him to advance in his direction, as
+if to show that by the aid of the light of the holy St. Hilary he
+would triumph the more easily over the heretics against whom
+the pious priest had himself often fought for the faith. Clovis
+then forbade his army to molest any one or to pillage any property
+in that part of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Clovis at length engaged in battle with Alaric, king of the
+Goths, in the plain of Vouillé at the tenth mile-stone from
+Poitiers.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The Goths fought with javelins, but the Franks
+charged upon them with lances. Then the Goths took to flight,
+as is their custom,<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and the victory, with the aid of God, fell to
+Clovis. He had put the Goths to flight and killed their king,
+<span class="sidebar">The Visigoths
+defeated by
+Clovis (507)</span>
+Alaric, when all at once two soldiers bore down
+upon him and struck him with lances on both
+sides at once; but, owing to the strength of his
+armor and the swiftness of his horse, he escaped death. After
+the battle Amalaric, son of Alaric, took refuge in Spain and ruled
+wisely over the kingdom of his father.<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> Alaric had reigned
+twenty-two years. Clovis, after spending the winter at Bordeaux
+and carrying from Toulouse all the treasure of the king,
+advanced on Angoulême. There the Lord showed him such
+favor that at his very approach the walls of the city fell down of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span>
+their own accord.<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> After driving out the Goths he brought the
+place under his own authority. Thus, crowned with victory,
+he returned to Tours and bestowed a great number of presents
+upon the holy church of the blessed Martin.<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>40.</b> Now while Clovis was living at Paris he sent secretly to the
+son of Sigibert,<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> saying: "Behold now your father is old and
+lame. If he should die his kingdom would come to you and my
+friendship with it." So the son of Sigibert, impelled by his
+ambition, planned to slay his father. And when Sigibert set
+out from Cologne and crossed the Rhine to go through the
+Buchonian forest,<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> his son had him slain by assassins while he
+was sleeping in his tent, in order that he might gain the kingdom
+for himself. But by the judgment of God he fell into the pit
+which he had digged for his father. He sent messengers to Clovis
+to announce the death of his father and to say: "My father is
+dead and I have his treasures, and likewise the kingdom. Now
+send trusted men to me, that I may give them for you whatever
+you would like out of his treasury." Clovis replied: "I thank
+you for your kindness and will ask you merely to show my
+messengers all your treasures, after which you may keep them
+yourself." And when the messengers of Clovis came, the son of
+Sigibert showed them the treasures which his father had collected.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span>
+And while they were looking at various things, he said: "My
+father used to keep his gold coins in this little chest." And
+<span class="sidebar">Other means
+by which Clovis
+extended
+his power</span>
+they said, "Put your hand down to the bottom,
+that you may show us everything." But when he
+stooped to do this, one of the messengers struck
+him on the head with his battle-ax, and thus he met the fate
+which he had visited upon his father.</p>
+
+<p>Now when Clovis heard that both Sigibert and his son were
+dead, he came to that place and called the people together and
+said to them: "Hear what has happened. While I was sailing
+on the Scheldt River, Cloderic, son of Sigibert, my relative,
+attacked his father, pretending that I had wished him to slay
+him. And so when his father fled through the Buchonian forest,
+the assassins of Cloderic set upon him and slew him. But while
+Cloderic was opening his father's treasure chest, some man
+unknown to me struck him down. I am in no way guilty of these
+things, for I could not shed the blood of my relatives, which is
+very wicked. But since these things have happened, if it seems
+best to you, I advise you to unite with me and come under my
+protection." And those who heard him applauded his speech,
+and, raising him on a shield, acknowledged him as their king.
+Thus Clovis gained the kingdom of Sigibert and his treasures,
+and won over his subjects to his own rule. For God daily confounded
+his enemies and increased his kingdom, because he
+walked uprightly before Him and did that which was pleasing in
+His sight.</p>
+
+<p><b>42.</b> Then Clovis made war on his relative Ragnachar.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> And
+when the latter saw that his army was defeated, he attempted
+to flee; but his own men seized him and his brother Richar and
+brought them bound before Clovis. Then Clovis said: "Why
+<span class="sidebar">The removal
+of remaining
+rivals</span>
+have you disgraced our family by allowing yourself
+to be taken prisoner? It would have been
+better for you had you been slain." And, raising his battle-ax,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span>
+he slew him. Then, turning to Richar, he said, "If you had
+aided your brother he would not have been taken;" and he slew
+him with the ax also. Thus by their death Clovis took their
+kingdom and treasures. And many other kings and relatives
+of his, who he feared might take his kingdom from him, were
+slain, and his dominion was extended over all Gaul.</p>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> And after these things he died at Paris and was buried in
+the basilica of the holy saints which he and his queen, Clotilde,
+had built. He passed away in the fifth year
+<span class="sidebar">The death
+of Clovis (511)</span>
+after the battle of Vouillé, and all the days of
+his reign were thirty years.</p>
+
+<h4>7. The Law of the Salian Franks</h4>
+<div class="intro">
+<p>When the Visigoths, Lombards, and other Germanic peoples settled
+within the bounds of the Roman Empire they had no such thing as
+written law. They had laws, and a goodly number of them, but these
+laws were handed down from generation to generation orally, having
+never been enacted by a legislative body or decreed by a monarch in
+the way that laws are generally made among the civilized peoples of
+to-day. In other words, early Germanic law consisted simply of an
+accumulation of the immemorial custom of the tribe. When, for
+example, a certain penalty had been paid on several occasions by
+persons who had committed a particular crime, men came naturally
+to regard that penalty as the one regularly to be paid by <i>any one</i> proved
+guilty of the same offense; so that what was at first only habit gradually
+became hardened into law&mdash;unwritten indeed, but none the less binding.
+The law thus made up, moreover, was personal rather than territorial
+like that of the Romans and like ours to-day. That is, the same
+laws did not apply to all the people throughout any particular country
+or region. If a man were born a Visigoth he would be subject to Visigothic
+law throughout life, no matter where he might go to live. So
+the Burgundian would always have the right to be judged by Burgundian
+law, and the Lombard by the Lombard law. Obviously, in
+regions where several peoples dwelt side by side, as in large portions
+of Gaul, Spain, and northern Italy, there was no small amount of confusion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>
+and the courts had to be conducted in a good many different
+ways.</p>
+
+<p>After the Germans had been for some time in contact with the Romans
+they began to be considerably influenced by the customs and
+ways of doing things which they found among the more civilized people.
+They tried to master the Latin language, though, on the whole,
+they succeeded only so well as to create the new "Romance" tongues
+which we know as French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. They
+adopted the Roman religion, i.e., Christianity. And, among the most
+important things of all, they took up the Roman idea of having their
+law written out rather than in the uncertain shape of mere tradition.
+In this work of putting the old customary law in written form the way
+was led by the Salian branch of the Franks. Just when the Salic code
+was drawn up is not known, but the work was certainly done at some
+time during the reign of Clovis, probably about the year 496. The
+portions of this code which are given below will serve to show the
+general character of all the early Germanic systems of law&mdash;Visigothic,
+Lombard, Burgundian, and Frisian, as well as Frankish; for among
+them all there was much uniformity in principles, though considerable
+variation in matters of detail. Like the rest, the Salic law was fragmentary.
+The codes were not intended to embrace the entire law of
+the tribe, but simply to bring together in convenient form those portions
+which were most difficult to remember and which were most useful
+for ready reference. In the Salic code, for instance, we find a large
+amount of criminal law and of the law of procedure, but only a few
+touches of the law of property, or indeed of civil law of any sort. There
+is practically nothing in the way of public or administrative law. Many
+things are not mentioned which we should expect to find treated and,
+on the other hand, some things are there which we should not look for
+ordinarily in a code of law. The greater portion is taken up with
+an enumeration of penalties for various crimes and wrongful acts.
+These are often detailed so minutely as to be rather amusing from our
+modern point of view. Yet every one of the sixty-five chapters of
+the code has its significance and from the whole law can be gleaned
+an immense amount of information concerning the manner of life which
+prevailed in early Frankish Gaul. For the Merovingian period in
+general the Salic law is our most valuable documentary source of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>
+knowledge, just as for the same epoch the <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of
+Gregory of Tours is our most important narrative source.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Heinrich Geffcken, <i>Lex Salica</i> ["The Salic Law"], Leipzig,
+1898; also Heinrich Gottfried Gengler, <i>Germanische Rechtsdenkmäler</i>
+["Monuments of German Law"], Erlangen, 1875, pp. 267-303.
+Adapted from translation in Ernest F. Henderson, <i>Select Historical
+Documents of the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1896), pp. 176-189.</p>
+
+<p class="center">I.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any one be summoned before the <i>mallus</i><a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> by the king's
+law, and do not come, he shall be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>,
+which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But he who summons another, and does not come himself,
+if a lawful impediment have not delayed him, shall be
+<span class="sidebar">Summonses to
+the meetings
+of the local
+courts</span>
+sentenced to 15 <i>solidi</i>, to be paid to him whom
+he summoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> And he who summons another shall go
+with witnesses to the home of that man, and, if he be not at home,
+shall enjoin the wife, or any one of the family, to make known to
+him that he has been summoned to court.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> But if he be occupied in the king's service he cannot summon
+him.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> And if he shall be inside the hundred attending to his own
+affairs, he can summon him in the manner just explained.</p>
+
+<p class="center">XI.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any freeman steal, outside of a house, something worth
+2 <i>denarii</i>, he shall be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15
+<i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But if he steal, outside of a house, something worth 40
+<span class="sidebar">Theft by
+a slave</span>
+<i>denarii</i>, and it be proved on him, he shall be
+sentenced, besides the amount and the fines for
+delay, to 1,400 <i>denarii</i>, which make 35 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> If a freeman break into a house and steal something worth
+2 <i>denarii</i>, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 15
+<i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> But if he shall have stolen something worth more than 5
+<i>denarii</i>, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced, besides
+the value of the object and the fines for delay, to 1,400
+<i>denarii</i>, which make 35 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> But if he shall have broken, or tampered with, the lock,
+and thus have entered the house and stolen anything from it,
+he shall be sentenced, besides the value of the object and the
+fines for delay, to 1,800 <i>denarii</i>, which make 45 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> And if he shall have taken nothing, or have escaped by
+flight, he shall, for the housebreaking alone, be sentenced to
+1,200 <i>denarii</i>, which make 30 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">XII.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If a slave steal, outside of a house, something worth 2
+<span class="sidebar">Theft by
+a freeman</span>
+<i>denarii</i>, besides paying the value of the object
+and the fines for delay, he shall be stretched out
+and receive 120 blows.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But if he steal something worth 40 <i>denarii</i>, he shall pay
+6 <i>solidi</i>. The lord of the slave who committed the theft shall
+restore to the plaintiff the value of the object and the fines for
+delay.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">XIV.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall have assaulted and robbed a freeman, and
+it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which
+<span class="sidebar">Robbery with
+assault</span>
+make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> If a Roman shall have robbed a Salian
+Frank, the above law shall be observed.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> But if a Frank shall have robbed a Roman, he shall be
+sentenced to 35 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">XV.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall set fire to a house in which people were
+sleeping, as many freemen as were in it can make complaint
+<span class="sidebar">The crime of
+incendiarism</span>
+before the <i>mallus</i>; and if any one shall have been
+burned in it, the incendiary shall be sentenced to
+2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">XVII.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall have sought to kill another person, and
+the blow shall have missed, he on whom it was proved shall be
+sentenced to 2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> If any person shall have sought to shoot another with a
+<span class="sidebar">Various deeds
+of violence</span>
+poisoned arrow, and the arrow has glanced aside,
+and it shall be proved on him, he shall be sentenced
+to 2,500 <i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> If any one shall have struck a man so that blood falls to
+the floor, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 600
+<i>denarii</i>, which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> But if a freeman strike a freeman with his fist so that blood
+does not flow, he shall be sentenced for each blow&mdash;up to 3
+blows&mdash;to 120 <i>denarii</i>, which make 3 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">XIX.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any one shall have given herbs to another, so that he
+die, he shall be sentenced to 200 <i>solidi</i>, or shall surely be given
+<span class="sidebar">Use of poison
+or witchcraft</span>
+over to fire.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> If any person shall have bewitched another,
+and he who was thus treated shall escape, the author of the
+crime, having been proved guilty of it, shall be sentenced to 2,500
+<i>denarii</i>, which make 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">XXX.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> If any man shall have brought it up against another that
+<span class="sidebar">Punishment
+for slander</span>
+he has thrown away his shield, and shall not have
+been able to prove it, he shall be sentenced to
+120 <i>denarii</i>, which make 3 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> If any man shall have called another "gossip" or "perjurer,"
+and shall not have been able to prove it, he shall be sentenced
+to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">XXXIV.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any man shall have cut 3 staves by which a fence is
+bound or held together, or shall have stolen or cut the heads of
+3 stakes, he shall be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15
+<i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> If any one shall have drawn a harrow through another's
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span>
+field of grain after the seed has sprouted, or shall have gone
+<span class="sidebar">The offense
+of trespass</span>
+
+through it with a wagon where there was no road,
+he shall be sentenced to 120 <i>denarii</i>, which make
+3 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> If any one shall have gone, where there is no road or path,
+through another's field after the grain has grown tall, he shall
+be sentenced to 600 <i>denarii</i>, which make 15 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">XLI.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="Sect1" id="Sect1"></a>1.</b> If any one shall have killed a free Frank, or a barbarian
+living under the Salic law, and it shall have been proved on him,
+he shall be sentenced to 8,000 <i>denarii</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But if he shall have thrown him into a well or into the
+<span class="sidebar">Punishments
+for homicide</span>
+water, or shall have covered him with branches
+or anything else, to conceal him, he shall be
+sentenced to 24,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 600 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="Sect3" id="Sect3"></a>3.</b> If any one shall have slain a man who is in the service of the
+king, he shall be sentenced to 24,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 600
+<i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> But if he shall have put him in the water, or in a well, and
+covered him with anything to conceal him, he shall be sentenced
+to 72,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 1,000 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> If any one shall have slain a Roman who eats in the king's
+palace, and it shall have been proved on him, he shall be sentenced
+to 12,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 300 <i>solidi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="Sect6" id="Sect6"></a>6.</b> But if the Roman shall not have been a landed proprietor
+and table companion of the king, he who killed him shall be sentenced
+to 4,000 <i>denarii</i>, which make 100 <i>solidi</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> If he shall have killed a Roman who was obliged to
+pay tribute, he shall be sentenced to 63 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> If any one shall have thrown a freeman into a well, and he
+has escaped alive, he [the criminal] shall be sentenced to 4,000
+<i>denarii</i>, which make 100 <i>solidi</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">XLV.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any one desires to migrate to another village, and if one
+or more who live in that village do not wish to receive him&mdash;even
+<span class="sidebar">Right of
+migration</span>
+if there be only one who objects&mdash;he shall
+not have the right to move there.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> But if any one shall have moved there, and within 12
+months no one has given him warning, he shall remain as secure
+as the other neighbors.</p>
+
+<p class="center">L.</p>
+
+<p>1. If any freeman or leet<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> shall have made to another a promise
+to pay, then he to whom the promise was made shall, within 40
+<span class="sidebar">Enforcement
+of debt</span>
+days, or within such time as was agreed upon
+when he made the promise, go to the house of
+that man with witnesses, or with appraisers. And if he [the
+debtor] be unwilling to make the promised payment, he shall be
+sentenced to 15 <i>solidi</i> above the debt which he had promised.</p>
+
+<p class="center">LIX.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any man die and leave no sons, the father and mother
+shall inherit, if they survive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sidebar">Rights of
+inheritance</span>
+<b>2.</b> If the father and mother do not survive,
+and he leave brothers or sisters, they shall inherit.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> But if there are none, the sisters of the father shall inherit.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> But if there are no sisters of the father, the sisters of the
+mother shall claim the inheritance.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> If there are none of these, the nearest relatives on the
+father's side shall succeed to the inheritance.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Of Salic land no portion of the inheritance shall go to a
+woman; but the whole inheritance of the land shall belong to the
+male sex.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">LXII.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If any one's father shall have been slain, the sons shall have
+half the compounding money [wergeld]; and the other half, the
+<span class="sidebar">Payment of
+wergeld</span>
+nearest relatives, as well on the mother's as on
+the father's side, shall divide among themselves.<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But if there are no relatives, paternal or maternal, that
+portion shall go to the fisc.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER V.<br />
+THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN</h3>
+
+<h4>8. The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The Venerable Bede, the author of the passage given below, was
+born about 673 in Northumberland and spent most of his life in the
+Benedictine abbey of Jarrow on the Tyne, where he died in 735. He
+was a man of broad learning and untiring industry, famous in all parts
+of Christendom by reason of the numerous scholarly books that he
+wrote. The chief of these was his <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English
+People</i>, covering the period from the first invasion of Britain by Cæsar
+(<span class="s07">B.C.</span> 55) to the year 731. In this work Bede dealt with many matters
+lying properly outside the sphere of church history, so that it
+is exceedingly valuable for the light which it throws on both the military
+and political affairs of the early Anglo-Saxons in Britain. As an
+historian Bede was fair-minded and as accurate as his means of information
+permitted.</p>
+
+<p>The Angle and Saxon seafarers from the region we now know as
+Denmark and Hanover had infested the shores of Britain for two centuries
+or more before the coming of Hengist and Horsa which Bede
+here describes. The withdrawal of the Roman garrisons about the
+year 410 left the Britons at the mercy of the wilder Picts and Scots of
+the north and west, and as a last resort King Vortigern decided to call
+in the Saxons to aid in his campaign of defense. Such, at least, is the
+story related by Gildas, a Romanized British chronicler who wrote about
+the year 560, and this was the view adopted by Bede. Recent writers,
+as Mr. James H. Ramsay in his <i>Foundations of England</i>, are inclined
+to cast serious doubts upon the story because it seems hardly probable
+that any king would have taken so foolish a step as that attributed
+to Vortigern.<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> At any rate, whether by invitation or for pure love
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span>
+of seafaring adventure, certain it is that the Saxons and Angles made
+their appearance at the little island of Thanet, on the coast of Kent,
+and found the country so much to their liking that they chose to remain
+rather than return to the over-populated shores of the Baltic.
+There are many reasons for believing that people of Germanic stock
+had been settled more or less permanently in Britain long before the
+traditional invasion of Hengist and Horsa. Yet we are justified in
+thinking of this interesting expedition as, for all practical purposes, the
+beginning of the long and stubborn struggle of Germans to possess the
+fruitful British isle. While Visigoths and Ostrogoths, Vandals and
+Lombards were breaking across the Rhine-Danube frontier and finding
+new homes in the territories of the Roman Empire, the Angles,
+Saxons, and Jutes from the farther north were led by their seafaring
+instincts to make their great movement, not by land, but by water,
+and into a country which the Romans had a good while before been
+obliged to abandon. There they were free to develop their own peculiar
+Germanic life and institutions, for the most part without undergoing
+the changes which settlement among the Romans produced in the case
+of the tribes whose migrations were towards the Mediterranean.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Bæda, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i> [Bede, "Ecclesiastical
+History of the English People"], Bk. I., Chaps. 14-15. Translated
+by J. A. Giles (London, 1847), pp. 23-25.</p>
+
+<p>They consulted what was to be done,<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> and where they should
+seek assistance to prevent or repel the cruel and frequent incursions
+<span class="sidebar">The Britons
+decide to call
+in the Saxons</span>
+of the northern nations. And they all
+agreed with their king, Vortigern, to call over to
+their aid, from the parts beyond the sea, the
+Saxon nation; which, as the outcome still more plainly showed,
+appears to have been done by the inspiration of our Lord Himself,
+that evil might fall upon them for their wicked deeds.</p>
+
+<p>In the year of our Lord 449,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Martian, being made emperor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span>
+with Valentinian, the forty-sixth from Augustus, ruled the
+Empire seven years. Then the nation of the Angles, or Saxons,
+being invited by the aforesaid king, arrived in Britain with three
+long ships, and had a place assigned them to reside in by the same
+king, in the eastern part of the island,<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> that they might thus
+appear to be fighting for their country, while their real intentions
+were to enslave it. Accordingly they engaged with the
+enemy, who were come from the north to give battle, and obtained
+the victory; which, being known at home in their own
+country, as also the fertility of the islands and the cowardice of
+the Britons, a larger fleet was quickly sent over, bringing a still
+greater number of men, who, being added to the former, made
+<span class="sidebar">The Saxons
+settle in the
+island</span>
+up an invincible army. The newcomers received
+from the Britons a place to dwell, upon condition
+that they should wage war against their enemies
+for the peace and security of the country, while the Britons
+agreed to furnish them with pay.</p>
+
+<p>Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations
+of Germany&mdash;Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are
+descended the people of Kent and of the Isle of Wight, and
+those also in the province of the West Saxons who are to this day
+called Jutes, seated opposite to the Isle of Wight. From the
+Saxons, that is, the country which is now called Old Saxony,
+came the East Saxons, the South Saxons, and the West Saxons.
+From the Angles, that is, the country which is called Anglia,
+and which is said, from that time, to remain desert to this day,
+between the provinces of the Jutes and the Saxons, are descended
+the East Angles, the Midland Angles, Mercians, all the race of
+the Northumbrians, that is, of those nations that dwell on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>
+north side of the River Humber, and the other nations of the
+English.</p>
+
+<p>The first two commanders are said to have been Hengist and
+Horsa. Horsa, being afterwards slain in battle by the Britons,<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>
+<span class="sidebar">Hengist and
+Horsa</span>
+was buried in the eastern part of Kent, where a
+monument bearing his name is still in existence.
+They were the sons of Victgilsus, whose father was Vecta, son
+of Woden; from whose stock the royal races of many provinces
+trace their descent. In a short time swarms of the aforesaid
+nations came over into the island, and they began to increase so
+much that they became a terror to the natives themselves who
+had invited them. Then, having on a sudden entered into a
+league with the Picts, whom they had by this time repelled by
+<span class="sidebar">The Saxons
+turn against
+the Britons</span>
+the force of their arms, they began to turn their
+weapons against their confederates. At first
+they obliged them to furnish a greater quantity
+of provisions; and, seeking an occasion to quarrel, protested that
+unless more plentiful supplies were brought them they would
+break the confederacy and ravage all the island; nor were they
+backward in putting their threats in execution.</p>
+
+<p>They plundered all the neighboring cities and country, spread
+the conflagration from the eastern to the western sea without
+any opposition, and covered almost every part of the
+island. Public as well as private structures were overturned;
+<span class="sidebar">Their devastation
+of the
+country</span>
+the priests were everywhere slain before the altars;
+the prelates and the people, without any respect
+of persons, were destroyed with fire and sword;
+nor were there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly
+slaughtered. Some of the miserable remainder, being taken in
+the mountains, were butchered in heaps. Others, driven by
+hunger, came forth and submitted themselves to the enemy for
+food, being destined to undergo perpetual servitude, if they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span>
+were not killed upon the spot. Some, with sorrowful hearts, fled
+beyond the seas. Others, continuing in their own country, led
+a miserable life among the woods, rocks, and mountains, with
+scarcely enough food to support life, and expecting every moment
+to be their last.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
+
+<h4>9. The Mission of Augustine (597)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>How or when the Christian religion was first introduced into Britain
+cannot now be ascertained. As early as the beginning of the third
+century the African church father Tertullian referred to the Britons
+as a Christian people, and in 314 the British church was recognized
+by the Council of Arles as an integral part of the church universal.
+Throughout the period of Roman control in the island Christianity
+continued to be the dominant religion. When, however, in the fifth
+century and after, the Saxons and Angles invaded the country and
+the native population was largely killed off or driven westward (though
+not so completely as some books tell us), Christianity came to be pretty
+much confined to the Celtic peoples of Ireland and Wales. The invaders
+were still pagans worshiping the old Teutonic deities Woden,
+Thor, Freya, and the rest, and though an attempt at their conversion
+was made by a succession of Irish monks, their pride as conquerors
+seems to have kept them from being greatly influenced. At any rate,
+the conversion of the Angles and Saxons was a task which called for
+a special evangelistic movement from no less a source than the head
+of the Church. This movement was set in operation by Pope Gregory I.
+(Gregory the Great) near the close of the sixth century. It is reasonable
+to suppose that the impulse came originally from Bertha, the
+Frankish queen of King Ethelbert of Kent, who was an ardent Christian
+and very desirous of bringing about the conversion of her adopted
+people. In 596 Augustine (not to be confused with the celebrated
+bishop of Hippo in the fifth century) was sent by Pope Gregory at the
+head of a band of monks to proclaim the religion of the cross to King
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>
+Ethelbert, and afterwards to all the Angles and Saxons and Jutes in
+the island. On Whitsunday, June 2, 597, Ethelbert renounced his old
+gods and was baptized into the Christian communion. The majority
+of his people soon followed his example and four years later Augustine
+was appointed "Bishop of the English." After this encouraging beginning
+the Christianizing of the East, West, and South Saxons went
+steadily forward.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Bæda, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i>, Bk. I., Chaps. 23,
+25-26. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles (London, 1847),
+pp. 34-40 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the year of our Lord 582, Maurice, the fifty-fourth from
+Augustus, ascended the throne,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> and reigned twenty-one years.
+In the tenth year of his reign, Gregory, a man renowned for learning
+and piety, was elected to the apostolical see of Rome, and
+presided over it thirteen years, six months and ten days.<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> He,
+<span class="sidebar">Pope Gregory
+I. sends
+missionaries
+to Britain</span>
+being moved by divine inspiration, in the fourteenth
+year of the same emperor, and about the
+one hundred and fiftieth after the coming of the
+English into Britain, sent the servant of God, Augustine,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> and
+with him several other monks who feared the Lord, to preach
+the word of God to the English nation. They, in obedience to
+the Pope's commands, having undertaken that work, were on
+their journey seized with a sudden fear and began to think of
+returning home, rather than of proceeding to a barbarous,
+fierce, and unbelieving nation, to whose very language they
+<span class="sidebar">They become
+frightened at
+the outlook</span>
+were strangers; and this they unanimously
+agreed was the safest course.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> In short, they
+sent back Augustine, who had been appointed
+to be consecrated bishop in case they were received by the English,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span>
+that he might, by humble entreaty, obtain consent of the
+holy Gregory, that they should not be compelled to undertake
+so dangerous, toilsome, and uncertain a journey. The Pope, in
+reply, sent them an encouraging letter, persuading them to proceed
+in the work of the divine word, and rely on the assistance of
+the Almighty. The substance of this letter was as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"Gregory, the servant of the servants of God, to the servants
+of our Lord. Forasmuch as it had been better not to begin a
+good work than to think of abandoning that
+<span class="sidebar">Gregory's letter
+of encouragement</span>
+which has been begun, it behooves you, my
+beloved sons, to fulfill the good work which, by
+the help of our Lord, you have undertaken. Let not, therefore,
+the toil of the journey nor the tongues of evil-speaking men deter
+you. With all possible earnestness and zeal perform that which,
+by God's direction, you have undertaken; being assured that
+much labor is followed by an eternal reward. When Augustine,
+your chief, returns, whom we also constitute your abbot,<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> humbly
+obey him in all things; knowing that whatsoever you shall do by
+his direction will, in all respects, be helpful to your souls. Almighty
+God protect you with his grace, and grant that I, in the
+heavenly country, may see the fruits of your labor; inasmuch as,
+though I cannot labor with you, I shall partake in the joy of the
+reward, because I am willing to labor. God keep you in safety,
+my most beloved sons. Dated the 23rd of July, in the fourteenth
+year of the reign of our pious and most august lord, Mauritius
+Tiberius, the thirteenth year after the consulship of our said
+lord."</p>
+
+<p>Augustine, thus strengthened by the confirmation of the
+blessed Father Gregory, returned to the work of the word of
+God, with the servants of Christ, and arrived in Britain. The
+powerful Ethelbert was at that time king of Kent. He had extended
+his dominions as far as the great River Humber, by which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>
+the Southern Saxons are divided from the Northern.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> On the
+east of Kent is the large isle of Thanet containing according to
+<span class="sidebar">Augustine
+and his companions
+arrive
+in Kent</span>
+
+the English reckoning 600 families, divided from
+the other land by the River Wantsum, which is
+about three furlongs over and fordable only in
+two places, for both ends of it run into the sea.<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> In this island
+landed the servant of our Lord, Augustine, and his companions,
+being, as is reported, nearly forty men. By order of the blessed
+Pope Gregory, they had taken interpreters of the nation of
+the Franks,<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> and sending to Ethelbert, signified that they were
+come from Rome and brought a joyful message, which most undoubtedly
+assured to all that took advantage of it everlasting
+joys in heaven and a kingdom that would never end, with the
+living and true God. The king, having heard this, ordered that
+they stay in that island where they had landed, and that they
+be furnished with all necessaries, until he should consider what
+to do with them. For he had before heard of the Christian religion,
+having a Christian wife of the royal family of the Franks,
+called Bertha;<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> whom he had received from her parents upon
+condition that she should be permitted to practice her religion
+with the Bishop Luidhard, who was sent with her to preserve
+her faith.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some days after, the king came to the island, and sitting in
+the open air, ordered Augustine and his companions to be brought
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span>
+into his presence. For he had taken precaution that they should
+not come to him in any house, lest, according to an ancient superstition,
+if they practised any magical arts, they might impose
+upon him, and so get the better of him. But they came furnished
+with divine, not with magic virtue, bearing a silver cross for
+their banner, and the image of our Lord and Savior painted on a
+board; and singing the litany, they offered up their prayers to
+the Lord for the eternal salvation both of themselves and of
+<span class="sidebar">Augustine
+preaches to
+King Ethelbert</span>
+those to whom they were come. When Augustine
+had sat down, according to the king's commands,
+and preached to him and his attendants there
+present the word of life, the king answered thus: "Your words
+and promises are very fair, but as they are new to us, and of
+uncertain import, I cannot approve of them so far as to forsake
+that which I have so long followed with the whole English nation.
+But because you are come from afar into my kingdom, and, as I
+conceive, are desirous to impart to us those things which you
+believe to be true and most beneficial, we will not molest you,
+but give you favorable entertainment and take care to supply
+you with necessary sustenance; nor do we forbid you to
+preach and win as many as you can to your religion." Accordingly
+he permitted them to reside in the city of Canterbury,
+which was the metropolis of all his dominions, and, according to
+his promise, besides allowing them sustenance, did not refuse
+them liberty to preach. It is reported that, as they drew near
+to the city, after their manner, with the holy cross and the image
+of our sovereign Lord and King, Jesus Christ, they sang this
+litany together: "We beseech thee, O Lord, in all Thy mercy,
+that Thy anger and wrath be turned away from this city, and
+from Thy holy house, because we have sinned. Hallelujah."</p>
+
+<p>As soon as they entered the dwelling-place assigned them,
+they began to imitate the course of life practised in the primitive
+Church; applying themselves to frequent prayer, watching,
+and fasting; preaching the word of life to as many as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>
+they could; despising all worldly things as not belonging to them;
+receiving only their necessary food from those they taught; living
+<span class="sidebar">The life of the
+missionaries at
+Canterbury</span>
+
+themselves in all respects in conformity with
+what they prescribed for others, and being always
+disposed to suffer any adversity, and even to die
+for that truth which they preached. In short, several believed
+and were baptized, admiring the simplicity of their innocent life,
+and the sweetness of their heavenly doctrine. There was, on the
+east side of the city, a church dedicated to the honor of St. Martin,
+built whilst the Romans were still in the island, wherein the
+queen, who, as has been said before, was a Christian, used to
+pray.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> In this they first began to meet, to sing, to pray, to say
+mass, to preach, and to baptize, until the king, being converted
+to the faith, allowed them to preach openly, and build or repair
+churches in all places.</p>
+
+<p>When he, among the rest, induced by the unspotted life of
+these holy men, and their pleasing promises, which by many
+<span class="sidebar">Ethelbert
+converted</span>
+miracles they proved to be most certain, believed
+and was baptized, greater numbers began daily to
+flock together to hear the word, and forsaking their heathen rites,
+to associate themselves, by believing, to the unity of the church
+of Christ. Their conversion the king encouraged in so far that
+he compelled none to embrace Christianity, but only showed more
+affection to the believers, as to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly
+kingdom. For he had learned from his instructors and guides to
+salvation that the service of Christ ought to be voluntary, not
+by compulsion. Nor was it long before he gave his teachers a settled
+residence in his metropolis of Canterbury, with such possessions
+of different kinds as were necessary for their subsistence.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VI.<br />
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH</h3>
+
+<h4>10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In tracing the history of the great ecclesiastical institution known
+as the papacy, the first figure that stands out with considerable clearness
+is that of Leo I., or Leo the Great, who was elected bishop of Rome
+in the year 440. Leo is perhaps the first man who, all things considered,
+can be called "pope" in the modern sense of the term, although
+certain of his predecessors in the bishop's seat at the imperial capital had
+long claimed and exercised a peculiar measure of authority over their
+fellow bishops throughout the Empire. Almost from the earliest days
+of Christianity the word <i>papa</i> (pope) seems to have been in common
+use as an affectionate mode of addressing any bishop, but after the
+fourth century it came to be applied in a peculiar manner to the bishop
+of Rome, and in time this was the only usage, so far as western Europe
+was concerned, which survived. The causes of the special development
+of the Roman bishopric into the powerful papal office were numerous.
+Rome's importance as a city, and particularly as the political head
+of the Mediterranean world, made it natural that her bishop should
+have something of a special dignity and influence. Throughout western
+Europe the Roman church was regarded as a model and its bishop was
+frequently called upon for counsel and advice. Then, when the seat
+of the imperial government was removed to the East by Constantine,
+the Roman bishop naturally took up much of the leadership in the West
+which had been exercised by the emperor, and this added not a little in
+the way of prestige. On the whole the Roman bishops were moderate,
+liberal, and sensible in their attitude toward church questions, thereby
+commending themselves to the practical peoples of the West in a way
+that other bishops did not always do. The growth of temporal possessions,
+especially in the way of land, also made the Roman bishops more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>
+independent and able to hold their own. And the activity of such men
+as Leo the Great in warding off the attacks of the German barbarians,
+and in providing popular leadership in the absence of such leadership
+on the part of the imperial authorities, was a not unimportant item.</p>
+
+<p>After all, however, these are matters which have always been regarded
+by the popes themselves as circumstances of a more or less
+transitory and accidental character. It is not upon any or all of them
+that the papacy from first to last has sought to base its high claims
+to authority. The fundamental explanation, from the papal standpoint,
+for the peculiar development of the papal power in the person
+of the bishops of Rome is contained in the so-called theory of the
+"Petrine Supremacy," which will be found set forth in Pope Leo's
+sermon reproduced in part below. The essential points in this theory
+are: (1) that to the apostle Peter, Christ committed the keys of the
+kingdom of heaven and the supremacy over all other apostles on earth;
+(2) that Peter, in the course of time, became the first bishop of Rome;
+and (3) that the superior authority given to Peter was transmitted to
+all his successors in the Roman bishopric. It was fundamentally on
+<i>these</i> grounds that the pope, to quote an able Catholic historian, was
+believed to be "the visible representative of ecclesiastical unity, the
+supreme teacher and custodian of the faith, the supreme legislator, the
+guardian and interpreter of the canons, the legitimate superior of all
+bishops, the final judge of councils&mdash;an office which he possessed in his
+own right, and which he actually exercised by presiding over all ecumenical
+synods, through his legates, and by confirming the acts of the
+councils as the Supreme Head of the Universal Catholic Church."<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>
+Modern Protestants discard certain of the tenets which go to make up
+the Petrine theory, but it is essential that the student of history bear
+in mind that the people of the Middle Ages never doubted its complete
+and literal authenticity, nor questioned that the authority of the
+papal office rested at bottom upon something far more fundamental than
+a mere fortunate combination of historical circumstances. Whatever
+one's personal opinions on the issues involved, the point to be insisted
+upon is that in studying mediæval church life and organization the universal
+acceptance of these beliefs and conclusions be never lost to view.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Leo was pope from 440 to 461 and it has been well maintained that he
+was the first occupant of the office to comprehend the wide possibilities
+of the papal dignity in the future. In his sermons and letters he vigorously
+asserted the sovereign authority of his position, and in his influence
+on the events of his time, as for example the Council of Chalcedon
+in 451, he sought with no little success to bring men to a general
+acknowledgment of this authority.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Jacques Paul Migne, <i>Patroligiæ Cursus Completus</i> ["Complete
+Collection of Patristic Literature"], First Series, Vol. LIV.,
+cols. 144-148. Translated in Philip Schaff and Henry Wace,
+<i>Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian
+Church</i> (New York, 1895), Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 117-118.</p>
+
+<p>Although, therefore, dearly beloved, we be found both weak
+and slothful in fulfilling the duties of our office, because, whatever
+devoted and vigorous action we desire to undertake, we are
+hindered in by the frailty of our nature, yet having the unceasing
+propitiation of the Almighty and perpetual Priest [Christ], who
+being like us and yet equal with the Father, brought down His
+Godhead even to things human, and raised His Manhood even
+to things Divine, we worthily and piously rejoice over His dispensation,
+whereby, though He has delegated the care of His
+sheep to many shepherds, yet He has not Himself abandoned
+the guardianship of His beloved flock. And from His overruling
+<span class="sidebar">The apostle
+Peter still with
+his Church</span>
+
+and eternal protection we have received the
+support of the Apostle's aid also, which assuredly
+does not cease from its operation; and the strength
+of the foundation, on which the whole superstructure of the
+Church is reared, is not weakened by the weight of the temple
+that rests upon it. For the solidity of that faith which was
+praised in the chief of the Apostles is perpetual; and as that
+remains which Peter believed in Christ, so that remains which
+Christ instituted in Peter.</p>
+
+<p>For when, as has been read in the Gospel lesson,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> the Lord
+had asked the disciples whom they believed Him to be amid the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span>
+various opinions that were held, and the blessed Peter had replied,
+saying, "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God,"
+<span class="sidebar">Christ's commission
+to
+Peter</span>
+
+the Lord said, "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona,
+because flesh and blood hath not revealed
+it to thee, but My Father, which is in heaven.
+And I say to thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I
+build My church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against
+it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven.
+And whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth, shall be bound in
+heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, shall be
+loosed also in heaven." [Matt. xvi. 16-19.]</p>
+
+<p>The dispensation of Truth therefore abides, and the blessed
+Peter persevering in the strength of the Rock, which he has
+received, has not abandoned the helm of the Church, which he
+undertook. For he was ordained before the rest in such a way
+that from his being called the Rock, from his being pronounced
+the Foundation, from his being constituted the Doorkeeper of
+the kingdom of heaven, from his being set as the Umpire to bind
+and to loose, whose judgments shall retain their validity in
+<span class="sidebar">Peter properly
+rules the
+Church through
+his successors
+at Rome</span>
+
+heaven&mdash;from all these mystical titles we might
+know the nature of his association with Christ.
+And still to-day he more fully and effectually
+performs what is intrusted to him, and carries
+out every part of his duty and charge in Him and with Him,
+through whom he has been glorified. And so if anything is
+rightly done and rightly decreed by us, if anything is won from
+the mercy of God by our daily supplications, it is of his work and
+merits whose power lives and whose authority prevails in his
+see....<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p>And so, dearly beloved, with becoming obedience we celebrate
+to-day's festival<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> by such methods, that in my humble person he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>
+may be recognized and honored, in whom abides the care of all
+the shepherds, together with the charge of the sheep commended
+to him, and whose dignity is not belittled even in so unworthy an
+<span class="sidebar">Leo claims to
+be only Peter's
+representative</span>
+
+heir. And hence the presence of my venerable
+brothers and fellow-priests, so much desired and
+valued by me, will be the more sacred and
+precious, if they will transfer the chief honor of this service in
+which they have deigned to take part to him whom they know
+to be not only the patron of this see, but also the primate of all
+bishops. When therefore we utter our exhortations in your ears,
+holy brethren, believe that he is speaking whose representative
+we are. Because it is his warning that we give, and nothing else
+but his teaching that we preach, beseeching you to "gird up the
+loins of your mind," and lead a chaste and sober life in the fear of
+God, and not to let your mind forget his supremacy and consent
+to the lusts of the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>Short and fleeting are the joys of this world's pleasures which
+endeavor to turn aside from the path of life those who are called
+to eternity. The faithful and religious spirit, therefore, must
+desire the things which are heavenly and, being eager for the
+<span class="sidebar">An exhortation
+to Christian
+constancy</span>
+divine promises, lift itself to the love of the incorruptible
+Good and the hope of the true Light.
+But be assured, dearly-beloved, that your labor,
+whereby you resist vices and fight against carnal desires, is
+pleasing and precious in God's sight, and in God's mercy will
+profit not only yourselves but me also, because the zealous
+pastor makes his boast of the progress of the Lord's flock. "For
+ye are my crown and joy," as the Apostle says, if your faith,
+which from the beginning of the Gospel has been preached in all
+<span class="sidebar">The peculiar
+privilege of
+the church at
+Rome</span>
+the world, has continued in love and holiness.
+For though the whole Church, which is in all
+the world, ought to abound in all virtues, yet you
+especially, above all people, it becomes to excel in deeds of piety,
+because, founded as you are on the very citadel of the Apostolic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span>
+Rock, not only has our Lord Jesus Christ redeemed you in common
+with all men, but the blessed Apostle Peter has instructed
+you far beyond all men.</p>
+
+<h4>11. The Rule of St. Benedict</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>A very important feature of the church life of the early Middle Ages
+was the tendency of devout men to withdraw from the active affairs
+of the world and give themselves up to careers of self-sacrificing piety.
+Sometimes such men went out to live alone in forests or other obscure
+places and for this reason were called anchorites or hermits; but more
+often they settled in groups and formed what came to be known as
+monasteries. The idea that seclusion is helpful to the religious life was
+not peculiar to Christianity, for from very early times Brahmins and
+Buddhists and other peoples of the Orient had cherished the same
+view; and in many cases they do so still. Monasticism among Christians
+began naturally in the East and at first took the form almost wholly
+of hermitage, just as it had done among the adherents of other Oriental
+religions, though by the fourth century the Christian monks of Syria
+and Egypt and Asia Minor had come in many cases to dwell in established
+communities. In general the Eastern monks were prone to extremes
+in the way of penance and self-torture which the more practical
+peoples of the West were not greatly disposed to imitate. Monasticism
+spread into the West, but not until comparatively late&mdash;beginning in
+the second half of the fourth century&mdash;and the character which it there
+assumed was quite unlike that prevailing in the East. The Eastern ideal
+was the life of meditation with as little activity as possible, except perhaps
+such as was necessary in order to impose hardships upon one's self.
+The Western ideal, on the other hand, while involving a good deal of
+meditation and prayer, put much emphasis on labor and did not call
+for so complete an abstention of the monk from the pursuits and pleasures
+of other men.</p>
+
+<p>In the later fifth century, and earlier sixth, several monasteries of
+whose history we know little were established in southern Gaul, especially
+in the pleasant valley of the Rhone. Earliest of all, apparently,
+and destined to become the most influential was the abbey of St. Martin
+at Tours, founded soon after St. Martin was made bishop of Tours in 372.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span>
+But the development of Western monasticism is associated most of all
+with the work of St. Benedict of Nursia, who died in 543. Benedict was
+the founder of several monasteries in the vicinity of Rome, the most important
+being that of Monte Cassino, on the road from Rome to Naples,
+which exists to this day. One should guard, however, against the mistake
+of looking upon St. Benedict as the introducer of monasticism in the
+West, of even as the founder of a new monastic <i>order</i> in the strict sense of
+the word. The great service which he rendered to European monasticism
+consisted in his working out for his monasteries in Italy an elaborate
+system of government which was found so successful in practice that,
+in the form of the Benedictine Rule (<i>regula</i>), it came to be the constitution
+under which for many centuries practically all the monks of Western
+countries lived. That it was so widely adopted was due mainly
+to its definite, practical, common-sense character. Its chief injunctions
+upon the monks were poverty, chastity, obedience, piety, and labor.
+All these were to be attained by methods which, although they may
+seem strange to us to-day, were at least natural and wholesome when
+judged by the ideas and standards prevailing in early mediæval times.
+Granted the ascetic principle upon which the monastic system rested,
+the Rule of St. Benedict must be regarded as eminently moderate and
+sensible. It sprang from an acute perception of human nature and
+human needs no less than from a lofty ideal of religious perfection.
+The following extracts will serve to show its character.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Jacques Paul Migne, <i>Patrologiæ Cursus Completus</i>, First
+Series, Vol. LXVI., cols. 245-932 <i>passim</i>. Adapted from translation
+in Ernest F. Henderson, <i>Select Historical Documents of the
+Middle Ages</i> (London, 1896), pp. 274-314.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prologue....</i> We are about to found, therefore, a school
+for the Lord's service, in the organization of which we trust that
+we shall ordain nothing severe and nothing burdensome. But
+even if, the demands of justice dictating it, something a trifle
+irksome shall be the result, for the purpose of amending vices or
+preserving charity, thou shalt not therefore, struck by fear, flee
+the way of salvation, which cannot be entered upon except
+through a narrow entrance.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> <i>What the abbot should be like.</i> An abbot who is worthy to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span>
+preside over a monastery ought always to remember what he is
+called, and carry out with his deeds the name of a Superior.
+For he is believed to be Christ's representative, since he is called
+by His name, the apostle saying: "Ye have received the spirit of
+adoption of sons, whereby we call Abba, Father" [Romans viii.
+15]. And so the abbot should not (grant that he may not) teach,
+or decree, or order, anything apart from the precept of the Lord;
+but his order or teaching should be characterized by the marks
+of divine justice in the minds of his disciples. Let the abbot
+<span class="sidebar">Responsibility
+of the abbot
+for the character
+and deeds
+of the monks</span>
+
+always be mindful that, at the terrible judgment
+of God, both things will be weighed in the balance,
+his teaching and the obedience of his disciples.
+And let the abbot know that whatever of uselessness
+the father of the family finds among the sheep is laid to
+the fault of the shepherd. Only in a case where the whole diligence
+of their pastor shall have been bestowed on an unruly and
+disobedient flock, and his whole care given to their wrongful
+actions, shall that pastor, absolved in the judgment of the Lord,
+be free to say to the Lord with the prophet: "I have not hid Thy
+righteousness within my heart; I have declared Thy faithfulness
+and Thy salvation, but they, despising, have scorned me" [Psalms
+xl. 10]. And then let the punishment for the disobedient
+sheep under his care be that death itself shall prevail against
+<span class="sidebar">He must teach
+by example as
+well as by precept</span>
+
+them. Therefore, when any one receives the name
+of abbot, he ought to rule over his disciples with
+a double teaching; that is, let him show forth all
+good and holy things by deeds more than by words. So that to
+ready disciples he may set forth the commands of God in words;
+but to the hard-hearted and the more simple-minded, he may
+show forth the divine precepts by his deeds.</p>
+
+<p>He shall make no distinction of persons in the monastery.
+One shall not be more cherished than another, unless it be the
+one whom he finds excelling in good works or in obedience. A
+free-born man shall not be preferred to one coming from servitude,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>
+unless there be some other reasonable cause. But if, by
+the demand of justice, it seems good to the abbot, he shall do
+this, no matter what the rank shall be. But otherwise they shall
+keep their own places. For whether we be bond or free, we are all
+<span class="sidebar">His duty to encourage,
+to admonish,
+and to
+punish</span>
+
+one in Christ; and, under one God, we perform an
+equal service of subjection. For God is no respecter
+of persons. Only in this way is a distinction
+made by Him concerning us, if we are found humble
+and surpassing others in good works. Therefore let him [the
+abbot] have equal charity for all. Let the same discipline be
+administered in all cases according to merit.... He
+should, that is, rebuke more severely the unruly and the turbulent.
+The obedient, moreover, and the gentle and the patient,
+he should exhort, that they may progress to higher things.
+But the negligent and scorners, we warn him to admonish and
+reprove. Nor let him conceal the sins of the erring; but, in order
+that he may prevail, let him pluck them out by the roots as soon
+as they begin to spring up.</p>
+
+<p>And let him know what a difficult and arduous thing he has
+undertaken&mdash;to rule the souls and uplift the morals of many.
+And in one case indeed with blandishments, in another with rebukes,
+in another with persuasion&mdash;according to the quality
+or intelligence of each one&mdash;he shall so conform and adapt
+himself to all that not only shall he not allow injury to come to
+the flock committed to him, but he shall rejoice in the increase
+of a good flock. Above all things, let him not, deceiving himself
+or undervaluing the safety of the souls committed to him, give
+more heed to temporary and earthly and passing things; but let
+him always reflect that he has undertaken to rule souls for which
+he is to render account.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> <i>About calling in the brethren to take counsel.</i> Whenever
+anything of importance is to be done in the monastery, the abbot
+shall call together the whole congregation,<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> and shall himself
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>
+explain the matter in question. And, having heard the advice
+of the brethren, he shall think it over by himself, and shall do
+<span class="sidebar">The monks to
+be consulted
+by the abbot</span>
+
+what he considers most advantageous. And for
+this reason, moreover, we have said that all
+ought to be called to take counsel, because often
+it is to a younger person that God reveals what is best. The
+brethren, moreover, with all subjection of humility, ought so to
+give their advice that they do not presume boldly to defend
+what seems good to them; but it should rather depend on the
+judgment of the abbot, so that, whatever he decides to be best,
+they should all agree to it. But even as it behooves the disciples
+to obey the master, so it is fitting that he should arrange
+all matters with care and justice. In all things, indeed, let
+<span class="sidebar">The Rule to be
+followed by
+every one as a
+guide</span>
+
+every one follow the Rule as his guide; and let
+no one rashly deviate from it. Let no one
+in the monastery follow the inclination of his
+own heart. And let no one boldly presume to dispute with
+his abbot, within or without the monastery. But, if he
+should so presume, let him be subject to the discipline of the
+Rule.</p>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> <i>Whether the monks should have anything of their own.</i>
+More than anything else is this special vice to be cut off root and
+<span class="sidebar">No property to
+be owned by
+the monks individually</span>
+
+branch from the monastery, that one should presume
+to give or receive anything without the
+order of the abbot, or should have anything of
+his own. He should have absolutely not anything, neither a
+book, nor tablets, nor a pen&mdash;nothing at all. For indeed it is
+not allowed to the monks to have their own bodies or wills in
+their own power. But all things necessary they must expect
+from the Father of the monastery; nor is it allowable to have
+anything which the abbot has not given or permitted. All
+things shall be held in common; as it is written, "Let not any
+man presume to call anything his own." But if any one shall
+have been discovered delighting in this most evil vice, being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span>
+warned once and again, if he do not amend, let him be subjected
+to punishment.<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> <i>Concerning the daily manual labor.</i> Idleness is the enemy
+of the soul.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> And therefore, at fixed times, the brothers ought
+to be occupied in manual labor; and again, at fixed times, in
+sacred reading.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Therefore we believe that both seasons ought
+to be arranged after this manner,&mdash;so that, from Easter until the
+Calends of October,<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> going out early, from the first until the
+fourth hour they shall do what labor may be necessary. From
+<span class="sidebar">Daily schedule
+for the summer
+season</span>
+
+the fourth hour until about the sixth, they shall
+be free for reading. After the meal of the sixth
+hour, rising from the table, they shall rest in their
+beds with all silence; or, perchance, he that wishes to read may
+read to himself in such a way as not to disturb another. And
+the <i>nona</i> [the second meal] shall be gone through with more
+moderately about the middle of the eighth hour; and again they
+shall work at what is to be done until Vespers.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> But, if the emergency
+or poverty of the place demands that they be occupied in
+picking fruits, they shall not be grieved; for they are truly monks
+if they live by the labors of their hands, as did also our fathers
+and the apostles. Let all things be done with moderation, however,
+on account of the faint-hearted.</p>
+
+<p>In days of Lent they shall all receive separate books from the
+library, which they shall read entirely through in order. These
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>
+books are to be given out on the first day of Lent. Above all
+there shall be appointed without fail one or two elders, who shall
+<span class="sidebar">Reading during
+Lent</span>
+
+go round the monastery at the hours in which the
+brothers are engaged in reading, and see to it that
+no troublesome brother be found who is given to idleness and
+trifling, and is not intent on his reading, being not only of no use
+to himself, but also stirring up others. If such a one (may it not
+happen) be found, he shall be reproved once and a second time.
+If he do not amend, he shall be subject under the Rule to such
+punishment that the others may have fear. Nor shall brother
+join brother at unsuitable hours. Moreover, on Sunday all shall
+engage in reading, excepting those who are assigned to various
+duties. But if any one be so negligent and lazy that he will not
+or can not read, some task shall be imposed upon him which he
+can do, so that he be not idle. On feeble or delicate brothers
+such a task or art is to be imposed, that they shall neither be idle
+nor so oppressed by the violence of labor as to be driven to take
+flight. Their weakness is to be taken into consideration by the
+abbot.</p>
+
+<p><b>53.</b> <i>Concerning the reception of guests.</i> All guests who come
+shall be received as though they were Christ. For He Himself
+<span class="sidebar">Hospitality
+enjoined</span>
+
+said, "I was a stranger and ye took me in" [Matt.
+xxv. 35]. And to all fitting honor shall be
+shown; but, most of all, to servants of the faith and to pilgrims.
+When, therefore, a guest is announced, the prior or the brothers
+shall run to meet him, with every token of love. And first they
+shall pray together, and thus they shall be joined together in
+peace.</p>
+
+<p><b>54.</b> <i>Whether a monk should be allowed to receive letters or anything.</i>
+By no means shall it be allowed to a monk&mdash;either from
+his relatives, or from any man, or from one of his fellows&mdash;to
+receive or to give, without order of the abbot, letters, presents, or
+any gift, however small. But even if, by his relatives, anything
+has been sent to him, he shall not presume to receive it, unless
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>
+it has first been shown to the abbot. But if the latter order
+<span class="sidebar">Power of abbot
+to dispose of
+articles sent to
+the monks</span>
+it to be received, it shall be in the power of the abbot to give it
+to whomsoever he wishes. And the brother to
+whom it happened to have been sent shall not
+be displeased; that an opportunity be not given
+to the devil. Whoever, moreover, presumes to do otherwise
+shall be subject to the discipline of the Rule.</p>
+
+<h4>12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Gregory the Great, whose papacy extended from 590 to 604, was a
+Roman of noble and wealthy family, and in many ways the ablest man
+who had yet risen to the papal office. The date of his birth is not recorded,
+but it was probably about 540, some ten years after St. Benedict
+of Nursia had established his monastery at Monte Cassino. He was
+therefore a contemporary of the historian Gregory of Tours [see <a href="#Page_47">p. 47</a>].
+The education which he received was that which was usual with young
+Romans of his rank in life, and it is said that in grammar, rhetoric, logic,
+and law he became well versed, though without any claim to unusual
+scholarship. He entered public life and in 570 was made prætor of the
+city of Rome. All the time, however, he was struggling with the strange
+attractiveness which the life of the monk had for him, and in the end,
+upon the death of his father, he decided to forego the career to which his
+wealth and rank entitled him and to seek the development of his higher
+nature in seclusion. With the money obtained from the sale of his great
+estates he established six monasteries in Sicily and that of St. Andrew
+at Rome. In Gregory's case, however, retirement to monastic life did
+not mean oblivion, for soon he was selected by Pope Pelagius II., as
+resident minister (<i>apocrisiarius</i>) at Constantinople and in this important
+position he was maintained for five or six years. After returning
+to Rome he became abbot of St. Andrews, and in 590, as the records
+say, he was "demanded" as pope.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory was a man of very unusual ability and the force of his strong
+personality made his reign one of the great formative epochs in papal
+history. Besides his activity in relation to the affairs of the world in
+general, he has the distinction of being a literary pope. His letters
+and treatises were numerous and possessed a quality of thought and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span>
+style which was exceedingly rare in his day. The most famous of his
+writings, and justly so, is the <i>Liber Regulæ Pastoralis</i>, known commonly
+to English readers as the "Pastoral Care," or the "Pastoral Rule."
+This book was written soon after its author became pope (590) and was
+addressed to John, bishop of Ravenna, in reply to inquiries received
+from him respecting the duties and obligations of the clergy. Though
+thus put into form for a special purpose, there can be no doubt that
+it was the product of long thought, and in fact in his <i>Magna Moralia</i>,
+or "Commentary on the Book of Job," written during his residence at
+Constantinople, Gregory declared his purpose some day to write just
+such a book. Everywhere throughout Europe the work was received
+with the favor it deserved, and in Spain, Gaul, and Italy its influence
+upon the life and manners of the clergy was beyond estimate. Even
+in Britain, after King Alfred's paraphrase of it in the Saxon tongue
+had been made, three hundred years later [see <a href="#Page_193">p. 193</a>], it was a real
+power for good. The permanent value of Gregory's instructions regarding
+the life of the clergy arose not only from the lofty spirit in
+which they were conceived and the clear-cut manner in which they
+were expressed, but from their breadth and adaptation to all times and
+places. There are few books which the modern pastor can read with
+greater profit. The work is in four parts: (1) on the selection of men
+for the work of the Church; (2) on the sort of life the pastor ought to
+live; (3) on the best methods of dealing with the various types of people
+which every pastor will be likely to encounter; and (4) on the necessity
+that the pastor guard himself against egotism and personal ambition.
+The passages below are taken from the second and third parts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Gregorius Magnus, <i>Liber Regulæ Pastoralis</i> [Gregory the Great,
+"The Book of the Pastoral Rule"]. Text in Jacques Paul Migne,
+<i>Patroligiæ Cursus Completus</i>, First Series, Vol. LXXVII., cols.
+12-127 <i>passim</i>. Adapted from translation in Philip Schaff and
+Henry Wace, <i>Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of
+the Christian Church</i> (New York, 1895), Second Series, Vol. XII.,
+pp. 9-71 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of a prelate<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> ought so far to be superior to the
+conduct of the people as the life of a shepherd is accustomed to
+exalt him above the flock. For one whose position is such that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span>
+the people are called his flock ought anxiously to consider how
+great a necessity is laid upon him to maintain uprightness. It
+<span class="sidebar">The qualities
+which ought to
+be united in
+the pastor</span>
+
+is necessary, then, that in thought he should be
+pure, in action firm; discreet in keeping silence,
+profitable in speech; a near neighbor to every one
+in sympathy, exalted above all in contemplation; a familiar friend
+of good livers through humility, unbending against the vices of
+evil-doers through zeal for righteousness; not relaxing in his care
+for what is inward by reason of being occupied in outward things,
+nor neglecting to provide for outward things in his anxiety for
+what is inward.</p>
+
+<p>The ruler should always be pure in thought, inasmuch as no
+impurity ought to pollute him who has undertaken the office
+<span class="sidebar">Purity of heart
+essential</span>
+
+of wiping away the stains of pollution in the
+hearts of others also; for the hand that would
+cleanse from dirt must needs be clean, lest, being itself sordid
+with clinging mire, it soil all the more whatever it touches.</p>
+
+<p>The ruler should always be a leader in action, that by his living
+he may point out the way of life to those who are put under him,
+<span class="sidebar">He must teach
+by example</span>
+
+and that the flock, which follows the voice and
+manners of the shepherd, may learn how to walk
+rather through example than through words. For he who is
+required by the necessity of his position to <i>speak</i> the highest
+things is compelled by the same necessity to <i>do</i> the highest
+things. For that voice more readily penetrates the hearer's
+heart, which the speaker's life commends, since what he commands
+by speaking he helps the doing by showing.</p>
+
+<p>The ruler should be discreet in keeping silence, profitable in
+speech; lest he either utter what ought to be suppressed or suppress
+what he ought to utter. For, as incautious speaking leads
+into error, so indiscreet silence leaves in error those who might
+have been instructed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The ruler ought also to understand how commonly vices pass
+themselves off as virtues. For often niggardliness excuses itself
+under the name of frugality, and on the other hand extravagance
+conceals itself under the name of liberality. Often inordinate
+carelessness is believed to be loving-kindness, and unbridled
+wrath is accounted the virtue of spiritual zeal. Often hasty
+action is taken for promptness, and tardiness for the deliberation
+<span class="sidebar">He must be
+able to distinguish
+virtues
+and vices</span>
+of seriousness. Whence it is necessary for the
+ruler of souls to distinguish with vigilant care
+between virtues and vices, lest stinginess get
+possession of his heart while he exults in seeming frugality in
+expenditure; or, while anything is recklessly wasted, he glory in
+being, as it were, compassionately liberal; or, in overlooking what
+he ought to have smitten, he draw on those that are under him
+to eternal punishment; or, in mercilessly smiting an offense, he
+himself offend more grievously; or, by rashly anticipating, mar
+what might have been done properly and gravely; or, by putting
+off the merit of a good action, change it to something worse.</p>
+
+<p>Since, then, we have shown what manner of man the pastor
+ought to be, let us now set forth after what manner he should
+<span class="sidebar">No one kind
+of teaching
+adapted to
+all men</span>
+
+teach. For, as long before us Gregory Nazianzen,<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>
+of reverend memory, has taught, one and
+the same exhortation does not suit all, inasmuch
+as all are not bound together by similarity of character. For
+the things that profit some often hurt others; seeing that also,
+for the most part, herbs which nourish some animals are fatal to
+others; and the gentle hissing that quiets horses incites whelps;
+and the medicine which abates one disease aggravates another;
+and the food which invigorates the life of the strong kills little
+children. Therefore, according to the quality of the hearers
+ought the discourse of teachers to be fashioned, so as to suit all
+and each for their several needs, and yet never deviate from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span>
+art of common edification. For what are the intent minds of
+hearers but, so to speak, a kind of harp, which the skilful player,
+in order to produce a tune possessing harmony, strikes in various
+ways? And for this reason the strings render back a melodious
+sound, because they are struck indeed with one quill, but not
+with one kind of stroke. Whence every teacher also, that he
+may edify all in the one virtue of charity, ought to touch the
+hearts of his hearers out of one doctrine, but not with one and
+the same exhortation.</p>
+
+<p>Differently to be admonished are these that follow:</p>
+
+<p>Men and women.</p>
+
+<p>The poor and the rich.</p>
+
+<p>The joyful and the sad.</p>
+
+<p>Prelates and subordinates.</p>
+
+<p>Servants and masters.</p>
+
+<p>The wise of this world and the dull.
+<span class="sidebar">Various classes
+of hearers
+to be distinguished</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The impudent and the bashful.</p>
+
+<p>The forward and the faint-hearted.</p>
+
+<p>The impatient and the patient.</p>
+
+<p>The kindly disposed and the envious.</p>
+
+<p>The simple and the insincere.</p>
+
+<p>The whole and the sick.</p>
+
+<p>Those who fear scourges, and therefore live innocently; and
+those who have grown so hard in iniquity as not to be corrected
+even by scourges.</p>
+
+<p>The too silent, and those who spend time in much speaking.</p>
+
+<p>The slothful and the hasty.</p>
+
+<p>The meek and the passionate.</p>
+
+<p>The humble and the haughty.</p>
+
+<p>The obstinate and the fickle.</p>
+
+<p>The gluttonous and the abstinent.</p>
+
+<p>Those who mercifully give of their own, and those who would
+fain seize what belongs to others.</p>
+
+<p>Those who neither seize the things of others nor are bountiful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>
+with their own; and those who both give away the things they
+have, and yet cease not to seize the things of others.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are at variance, and those who are at peace.</p>
+
+<p>Lovers of strife and peacemakers.</p>
+
+<p>Those who understand not aright the words of sacred law;
+and those who understand them indeed aright, but speak them
+without humility.</p>
+
+<p>Those who, though able to preach worthily, are afraid through
+excessive humility; and those whom imperfection or age debars
+from preaching, and yet rashness impels to it.</p>
+
+<p>(Admonition 7)<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>. Differently to be admonished are the wise of
+this world and the dull. For the wise are to be admonished that
+they leave off knowing what they know<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>; the dull also are to be
+admonished that they seek to know what they know not. In
+the former this thing first, that they think themselves wise, is to
+be overcome; in the latter, whatsoever is already known of
+<span class="sidebar">How the wise
+and the dull
+are to be admonished</span>
+
+heavenly wisdom is to be built up; since, being in
+no wise proud, they have, as it were, prepared
+their hearts for supporting a building. With
+those we should labor that they become more wisely foolish<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>,
+leave foolish wisdom, and learn the wise foolishness of God: to
+these we should preach that from what is accounted foolishness
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>
+they should pass, as from a nearer neighborhood, to true
+wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>But in the midst of these things we are brought back by the
+earnest desire of charity to what we have already said above;
+that every preacher should give forth a sound more by his deeds
+than by his words, and rather by good living imprint footsteps
+for men to follow than by speaking show them the way to walk
+in. For that cock, too, whom the Lord in his manner of speech
+takes to represent a good preacher, when he is now preparing to
+crow, first shakes his wings, and by smiting himself makes himself
+more awake; since it is surely necessary that those who give
+utterance to words of holy preaching should first be well awake
+<span class="sidebar">Emphasis on
+the importance
+of setting a
+right example</span>
+
+in earnestness of good living, lest they arouse
+others with their voice while themselves torpid
+in performance; that they should first shake
+themselves up by lofty deeds, and then make others solicitous
+for good living; that they should first smite themselves with the
+wings of their thoughts; that whatsoever in themselves is unprofitably
+torpid they should discover by anxious investigation,
+and correct by strict self-discipline, and then at length set in
+order the life of others by speaking; that they should take heed
+to punish their own faults by bewailings, and then denounce
+what calls for punishment in others; and that, before they give
+voice to words of exhortation, they should proclaim in their
+deeds all that they are about to speak.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VII.<br />
+THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM</h3>
+
+<h4>13. Selections from the Koran</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The Koran comprises all of the recorded speeches and sayings of
+the prophet Mohammed and it has for nearly fifteen centuries been the
+absolute law and gospel of the Mohammedan religion. The teachings
+and revelations which are contained in it are believed by Mohammedans
+to have proceeded directly from God. They were delivered orally by
+Mohammed from time to time in the presence of his followers and
+until after the prophet's death in 632 no attempt was made to put them
+in organized written form. Many of the disciples, however, remembered
+the words their master had uttered, at least until they could inscribe
+them on palm leaves, bits of wood, bleached bones, or other such
+articles as happened to be at hand. In the reign of Abu-Bekr (632-634),
+Mohammed's successor, it became apparent that unless some measure
+was adopted to bring these scattered sayings together they were in a
+fair way to be lost for all time to come. Hence the caliph intrusted to
+a certain young man by the name of Zaid the task of collecting and
+putting in some sort of system all the teachings that had survived,
+whether in written form or merely in the minds of men. Zaid had
+served Mohammed in a capacity which we should designate perhaps
+as that of secretary, and so should have been well qualified for the
+work. In later years (about 660) the Koran, or "the reading," as the
+collection began to be called, was again thoroughly revised. Thereafter
+all older copies were destroyed and no farther changes in any
+respect were ever made.</p>
+
+<p>The Koran is made up of one hundred and fourteen chapters, called
+<i>surahs</i>, arranged loosely in the order of their length, beginning with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span>
+the longest. This arrangement does not correspond either to the dates
+at which the various passages were uttered by the prophet or to any
+sequence of thought and meaning, so that when one takes up the book
+to read it as it is ordinarily printed it seems about as confused as anything
+can well be. Scholars, however, have recently discovered the
+chronological order of the various parts and this knowledge has already
+come to be of no little assistance in the work of interpretation. Like
+all sacred books, the Koran abounds in repetitions; yet, taken all in
+all, it contains not more than two-thirds as many verses as the New
+Testament, and, as one writer has rather curiously observed, it is not
+more than one-third as lengthy as the ordinary Sunday edition of the
+New York <i>Herald</i>. The teachings which are most emphasized are (1)
+the unity and greatness of God, (2) the sin of worshipping idols, (3)
+the certainty of the resurrection of the body and the last judgment,
+(4) the necessity of a belief in the Scriptures as revelations from God
+communicated through angels to the line of prophets, (5) the luxuries
+of heaven and the torments of hell, (6) the doctrine of predestination,
+(7) the authoritativeness of Mohammed's teachings, and (8) the four
+cardinal obligations of worship (including purification and prayer),
+fasting, pilgrimages, and alms-giving. Intermingled with these are
+numerous popular legends and sayings of the Arabs before Mohammed's
+day, stories from the Old and New Testaments derived from Jewish
+and Christian settlers in Arabia, and certain definite and practical
+rules of everyday conduct. The book is not only thus haphazard in
+subject-matter but it is also very irregular in interest and elegance.
+Portions of it abound in splendid imagery and lofty conceptions, and
+represent the literary quality of the Arabian language at its best, though
+of course this quality is very largely lost in translation. The later
+surahs&mdash;those which appear first in the printed copy&mdash;are largely argumentative
+and legislative in character and naturally fall into a more
+prosaic and monotonous strain. From an almost inexhaustible maze
+of precepts, exhortations, and revelations, the following widely separated
+passages have been selected in the hope that they will serve to
+show something of the character of the Koran itself, as well as the
+nature of some of the more important Mohammedan beliefs and ideals.
+It will be found profitable to make a comparison of Christian beliefs
+on the same points as drawn from the New Testament.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Edward William Lane, <i>Selections from the Kur-án</i>, edited by
+Stanley Lane-Poole (London, 1879), <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sidebar">The opening<br />
+prayer<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Praise be to God, the Lord of the Worlds,</p>
+<p>The Compassionate, the Merciful,</p>
+<p>The King of the day of judgment.</p>
+<p>Thee do we worship, and of Thee seek we help.</p>
+<p>Guide us in the right way,</p>
+<p>The way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious,</p>
+<p>Not of those with whom Thou art wroth, nor of the erring.<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i4">Say, He is God, One [God];</p>
+<p class="i4">God, the Eternal.</p>
+<p class="i4">He begetteth not nor is begotten,</p>
+<p class="i4">And there is none equal unto Him.<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">The "throne
+verse"</span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>God! There is no God but He, the <i>Ever</i>-living, the Ever-Subsisting.
+Slumber seizeth Him not, nor sleep. To Him belongeth
+whatsoever is in the Heavens and whatsoever
+is in the Earth. Who is he that shall intercede
+with Him, unless by His permission? He knoweth what [hath
+been] before them and what [shall be] after them, and they shall
+not compass aught of His knowledge save what He willeth. His
+Throne comprehendeth the Heavens and the Earth, and the care
+of them burdeneth Him not. And He is the High, The Great.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>When the earth is shaken with her shaking,</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">The day of<br />
+resurrection</span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="sn">
+<p>And the earth hath cast forth her dead,</p>
+<p>And man shall say, 'What aileth her?'</p>
+<p>On that day shall she tell out her tidings,</p>
+<p>Because thy Lord hath inspired her,</p>
+<p>On that day shall men come one by one to behold their works,</p>
+<p>And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of good shall behold it,</p>
+<p>And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of ill shall behold it.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>When the heaven shall be cloven asunder,</p>
+<p>And when the stars shall be scattered,</p>
+<p>And when the seas shall be let loose,</p>
+<p>And when the graves shall be turned upside-down,<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+<p><i>Every</i> soul shall know what it hath done and left undone.</p>
+<p>O man! what hath seduced thee from thy generous Lord,</p>
+<p>Who created thee and fashioned thee and disposed thee aright?</p>
+<p>In the form which pleased Him hath He fashioned thee.</p>
+<p>Nay, but ye treat the Judgment as a lie.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">The coming<br />
+judgment</span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="sn">
+<p>Verily there are watchers over you,</p>
+<p>Worthy recorders,</p>
+<p>Knowing what ye do.</p>
+<p>Verily in delight shall the righteous dwell;</p>
+<p>And verily the wicked in Hell [-Fire];</p>
+<p>They shall be burnt at it on the day of doom,</p>
+<p>And they shall not be hidden from it.</p>
+<p>And what shall teach thee what the Day of Judgment is?</p>
+<p>Again: What shall teach thee what is the Day of Judgment?</p>
+<p><i>It is</i> a day when one soul shall be powerless for another soul; and all on that day shall be in the hands of God.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>When one blast shall be blown on the trumpet,</p>
+<p>And the earth shall be raised and the mountains, and be broken to dust with one breaking,</p>
+<p>On that day the Calamity shall come to pass:</p>
+<p>And the heavens shall cleave asunder, being frail on that day,</p>
+<p>And the angels on the sides thereof; and over them on that day eight <i>of the angels</i> shall bear the throne of thy Lord.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">The reward<br />
+of the<br />
+righteous</span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="sn">
+<p>On that day ye shall be presented <i>for the reckoning</i>; none of your secrets shall be hidden.</p>
+<p>And as to him who shall have his book<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> given to him in his right hand, he shall say, 'Take ye, read my book;'</p>
+<p>Verily I was sure I should come to my reckoning.</p>
+<p>And his [shall be] a pleasant life</p>
+<p>In a lofty garden,</p>
+<p>Whose clusters [shall be] near at hand.</p>
+<p>'Eat ye and drink with benefit on account of that which ye paid beforehand in the past days.'</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="poem">
+<p>But as to him who shall have his book given to him in his left hand, he shall say, 'O would that I had not had my book given to me,</p>
+<p>Nor known what [was] my reckoning!</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">The fate of<br />
+the wicked</span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="sn">
+<p>O would that <i>my death</i> had been the ending <i>of me</i>!</p>
+<p>My wealth hath not profited me!</p>
+<p>My power is passed from me!'</p>
+<p>'Take him and chain him,</p>
+<p>Then cast him into hell to be burnt,</p>
+<p>Then in a chain of seventy cubits bind him:</p>
+<p>For he believed not in God, the Great,</p>
+<p>Nor urged to feed the poor;</p>
+<p>Therefore he shall not have here this day a friend,</p>
+<p>Nor any food save filth</p>
+<p>Which none but the sinners shall eat.'</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<p>When the Calamity shall come to pass</p>
+<p>There shall not be <i>a soul</i> that will deny its happening,</p>
+<p>[It will be] an abaser <i>of some</i>, an exalter <i>of others</i>;</p>
+<p>When the earth shall be shaken with a <i>violent</i> shaking,</p>
+<p>And the mountains shall be crumbled with a violent crumbling,</p>
+<p>And shall become fine dust scattered abroad;</p>
+<p>And ye shall be three classes.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+<p>And the people of the right hand, what shall be the people of the right hand!</p>
+<p>And the people of the left hand, what the people of the left hand!</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">"The<br />
+preceders"</span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="sn">
+<p>And the Preceders, the Preceders!<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+<p>These [shall be] the brought-nigh [unto God]</p>
+<p>In the gardens of delight,&mdash;</p>
+<p>A crowd of the former generations,</p>
+<p>And a few of the latter generations,</p>
+<p>Upon inwrought couches,</p>
+<p>Reclining thereon, face to face.</p>
+<p>Youths ever-young shall go unto them round about</p>
+<p>With goblets and ewers and a cup of flowing wine,</p>
+<p>Their [heads] shall ache not with it, neither shall they be drunken;</p>
+<p>And with fruits of the [sorts] which they shall choose,</p>
+<p>And the flesh of birds of the [kinds] which they shall desire.</p>
+<p>And damsels with eyes like pearls laid up</p>
+<p><i>We will give them</i> as a reward for that which they have done.</p>
+<p>Therein shall they hear no vain discourse nor accusation of sin,</p>
+<p>But [only] the saying, 'Peace! Peace!'</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>And the people of the right hand&mdash;what [shall be] the people of the right hand!</p>
+<p>[They shall dwell] among lote-trees without thorns</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">The<br />
+pleasures<br />
+of paradise</span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="sn">
+<p>And bananas loaded with fruit,</p>
+<p>And a shade <i>ever-spread</i>,</p>
+<p>And water <i>ever</i>-flowing,</p>
+<p>And fruits abundant</p>
+<p>Unstayed and unforbidden,<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+<p>And couches raised.<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+<p>Verily we have created them<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> by a [peculiar] creation,</p>
+<p>And have made them virgins,</p>
+<p>Beloved of their husbands, of equal age [with them],</p>
+<p>For the people of the right hand,</p>
+<p>A crowd of the former generations</p>
+<p>And a crowd of the latter generations.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="poem">
+<p>And the people of the left hand&mdash;what [shall be] the people of the left hand!</p>
+<p>[They shall dwell] amidst burning wind and scalding water,</p>
+<p>And a shade of blackest smoke,</p>
+<p>Not cool and not grateful.</p>
+<p>For before this they were blest with worldly goods,</p>
+<p>And they persisted in heinous sin,</p>
+<p>And said, 'When we shall have died and become dust and bones, shall we indeed be raised to life,</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="sidebar">The<br />
+torments<br />
+of hell</span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="sn">
+<p>And our fathers the former generations?'</p>
+<p>Say, verily the former and the latter generations</p>
+<p>Shall be gathered together for the appointed time of a known day.</p>
+<p>Then ye, O ye erring, belying [people],</p>
+<p>Shall surely eat of the tree of Ez-Zakkoom,<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+<p>And fill therewith [your] stomachs,</p>
+<p>And drink thereon boiling water,</p>
+<p>And ye shall drink as thirsty camels drink.&mdash;</p>
+<p>This [shall be] their entertainment on the day of retribution.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII.<br />
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF FRANKISH
+KINGS</h3>
+<h4>14. Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>During the seventh and eighth centuries the Merovingian line of
+Frankish kings degenerated to a condition of weakness both pitiable
+and ridiculous. As the royal family became less worthy, the powers of
+government gradually slipped from its hands into those of a series of
+ministers commonly known by the title of Mayor of the Palace (<i>Maior
+Domus</i>). The most illustrious of these uncrowned sovereigns was
+Charles Martel, the victor over the Saracens near Poitiers, in whose
+time the Frankish throne for four years had no occupant at all. Martel
+contrived to make his peculiar office hereditary, and at his death in
+741 left it to be filled jointly by his two elder sons, Karlmann and
+Pepin the Short. They decided that it would be to their interest to
+keep up the show of Merovingian royalty a little longer and in 743
+allowed Childeric III. to mount the throne&mdash;a weakling destined to
+be the last of his family to wear the Frankish crown. Four years later
+Karlmann renounced his office and withdrew to the monastery of
+Monte Cassino, southeast of Rome, leaving Pepin sole "mayor" and
+the only real ruler of the Franks. Before many more years had passed,
+the utter uselessness of keeping up a royal line whose members were
+notoriously unfit to govern had impressed itself upon the nation to
+such an extent that when Pepin proceeded to put young Childeric in
+a monastery and take the title of king for himself, nobody offered the
+slightest objection. The sanction of the Pope was obtained for the act
+because Pepin thought that his course would thus be made to appear
+less like an outright usurpation. The Pope's reward came four years
+later when Pepin bestowed upon him the lands in northern and central
+Italy which eventually constituted, in the main, the so-called States of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span>
+the Church. In later times, after the reign of Pepin's famous son
+Charlemagne, the new dynasty established by Pepin's elevation to the
+throne came to be known as the Carolingian (from <i>Karolus</i>, or Charles).</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the change from the Merovingian to the
+Carolingian line is taken from the so-called <i>Lesser Annals of Lorsch</i>.
+At the monastery of Lorsch, as at nearly every other such place in the
+Middle Ages, records or "annals" of one sort or another were pretty
+regularly kept. They were often very inaccurate and their writers
+had a curious way of filling up space with matters of little importance,
+but sometimes, as in the present instance, we can get from them some
+very interesting information. The monastery of Lorsch was about
+twelve miles distant from Heidelberg, in southern Germany.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Annales Laurissenses Minores</i> ["Lesser Annals of Lorsch"]. Text
+in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. I.,
+p. 116.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 750<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> of the Lord's incarnation Pepin sent ambassadors
+to Rome to Pope Zacharias,<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> to inquire concerning the kings
+of the Franks who, though they were of the royal line and were
+called kings, had no power in the kingdom, except that charters
+and privileges were drawn up in their names. They had absolutely
+no kingly authority, but did whatever the Major Domus of
+the Franks desired.<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> But on the first day of March in the Campus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>
+Martius,<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> according to ancient custom, gifts were offered to these
+kings by the people, and the king himself sat in the royal seat
+with the army standing round him and the Major Domus in his
+presence, and he commanded on that day whatever was decreed
+by the Franks; but on all other days thenceforward he remained
+quietly at home. Pope Zacharias, therefore, in the exercise of his
+apostolic authority, replied to their inquiry that it seemed to him
+better and more expedient that the man who held power in the
+kingdom should be called king and be king, rather than he
+who falsely bore that name. Therefore the aforesaid pope commanded
+the king and people of the Franks that Pepin, who was
+exercising royal power, should be called king, and should be established
+on the throne. This was therefore done by the anointing
+of the holy archbishop Boniface in the city of Soissons. Pepin
+was proclaimed king, and Childeric, who was falsely called king,
+was shaved and sent into a monastery.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IX.<br />
+THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE</h3>
+
+<h4>15. Charlemagne the Man</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Biographical writings make up a not inconsiderable part of mediæval
+literature, but unfortunately the greater portion of them are
+to be trusted in only a limited degree by the student of history. Many
+biographies, especially the lives of the saints and other noted Christian
+leaders, were prepared expressly for the purpose of giving the world
+concrete examples of how men ought to live. Their authors, therefore,
+were apt to relate only the good deeds of the persons about
+whom they wrote, and these were often much exaggerated for the sake
+of effect. The people of the time generally were superstitious and easily
+appealed to by strange stories and the recital of marvelous events.
+They were not critical, and even such of them as were able to read at
+all could be made to believe almost anything that the writers of books
+cared to say. And since these writers themselves shared in the superstition
+and credulousness of the age, naturally such biographies as were
+written abounded in tales which anybody to-day would know at a
+glance could not be true. To all this Einhard's <i>Life of Charles the Great</i>
+stands as a notable exception. It has its inaccuracies, but it still
+deserves to be ranked almost in a class of its own as a trustworthy
+biographical contribution to our knowledge of the earlier Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>Einhard (or Eginhard) was a Frank, born about 770 near the Odenwald
+in Franconia. After being educated at the monastery of Fulda he
+was presented at the Frankish court, some time between 791 and 796,
+where he remained twenty years as secretary and companion of the
+king, and later emperor, Charlemagne. He was made what practically
+corresponds to a modern minister of public works and in that capacity
+is thought to have supervised the building of the palace and basilica
+of the temple at Aachen, the palace of Ingelheim, the bridge over the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span>
+Rhine at Mainz, and many other notable constructions of the king,
+though regarding the precise work of this sort which he did there is a
+general lack of definite proof. Despite the fact that he was a layman,
+he was given charge of a number of abbeys. His last years were spent
+at the Benedictine monastery of Seligenstadt, where he died about 840.
+There is a legend that Einhard's wife, Emma, was a daughter of Charlemagne,
+but this is to be regarded as merely a twelfth-century invention.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i> was written as an expression of the author's
+gratitude to his royal friend and patron, though it did not appear
+until shortly after the latter's death in 814. "It contains the history
+of a very great and distinguished man," says Einhard in his preface,
+"but there is nothing in it to wonder at, besides his deeds, except the
+fact that I, who am a barbarian, and very little versed in the Roman
+language, seem to suppose myself capable of writing gracefully and
+respectably in Latin." It is considered ordinarily that Einhard endeavored
+to imitate the style of the Roman Suetonius, the biographer
+of the first twelve Cæsars, though in reality his writing is perhaps
+superior to that of Suetonius and there are scholars who hold that
+if he really followed a classical model at all that model was Julius
+Cæsar. Aside from the matter of literary style, there can be no reasonable
+doubt that the idea of writing a biography of his master was suggested
+to Einhard by the biographies of Suetonius, particularly that
+of the Emperor Augustus. Despite his limitations, says Mr. Hodgkin,
+the fact remains that "almost all our real, vivifying knowledge of
+Charles the Great is derived from Einhard, and that the <i>Vita Caroli</i>
+is one of the most precious literary bequests of the early Middle Ages."<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>
+Certainly few mediæval writers had so good an opportunity as did
+Einhard to know the truth about the persons and events they undertook
+to describe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Einhard, <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i> ["Life of Charles the Great"], Chaps.
+22-27. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz
+ed.), Vol. II., pp. 455-457. Adapted from translation by Samuel
+Epes Turner in "Harper's School Classics" (New York, 1880),
+pp. 56-65.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though
+not excessively tall. The upper part of his head was round, his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span>
+eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair auburn, and
+face laughing and merry. His appearance was always stately
+and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting, although his
+neck was thick and somewhat short and his abdomen rather
+prominent. The symmetry of the rest of his body concealed
+these defects. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and
+<span class="sidebar">Personal
+appearance</span>
+his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led
+one to expect. His health was excellent, except
+during the four years preceding his death, when he was subject
+to frequent fevers; toward the end of his life he limped a little
+with one foot. Even in his later years he lived rather according
+to his own inclinations than the advice of physicians; the latter
+indeed he very much disliked, because they wanted him to give
+up roasts, to which he was accustomed, and to eat boiled meat
+instead. In accordance with the national custom, he took frequent
+exercise on horseback and in the chase, in which sports
+scarcely any people in the world can equal the Franks. He enjoyed
+the vapors from natural warm springs, and often indulged
+in swimming, in which he was so skilful that none could surpass
+him; and hence it was that he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle,
+and lived there constantly during his later years....<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> His custom was to wear the national, that is to say, the
+Frankish, dress&mdash;next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches,
+and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>
+bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet. In winter he
+protected his shoulders and chest by a close-fitting coat of otter
+or marten skins. Over all he flung a blue cloak, and he always
+had a sword girt about him, usually one with a gold or silver hilt
+and belt. He sometimes carried a jeweled sword, but only on
+<span class="sidebar">Manner
+of dress</span>
+great feast-days or at the reception of ambassadors
+from foreign nations. He despised foreign
+costumes, however handsome, and never allowed himself to be
+robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned the Roman
+tunic, chlamys,<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> and shoes; the first time at the request of Pope
+Hadrian,<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian's successor.<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> On
+great feast-days he made use of embroidered clothes, and shoes
+adorned with precious stones; his cloak was fastened with a
+golden buckle, and he appeared crowned with a diadem of gold
+and gems; but on other days his dress differed little from that of
+ordinary people.</p>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> Charles was temperate in eating, and especially so in
+drinking, for he abhorred drunkenness in anybody, much more
+in himself and those of his household; but he could not easily
+abstain from food, and often complained that fasts injured his
+health. He gave entertainments but rarely, only on great feast-days,
+and then to large numbers of people. His meals consisted
+ordinarily of four courses, not counting the roast, which his huntsmen
+were accustomed to bring in on the spit; he was more fond
+of this than of any other dish. While at table, he listened to
+reading or music. The subjects of the readings were the stories
+and deeds of olden time. He was fond, too, of St. Augustine's
+books, and especially of the one entitled <i>The City of God</i>.<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>
+He was so moderate in the use of wine and all sorts of drink that
+he rarely allowed himself more than three cups in the course of a
+<span class="sidebar">Every-day
+life</span>
+meal. In summer, after the midday meal, he
+would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off
+his clothes and shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for two
+or three hours. While he was dressing and putting on his shoes,
+he not only gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the
+Palace<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> told him of any suit in which his judgment was necessary,
+he had the parties brought before him forthwith, heard the
+case, and gave his decision, just as if he were sitting in the judgment-seat.
+This was not the only business that he transacted at
+this time, but he performed any duty of the day whatever,
+whether he had to attend to the matter himself, or to give
+commands concerning it to his officers.</p>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> Charles had the gift of ready and fluent speech, and could
+express whatever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He
+was not satisfied with ability to use his native language merely,
+but gave attention to the study of foreign ones, and in particular
+was such a master of Latin that he could speak it as well as his
+native tongue; but he could understand Greek better than he
+could speak it. He was so eloquent, indeed, that he might have
+been taken for a teacher of oratory. He most zealously cherished
+the liberal arts, held those who taught them in great esteem, and
+conferred great honors upon them. He took lessons in grammar
+of the deacon Peter of Pisa, at that time an aged man.<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Another
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>
+deacon, Albin of Britain, surnamed Alcuin, a man of Saxon birth,
+who was the greatest scholar of the day, was his teacher in other
+<span class="sidebar">Education
+and accomplishments</span>
+branches of learning.<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> The king spent much
+time and labor with him studying rhetoric, dialectic,
+and especially astronomy. He learned to
+make calculations, and used to investigate with much curiosity
+and intelligence the motions of the heavenly bodies. He also
+tried to write, and used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under
+his pillow, that at leisure hours he might accustom his hand to
+form the letters; however, as he began his efforts late in life, and
+not at the proper time, they met with little success.</p>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> He cherished with the greatest fervor and devotion the
+principles of the Christian religion, which had been instilled into
+him from infancy. Hence it was that he built the beautiful
+basilica at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he adorned with gold and silver
+and lamps, and with rails and doors of solid brass. He had the
+columns and marbles for this structure brought from Rome and
+Ravenna, for he could not find such as were suitable elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a>
+He was a constant worshipper at this church as long as his health
+permitted, going morning and evening, even after nightfall,
+<span class="sidebar">Interest in religion
+and the
+Church</span>
+besides attending mass. He took care that all
+the services there conducted should be held in
+the best possible manner, very often warning
+the sextons not to let any improper or unclean thing be brought
+into the building, or remain in it. He provided it with a number
+of sacred vessels of gold and silver, and with such a quantity
+of clerical robes that not even the door-keepers, who filled the
+humblest office in the church, were obliged to wear their everyday
+clothes when in the performance of their duties. He took
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span>
+great pains to improve the church reading and singing, for he
+was well skilled in both, although he neither read in public nor
+sang, except in a low tone and with others.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> He was very active in aiding the poor, and in that open
+generosity which the Greeks call alms; so much so, indeed, that
+he not only made a point of giving in his own country and his
+own kingdom, but when he discovered that there were Christians
+living in poverty in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem,
+Alexandria, and Carthage, he had compassion on their wants,
+and used to send money over the seas to them. The reason that
+he earnestly strove to make friends with the kings beyond seas
+was that he might get help and relief to the Christians living
+<span class="sidebar">Generosity
+and charities</span>
+
+under their rule. He cared for the Church Of St.
+Peter the Apostle at Rome above all other holy
+and sacred places, and heaped high its treasury with a vast wealth
+of gold, silver, and precious stones. He sent great and countless
+gifts to the popes;<a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> and throughout his whole reign the wish that
+he had nearest his heart was to re-establish the ancient authority
+of the city of Rome under his care and by his influence, and to
+defend and protect the Church of St. Peter, and to beautify and
+enrich it out of his own store above all other churches. Nevertheless,
+although he held it in such veneration, only four times<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> did
+he repair to Rome to pay his vows and make his supplications
+during the whole forty-seven years that he reigned.<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<h4>16. The War with the Saxons (772-803)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>When Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Franks, in 771, he
+found his kingdom pretty well hemmed in by a belt of kindred,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>
+though more or less hostile, Germanic peoples. The most important
+of these were the Visigoths in northern Spain, the Lombards in the
+Po Valley, the Bavarians in the region of the upper Danube, and the
+Saxons between the Rhine and the Elbe. The policy of the new king,
+perhaps only dimly outlined at the beginning of the reign but growing
+ever more definite as time went on, was to bring all of these neighboring
+peoples under the Frankish dominion, and so to build up a great
+state which should include the whole Germanic race of western and
+northern continental Europe. Most of the king's time during the first
+thirty years, or two-thirds, of the reign was devoted to this stupendous
+task. The first great step was taken in the conquest of the Lombards in
+774, after which Charlemagne assumed the title of King of the Lombards.
+In 787 Bavaria was annexed to the Frankish kingdom, the
+settlement in this case being in the nature of a complete absorption
+rather than a mere personal union such as followed the Lombard conquest.
+The next year an expedition across the Pyrenees resulted in the
+annexation of the Spanish March&mdash;a region in which the Visigoths had
+managed to maintain some degree of independence against the Saracens.
+In all these directions little fighting was necessary and for one
+reason or another the sovereignty of the Frankish king was recognized
+without much delay or resistance.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of reducing the Saxons was, however, a very different
+one. The Saxons of Charlemagne's day were a people of purest Germanic
+stock dwelling in the land along the Rhine, Ems, Weser, and
+Elbe, and inland as far as the low mountains of Hesse and Thuringia&mdash;the
+regions which now bear the names of Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg,
+and Westphalia. The Saxons, influenced as yet scarcely at all
+by contact with the Romans, retained substantially the manner of
+life described seven centuries earlier by Tacitus in the <i>Germania</i>. They
+lived in small villages, had only the loosest sort of government, and
+clung tenaciously to the warlike mythology of their ancestors. Before
+Charlemagne's time they had engaged in frequent border wars with
+the Franks and had shown capacity for making very obstinate resistance.
+And when Charlemagne himself undertook to subdue them he entered
+upon a task which kept him busy much of the time for over thirty years,
+that is, from 772 to 803. In all not fewer than eighteen distinct campaigns
+were made into the enemy's territory. The ordinary course
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>
+of events was that Charlemagne would lead his army across the Rhine
+in the spring, the Saxons would make some little resistance and then
+disperse or withdraw toward the Baltic, and the Franks would leave
+a garrison and return home for the winter. As soon as the enemy's
+back was turned the Saxons would rally, expel or massacre the garrison,
+and assert their complete independence of Frankish authority. The
+next year the whole thing would have to be done over again. There
+were not more than two great battles in the entire contest; the war
+consisted rather of a monotonous series of "military parades," apparent
+submissions, revolts, and re-submissions. As Professor Emerton puts
+it, "From the year 772 to 803, a period of over thirty years, this war
+was always on the programme of the Frankish policy, now resting for
+a few years, and now breaking out with increased fury, until finally
+the Saxon people, worn out with the long struggle against a superior
+foe, gave it up and became a part of the Frankish Empire."<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that we have no Saxon account of the great
+contest except the well-meant, but very inadequate, history by Widukind,
+a monk of Corbie, written about the middle of the tenth century.
+However, the following passage from Einhard, the secretary and
+biographer of Charlemagne, doubtless describes with fair accuracy the
+conditions and character of the struggle. A few of the writer's strongest
+statements regarding Saxon perfidy should be accepted only with some
+allowance for Frankish prejudice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Einhard, <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, Chap. 7. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ
+Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 446-447.
+Adapted from translation by Samuel Epes Turner in "Harper's
+School Classics" (New York, 1880), pp. 26-28.</p>
+
+<p>No war ever undertaken by the Frankish nation was carried
+on with such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labor,
+because the Saxons, like almost all the tribes of Germany, were
+a fierce people, given to the worship of devils and hostile to our
+religion, and did not consider it dishonorable to transgress and
+violate all law, human and divine. Then there were peculiar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span>
+circumstances that tended to cause a breach of peace every day.
+Except in a few places, where large forests or mountain-ridges
+<span class="sidebar">Lack of a natural
+frontier</span>
+intervened and made the boundaries certain, the
+line between ourselves and the Saxons passed
+almost in its whole extent through an open country, so that
+there was no end to the murders, thefts, and arsons on both sides.
+In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last
+resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war
+with the Saxons.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, war was begun against them, and was waged for
+thirty-three successive years<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> with great fury; more, however,
+to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could
+doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been
+for the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often
+they were conquered, and, humbly submitting to the king,
+<span class="sidebar">Faithlessness
+of the Saxons</span>
+promised to do what was enjoined upon them,
+gave without hesitation the required hostages,
+and received the officers sent them from the king. They were
+sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised
+to renounce the worship of devils and to adopt Christianity; but
+they were no less ready to violate these terms than prompt to
+accept them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to
+them to do; scarcely a year passed from the beginning of the war
+without such changes on their part. But the king did not suffer
+his high purpose and steadfastness&mdash;firm alike in good and evil
+fortune&mdash;to be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be
+turned from the task that he had undertaken; on the contrary,
+<span class="sidebar">Charlemagne's
+settlement of
+Saxons in Gaul
+and Germany</span>
+he never allowed their faithless behavior to go unpunished,
+but either took the field against them
+in person, or sent his counts with an army to wreak
+vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction.<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> At last, after conquering
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span>
+and subduing all who had offered resistance, he took
+ten thousand of those who lived on the banks of the Elbe, and
+settled them, with their wives and children, in many different
+bodies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had
+lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to
+<span class="sidebar">The terms of peace</span>
+the terms offered by the king; which were renunciation
+of their national religious customs and
+the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian
+religion,<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> and union with the Franks to form one people.</p>
+
+<h4>17. The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Just as the Saxons were the most formidable of Charlemagne's
+foes to meet and defeat in open battle, so were they the most difficult
+to maintain in anything like orderly allegiance after they had been
+tentatively conquered. This was true in part because of their untamed,
+freedom-loving character, but also in no small measure because
+of the thoroughgoing revolution which the Frankish king sought to
+work in their conditions of life, and especially in their religion. Before
+the Saxon war was far advanced it had very clearly assumed the character
+of a crusade of the Christian Franks against the "pagans of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span>
+north." And when the Saxon had been brought to give sullen promise
+of submission, it was his dearest possession&mdash;his fierce, heroic mythology&mdash;that
+was first to be swept away. By the stern decree of the conqueror
+Woden and Thor and Freya must go. In their stead was to be set up
+the Christian religion with its churches, its priests, its fastings, its ceremonial
+observances. Death was to be the penalty for eating meat during
+Lent, if done "out of contempt for Christianity," and death also for
+"causing the body of a dead man to be burned in accordance with
+pagan rites." Even for merely scorning "to come to baptism," or
+"wishing to remain a pagan," a man was to forfeit his life. The selections
+which follow are taken from the capitulary <i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>,
+which was issued by Charlemagne probably at the Frankish assembly
+held at Paderborn in 780. If this date is correct (and it cannot be far
+wrong) the regulations embodied in the capitulary were established
+for the Saxon territories when there perhaps seemed to be a good
+prospect of peace but when, as later events showed, there yet remained
+twenty-three years of war before the final subjugation. From the
+beginning of the struggle the Church had been busy setting up new
+centers of influence&mdash;some abbeys and especially the great bishoprics
+of Bremen, Minden, Paderborn, Verden, Osnabrück, and Halberstadt&mdash;among
+the Saxon pagans, and the primary object of Charlemagne in
+this capitulary was to give to these ecclesiastical foundations the
+task of civilizing the country and to protect them, together with his
+counts or governing agents, while they should be engaged in this work.
+The severity of the Saxon war was responsible for the unusually
+stringent character of this body of regulations. In 797, at a great
+assembly at Aix-la-Chapelle, another capitulary for the Saxons was
+issued, known as the <i>Capitulum Saxonicum</i>, and in this the harsh
+features of the earlier capitulary were considerably relaxed. By 797
+the resistance of the Saxons was pretty well broken, and it had become
+Charlemagne's policy to give his conquered subjects a government
+as nearly as possible like that the Franks themselves enjoyed. The
+chief importance of Charlemagne's conquests toward the east lies in
+the fact that by them broad stretches of German territory were brought
+for the first time within the pale of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>These capitularies, like the hundreds of others that were issued by the
+various kings of the Franks, were edicts or decrees drawn up under the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>
+king's direction, discussed and adopted in the assembly of the people,
+and published in the local districts of the kingdom by the counts
+and bishops. They were of a less permanent and fixed character
+than the so-called "leges," or laws established by long usage and
+custom.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I.,
+No. 26, pp. 68-70. Translated by Dana C. Munro in <i>University
+of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp.
+2-5.</p>
+
+<p>First, concerning the greater chapters it has been enacted:<a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is pleasing to all that the churches of Christ, which are now
+being built in Saxony and consecrated to God, should not have
+less, but greater and more illustrious honor than the shrines of
+the idols have had.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> If any one shall have fled to a church for refuge, let no one
+presume to expel him from the church by violence, but he shall
+<span class="sidebar">The churches
+as a place of
+refuge</span>
+be left in peace until he shall be brought to the
+judicial assemblage; and on account of the honor
+due to God and the saints, and the reverence due
+to the church itself, let his life and all his members be granted to
+him. Moreover, let him plead his cause as best he can and he
+shall be judged; and so let him be led to the presence of the lord
+king, and the latter shall send him where it shall seem fitting
+to his clemency.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> If any one shall have entered a church by violence and
+shall have carried off anything in it by force or theft, or
+shall have burned the church itself, let him be punished by
+death.<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> If any one, out of contempt for Christianity, shall have
+<span class="sidebar">Offenses
+against the
+Church</span>
+
+despised the holy Lenten feast and shall have eaten
+flesh, let him be punished by death. But, nevertheless,
+let it be taken into consideration by a priest,
+lest perchance any one from necessity has been led to eat flesh.<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> If any one shall have killed a bishop or priest or deacon
+let him likewise be punished capitally.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> If any one, deceived by the devil, shall have believed, after
+the manner of the pagans, that any man or woman is a witch
+and eats men, and on this account shall have burned the person,
+or shall have given the person's flesh to others to eat, or shall
+have eaten it himself, let him be punished by a capital sentence.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> If any one, in accordance with pagan rites, shall have
+caused the body of a dead man to be burned, and shall have reduced
+his bones to ashes, let him be punished capitally.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> If any one of the race of the Saxons hereafter, concealed
+among them, shall have wished to hide himself unbaptized,
+<span class="sidebar">Refusal to be
+baptized</span>
+and shall have scorned to come to baptism,
+and shall have wished to remain a pagan, let
+him be punished by death.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> If any one shall have sacrificed a man to the devil, and,
+after the manner of the pagans, shall have presented him as a
+victim to the demons, let him be punished by death.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> If any one shall have formed a conspiracy with the pagans
+against the Christians, or shall have wished to join with them
+<span class="sidebar">Conspiracy
+against Christians</span>
+in opposition to the Christians, let him be punished
+by death; and whosoever shall have consented
+fraudulently to this same against the
+king and the Christian people, let him be punished by death.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> If any one shall have shown himself unfaithful to the
+lord king, let him be punished with a capital sentence.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> If any one shall have killed his lord or lady, let him be
+punished in a like manner.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> If, indeed, for these mortal crimes secretly committed
+any one shall have fled of his own accord to a priest, and after
+confession shall have wished to do penance, let him be freed by
+the testimony of the priest from death....<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> On the Lord's day no meetings or public judicial assemblages
+shall be held, unless perchance in a case of great necessity,
+<span class="sidebar">Observance
+of the Sabbath
+and of festival
+days</span>
+or when war compels it, but all shall go to
+church to hear the word of God, and shall be free
+for prayers or good works. Likewise, also, on the
+special festivals they shall devote themselves to God and to the
+services of the Church, and shall refrain from secular assemblies.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Likewise, it has been pleasing to insert in these decrees
+that all infants shall be baptized within a year; and we have
+<span class="sidebar">Baptism of
+infants</span>
+decreed this, that if any one shall have refused
+to bring his infant to baptism within the course
+of a year, without the advice or permission of the priest, if he is
+a noble he shall pay 120 <i>solidi</i><a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> to the treasury; if a freeman, 60;
+if a <i>litus</i>, 30.<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> If any one shall have contracted a prohibited or illegal
+marriage, if a noble, 60 <i>solidi</i>; if a freeman, 30; if a <i>litus</i>, 15.</p>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> If any one shall have made a vow at springs or trees or
+<span class="sidebar">Keeping up
+heathen rites</span>
+groves,<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> or shall have made an offering after the
+manner of the heathen and shall have partaken
+of a repast in honor of the demons, if he shall be a noble, 60
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>
+<i>solidi</i>; if a freeman, 30; if a <i>litus</i>, 15. If, indeed, they have not
+the means of paying at once, they shall be given into the service
+of the Church until the <i>solidi</i> are paid.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> We command that the bodies of Saxon Christians shall be
+carried to the church cemeteries, and not to the mounds of the
+pagans.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> We have ordered that diviners and soothsayers shall be
+handed over to the churches and priests.</p>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> Concerning robbers and malefactors who shall have fled
+from one county to another, if any one shall receive them into
+<span class="sidebar">Fugitive
+criminals</span>
+his protection and shall keep them with him for
+seven nights,<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> except for the purpose of bringing
+them to justice, let him pay our ban.<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Likewise, if a count<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> shall
+have concealed them, and shall be unwilling to bring them forward
+so that justice may be done, and is not able to excuse himself for
+this, let him lose his office.</p>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> No one shall presume to impede any man coming to us
+to seek justice; and if anyone shall have attempted to do this,
+he shall pay our ban.</p>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> We have forbidden that Saxons shall hold public assemblies
+in general, unless perchance our <i>missus</i><a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> shall have caused
+them to come together in accordance with our
+<span class="sidebar">Public
+assemblies</span>
+command; but each count shall hold judicial
+assemblies and administer justice in his jurisdiction. And this
+shall be cared for by the priests, lest it be done otherwise.<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>18. The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The revenues which came into Charlemagne's treasury were derived
+chiefly from his royal domains. There was no system of general taxation,
+such as modern nations maintain, and the funds realized from
+gifts, fines, rents, booty, and tribute money, were quite insufficient to
+meet the needs of the court, modest though they were. Charlemagne's
+interest in his villas, or private farms, was due therefore not less to his
+financial dependence upon them than to his personal liking for thrifty
+agriculture and thoroughgoing administration. The royal domains of
+the Frankish kingdom, already extensive at Charlemagne's accession,
+were considerably increased during his reign. It has been well said
+that Charlemagne was doubtless the greatest landed proprietor of the
+realm and that he "supervised the administration of these lands as a
+sovereign who knows that his power rests partly on his riches."<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> He
+gave the closest personal attention to his estates and was always watchful
+lest he be defrauded out of even the smallest portion of their products
+which was due him. The capitulary <i>De Villis</i>, from which the
+following passages have been selected, is a lengthy document in which
+Charlemagne sought to prescribe clearly and minutely the manifold
+duties of the stewards in charge of these estates. We may regard it,
+however, as in the nature of an ideal catalogue of what the king would
+like to have on his domains rather than as a definite statement of
+what was always actually to be found there. From it may be gleaned
+many interesting facts regarding rural life in western Europe during
+the eighth and ninth centuries. Its date is uncertain, but it was about
+800&mdash;possibly somewhat earlier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I.,
+No. 32, pp. 82-91. Translated by Roland P. Falkner in <i>Univ. of
+Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. III., No. 2, pp. 2-4.</p>
+
+<p><b>62.</b><a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> We desire that each steward shall make an annual statement
+of all our income, with an account of our lands cultivated
+by the oxen which our plowmen drive, and of our lands which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span>
+the tenants of farms ought to plow;<a name="FNanchor_150" id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> an account of the pigs, of
+the rents,<a name="FNanchor_151" id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> of the obligations and fines; of the game taken in our
+forests without our permission; of the various compositions;<a name="FNanchor_152" id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> of
+the mills, of the forest, of the fields, and of the bridges and ships;
+of the freemen and the districts under obligations to our treasury;
+<span class="sidebar">Report to be
+made to the
+king by his
+stewards each
+Christmas-tide</span>
+of markets, vineyards, and those who owe wine to us; of
+the hay, fire-wood, torches, planks, and other kinds
+of lumber; of the waste-lands; of the vegetables,
+millet, and panic;<a name="FNanchor_153" id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> and of the wool, flax, and hemp;
+of the fruits of the trees; of the nut trees, larger and
+smaller; of the grafted trees of all kinds; of the gardens; of the
+turnips; of the fish-ponds; of the hides, skins, and horns; of the
+honey and wax; of the fat, tallow and soap; of the mulberry wine,
+cooked wine, mead, vinegar, beer, wine new and old; of the new
+grain and the old; of the hens and eggs; of the geese; of the number
+of fishermen, smiths, sword-makers, and shoe-makers; of the bins
+and boxes; of the turners and saddlers; of the forges and mines,
+that is iron and other mines; of the lead mines; of the colts and
+fillies. They shall make all these known to us, set forth separately
+and in order, at Christmas, in order that we may know what and
+how much of each thing we have.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> On each of our estates our stewards are to have as many
+<span class="sidebar">Domestic
+animals</span>
+cow-houses, pig-sties, sheep-folds, stables for
+goats, as possible, and they ought never to be without
+these. And let them have in addition cows furnished by our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>
+serfs<a name="FNanchor_154" id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> for performing their service, so that the cow-houses and
+plows shall be in no way diminished by the service on our demesne.
+And when they have to provide meat, let them have
+steers lame, but healthy, and cows and horses which are not
+mangy, or other beasts which are not diseased and, as we have
+said, our cow-houses and plows are not to be diminished for this.</p>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> They must provide with the greatest care that whatever
+is prepared or made with the hands, that is, lard, smoked meat,
+<span class="sidebar">Cleanliness
+enjoined</span>
+salt meat, partially salted meat, wine, vinegar,
+mulberry wine, cooked wine, <i>garns</i>,<a name="FNanchor_155" id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> mustard,
+cheese, butter, malt, beer, mead, honey, wax, flour, all should
+be prepared and made with the greatest cleanliness.</p>
+
+<p><b>40.</b> That each steward on each of our domains shall always
+have, for the sake of ornament, swans, peacocks, pheasants,
+ducks, pigeons, partridges, turtle-doves.</p>
+
+<p><b>42.</b> That in each of our estates, the chambers shall be provided
+with counterpanes, cushions, pillows, bed-clothes, coverings
+<span class="sidebar">Household
+furniture</span>
+for the tables and benches; vessels of brass, lead,
+iron and wood; andirons, chains, pot-hooks, adzes,
+axes, augers, cutlasses, and all other kinds of tools, so that it
+shall never be necessary to go elsewhere for them, or to borrow
+them. And the weapons, which are carried against the enemy,
+shall be well-cared for, so as to keep them in good condition; and
+when they are brought back they shall be placed in the chamber.</p>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> For our women's work they are to give at the proper time,
+as has been ordered, the materials, that is the linen, wool, woad,<a name="FNanchor_156" id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>
+vermilion, madder,<a name="FNanchor_157" id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> wool-combs, teasels,<a name="FNanchor_158" id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> soap, grease, vessels,
+and the other objects which are necessary.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> Of the food products other than meat, two-thirds shall be
+sent each year for our own use, that is of the vegetables, fish,
+<span class="sidebar">Supplies to be
+furnished the
+king</span>
+cheese, butter, honey, mustard, vinegar, millet,
+panic, dried and green herbs, radishes, and in
+addition of the wax, soap and other small products; and they
+shall tell us how much is left by a statement, as we have said
+above; and they shall not neglect this as in the past; because
+from those two-thirds, we wish to know how much remains.</p>
+
+<p><b>45.</b> That each steward shall have in his district good workmen,
+namely, blacksmiths, gold-smith, silver-smith, shoe-makers,
+<span class="sidebar">Workmen on
+the estates</span>
+turners, carpenters, sword-makers, fishermen,
+foilers, soap-makers, men who know how to make
+beer, cider, berry, and all the other kinds of beverages, bakers to
+make pastry for our table, net-makers who know how to make
+nets for hunting, fishing and fowling, and the others who are too
+numerous to be designated.</p>
+
+<h4>19. An Inventory of One of Charlemagne's Estates</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In the following inventory we have a specimen of the annual statements
+required by Charlemagne from the stewards on his royal domains.
+The location of Asnapium is unknown, but it is evident that
+this estate was one of the smaller sort. Like all the rest, it was liable
+occasionally to become the temporary abiding place of the king. The
+detailed character of the inventory is worthy of note, as is also the
+number of industries which must have been engaged in by the inhabitants
+of the estate and its dependent villas.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. I.,
+pp. 178-179.</p>
+
+<p>We found in the imperial estate of Asnapium a royal house
+<span class="sidebar">Buildings on
+the estate of
+Asnapium</span>
+built of stone in the very best manner, having
+3 rooms. The entire house was surrounded with
+balconies and it had 11 apartments for women.
+Underneath was 1 cellar. There were 2 porticoes. There
+were 17 other houses built of wood within the court-yard, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span>
+a similar number of rooms and other fixtures, all well constructed.
+There was 1 stable, 1 kitchen, 1 mill, 1 granary, and 3 barns.</p>
+
+<p>The yard was enclosed with a hedge and a stone gateway, and
+above was a balcony from which distributions can be made.
+There was also an inner yard, surrounded by a hedge, well arranged,
+and planted with various kinds of trees.</p>
+
+<p>Of vestments: coverings for 1 bed, 1 table-cloth, and 1 towel.</p>
+
+<p>Of utensils: 2 brass kettles; 2 drinking cups; 2 brass cauldrons;
+1 iron cauldron; 1 frying-pan; 1 gramalmin; 1 pair of andirons;
+1 lamp; 2 hatchets; 1 chisel; 2 augers; 1 axe; 1 knife; 1 large
+plane; 1 small plane; 2 scythes; 2 sickles; 2 spades edged with
+iron; and a sufficient supply of utensils of wood.</p>
+
+<p>Of farm produce: old spelt<a name="FNanchor_159" id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> from last year, 90 baskets which
+can be made into 450 weight<a name="FNanchor_160" id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> of flour; and 100 measures<a name="FNanchor_161" id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> of
+<span class="sidebar">Supplies of
+various sorts</span>
+barley. From the present year, 110 baskets of
+spelt, of which 60 baskets had been planted, but
+the rest we found; 100 measures of wheat, 60 sown, the rest we
+found; 98 measures of rye all sown; 1,800 measures of barley,
+1,100 sown, the rest we found; 430 measures of oats; 1 measure
+of beans; 12 measures of peas. At 5 mills were found 800 measures
+of small size. At 4 breweries, 650 measures of small size,
+240 given to the prebendaries,<a name="FNanchor_162" id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> the rest we found. At 2 bridges,
+60 measures of salt and 2 shillings. At 4 gardens, 11 shillings.
+Also honey, 3 measures; about 1 measure of butter; lard, from
+last year 10 sides; new sides, 200, with fragments and fats; cheese
+from the present year, 43 weights.</p>
+
+<p>Of cattle: 51 head of larger cattle; 5 three-year olds; 7 two-year
+olds; 7 yearlings; 10 two-year old colts; 8 yearlings; 3
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>
+stallions; 16 cows; 2 asses; 50 cows with calves; 20 young bulls;
+38 yearling calves; 3 bulls; 260 hogs; 100 pigs; 5 boars; 150
+<span class="sidebar">Kinds and number
+of animals</span>
+sheep with lambs; 200 yearling lambs; 120 rams;
+30 goats with kids; 30 yearling kids; 3 male goats;
+30 geese; 80 chickens; 22 peacocks.</p>
+
+<p>Also concerning the manors<a name="FNanchor_163" id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> which belong to the above mansion.
+In the villa of Grisio we found domain buildings, where
+there are 3 barns and a yard enclosed by a hedge. There were,
+besides, 1 garden with trees, 10 geese, 8 ducks, 30 chickens.</p>
+
+<p>In another villa we found domain buildings and a yard surrounded
+by a hedge, and within 3 barns; 1 arpent<a name="FNanchor_164" id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> of vines; 1
+garden with trees; 15 geese; 20 chickens.</p>
+
+<p>In a third villa, domain buildings, with 2 barns; 1 granary; 1
+garden and 1 yard well enclosed by a hedge.</p>
+
+<p>We found all the dry and liquid measures just as in the palace.
+We did not find any goldsmiths, silversmiths, blacksmiths,
+huntsmen, or persons engaged in other services.</p>
+
+<p>The garden herbs which we found were lily, putchuck,<a name="FNanchor_165" id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> mint,
+parsley, rue, celery, libesticum, sage, savory, juniper, leeks, garlic,
+<span class="sidebar">Vegetables
+and trees</span>
+tansy, wild mint, coriander, scullions, onions,
+cabbage, kohlrabi,<a name="FNanchor_166" id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> betony.<a name="FNanchor_167" id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> Trees: pears, apples,
+medlars, peaches, filberts, walnuts, mulberries, quinces.<a name="FNanchor_168" id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>20. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The occasion of Charlemagne's presence in Rome in 800 was a conflict
+between Pope Leo III. and a faction of the populace led by two
+nephews of the preceding pope, Hadrian I. It seems that in 799 Leo
+had been practically driven out of the papal capital and imprisoned
+in a neighboring monastery, but that through the planning of a subordinate
+official he had soon contrived to escape. At any rate he got
+out of Italy as speedily as he could and made his way across the Alps
+to seek aid at the court of Charlemagne. The Frankish king was still
+busy with the Saxon war and did not allow the prospect of a papal
+visit to interfere with his intended campaign; but at Paderborn, in
+the very heart of the Saxon country, where he could personally direct
+the operations of his troops, he established his headquarters and awaited
+the coming of the refugee pope. The meeting of the two dignitaries
+resulted in a pledge of the king once more to take up the burden of
+defending the Roman Church and the Vicar of Christ, this time not
+against outside foes but against internal disturbers. After about a
+year Charlemagne repaired to Rome and called upon the Pope and his
+adversaries to appear before him for judgment. When the leaders
+of the hostile faction refused to comply, they were summarily condemned
+to death, though it is said that through the generous advice
+of Leo they were afterwards released on a sentence of exile. During
+the ceremonies which followed in celebration of Christmas occurred
+the famous coronation which is described in the two passages given
+below.</p>
+
+<p>Although the coronation has been regarded as so important as to
+have been called "the central event of the Middle Ages,"<a name="FNanchor_169" id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> it is by no
+means an easy task to determine precisely what significance it was
+thought to have at the time. We can look back upon it now and see
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span>
+that it marked the beginning of the so-called "Holy Roman Empire"&mdash;a
+creation that endured in <i>fact</i> only a very short time but whose name
+and theory survived all the way down to Napoleon's reorganization of
+the German states in 1806. One view of the matter is that Charlemagne's
+coronation meant that a Frankish king had become the successor
+of Emperor Constantine VI., just deposed at Constantinople,
+and that therefore the universal Roman Empire was again to be ruled
+from a western capital as it had been before the time of the first Constantine.
+It will be observed that extract (a), taken from the Annals
+of Lauresheim, and therefore of German origin, at least suggests this
+explanation. But, whether or not precisely this idea was in the mind
+of those who took part in the ceremony, in actual fact no such transfer
+of universal sovereignty from Constantinople to the Frankish capital
+ever took place. The Eastern Empire lived right on under its own
+line of rulers and, so far as we know, aside from some rather vague
+negotiations for a marriage of Charlemagne and the Empress Irene,
+the new western Emperor seems never to have contemplated the extension
+of his authority over the East. His great aspiration had been
+to consolidate all the Germanic peoples of western continental Europe
+under the leadership of the Franks; that, by 800, he had practically done;
+he had no desire to go farther. His dominion was always limited strictly
+to the West, and at the most he can be regarded after 800 as not more
+than the reviver of the old western half of the Empire, and hence as
+the successor of Romulus Augustulus. But even this view is perhaps
+somewhat strained. The chroniclers of the time liked to set up fine
+theories of the sort, and later it came to be to the interest of papal and
+imperial rivals to make large use, in one way or another, of such theories.
+But we to-day may look upon the coronation as nothing more
+than a formal recognition of a condition of things already existing.
+By his numerous conquests Charlemagne had drawn under his control
+such a number of peoples and countries that his position had come to
+be that which we think of as an emperor's rather than that of simple
+king of the Franks. The Pope did not give Charlemagne his empire;
+the energetic king had built it for himself. At the most, what Leo did
+was simply to bestow a title already earned and to give with it presumably
+the blessing and favor of the Church, whose devoted servant
+Charlemagne repeatedly professed to be. That the idea of imperial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span>
+unity still survived in the West is certain, and without doubt many
+men looked upon the ceremony of 800 as re-establishing such unity;
+but as events worked out it was not so much Charlemagne's empire
+as the papacy itself that was the real continuation of the power of the
+Cæsars. Conditions had so changed that it was impossible in the
+nature of things for Charlemagne to be a Roman emperor in the old
+sense. The coronation gave him a new title and new prestige, but
+no new subjects, no larger army, no more princely income. The basis
+of his power continued to be, in every sense, his Frankish kingdom.
+The structural element in the revived empire was Frankish; the Roman
+was merely ornamental.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) <i>Annales Laureshamensis</i> ["Annals of Lauresheim"], Chap. 34.
+Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.),
+Vol. I., p. 38.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) <i>Vitæ Pontificorum Romanorum</i> ["Lives of the Roman Pontiffs"].
+Text in Muratori, <i>Rerum Italicarum Scriptores</i>, Vol. III., pp. 284-285.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>And because the name of emperor had now ceased among the
+Greeks, and their empire was possessed by a woman,<a name="FNanchor_170" id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> it seemed
+both to Leo the pope himself, and to all the holy fathers who
+were present in the self-same council,<a name="FNanchor_171" id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> as well as to the rest of
+the Christian people, that they ought to take to be emperor
+Charles, king of the Franks, who held Rome herself, where the
+Cæsars had always been wont to sit, and all the other regions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>
+which he ruled through Italy and Gaul and Germany; and inasmuch
+as God had given all these lands into his hand, it seemed
+right that with the help of God, and at the prayer of the whole
+Christian people, he should have the name of emperor also.
+[The Pope's] petition King Charles willed not to refuse,<a name="FNanchor_172" id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> but submitting
+himself with all humility to God, and at the prayer of
+the priests, and of the whole Christian people, on the day of the
+nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, he took on himself the name
+of emperor, being consecrated by the Pope Leo.... For
+this also was done by the will of God ... that the heathen
+might not mock the Christians if the name of emperor should
+have ceased among them.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>After these things, on the day of the birth of our Lord Jesus
+Christ, when all the people were assembled in the Church of the
+blessed St. Peter,<a name="FNanchor_173" id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> the venerable and gracious Pope with his own
+hands crowned him [Charlemagne] with an exceedingly precious
+crown. Then all the faithful Romans, beholding the choice of
+such a friend and defender of the holy Roman Church, and of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>
+the pontiff, did by the will of God and of the blessed Peter, the
+key-bearer of the heavenly kingdom, cry with a loud voice, "To
+Charles, the most pious Augustus, crowned of God, the great and
+peace-giving Emperor, be life and victory." While he, before
+the altar of the church, was calling upon many of the saints, it
+was proclaimed three times, and by the common voice of all he
+was chosen to be emperor of the Romans. Then the most holy
+high priest and pontiff anointed Charles with holy oil, and also
+his most excellent son to be king,<a name="FNanchor_174" id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> upon the very day of the birth
+of our Lord Jesus Christ.</p>
+
+<h4>21. The General Capitulary for the Missi (802)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Throughout the larger part of Charlemagne's dominion the chief
+local unit of administration was the county, presided over by the count.
+The count was appointed by the Emperor, generally from among the
+most important landed proprietors of the district. His duties included
+the levy of troops, the publication of the royal decrees or capitularies,
+the administration of justice, and the collection of revenues. On the
+frontiers, where the need of defense was greatest, these local officers
+exercised military functions of a special character and were commonly
+known as "counts of the march," or dukes, or sometimes as margraves.
+In order that these royal officials, in whatever part of the country,
+might not abuse their authority as against their fellow-subjects, or
+engage in plots against the unity of the empire, Charlemagne devised a
+plan of sending out at stated intervals men who were known as <i>missi
+dominici</i> ("the lord's messengers") to visit the various counties, hear
+complaints of the people, inquire into the administration of the counts,
+and report conditions to the Emperor. They were to serve as connecting
+links between the central and local governments and as safeguards
+against the ever powerful forces of disintegration. Such itinerant
+royal agents had not been unknown in Merovingian times, and they
+had probably been made use of pretty frequently by Charles Martel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span>
+and Pepin the Short. But it was Charlemagne who reduced the employment
+of <i>missi</i> to a system and made it a fixed part of the governmental
+machinery of the Frankish kingdom. This he did mainly by
+the <i>Capitulare Missorum Generale</i>, promulgated early in 802 at an
+assembly at the favorite capital Aix-la-Chapelle. The whole empire
+was divided into districts, or <i>missaticæ</i>, and each of these was to be
+visited annually by two of the <i>missi</i>. A churchman and a layman
+were usually sent out together, probably because they were to have
+jurisdiction over both the clergy and the laity, and also that they
+might restrain each other from injustice or other misconduct. They
+were appointed by the Emperor, at first from his lower order of vassals,
+but after a time from the leading bishops, abbots, and nobles of the
+empire. They were given power to depose minor officials for misdemeanors,
+and to summon higher ones before the Emperor. By 812,
+at least, they were required to make four rounds of inspection each
+year.</p>
+
+<p>In the capitulary for the <i>missi</i> Charlemagne took occasion to include
+a considerable number of regulations and instructions regarding the
+general character of the local governments, the conduct of local officers,
+the manner of life of the clergy, the management of the monasteries,
+and other things of vital importance to the strength of the empire
+and the well-being of the people. The capitulary may be regarded as
+a broad outline of policy and conduct which its author, lately become
+emperor, wished to see realized throughout his vast dominion.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I.,
+No. 33, pp. 91-99. Translated by Dana C. Munro in <i>Univ. of
+Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 16-27.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Concerning the embassy sent out by the lord emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, the most serene and most Christian lord emperor
+Charles has chosen from his nobles the wisest and most prudent
+<span class="sidebar">The missi
+sent out</span>
+men, both archbishops and some of the other
+bishops also, and venerable abbots and pious
+laymen, and has sent them throughout his whole kingdom, and
+through them he would have all the various classes of persons
+mentioned in the following chapters live in accordance with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span>
+the correct law. Moreover, where anything which is not right
+and just has been enacted in the law, he has ordered them to
+inquire into this most diligently and to inform him of it. He
+desires, God granting, to reform it. And let no one, through his
+cleverness or craft, dare to oppose or thwart the written law, as
+many are wont to do, or the judicial sentence passed upon him,
+or to do injury to the churches of God, or the poor, or the widows,
+or the wards, or any Christian. But all shall live entirely in
+accordance with God's precept, honestly and under a just rule,
+and each one shall be admonished to live in harmony with his
+fellows in his business or profession; the canonical clergy<a name="FNanchor_175" id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> ought
+to observe in every respect a canonical life without heeding base
+gain; nuns ought to keep diligent watch over their lives; laymen
+and the secular clergy<a name="FNanchor_176" id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> ought rightly to observe their laws without
+malicious fraud; and all ought to live in mutual charity and
+perfect peace.</p>
+
+<p>And let the <i>missi</i> themselves make a diligent investigation
+whenever any man claims that an injustice has been done him
+by any one, just as they desire to deserve the grace of omnipotent
+God and to keep their fidelity promised to Him, so that in all
+cases, in accordance with the will and fear of God, they shall
+administer the law fully and justly in the case of the holy churches
+of God and of the poor, of wards and widows, and of the whole
+people. And if there be anything of such a nature that they,
+<span class="sidebar">The duties
+of the missi</span>
+together with the provincial counts, are not able
+of themselves to correct it and to do justice
+concerning it, they shall, without any reservation, refer it, together
+with their reports, to the judgment of the emperor; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>
+the straight path of justice shall not be impeded by any one on
+account of flattery or gifts, or on account of any relationship,
+or from fear of the powerful.<a name="FNanchor_177" id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Concerning the fidelity to be promised to the lord emperor.</p>
+
+<p>He has commanded that every man in his whole kingdom,
+whether ecclesiastic or layman, and each one according to his
+<span class="sidebar">Oath to
+be taken to
+Charlemagne
+as emperor</span>
+vow and occupation, should now promise to him
+as emperor the fidelity which he had previously
+promised to him as king; and all of those who had
+not yet made that promise should do likewise, down to those
+who were twelve years old. And that it shall be announced to
+all in public, so that each one might know, how great and how
+many things are comprehended in that oath; not merely, as many
+have thought hitherto, fidelity to the lord emperor as regards his
+life, and not introducing any enemy into his kingdom out of
+enmity, and not consenting to or concealing another's faithlessness
+to him; but that all may know that this oath contains in
+itself the following meaning:</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="c3" id="c3"></a>3.</b> First, that each one voluntarily shall strive, in accordance
+with his knowledge and ability, to live completely in the holy
+<span class="sidebar">What the
+new oath
+was to mean</span>
+service of God, in accordance with the precept
+of God and in accordance with his own promise,
+because the lord emperor is unable to give to
+all individually the necessary care and discipline.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Secondly, that no man, either through perjury or any
+other wile or fraud, or on account of the flattery or gift of any
+one, shall refuse to give back or dare to take possession of or
+conceal a serf of the lord emperor, or a district, or land, or anything
+that belongs to him; and that no one shall presume, through
+perjury or other wile, to conceal or entice away his fugitive fiscaline
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span>
+serfs<a name="FNanchor_178" id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> who unjustly and fraudulently say that they are
+free.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> That no one shall presume to rob or do any injury fraudulently
+to the churches of God, or widows, or orphans, or pilgrims;<a name="FNanchor_179" id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>
+for the lord emperor himself, under God and His saints, has constituted
+himself their protector and defender.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> That no one shall dare to lay waste a benefice<a name="FNanchor_180" id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> of the lord
+emperor, or to make it his own property.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> That no one shall presume to neglect a summons to war
+from the lord emperor; and that no one of the counts shall be so
+presumptuous as to dare to excuse any one of those who owe
+military service, either on account of relationship, or flattery, or
+gifts from any one.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> That no one shall presume to impede at all in any way
+a ban<a name="FNanchor_181" id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> or command of the lord emperor, or to tamper with his
+work, or to impede, or to lessen, or in any way to act contrary
+to his will or commands. And that no one shall dare to neglect
+to pay his dues or tax.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="c9" id="c9"></a>9.</b> That no one, for any reason, shall make a practice in court
+of defending another unjustly, either from any desire of gain
+when the cause is weak, or by impeding a just judgment by his
+skill in reasoning, or by a desire of oppressing when the cause is
+<span class="sidebar">Justice to
+be rendered
+in the courts</span>
+weak. But each one shall answer for his own
+cause or tax or debt, unless any one is infirm or
+ignorant of pleading;<a name="FNanchor_182" id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> for these the <i>missi</i>, or the
+chiefs who are in the court, or the judge who knows the case in
+question, shall plead before the court; or, if it is necessary, such
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span>
+a person may be allowed as is acceptable to all and knows the
+case well; but this shall be done wholly according to the convenience
+of the chiefs or <i>missi</i> who are present. But in every
+case it shall be done in accordance with justice and the law; and
+no one shall have the power to impede justice by a gift, reward,
+or any kind of evil flattery, or from any hindrance of relationship.
+And no one shall unjustly consent to another in anything, but
+with all zeal and good-will all shall be prepared to carry out
+justice.</p>
+
+<p>For all the above mentioned ought to be observed by the imperial
+oath.<a name="FNanchor_183" id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> [We ordain] that bishops and priests shall live according
+to the canons<a name="FNanchor_184" id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> and shall teach others to do the same.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> That bishops, abbots, and abbesses who are in charge of
+others, with the greatest veneration shall strive to surpass their
+<span class="sidebar">Obligations
+of the clergy</span>
+subjects in this diligence and shall not oppress
+their subjects with a harsh rule or tyranny, but
+with a sincere love shall carefully guard the flock committed to
+them with mercy and charity, or by the examples of good works.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="c14" id="c14"></a>14.</b> That bishops, abbots and abbesses, and counts shall be
+mutually in accord, following the law in order to render a just
+judgment with all charity and unity of peace, and that they shall
+live faithfully in accordance with the will of God, so that always
+everywhere through them and among them a just judgment
+shall be rendered. The poor, widows, orphans, and pilgrims
+shall have consolation and defense from them; so that we,
+through the good-will of these, may deserve the reward of eternal
+life rather than punishment.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> That no bishops, abbots, priests, deacons, or other members
+of the clergy shall presume to have dogs for hunting, or
+hawks, falcons, and sparrow-hawks, but each shall observe fully
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>
+the canons or rule of his order.<a name="FNanchor_185" id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> If any one shall presume to do
+so, let him know that he shall lose his office. And in addition he
+shall suffer such punishment for his misconduct that the others
+will be afraid to possess such things for themselves.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="c27" id="c27"></a>27.</b> And we command that no one in our whole kingdom shall
+dare to deny hospitality to rich, or poor, or pilgrims; that is, let
+no one deny shelter and fire and water to pilgrims traversing
+our country in God's name, or to any one traveling for the love
+of God, or for the safety of his own soul.</p>
+
+<p><b>28.</b> Concerning embassies coming from the lord emperor.
+That the counts and <i>centenarii</i><a name="FNanchor_186" id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> shall provide most carefully, as
+<span class="sidebar">The missi
+to be helped
+on their way</span>
+they desire the good-will of the lord emperor, for
+the <i>missi</i> who are sent out, so that they may go
+through their territories without any delay; and
+the emperor commands all everywhere that they see to it that no
+delay is encountered anywhere, but they shall cause the <i>missi</i> to
+go on their way in all haste and shall provide for them in such a
+manner as they may direct.</p>
+
+<p><b>32.</b> Murders, by which a multitude of the Christian people
+perish, we command in every way to be shunned and to be
+<span class="sidebar">The crime
+of murder</span>
+forbidden.... Nevertheless, lest sin should
+also increase, in order that the greatest enmities
+may not arise among Christians, when by the persuasions of
+the devil murders happen, the criminal shall immediately
+hasten to make amends and with all speed shall pay to the relatives
+of the murdered man the fitting composition for the evil
+done. And we forbid firmly that the relatives of the murdered
+man shall dare in any way to continue their enmities on account
+of the evil done, or shall refuse to grant peace to him who asks it,
+but, having given their pledges, they shall receive the fitting composition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span>
+and shall make a perpetual peace; moreover, the guilty
+one shall not delay to pay the composition....<a name="FNanchor_187" id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> But if any
+one shall have scorned to make the fitting composition, he shall
+be deprived of his property until we shall render our decision.<a name="FNanchor_188" id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>39.</b> That in our forests no one shall dare to steal our game,
+which we have already many times forbidden to be done; and
+<span class="sidebar">Theft of game
+from the royal
+forests</span>
+now we again strictly forbid that any one shall
+do so in the future; just as each one desires to
+preserve the fidelity promised to us, so let him
+take heed to himself....</p>
+
+<p><b>40.</b> Lastly, therefore, we desire all our decrees to be known
+in the whole kingdom through our <i>missi</i> now sent out, either
+among the men of the Church, bishops, abbots, priests, deacons,
+canons, all monks or nuns, so that each one in his ministry or
+profession may keep our ban or decree, or where it may be fitting
+to thank the citizens for their good-will, or to furnish aid, or
+where there may be need still of correcting anything....
+Where we believe there is anything unpunished, we shall so strive
+to correct it with all our zeal and will that with God's aid we
+may bring it to correction, both for our own eternal glory and
+that of all our faithful.</p>
+
+<h4>22. A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In Charlemagne's governmental and military system the clergy,
+both regular and secular, had a place of large importance. From early
+Frankish times the bishoprics and monasteries had been acquiring
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span>
+large landed estates on which they enjoyed peculiar political and
+judicial privileges. These lands came to the church authorities partly
+by purchase, largely by gift, and not infrequently through concessions
+by small land-holders who wished to get the Church's favor and protection
+without actually moving off the little farms they had been
+accustomed to cultivate. However acquired, the lands were administered
+by the clergy with larger independence than was apt to be allowed
+the average lay owner. Still, they were as much a part of the
+empire as before and the powerful bishops and abbots were expected to
+see that certain services were forthcoming when the Emperor found himself
+in need of them. Among these was the duty of leading, or sending,
+a quota of troops under arms to the yearly assembly. In the selection
+below we have a letter written by Charlemagne some time between
+804 and 811 to Fulrad, abbot of St. Quentin (about sixty miles northeast
+of Paris), respecting the fulfilment of this important obligation.
+The closing sentence indicates very clearly the price exacted by the
+Emperor in return for concessions of temporal authority to ecclesiastical
+magnates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I.,
+No. 75, p. 168.</p>
+
+<p>In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Charles,
+most serene, august, crowned of God, great pacific Emperor,
+who, by God's mercy, is King of the Franks and Lombards, to
+Abbot Fulrad.</p>
+
+<p>Let it be known to you that we have determined to hold our
+general assembly<a name="FNanchor_189" id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> this year in the eastern part of Saxony, on the
+River Bode, at the place which is known as Strassfurt.<a name="FNanchor_190" id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> Therefore,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span>
+we enjoin that you come to this meeting-place, with all your
+men well armed and equipped, on the fifteenth day before the
+Kalends of July, that is, seven days before the festival of St.
+John the Baptist.<a name="FNanchor_191" id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Come, therefore, so prepared with your men
+to the aforesaid place that you may be able to go thence well
+equipped in any direction in which our command shall direct;
+that is, with arms and accoutrements also, and other provisions
+for war in the way of food and clothing. Each
+horseman will be expected to have a shield, a
+lance, a sword, a dagger, a bow, and quivers with
+arrows; and in your carts shall be implements of various kinds,
+that is, axes, planes, augers, boards, spades, iron shovels, and
+<span class="sidebar">The troops
+to be brought:
+their equipment</span>
+other utensils which are necessary in an army. In the wagons
+also should be supplies of food for three months, dating from the
+time of the assembly, together with arms and clothing for six
+months. And furthermore we command that you see to it that
+you proceed peacefully to the aforesaid place, through whatever
+part of our realm your journey shall be made; that is, that you
+presume to take nothing except fodder, wood, and water. And
+let the followers of each one of your vassals march along with the
+carts and horsemen, and let the leader always be with them
+until they reach the aforesaid place, so that the absence of a
+lord may not give to his men an opportunity to do evil.</p>
+
+<p>Send your gifts,<a name="FNanchor_192" id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> which you ought to present to us at our
+assembly in the middle of the month of May, to the place where
+<span class="sidebar">Gifts for
+the Emperor</span>
+we then shall be. If it happens that your journey
+shall be such that on your march you are able
+in person to present these gifts of yours to us, we shall be greatly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span>
+pleased. Be careful to show no negligence in the future if you
+care to have our favor.</p>
+
+<h4>23. The Carolingian Revival of Learning</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>One of Charlemagne's chief claims to distinction is that his reign,
+largely through his own influence, comprised the most important
+period of the so-called Carolingian renaissance, or revival of learning.
+From the times of the Frankish conquest of Gaul until about the middle
+of the eighth century, education in western Europe, except in Ireland
+and Britain, was at a very low ebb and literary production quite insignificant.
+The old Roman intellectual activity had nearly ceased,
+and two or three centuries of settled life had been required to bring
+the Franks to the point of appreciating and encouraging art and letters.
+Even by Charlemagne's time people generally were far from being
+awake to the importance of education, though a few of the more far-sighted
+leaders, and especially Charlemagne himself, had come to
+lament the gross ignorance which everywhere prevailed and were
+ready to adopt strong measures to overcome it. Charlemagne was
+certainly no scholar, judged even by the standards of his own
+time; but had he been the most learned man in the world his interest
+in education could not have been greater. Before studying the selection
+given below, it would be well to read what Einhard said about
+his master's zeal for learning and the amount of progress he made
+personally in getting an education [see <a href="#Page_112">pp. 112</a>&mdash;<a href="#Page_113">113</a>].</p>
+
+<p>The most conspicuous of Charlemagne's educational measures was
+his enlarging and strengthening of the Scola Palatina, or Palace School.
+This was an institution which had existed in the reign of his father
+Pepin, and probably even earlier. It consisted of a group of scholars
+gathered at the Frankish court for the purpose of studying and writing
+literature, educating the royal household, and stimulating learning
+throughout the country. It formed what we to-day might call an
+academy of sciences. Under Charlemagne's care it came to include
+such men of distinction as Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards,
+Paulinus of Aquileia, a theologian, Peter of Pisa, a grammarian, and
+above all Alcuin, a skilled teacher and writer from the school of York
+in England. Its history falls into three main periods: (1) from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>
+middle of the eighth century to the year 782&mdash;the period during which
+it was dominated by Paul the Deacon and his Italian colleagues;
+(2) from 782 to about 800, when its leading spirit was Alcuin; and
+(3) from 800 to the years of its decadence in the later ninth century,
+when Frankish rather than foreign names appear most prominently in
+its annals.</p>
+
+<p>It was Charlemagne's ideal that throughout his entire dominion
+opportunity should be open to all to obtain at least an elementary
+education and to carry their studies as much farther as they liked.
+To this end a regular system of schools was planned, beginning with
+the village school, in charge of the parish priest for the most elementary
+studies, and leading up through monastic and cathedral schools to
+the School of the Palace. In the intermediate stages, corresponding
+to our high schools and academies to-day, the subjects studied were
+essentially the same as those which received attention in the Scola
+Palatina. They were divided into two groups: (1) the <i>trivium</i>, including
+grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic (or philosophy), and (2) the
+<i>quadrivium</i>, including geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music.
+The system thus planned was never fully put in operation throughout
+Frankland, for after Charlemagne's death the work which he had so
+well begun was seriously interfered with by the falling off in intellectual
+aggressiveness of the sovereigns, by civil war, and by the ravages of
+the Hungarian and Norse invaders [see <a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>]. A capitulary of
+Louis the Pious in 817, for example, forbade the continuance of secular
+education in monastic schools. Still, much of what had been
+done remained, and never thereafter did learning among the Frankish
+people fall to quite so low a stage as it had passed through in the sixth
+and seventh centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Charlemagne's interest in education may be studied best of all in
+his capitularies. In the extract below we have the so-called letter
+<i>De Litteris Colendis</i>, written some time between 780 and 800, which,
+though addressed personally to Abbot Baugulf, of the monastery of
+Fulda, was in reality a capitulary establishing certain regulations
+regarding education in connection with the work of the monks. To
+the Church was intrusted the task of raising the level of intelligence
+among the masses, and the clergy were admonished to bring together
+the children of both freemen and serfs in schools in which they might
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span>
+be trained, even as the sons of the nobles were trained at the royal
+court.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. I.,
+No. 29, pp. 78-79. Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro in
+<i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 12-14.</p>
+
+<p>Charles, by the grace of God, king of the Franks and Lombards
+and Patrician of the Romans.<a name="FNanchor_193" id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> To Abbot Baugulf, and to all the
+congregation&mdash;also to the faithful placed under your care&mdash;we
+have sent loving greetings by our ambassadors in the name
+of all-powerful God.</p>
+
+<p>Be it known, therefore, to you, devoted and acceptable to
+God, that we, together with our faithful, have deemed it expedient
+<span class="sidebar">Men of the
+Church charged
+with the work
+of education</span>
+that the bishoprics and monasteries intrusted
+by the favor of Christ to our control, in
+addition to the order of monastic life and the
+relationships of holy religion, should be zealous also in the cherishing
+of letters, and in teaching those who by the gift of God are
+able to learn, according as each has capacity. So that, just as
+the observance of the rule<a name="FNanchor_194" id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> adds order and grace to the integrity
+of morals, so also zeal in teaching and learning may do the same
+for sentences, to the end that those who wish to please God by
+living rightly should not fail to please Him also by speaking correctly.
+For it is written, "Either from thy words thou shall be
+justified or from thy words thou shalt be condemned" [Matt., xii.
+37]. Although right conduct may be better than knowledge,
+nevertheless knowledge goes before conduct. Therefore each one
+ought to study what he desires to accomplish, in order that so
+much the more fully the mind may know what ought to be done.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>
+as the tongue speeds in the praises of all-powerful God without
+the hindrances of mistakes. For while errors should be shunned
+<span class="sidebar">Even the clergy
+often unable
+to speak and
+write correctly</span>
+by all men, so much the more ought they to be
+avoided, as far as possible, by those who are
+chosen for this very purpose alone.<a name="FNanchor_195" id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> They ought
+to be the specially devoted servants of truth. For often in
+recent years when letters have been written to us from monasteries,
+in which it was stated that the brethren who dwelt
+there offered up in our behalf sacred and pious prayers, we
+have recognized, in most cases, both correct thoughts and
+uncouth expressions; because what pious devotion dictated
+faithfully to the mind, the tongue, uneducated on account of
+the neglect of study, was not able to express in the letter without
+error. Whence it happened that we began to fear lest perchance,
+as the skill in writing was less, so also the wisdom for understanding
+the Holy Scriptures might be much less than it rightly ought
+to be. And we all know well that, although errors of speech are
+dangerous, far more dangerous are errors of the understanding.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, we exhort you not only not to neglect the study of
+letters, but also with most humble mind, pleasing to God, to
+<span class="sidebar">Education essential
+to an
+understanding
+of the Scriptures</span>
+study earnestly in order that you may be able
+more easily and more correctly to penetrate the
+mysteries of the divine Scriptures. Since, moreover,
+images [similes], tropes<a name="FNanchor_196" id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> and like figures
+are found in the sacred pages, nobody doubts that each one in
+reading these will understand the spiritual sense more quickly
+if previously he shall have been fully instructed in the mastery
+of letters. Such men truly are to be chosen for this work as have
+both the will and the ability to learn and a desire to instruct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>
+others. And may this be done with a zeal as great as the earnestness
+with which we command it. For we desire you to be, as
+the soldiers of the Church ought to be, devout in mind, learned
+in discourse, chaste in conduct, and eloquent in speech, so that
+when any one shall seek to see you, whether out of reverence for
+God or on account of your reputation for holy conduct, just as
+he is edified by your appearance, he may also be instructed by
+the wisdom which he has learned from your reading or singing,
+and may go away gladly, giving thanks to Almighty God.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER X.<br />
+THE ERA OF THE LATER CAROLINGIANS</h3>
+
+<h4>24. The Oaths of Strassburg (842)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The broad empire of Germanic peoples built up by Charlemagne was
+extremely difficult to hold together. Even before the death of its
+masterful creator, in 814, it was already showing signs of breaking up,
+and after that event the process of dissolution set in rapidly. It will
+not do to look upon this falling to pieces as caused entirely by the
+weakness of Charlemagne's successors. The trouble lay deeper, in the
+natural love of independence common to all the Germans, in the wide
+differences that had come to exist among Saxons, Lombards, Bavarians,
+Franks, and other peoples in the empire, and finally in the prevailing
+ill-advised principle of royal succession by which the territories making
+up the empire, like those composing the old Frankish kingdom, were
+regarded as personal property to be divided among the sovereign's
+sons, just as was the practice respecting private possessions. As a
+consequence of these things the generation following the death of
+Charlemagne was a period of much confusion in western Europe. The
+trouble first reached an acute stage in 817 when Emperor Louis the
+Pious, Charlemagne's son and successor, was constrained to make a
+division of the empire among his three sons, Lothair, Pepin, and Louis.
+The Emperor expressly stipulated that despite this arrangement there
+was to be still "one sole empire, and not three"; but it is obvious that
+the imperial unity was at least pretty seriously threatened, and when,
+in 823, Louis's second wife, Judith of Bavaria, gave birth to a son and
+immediately set up in his behalf an urgent demand for a share of the
+empire, civil war among the rival claimants could not be averted. In the
+struggle that followed the distracted Emperor completely lost his throne
+for a time (833). Thereafter he was ready to accept almost any arrangement
+that would enable him to live out his remaining days in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span>
+peace. When he died, in 840, two of the sons, Louis the German and
+Judith's child, who came to be known as Charles the Bald, combined
+against their brother Lothair (Pepin had died in 838) with the purpose
+of wresting from him the imperial crown, which the father, shortly
+before his death, had bestowed upon him. At least they were determined
+that this mark of favor from the father should not give the
+older brother any superiority over them. In the summer of 841 the
+issue was put to the test in a great battle at Fontenay, a little distance
+east of Orleans, with the result that Lothair was badly defeated. In
+February of the following year Louis and Charles, knowing that Lothair
+was still far from regarding himself as conquered, bound themselves
+by oath at Strassburg, in the valley of the Rhine, to keep up their
+joint opposition until they should be entirely successful.</p>
+
+<p>The pledges exchanged on this occasion are as interesting to the
+student of language as to the historian. The army which accompanied
+Louis was composed of men of almost pure Germanic blood and speech,
+while that with Charles was made up of men from what is now southern
+and western France, where the people represented a mixture of Frankish
+and old Roman and Gallic stocks. As a consequence Louis took
+the oath in the <i>lingua romana</i> for the benefit of Charles's soldiers, and
+Charles reciprocated by taking it in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>, in order that
+the Germans might understand it. Then the followers of the two
+kings took oath, each in his own language, that if their own king should
+violate his agreement they would not support him in acts of hostility
+against the other brother, provided the latter had been true to his word.
+The <i>lingua romana</i> employed marks a stage in the development of the
+so-called Romance languages of to-day&mdash;French, Spanish, and Italian&mdash;just
+as the <i>lingua teudisca</i> approaches the character of modern Teutonic
+languages&mdash;German, Dutch, and English. The oaths and the
+accompanying address of the kings are the earliest examples we have
+of the languages used by the common people of the early Middle Ages.
+Latin was of course the language of literature, records, and correspondence,
+matters with which ordinary people had little or nothing to
+do. The necessity under which the two kings found themselves of
+using two quite different modes of speech in order to be understood
+by all the soldiers is evidence that already by the middle of the ninth
+century the Romance and Germanic languages were becoming essentially
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span>
+distinct. It was prophetic, too, of the fast approaching cleavage
+of the northern and southern peoples politically.</p>
+
+<p>Nithardus, whose account of the exchange of oaths at Strassburg
+is translated below, was an active participant in the events of the
+first half of the ninth century. He was born about 790, his mother
+being Charlemagne's daughter Bertha and his father the noted courtier
+and poet Angilbert. In the later years of Charlemagne's reign, and
+probably under Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald, he was in charge
+of the defense of the northwest coasts against the Northmen. He
+fought for Charles the Bald at Fontenay and was frequently employed
+in those troublous years between 840 and 843 in the fruitless negotiations
+among the rival sons of Louis. Neither the date nor the manner
+of his death is known. There are traditions that he was killed
+in 858 or 859 while fighting the Northmen; but other stories just as
+well founded tell us that he became disgusted with the turmoil of the
+world, retired to a monastery, and there died about 853. His history
+of the wars of the sons of Louis the Pious (covering the period
+840-843) was undertaken at the request of Charles the Bald. The
+first three books were written in 842, the fourth in 843. Aside from
+a rather too favorable attitude toward Charles, the work is very trustworthy,
+and the claim is even made by some that among all of the
+historians of the Carolingian period, not even Einhard excepted, no
+one surpassed Nithardus in spirit, method, and insight. It may further
+be noted that Nithardus was the first historical writer of any importance
+in the Middle Ages who was not some sort of official in the Church.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Nithardus, <i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> ["Four Books of Histories"],
+Bk. III., Chaps. 4-5. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica,
+Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 665-666.</p>
+
+<p>Lothair was given to understand that Louis and Charles were
+supporting each other with considerable armies.<a name="FNanchor_197" id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> Seeing that
+his plans were crushed in every direction, he made a long but
+profitless expedition and abandoned the country about Tours.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>
+At length he returned into France,<a name="FNanchor_198" id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> worn out with fatigue, as
+was also his army. Pepin,<a name="FNanchor_199" id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> bitterly repenting that he had been
+<span class="sidebar">Movements
+of the hostile
+parties in 841-842</span>
+on Lothair's side, withdrew into Aquitaine.
+Charles, learning that Otger, bishop of Mainz,
+objected to the proposed passage of Louis by
+way of Mainz to join his brother, set out by way of the city of
+Toul<a name="FNanchor_200" id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> and entered Alsace at Saverne. When Otger heard of
+this, he and his supporters abandoned the river and sought
+places where they might hide themselves as speedily as possible.
+On the fifteenth of February Louis and Charles came together in
+the city formerly called Argentoratum, now known as Strassburg,
+and there they took the mutual oaths which are given herewith,
+Louis in the <i>lingua romana</i> and Charles in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>.
+Before the exchange of oaths they addressed the assembled people,
+each in his own language, and Louis, being the elder, thus began:</p>
+
+<p>"How often, since the death of our father, Lothair has pursued
+my brother and myself and tried to destroy us, is known to you
+all. So, then, when neither brotherly love, nor Christian feeling,
+nor any reason whatever could bring about a peace between us
+upon fair conditions, we were at last compelled to bring the matter
+before God, determined to abide by whatever issue He might
+decree. And we, as you know, came off victorious;<a name="FNanchor_201" id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> our brother
+was beaten, and with his followers got away, each as best he
+<span class="sidebar">The speech
+of Louis the
+German</span>
+could. Then we, moved by brotherly love and
+having compassion on our Christian people, were
+not willing to pursue and destroy them; but,
+still, as before, we begged that justice might be done to each.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>
+He, however, after all this, not content with the judgment of
+God, has not ceased to pursue me and my brother with hostile
+purpose, and to harass our peoples with fire, plunder, and murder.
+Wherefore we have been compelled to hold this meeting, and,
+since we feared that you might doubt whether our faith was
+fixed and our alliance secure, we have determined to make our
+oaths thereto in your presence. And we do this, not from any
+unfair greed, but in order that, if God, with your help, shall grant
+us peace, we may the better provide for the common welfare.
+But if, which God forbid, I shall dare to violate the oath which I
+shall swear to my brother, then I absolve each one of you from
+your allegiance and from the oath which you have sworn to
+me."</p>
+
+<p>After Charles had made the same speech in the <i>lingua romana</i>,
+Louis, as the elder of the two, swore first to be faithful to his
+alliance:</p>
+
+<p><i>Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament,
+dist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si</i>
+<span class="sidebar">The oath
+of Louis</span>
+<i>salvaraeio cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha
+et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra
+salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet; et ab Ludher nul plaid
+numquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno
+sit.</i><a name="FNanchor_202" id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a></p>
+
+<p>When Louis had taken this oath, Charles swore the same thing
+in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>:</p>
+
+<p><i>In Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero
+gealtnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mir</i>
+<span class="sidebar">The oath
+of Charles</span>
+<i>Got gewizci indi madh furgibit, so haldih tesan
+minan bruodher, soso man mit rehtu sinan
+bruodher scal, in thiu, thaz er mig sosoma duo; indi mit Ludheren
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>
+in nohheiniu thing ne gegango, the minan willon imo ce scadhen
+werhen.</i></p>
+
+<p>The oath which the subjects of the two kings then took, each
+[people] in its own language, reads thus in the <i>lingua romana</i>:</p>
+
+<p><i>Si Lodhwigs sagrament qua son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat,</i>
+<span class="sidebar">The oath
+taken by the
+subjects of the
+two kings</span>
+<i>et Karlus meos sendra, de suo part, non lo stanit,
+si io returnar non lint pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo
+returnar int pois, in nulla aiudha contra Lodhuwig
+nun li iver.</i><a name="FNanchor_203" id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p>
+
+<p>And in the <i>lingua teudisca</i>:</p>
+
+<p><i>Oba Karl then eid then, er sineno bruodher Ludhuwige gesuor,
+geleistit, indi Ludhuwig min herro then er imo gesuor, forbrihchit,
+obih ina es irwenden ne mag, noh ih no thero nohhein then ih es
+irwended mag, widhar Karle imo ce follusti ne wirdhic.</i></p>
+
+<h4>25. The Treaty of Verdun (843)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>After the meeting at Strassburg, Charles and Louis advanced against
+Lothair, who now abandoned Aachen and retreated southward past
+Châlons-sur-Marne toward Lyons. When the brothers had come into
+the vicinity of Châlons-sur-Saône, they were met by ambassadors from
+Lothair who declared that he was weary of the struggle and was ready
+to make peace if only his imperial dignity should be properly recognized
+and the share of the kingdom awarded to him should be somewhat
+the largest of the three. Charles and Louis accepted their brother's
+overtures and June 15, 842, the three met on an island in the Saône
+and signed preliminary articles of peace. It was agreed that a board
+of a hundred and twenty prominent men should assemble October 1 at
+Metz, on the Moselle, and make a definite division of the kingdom.
+This body, with the three royal brothers, met at the appointed time,
+but adjourned to Worms, and subsequently to Verdun, on the upper
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span>
+Meuse, in order to have the use of maps at the latter place. The treaty
+which resulted during the following year was one of the most important
+in all mediæval times. Unfortunately the text of it has not survived,
+but all its more important provisions are well known from
+the writings of the chroniclers of the period. Two such accounts of
+the treaty, brief but valuable, are given below.</p>
+
+<p>Louis had been the real sovereign of Bavaria for sixteen years and
+to his kingdom were now added all the German districts on the right
+bank of the Rhine (except Friesland), together with Mainz, Worms,
+and Speyer on the left bank, under the general name of <i>Francia
+Orientalis</i>. Charles retained the western countries&mdash;Aquitaine, Gascony,
+Septimania, the Spanish March, Burgundy west of the Saône,
+Neustria, Brittany, and Flanders&mdash;designated collectively as <i>Francia
+Occidentalis</i>.<a name="FNanchor_204" id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> The intervening belt of lands, including the two capitals
+Rome and Aachen, and extending from Terracina in Italy to the North
+Sea, went to Lothair.<a name="FNanchor_205" id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> With it went the more or less nominal imperial
+dignity. In general, Louis's portion represented the coming Germany
+and Charles's the future France. But that of Lothair was utterly lacking
+in either geographical or racial unity and was destined not long
+to be held together. Parts of it, particularly modern Alsace and Lorraine,
+have remained to this day a bone of contention between the
+states on the east and west. "The partition of 843," says Professor
+Emerton, "involved, so far as we know, nothing new in the relations
+of the three brothers to each other. The theory of the empire was
+preserved, but the meaning of it disappeared. There is no mention
+of any actual superiority of the Emperor (Lothair) over his brothers,
+and there is nothing to show that the imperial name was anything
+but an empty title, a memory of something great which men could not
+quite let die, but which for a hundred years to come was to be powerless
+for good or evil."<a name="FNanchor_206" id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> The empire itself was never afterwards united
+under the rule of one man, except for two years (885-887) in the time
+of Charles the Fat.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) <i>Annales Bertiniani</i> ["Annals of Saint Bertin"]. Translated
+from text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz
+ed.), Vol. I., p. 440.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) <i>Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales</i> ["Annals of Rudolph of Fulda"].
+Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.),
+Vol. I., p. 362.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>Charles set out to find his brothers, and they met at Verdun.
+By the division there made Louis received for his share all the
+<span class="sidebar">A statement
+from the annals
+of Saint
+Bertin</span>
+country beyond the Rhine,<a name="FNanchor_207" id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> and on this side
+Speyer, Worms, Mainz, and the territories belonging
+to these cities. Lothair received that
+which is between the Scheldt and the Rhine toward the sea, and
+that lying beyond Cambrésis, Hainault, and the counties adjoining
+on this side of the Meuse, down to the confluence of the Saône
+and Rhone, and thence along the Rhone to the sea, together with
+the adjacent counties. Charles received all the remainder, extending
+to Spain. And when the oath was exchanged they went
+their several ways.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>The realm had from early times been divided in three portions,
+and in the month of August the three kings, coming together at
+<span class="sidebar">Another from
+those of Rudolph
+of Fulda</span>
+Verdun in Gaul, redivided it among themselves.
+Louis received the eastern part, Charles the western.
+Lothair, who was older than his brothers,
+received the middle portion. After peace was firmly established
+and oaths exchanged, each brother returned to his dominion to
+control and protect it. Charles, presuming to regard Aquitaine
+as belonging properly to his share, was given much trouble by
+his nephew Pepin,<a name="FNanchor_208" id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> who annoyed him by frequent incursions and
+caused great loss.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>26. A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The following passages from the Annals of Xanten are here given
+for two purposes&mdash;to show something of the character of the period
+of the Carolingian decline, and to illustrate the peculiar features of
+the mediæval chronicle. Numerous names, places, and events neither
+very clearly understood now, nor important if they were understood,
+occur in the text, and some of these it is not deemed worth while to
+attempt to explain in the foot-notes. The selection is valuable for the
+general impressions it gives rather than for the detailed facts which
+it contains, though some of the latter are interesting enough.</p>
+
+<p>Annals as a type of historical writing first assumed considerable
+importance in western Europe in the time of Charles Martel and
+Charlemagne. Their origin, like that of most forms of mediæval literary
+production, can be traced directly to the influence of the Church.
+The annals began as mere occasional notes jotted down by the monks
+upon the "Easter tables," which were circulated among the monasteries
+so that the sacred festival might not fail to be observed at the proper
+date. The Easter tables were really a sort of calendar, and as they
+were placed on parchment having a broad margin it was very natural
+that the monks should begin to write in the margin opposite the various
+years some of the things that had happened in those years. An Easter
+table might pass through a considerable number of hands and so have
+events recorded upon it by a good many different men. All sorts of
+things were thus made note of&mdash;some important, some unimportant&mdash;and
+of course it is not necessary to suppose that everything written
+down was actually true. Many mistakes were possible, especially as
+the writer often had only his memory, or perhaps mere hearsay, to
+rely upon. And when, as frequently happened, these scattered Easter
+tables were brought together in some monastery and there revised,
+fitted together, and written out in one continuous chronicle, there were
+chances at every turn for serious errors to creep in. The compilers
+were sometimes guilty of wilful misrepresentation, but more often
+their fault was only their ignorance, credulity, and lack of critical
+discernment. In these annals there was no attempt to write history
+as we now understand it; that is, the chroniclers did not undertake
+to work out the causes and results and relations of things. They merely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span>
+recorded year by year such happenings as caught their attention&mdash;the
+succession of a new pope, the death of a bishop, the coronation of
+a king, a battle, a hail-storm, an eclipse, the birth of a two-headed
+calf&mdash;all sorts of unimportant, and from our standpoint ridiculous,
+items being thrown in along with matters of world-wide moment.
+Heterogeneous as they are, however, the large collections of annals
+that have come down to us have been used by modern historians with
+the greatest profit, and but for them we should know far less than we
+do about the Middle Ages, and especially about the people and events
+of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The Annals of Xanten here quoted are the work originally of a number
+of ninth century monks. The fragments from which they were
+ultimately compiled are thought to have been brought together at
+Cologne, or at least in that vicinity. They cover especially the years
+831-873.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Annales Xantenses</i> ["Annals of Xanten"]. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ
+Historica, Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., p. 227. Adapted
+from translation in James H. Robinson, <i>Readings in European
+History</i> (New York, 1904), Vol. I., pp. 158-162.</p>
+
+<p><b>844.</b> Pope Gregory departed this world and Pope Sergius
+followed in his place.<a name="FNanchor_209" id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> Count Bernhard was killed by Charles.
+Pepin, king of Aquitaine, together with his son and the son of
+Bernhard, routed the army of Charles,<a name="FNanchor_210" id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> and there fell the abbot
+Hugo. At the same time King Louis advanced with his army
+against the Wends,<a name="FNanchor_211" id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> one of whose kings, Gestimus by name,
+was killed; the rest came to Louis and pledged him their fidelity,
+which, however, they broke as soon as he was gone. Thereafter
+Lothair, Louis, and Charles came together for council in Diedenhofen,
+and after a conference they went their several ways in
+peace.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>845.</b> Twice in the canton of Worms there was an earthquake;
+the first in the night following Palm Sunday, the second in the
+<span class="sidebar">The Northmen
+in Frisia and
+Gaul</span>
+holy night of Christ's Resurrection. In the same
+year the heathen<a name="FNanchor_212" id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> broke in upon the Christians
+at many points, but more than twelve thousand
+of them were killed by the Frisians. Another party of invaders
+devastated Gaul; of these more than six hundred men perished.
+Yet, owing to his indolence, Charles agreed to give them many
+thousand pounds of gold and silver if they would leave Gaul, and
+this they did. Nevertheless the cloisters of most of the saints
+were destroyed and many of the Christians were led away
+captive.</p>
+
+<p>After this had taken place King Louis once more led a force
+against the Wends. When the heathen had learned this they
+sent ambassadors, as well as gifts and hostages, to Saxony, and
+asked for peace. Louis then granted peace and returned home
+from Saxony. Thereafter the robbers were afflicted by a terrible
+pestilence, during which the chief sinner among them, by the
+name of Reginheri, who had plundered the Christians and the
+holy places, was struck down by the hand of God. They then
+took counsel and threw lots to determine from which of their gods
+they should seek safety; but the lots did not fall out happily, and
+on the advice of one of their Christian prisoners that they should
+cast their lot before the God of the Christians, they did so, and
+the lot fell happily. Then their king, by the name of Rorik,
+together with all the heathen people, refrained from meat and
+drink for fourteen days, when the plague ceased, and they sent
+back all their Christian prisoners to their country.</p>
+
+<p><b>846.</b> According to their custom, the Northmen plundered
+eastern and western Frisia and burned the town
+<span class="sidebar">The Northmen
+again in Frisia</span>
+of Dordrecht, with two other villages, before
+the eyes of Lothair, who was then in the castle of Nimwegen,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span>
+but could not punish the crime. The Northmen, with their boats
+filled with immense booty, including both men and goods, returned
+to their own country.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year Louis sent an expedition from Saxony
+against the Wends across the Elbe. He personally, however,
+went with his army against the Bohemians, whom we call Beuwinitha,
+but with great risk.... Charles advanced against
+the Britons, but accomplished nothing.</p>
+
+<p>At this same time, as no one can mention or hear without great
+sadness, the mother of all churches, the basilica of the apostle
+<span class="sidebar">Rome
+attacked by
+the Saracens</span>
+Peter, was taken and plundered by the Moors, or
+Saracens, who had already occupied the region of
+Beneventum.<a name="FNanchor_213" id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> The Saracens, moreover, slaughtered
+all the Christians whom they found outside the walls
+of Rome, either within or without this church. They also carried
+men and women away prisoners. They tore down, among many
+others, the altar of the blessed Peter, and their crimes from day to
+day bring sorrow to Christians. Pope Sergius departed life this
+year.</p>
+
+<p><b>847.</b> After the death of Sergius no mention of the apostolic
+see has come in any way to our ears. Rabanus [Maurus], master
+and abbot of Fulda,<a name="FNanchor_214" id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> was solemnly chosen archbishop as the successor
+of Bishop Otger, who had died. Moreover, the Northmen
+here and there plundered the Christians and engaged in a battle
+with the counts Sigir and Liuthar. They continued up the Rhine
+as far as Dordrecht, and nine miles farther to Meginhard, when
+they turned back, having taken their booty.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>848.</b> On the fourth of February, towards evening, it lightened
+and there was thunder heard. The heathen, as was their custom,
+<span class="sidebar">An outbreak
+of heresy
+repressed</span>
+inflicted injury on the Christians. In the same
+year King Louis held an assembly of the people
+near Mainz. At this synod a heresy was brought
+forward by a few monks in regard to predestination. These
+were convicted and beaten, to their shame, before all the people.
+They were sent back to Gaul whence they had come, and, thanks
+be to God, the condition of the Church remained uninjured.</p>
+
+<p><b>849.</b> While King Louis was ill, his army of Bavaria took its
+way against the Bohemians. Many of these were killed and the
+remainder withdrew, much humiliated, into their own country.
+The heathen from the North wrought havoc in Christendom
+as usual and grew greater in strength; but it is painful to say
+more of this matter.</p>
+
+<p><b>850.</b> On January 1st of that season, in the octave of the Lord,<a name="FNanchor_215" id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>
+towards evening, a great deal of thunder was heard and a mighty
+flash of lightning seen; and an overflow of water afflicted the
+human race during this winter. In the following summer an all
+too great heat of the sun burned the earth. Leo, pope of the
+<span class="sidebar">Further ravages
+by the
+Northmen and
+the Saracens</span>
+apostolic see, an extraordinary man, built a fortification
+around the church of St. Peter the apostle.
+The Moors, however, devastated here and there
+the coast towns in Italy. The Norman Rorik, brother of the
+above-mentioned younger Heriold, who earlier had fled dishonored
+from Lothair, again took Dordrecht and did much evil
+treacherously to the Christians. In the same year so great a
+peace existed between the two brothers&mdash;Emperor Lothair and
+King Louis&mdash;that they spent many days together in Osning
+[Westphalia] and there hunted, so that many were astonished
+thereat; and they went each his way in peace.</p>
+
+<p><b>851.</b> The bodies of certain saints were sent from Rome to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>
+Saxony&mdash;that of Alexander, one of seven brethren, and those of
+Romanus and Emerentiana. In the same year the very noble
+Empress, Irmingard by name, wife of the Emperor Lothair,
+<span class="sidebar">The Northmen
+again in Frisia
+and Saxony</span>
+departed this world. The Normans inflicted
+much harm in Frisia and about the Rhine. A
+mighty army of them collected by the River
+Elbe against the Saxons, and some of the Saxon towns were
+besieged, others burned, and most terribly did they oppress the
+Christians. A meeting of our kings took place on the Maas
+[Meuse].</p>
+
+<p><b>852.</b> The steel of the heathen glistened; excessive heat; a
+famine followed. There was not fodder enough for the animals.
+The pasturage for the swine was more than sufficient.</p>
+
+<p><b>853.</b> A great famine in Saxony, so that many were forced to
+live on horse meat.</p>
+
+<p><b>854.</b> The Normans, in addition to the very many evils which
+<span class="sidebar">The Northmen
+burn the church
+of St. Martin
+at Tours</span>
+they were everywhere inflicting upon the Christians,
+burned the church of St. Martin, bishop
+of Tours, where his body rests.</p>
+
+<p><b>855.</b> In the spring Louis, the eastern king, sent his son of the
+same name to Aquitaine to obtain possession of the heritage of
+his uncle Pepin.</p>
+
+<p><b>856.</b> The Normans again chose a king of the same name as
+the preceding one, and related to him, and the Danes made a
+fresh incursion by sea, with renewed forces, against the Christians.</p>
+
+<p><b>857.</b> A great sickness prevailed among the people. This produced
+a terrible foulness, so that the limbs were separated from
+the body even before death came.</p>
+
+<p><b>858.</b> Louis, the eastern king, held an assembly of the people
+of his territory in Worms.</p>
+
+<p><b>859.</b> On the first of January, as the early Mass was being said,
+a single earthquake occurred in Worms and a triple one in Mainz
+before daybreak.</p>
+
+<p><b>860.</b> On the fifth of February thunder was heard. The king
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span>
+returned from Gaul after the whole empire had gone to destruction,
+and was in no way bettered.</p>
+
+<p><b>861.</b> The holy bishop Luitbert piously furnished the cloister
+which is called the Freckenhorst with many relics of the saints,
+<span class="sidebar">Sacred relics
+brought together
+at the
+Freckenhorst</span>
+namely, of the martyrs Boniface and Maximus,
+and of the confessors Eonius and Antonius,
+and added a portion of the manger of the Lord
+and of His grave, and likewise of the dust of the Lord's feet as He
+ascended to heaven. In this year the winter was long and the
+above-mentioned kings again had a secret consultation on the
+island near Coblenz, and they laid waste everything round
+about.</p>
+
+<h4>27. The Northmen in the Country of the Franks.</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Under the general name of Northmen in the ninth and tenth centuries
+were included all those peoples of pure Teutonic stock who
+inhabited the two neighboring peninsulas of Denmark and Scandinavia.
+In this period, and after, they played a very conspicuous part in the
+history of western Europe&mdash;at first as piratical invaders along the
+Atlantic coast, and subsequently as settlers in new lands and as conquerors
+and state-builders. <i>Northmen</i> was the name by which the
+people of the continent generally knew them, but to the Irish they
+were known as <i>Ostmen</i> or <i>Eastmen</i>, and to the English as <i>Danes</i>, while
+the name which they applied to themselves was <i>Vikings</i> ["Creekmen"].
+Their prolonged invasions and plunderings, which fill so large a place
+in the ninth and tenth century chronicles of England and France, were
+the result of several causes and conditions: (1) their natural love of
+adventure, common to all early Germanic peoples; (2) the fact that
+the population of their home countries had become larger than the
+limited resources of these northern regions would support; (3) the
+proximity of the sea on every side, with its fiords and inlets inviting
+the adventurer to embark for new shores; and (4) the discontent of
+the nobles, or jarls, with the growing rigor of kingly government. In
+consequence of these and other influences large numbers of the people
+became pirates, with no other occupation than the plundering of the
+more civilized and wealthier countries to the east, west, and south.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span>
+Those from Sweden visited most commonly the coasts of Russia, those
+from Norway went generally to Scotland and Ireland, and those from
+Denmark to England and France. In fast-sailing vessels carrying
+sixty or seventy men, and under the leadership of "kings of the sea"
+who never "sought refuge under a roof, nor emptied their drinking-horns
+at a fireside," they darted along the shores, ascended rivers,
+converted islands into temporary fortresses, and from thence sallied
+forth in every direction to burn and pillage and carry off all the booty
+upon which they could lay hands. So swift and irresistible were their
+operations that they frequently met with not the slightest show of
+opposition from the terrified inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>It was natural that Frankland, with its numerous large rivers flowing
+into the ocean and leading through fertile valleys dotted with towns
+and rich abbeys, should early have attracted the marauders; and in
+fact they made their appearance there as early as the year 800. Before
+the end of Charlemagne's reign they had pillaged Frisia, and a monkish
+writer of the time tells us that upon one occasion the great Emperor
+burst into tears and declared that he was overwhelmed with sorrow
+as he looked forward and saw what evils they would bring upon his
+offspring and people. Whether or not this story is true, certain it is
+that before the ninth century was far advanced incursions of the
+barbarians&mdash;"the heathen," as the chroniclers generally call them&mdash;had
+come to be almost annual events. In 841 Rouen was plundered
+and burned; in 843 Nantes was besieged, the bishop killed, and many
+captives carried off; in 845 the invaders appeared at Paris and were
+prevented from attacking the place only by being bribed; and so the
+story goes, until by 846 we find the annalists beginning their melancholy
+record of the year's events with the matter-of-course statement
+that, "according to their custom," the Northmen plundered such and
+such a region [see <a href="#Page_159">p. 159</a>]. Below are a few passages taken from the
+Annals of Saint-Bertin, the poem of Abbo on the siege of Paris, and the
+Chronicle of Saint-Denys, which show something of the character of
+the Northmen's part in early French history, first as mere invaders
+and afterwards as permanent settlers.</p>
+
+<p>The Annals of Saint-Bertin are so called because they have been
+copied from an old manuscript found in the monastery of that name.
+The period which they cover is 741-882. Several writers evidently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span>
+had a hand in their compilation. The portion between the dates 836
+and 861 is attributed to Prudence, bishop of Troyes, and that between
+861 and 882 to Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims.</p>
+
+<p>Abbo, the author of the second selection given below, was a monk
+of St. Germain des Prés, at Paris. He wrote a poem in which he undertook
+to give an account of the siege of Paris by the Northmen in 885
+and 886, and of the struggles of the Frankish people with the invaders
+to the year 896. As literature the poem has small value, but for the
+historian it possesses some importance.</p>
+
+<p>The account of Rollo's conversion comes from a history of the Normans
+written in the twelfth century by William of Jumièges. The
+work covers the period 851-1137, its earlier portions (to 996) being
+based on an older history written by Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, in the
+eleventh century. The Chronicle of St.-Denys was composed at a
+later time and served to preserve most of the history recorded by
+Dudo and William of Jumièges.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) <i>Annales Bertiniani</i> ["Annals of St. Bertin"]. Text in <i>Monumenta
+Germaniæ Historica Scriptores</i> (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., pp.
+439-454.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Abbonis Monachi S. Germani Parisiensis, <i>De Bellis Parisiacæ
+Urbis, et Odonis Comitis, post Regis, adversus Northmannos
+urbem ipsam obsidentes, sub Carolo Crasso Imp. ac Rege Francorum</i>
+[Abbo's "Wars of Count Odo with the Northmen in the
+Reign of Charles the Fat"]. Text in Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens
+des Gaules et de la France</i>, Vol. VIII., pp. 4-26.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(c) <i>Chronique de Saint-Denys d'après Dudo et Guillaume de Jumièges</i>
+["Chronicle of St. Denys based on Dudo and William
+of Jumièges"], Vol. III., p. 105.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a) <span class="smcap">The Earlier Ravages of the Northmen</span></p>
+
+<p><b>843</b>. Pirates of the Northmen's race came to Nantes, killed
+the bishop and many of the clergy and laymen, both men and
+women, and pillaged the city. Thence they set out to plunder
+the lands of lower Aquitaine. At length they arrived at a certain
+island<a name="FNanchor_216" id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> and carried materials thither from the mainland to build
+themselves houses; and they settled there for the winter, as if
+that were to be their permanent dwelling-place.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>844.</b> The Northmen ascended the Garonne as far as Toulouse
+and pillaged the lands along both banks with impunity. Some,
+after leaving this region went into Galicia<a name="FNanchor_217" id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> and perished, part of
+them by the attacks of the cross-bowmen who had come to resist
+them, part by being overwhelmed by a storm at sea. But others
+of them went farther into Spain and engaged in long and desperate
+combats with the Saracens; defeated in the end, they withdrew.</p>
+
+<p><b>845.</b> The Northmen with a hundred ships entered the Seine on
+the twentieth of March and, after ravaging first one bank and
+<span class="sidebar">The Northmen
+bought off at
+Paris</span>
+then the other, came without meeting any resistance
+to Paris. Charles<a name="FNanchor_218" id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> resolved to hold out
+against them; but seeing the impossibility of
+gaining a victory, he made with them a certain agreement and
+by a gift of 7,000 livres he bought them off from advancing farther
+and persuaded them to return.</p>
+
+<p>Euric, king of the Northmen, advanced, with six hundred
+vessels, along the course of the River Elbe to attack Louis of
+Germany.<a name="FNanchor_219" id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> The Saxons prepared to meet him, gave battle, and
+with the aid of our Lord Jesus Christ won the victory.</p>
+
+<p>The Northmen returned [from Paris] down the Seine and coming
+to the ocean pillaged, destroyed, and burned all the regions
+along the coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>846.</b> The Danish pirates landed in Frisia.<a name="FNanchor_220" id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> They were able to
+force from the people whatever contributions they wished and,
+being victors in battle, they remained masters of almost the
+entire province.</p>
+
+<p><b>847.</b> The Northmen made their appearance in the part of Gaul
+inhabited by the Britons<a name="FNanchor_221" id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> and won three victories. Noménoé,<a name="FNanchor_222" id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>
+although defeated, at length succeeded in buying them off with
+presents and getting them out of his country.</p>
+
+<p><b>853-854.</b> The Danish pirates, making their way into the
+country eastward from the city of Nantes, arrived without
+<span class="sidebar">The burning
+of Tours</span>
+opposition, November eighth, before Tours. This
+they burned, together with the church of St.
+Martin and the neighboring places. But that incursion had been
+foreseen with certainty and the body of St. Martin had been
+removed to Cormery, a monastery of that church, and from there
+to the city of Orleans. The pirates went on to the château of
+Blois<a name="FNanchor_223" id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> and burned it, proposing then to proceed to Orleans and
+destroy that city in the same fashion. But Agius, bishop of
+Orleans, and Burchard, bishop of Chartres,<a name="FNanchor_224" id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> had gathered soldiers
+and ships to meet them; so they abandoned their design and returned
+to the lower Loire, though the following year [855] they
+ascended it anew to the city of Angers.<a name="FNanchor_225" id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>855.</b> They left their ships behind and undertook to go overland
+to the city of Poitiers;<a name="FNanchor_226" id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> but the Aquitanians came to meet
+them and defeated them, so that not more than 300 escaped.</p>
+
+<p><b>856.</b> On the eighteenth of April, the Danish pirates came to
+the city of Orleans, pillaged it, and went away without meeting
+<span class="sidebar">Orleans
+pillaged</span>
+opposition. Other Danish pirates came into the
+Seine about the middle of August and, after
+plundering and ruining the towns on the two banks of the river,
+and even the monasteries and villages farther back, came to a
+well located place near the Seine called Jeufosse, and, there
+quietly passed the winter.</p>
+
+<p><b>859.</b> The Danish pirates having made a long sea-voyage (for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>
+they had sailed between Spain and Africa) entered the Rhone,
+where they pillaged many cities and monasteries and established
+themselves on the island called Camargue.... They devastated
+everything before them as far as the city of Valence.<a name="FNanchor_227" id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> Then
+after ravaging all these regions they returned to the island where
+they had fixed their habitation. Thence they went on toward
+Italy, capturing and plundering Pisa and other cities.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b) <span class="smcap">The Siege of Paris</span></p>
+
+<p><b>885.</b> The Northmen came to Paris with 700 sailing ships, not
+counting those of smaller size which are commonly called barques.
+At one stretch the Seine was lined with the vessels for more than
+two leagues, so that one might ask in astonishment in what
+cavern the river had been swallowed up, since it was not to be
+seen. The second day after the fleet of the Northmen arrived
+<span class="sidebar">The Northmen
+arrive at the
+city</span>
+under the walls of the city, Siegfred, who was
+then king only in name<a name="FNanchor_228" id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> but who was in command
+of the expedition, came to the dwelling of the
+illustrious bishop. He bowed his head and said: "Gauzelin, have
+compassion on yourself and on your flock. We beseech you to
+listen to us, in order that you may escape death. Allow us only
+the freedom of the city. We will do no harm and we will see to
+it that whatever belongs either to you or to Odo shall be strictly
+respected." Count Odo, who later became king, was then the
+defender of the city.<a name="FNanchor_229" id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> The bishop replied to Siegfred, "Paris has
+been entrusted to us by the Emperor Charles, who, after God,
+king and lord of the powerful, rules over almost all the world.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>
+He has put it in our care, not at all that the kingdom may be
+ruined by our misconduct, but that he may keep it and be assured
+of its peace. If, like us, you had been given the duty of defending
+these walls, and if you should have done that which you ask us to
+do, what treatment do you think you would deserve?" Siegfred
+replied, "I should deserve that my head be cut off and thrown
+to the dogs. Nevertheless, if you do not listen to my demand,
+on the morrow our war machines will destroy you with poisoned
+arrows. You will be the prey of famine and of pestilence and
+these evils will renew themselves perpetually every year." So
+saying, he departed and gathered together his comrades.</p>
+
+<p>In the morning the Northmen, boarding their ships, approached
+the tower and attacked it.<a name="FNanchor_230" id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> They shook it with their engines
+<span class="sidebar">The attack
+upon the tower</span>
+and stormed it with arrows. The city resounded
+with clamor, the people were aroused, the bridges
+trembled. All came together to defend the tower. There Odo,
+his brother Robert,<a name="FNanchor_231" id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> and the Count Ragenar distinguished themselves
+for bravery; likewise the courageous Abbot Ebolus,<a name="FNanchor_232" id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> the
+nephew of the bishop. A keen arrow wounded the prelate, while
+at his side the young warrior Frederick was struck by a sword.
+Frederick died, but the old man, thanks to God, survived. There
+perished many Franks; after receiving wounds they were lavish
+of life. At last the enemy withdrew, carrying off their dead.
+The evening came. The tower had been sorely tried, but its
+foundations were still solid, as were also the narrow <i>baies</i> which
+surmounted them. The people spent the night repairing it with
+boards. By the next day, on the old citadel had been erected a
+new tower of wood, a half higher than the former one. At sunrise
+the Danes caught their first glimpse of it. Once more the latter
+engaged with the Christians in violent combat. On every side
+arrows sped and blood flowed. With the arrows mingled the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>
+stones hurled by slings and war-machines; the air was filled with
+<span class="sidebar">Fierce
+fighting</span>
+them. The tower which had been built during the night groaned
+under the strokes of the darts, the city shook with
+the struggle, the people ran hither and thither, the
+bells jangled. The warriors rushed together to defend the tottering
+tower and to repel the fierce assault. Among these warriors
+two, a count and an abbot [Ebolus], surpassed all the rest in
+courage. The former was the redoubtable Odo who never experienced
+<span class="sidebar">The bravery of
+Count Odo</span>
+defeat and who continually revived the
+spirits of the worn-out defenders. He ran along
+the ramparts and hurled back the enemy. On those who were
+secreting themselves so as to undermine the tower he poured oil,
+wax, and pitch, which, being mixed and heated, burned the Danes
+and tore off their scalps. Some of them died; others threw
+themselves into the river to escape the awful substance....<a name="FNanchor_233" id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Paris was suffering not only from the sword outside
+but also from a pestilence within which brought death to many
+noble men. Within the walls there was not ground in which to
+bury the dead.... Odo, the future king, was sent to Charles,
+emperor of the Franks,<a name="FNanchor_234" id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> to implore help for the stricken city.</p>
+
+<p>One day Odo suddenly appeared in splendor in the midst of
+three bands of warriors. The sun made his armor glisten and
+<span class="sidebar">Odo's mission
+to Emperor
+Charles the
+Fat</span>
+greeted him before it illuminated the country
+around. The Parisians saw their beloved chief
+at a distance, but the enemy, hoping to prevent
+his gaining entrance to the tower, crossed the Seine and took up
+their position on the bank. Nevertheless Odo, his horse at a
+gallop, got past the Northmen and reached the tower, whose
+gates Ebolus opened to him. The enemy pursued fiercely the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span>
+comrades of the count who were trying to keep up with him
+and get refuge in the tower. [The Danes were defeated in the
+attack.]</p>
+
+<p>Now came the Emperor Charles, surrounded by soldiers of all
+nations, even as the sky is adorned with resplendent stars. A
+<span class="sidebar">Terms of peace
+arranged by
+Charles</span>
+great throng, speaking many languages, accompanied
+him. He established his camp at the foot
+of the heights of Montmartre, near the tower.
+He allowed the Northmen to have the country of Sens to plunder;<a name="FNanchor_235" id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a>
+and in the spring he gave them 700 pounds of silver on condition
+that by the month of March they leave France for their
+own kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_236" id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> Then Charles returned, destined to an early
+death.<a name="FNanchor_237" id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">(c) <span class="smcap">The Baptism of Rollo and the Establishment of the
+Normans in France<a name="FNanchor_238" id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The king had at first wished to give to Rollo the province of
+Flanders, but the Norman rejected it as being too marshy. Rollo
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span>
+refused to kiss the foot of Charles when he received from him the
+duchy of Normandy. "He who receives such a gift," said the
+bishops to him, "ought to kiss the foot of the king." "Never,"
+replied he, "will I bend the knee to any one, or kiss anybody's
+foot." Nevertheless, impelled by the entreaties of the Franks,
+he ordered one of his warriors to perform the act in his stead.
+This man seized the foot of the king and lifted it to his lips,
+kissing it without bending and so causing the king to tumble
+over backwards. At that there was a loud burst of laughter
+and a great commotion in the crowd of onlookers. King Charles,
+<span class="sidebar">Rollo receives
+Normandy
+from Charles
+the Simple</span>
+Robert, Duke of the Franks,<a name="FNanchor_239" id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> the counts and
+magnates, and the bishops and abbots, bound
+themselves by the oath of the Catholic faith to
+Rollo, swearing by their lives and their bodies and by the honor
+of all the kingdom, that he might hold the land and transmit it to
+his heirs from generation to generation throughout all time to
+come. When these things had been satisfactorily performed,
+the king returned in good spirits into his dominion, and Rollo
+with Duke Robert set out for Rouen.</p>
+
+<p>In the year of our Lord 912 Rollo was baptized in holy water
+in the name of the sacred Trinity by Franco, archbishop of
+<span class="sidebar">Rollo becomes
+a Christian</span>
+Rouen. Duke Robert, who was his godfather,
+gave to him his name. Rollo devotedly honored
+God and the Holy Church with his gifts.... The pagans,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span>
+seeing that their chieftain had become a Christian, abandoned
+their idols, received the name of Christ, and with one accord
+desired to be baptized. Meanwhile the Norman duke made
+ready for a splendid wedding and married the daughter of the
+king [Gisela] according to Christian rites.</p>
+
+<p>Rollo gave assurance of security to all those who wished to
+dwell in his country. The land he divided among his followers,
+and, as it had been a long time unused, he improved it by the
+construction of new buildings. It was peopled by the Norman
+warriors and by immigrants from outside regions. The duke
+<span class="sidebar">His work
+in Normandy</span>
+established for his subjects certain inviolable
+rights and laws, confirmed and published by the
+will of the leading men, and he compelled all his people to live
+peaceably together. He rebuilt the churches, which had been
+entirely ruined; he restored the temples, which had been destroyed
+by the ravages of the pagans; he repaired and added to
+the walls and fortifications of the cities; he subdued the Britons
+who rebelled against him; and with the provisions obtained
+from them he supplied all the country that had been granted
+to him.</p>
+
+<h4>28. Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The ninth century is chiefly significant in Frankish history as an
+era of decline of monarchy and increase of the powers and independence
+of local officials and magnates. Already by Charlemagne's death, in
+814, the disruptive forces were at work, and under the relatively weak
+successors of the great Emperor the course of decentralization went
+on until by the death of Charles the Bald, in 877, the royal authority
+had been reduced to a condition of insignificance. This century was
+the formative period <i>par excellence</i> of the feudal system&mdash;a type of
+social and economic organization which the conditions of the time
+rendered inevitable and under which great monarchies tended to be
+dissolved into a multitude of petty local states. Large landholders began
+to regard themselves as practically independent; royal officials, particularly
+the counts, refused to be parted from their positions and used
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span>
+them primarily to enhance their own personal authority; the churches
+and monasteries stretched their royal grants of immunity so far as
+almost to refuse to acknowledge any obligations to the central government.
+In these and other ways the Carolingian monarchy was shorn
+of its powers, and as it was quite lacking in money, lands, and soldiers
+who could be depended on, there was little left for it to do but to legislate
+and ordain without much prospect of being able to enforce its
+laws and ordinances. The rapidity with which the kings of the period
+were losing their grip on the situation comes out very clearly from a study
+of the capitularies which they issued from time to time. In general
+these capitularies, especially after about 840, testify to the disorder
+everywhere prevailing, the usurpations of the royal officials, and the
+popular contempt of the royal authority, and reiterate commands
+for the preservation of order until they become fairly wearisome to
+the reader. Royalty was at a bad pass and its weakness is reflected
+unmistakably in its attempts to govern by mere edict without any backing
+of enforcing power. In 843, 853, 856, 857, and many other years
+of Charles the Bald's reign, elaborate decrees were issued prohibiting
+brigandage and lawlessness, but with the tell-tale provision that violators
+were to be "admonished with Christian love to repent," or that
+they were to be punished "as far as the local officials could remember
+them," or that the royal agents were themselves to take oath not to
+become highway robbers! Sometimes the king openly confessed his
+weakness and proceeded to implore, rather than to command, his subjects
+to obey him.</p>
+
+<p>The capitulary quoted below belongs to the last year of the short
+reign of Carloman (882-884), son of Louis the Stammerer and grandson
+of Charles the Bald. It makes a considerable show of power, ordaining
+the punishment of criminals as confidently as if there had really
+been means to assure its enforcement. But in truth all the provisions
+in it had been embodied in capitularies of Carloman's predecessors with
+scarcely perceptible effect, and there was certainly no reason to expect
+better results now. With the nobles practicing, if not asserting, independence,
+the churches and monasteries heeding the royal authority
+hardly at all, the country being ravaged by Northmen and the people
+turning to the great magnates for the protection they could no longer
+get from the king, and the counts and <i>missi dominici</i> making
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>
+their lands and offices the basis for hereditary local authority, the
+king had come to be almost powerless in the great realm where less
+than a hundred years before Charlemagne's word, for all practical
+purposes, was law. Even Charlemagne himself, however, could have
+done little to avert the state of anarchy which conditions too strong
+for any sovereign to cope with had brought about.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.),
+Vol. II., pp. 371-375.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> According to the custom of our predecessors, we desire
+that in our palace shall prevail the worship of God, the honor of
+<span class="sidebar">The keeping of
+the peace enjoined</span>
+the king, piety, concord, and a condition of peace;
+and that that peace established in our palace
+by the sanction of our predecessors shall extend
+to, and be observed throughout, our entire kingdom.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> We desire that all those who live at our court, and all who
+come there, shall live peaceably. If any one, in breach of the
+peace, is guilty of violence, let him be brought to a hearing at
+our palace, by the authority of the king and by the order of our
+<i>missus</i>, as it was ordained by the capitularies of our predecessors,
+that he may be punished according to a legal judgment and may
+pay a triple composition with the royal ban.<a name="FNanchor_240" id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> If the offender has no lord, or if he flees from our court,
+our <i>missus</i> shall go to find him and shall order him, in our name,
+to appear at the palace.<a name="FNanchor_241" id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> If he should be so rash as to disdain to
+come, let him be brought by force. If he spurns both us and our
+<i>missus</i>, and while refusing to obey summons is killed in resisting,
+and any of his relatives or friends undertake to exercise against
+our agents who have killed him the right of vengeance,<a name="FNanchor_242" id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> we will
+oppose them there and will give our agents all the aid of our royal
+authority.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> The bishop of the diocese in which the crime shall have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
+been committed ought, through the priest of the place, to give
+three successive invitations to the offender to repent and to
+<span class="sidebar">The bishop's
+part in repressing
+crime</span>
+make reparation for his fault in order to set
+himself right with God and the church that he
+has injured. If he scorns and rejects this summons
+and invitation, let the bishop wield upon him the pastoral
+rod, that is to say, the sentence of excommunication; and let
+him separate him from the communion of the Holy Church until
+he shall have given the satisfaction that is required.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> In order that violence be entirely brought to an end and
+order restored, it is necessary that the bishop's authority should
+<span class="sidebar">Obligations of
+lay officials
+to restrain
+violence</span>
+be supplemented by that of the public officials.
+Therefore we and our faithful have judged it
+expedient that the <i>missi dominici</i> should discharge
+faithfully the duties of their office.<a name="FNanchor_243" id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> The count shall enjoin to
+the viscount,<a name="FNanchor_244" id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> to his <i>vicarii</i> and <i>centenarii</i>,<a name="FNanchor_245" id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> and to all the public
+officials, as well as to all Franks who have a knowledge of the
+law, that all should give as much aid as they can to the Church,
+both on their own account and in accord with the requests of
+the clergy, every time they shall be called upon by the bishop, the
+officers of the bishop, or even by the needy. They should do this
+for the love of God, the peace of the Holy Church, and the fidelity
+that they owe to us.</p>
+
+<h4>29. The Election of Hugh Capet (987).</h4>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The election of Hugh Capet as king of France in 987 marked the
+establishment of the so-called Capetian line of monarchs, which occupied
+the French throne in all not far from eight centuries&mdash;a record
+not equaled by any other royal house in European history. The circumstances
+of the election were interesting and significant. For more
+than a hundred years there had been keen rivalry between the Carolingian
+kings and one of the great ducal houses of the Franks, known as
+the Robertians. In the disorder which so generally prevailed in France
+in the ninth and tenth centuries, powerful families possessing extensive
+lands and having large numbers of vassals and serfs were able to make
+themselves practically independent of the royal power. The greatest of
+these families was the Robertians, the descendants of Robert the Strong,
+father of the Odo who distinguished himself at the siege of Paris in
+885-886 [see <a href="#Page_170">p. 170</a>]. Between 888 and 987 circumstances brought it
+about three different times that members of the Robertian house were
+elevated to the Frankish throne (Odo, 888-898; Robert I., 922-923;
+and Rudolph&mdash;related to the Robertians by marriage only,&mdash;923-936).
+The rest of the time the throne was occupied by Carolingians (Charles
+the Simple, 898-922; Louis IV., 936-954; Lothair, 954-986; and Louis V.,
+986-987). With the death of the young king Louis V., in 987, the
+last direct descendant of Charlemagne passed away and the question
+of the succession was left for solution by the nobles and higher
+clergy of the realm. As soon as the king was dead, such of these magnates
+as were assembled at the court to attend the funeral bound
+themselves by oath to take no action until a general meeting could
+be held at Senlis (a few miles north of Paris) late in May, 987. The
+proceedings of this general meeting are related in the passage below.
+Apparently it had already been pretty generally agreed that the man
+to be elected was Hugh Capet, great-grandson of Robert the Strong
+and the present head of the famous Robertian house, and the speech
+of Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, of which Richer gives a resumé,
+was enough to ensure this result. There was but one other claimant of
+importance. That was the late king's uncle, Charles of Lower Lorraine.
+He was not a man of force and Adalbero easily disposed of his candidacy,
+though the rejected prince was subsequently able to make his successful
+rival a good deal of trouble. Hugh owed his election to his large material
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span>
+resources, the military prestige of his ancestors, the active support
+of the Church, and the lack of direct heirs of the Carolingian dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>Richer, the chronicler whose account of the election is given below,
+was a monk living at Rheims at the time when the events occurred
+which he describes. His "Four Books of Histories," discovered only in
+1833, is almost our only considerable source of information on Frankish
+affairs in the later tenth century. In his writing he endeavored to round
+out his work into a real history and to give more than the bare outline
+of events characteristic of the mediæval annalists. In this he was
+only partially successful, being at fault mainly in indulging in too much
+rhetoric and in allowing partisan motives sometimes to guide him in what
+he said. His partisanship was on the side of the fallen Carolingians. The
+period covered by the "Histories" is 888-995; they are therefore roughly
+continuous chronologically with the Annals of Saint Bertin [see <a href="#Page_164">p. 164</a>].</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Richer, <i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> ["Four Books of Histories"], Bk. IV.,
+Chaps. 11-12. Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores</i>
+(Pertz ed.), Vol. III., pp. 633-634.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, at the appointed time the magnates of Gaul who
+had taken the oath came together at Senlis. When they had all
+taken their places in the assembly and the duke<a name="FNanchor_246" id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> had given the
+sign, the archbishop<a name="FNanchor_247" id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> spoke to them as follows:<a name="FNanchor_248" id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p>
+
+<p>"King Louis, of divine memory, having been removed from
+the world, and having left no heirs, it devolves upon us to take
+<span class="sidebar">Adalbero's
+speech at
+Senlis</span>
+serious counsel as to the choice of a successor, so
+that the state may not suffer any injury through
+neglect and the lack of a leader. On a former
+occasion<a name="FNanchor_249" id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> we thought it advisable to postpone that deliberation
+in order that each of you might be able to come here and, in the
+presence of the assembly, voice the sentiment which God should
+have inspired in you, and that from all these different expressions
+of opinion we might be able to find out what is the general will.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Here we are assembled. Let us see to it, by our prudence
+and honor, that hatred shall not destroy reason, that love shall
+<span class="sidebar">Election, not
+heredity, the
+true basis of
+Frankish kingship</span>
+not interfere with truth. We are aware that
+Charles<a name="FNanchor_250" id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> has his partisans, who claim that the
+throne belongs to him by right of birth. But if
+we look into the matter, the throne is not acquired
+by hereditary right, and no one ought to be placed at the
+head of the kingdom unless he is distinguished, not only by nobility
+of body, but also by strength of mind&mdash;only such a one as
+honor and generosity recommend.<a name="FNanchor_251" id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> We read in the annals of
+rulers of illustrious descent who were deposed on account of
+their unworthiness and replaced by others of the same, or even
+lesser, rank.<a name="FNanchor_252" id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p>
+
+<p>"What dignity shall we gain by making Charles king? He is
+not guided by honor, nor is he possessed of strength. Then, too,
+he has compromised himself so far as to have become the dependent
+of a foreign king<a name="FNanchor_253" id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> and to have married a girl taken from
+among his own vassals. How could the great duke endure that
+a woman of the low rank of vassal should become queen and
+<span class="sidebar">Objections
+to Charles
+of Lorraine</span>
+rule over him? How could he tender services
+to this woman, when his equals, and even his
+superiors, in birth bend the knee before him and
+place their hands under his feet? Think of this seriously and
+you will see that Charles must be rejected for his own faults
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>
+rather than on account of any wrong done by others. Make a
+decision, therefore, for the welfare rather than for the injury of
+the state. If you wish ill to your country, choose Charles to be
+king; if you have regard for its prosperity, choose Hugh, the
+illustrious duke.... Elect, then, the duke, a man who is
+<span class="sidebar">Election of
+Hugh Capet
+urged</span>
+recommended by his conduct, by his nobility,
+and by his military following. In him you will
+find a defender, not only of the state, but also of
+your private interests. His large-heartedness will make him a
+father to you all. Who has ever fled to him for protection without
+receiving it? Who that has been deserted by his friends has
+he ever failed to restore to his rights?"</p>
+
+<p>This speech was applauded and concurred in by all, and by
+unanimous consent the duke was raised to the throne. He was
+<span class="sidebar">The beginning
+of his reign</span>
+crowned at Noyon<a name="FNanchor_254" id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> on the first of June<a name="FNanchor_255" id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> by the
+archbishop and the other bishops as king of the
+Gauls, the Bretons, the Normans, the Aquitanians, the Goths,
+the Spaniards and the Gascons.<a name="FNanchor_256" id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> Surrounded by the nobles of
+the king, he issued decrees and made laws according to royal
+custom, judging and disposing of all matters with success.</p>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XI.<br />
+ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND IN PEACE</h3>
+
+<h4>30. The Danes in England</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The earliest recorded visit of the Danes, or Northmen, to England
+somewhat antedates the appearance of these peoples on the Frankish
+coast in the year 800. In 787 three Danish vessels came to shore at
+Warham in Dorset and their sailors slew the unfortunate reeve who
+mistook them for ordinary foreign merchants and tried to collect
+port dues from them. Thereafter the British coasts were never free
+for many years at a time from the depredations of the marauders.
+In 793 the famous church at Lindisfarne, in Northumberland, was
+plundered; in 795 the Irish coasts began to suffer; in 833 a fleet of
+twenty-five vessels appeared at the mouth of the Thames; in 834 twelve
+hundred pillagers landed in Dorset; in 842 London and Rochester
+were sacked and their population scattered; in 850 a fleet of 350 ships
+carrying perhaps ten or twelve thousand men, wintered at the mouth
+of the Thames and in the spring caused London again to suffer; and
+from then on until the accession of King Alfred, in 871, destructive
+raids followed one another with distressing frequency.</p>
+
+<p>The account of the Danish invasions given below is taken from
+a biography of King Alfred commonly attributed to Asser, a monk of
+Welsh origin connected with the monastery of St. David (later bishop
+of Sherborne) and a close friend and adviser of the great king. It gives
+us some idea of the way in which Alfred led his people through the
+darkest days in their history, and of the settlement known as the
+"Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" by which the Danish leader became
+a Christian and the way was prepared for the later division of the English
+country between the two contending peoples.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Johannes Menevensis Asserius, <i>De rebus gestis Ælfredi Magni</i>
+[Asser, "The Deeds of Alfred the Great"], Chaps. 42-55 <i>passim</i>.
+Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles in <i>Six Old English
+Chronicles</i> (London, 1866), pp. 56-63.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 871 Alfred, who up to that time had been of only
+secondary rank, while his brothers were alive, by God's permission,
+undertook the government of the whole kingdom, welcomed
+by all the people. Indeed, if he had cared to, he might have done
+so earlier, even while his brother was still alive;<a name="FNanchor_257" id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> for in wisdom
+<span class="sidebar">Alfred becomes
+king
+(871)</span>
+and other qualities he excelled all of his brothers,
+and, moreover, he was courageous and victorious
+in all his wars. He became king almost against
+his will, for he did not think that he could alone withstand the
+numbers and the fierceness of the pagans, though even during
+the lifetime of his brothers he had carried burdens enough for
+many men. And when he had ruled one month, with a small
+band of followers and on very unequal terms, he fought a battle
+with the entire army of the pagans. This was at a hill called
+Wilton, on the south bank of the River Wily, from which river
+the whole of that district is named.<a name="FNanchor_258" id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> And after a long and fierce
+engagement the pagans, seeing the danger they were in, and
+no longer able to meet the attacks of their enemies, turned their
+backs and fled. But, oh, shame to say, they deceived the English,
+who pursued them too boldly, and, turning swiftly about, gained
+the victory. Let no one be surprised to learn that the Christians
+had only a small number of men, for the Saxons had been
+worn out by eight battles with the pagans in one year. In
+these they had slain one king, nine dukes, and innumerable
+troops of soldiers. There had also been numberless skirmishes,
+<span class="sidebar">The struggle
+with the Danes</span>
+both by day and by night, in which Alfred, with
+his ministers and chieftains and their men, were
+engaged without rest or relief against the pagans. How many
+thousands of pagans fell in these skirmishes God only knows,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span>
+over and above the numbers slain in the eight battles before mentioned.
+In the same year the Saxons made peace with the invaders,
+on condition that they should take their departure, and
+they did so.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 877 the pagans, on the approach of autumn,
+partly settled in Exeter<a name="FNanchor_259" id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> and partly marched for plunder into
+Mercia.<a name="FNanchor_260" id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> The number of that disorderly horde increased every
+day, so that, if thirty thousand of them were slain in one battle,
+others took their places to double the number. Then King Alfred
+commanded boats and galleys, i.e., long ships, to be built
+throughout the kingdom, in order to offer battle by sea to
+the enemy as they were coming.<a name="FNanchor_261" id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> On board these he placed
+<span class="sidebar">Alfred's plan
+to meet the
+pagans on the
+sea</span>
+
+sailors, whom he commanded to keep watch on
+the seas. Meanwhile he went himself to Exeter,
+where the pagans were wintering and, having
+shut them up within the walls, laid siege to the town. He also
+gave orders to his sailors to prevent the enemy from obtaining
+any supplies by sea. In a short time the sailors were encountered
+by a fleet of a hundred and twenty ships full of armed soldiers,
+who were on their way to the relief of their countrymen. As soon
+as the king's men knew that the ships were manned by pagan
+soldiers they leaped to their arms and bravely attacked those
+barbaric tribes. The pagans, who had now for almost a month
+been tossed and almost wrecked among the waves of the sea,
+fought vainly against them. Their bands were thrown into
+confusion in a very short time, and all were sunk and drowned
+in the sea, at a place called Swanwich.<a name="FNanchor_262" id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 878, which was the thirtieth year of King Alfred's life, the
+pagan army left Exeter and went to Chippenham. This latter
+place was a royal residence situated in the west of Wiltshire, on
+the eastern bank of the river which the Britons called the Avon.
+They spent the winter there and drove many of the inhabitants
+of the surrounding country beyond the sea by the force of their
+arms, and by the want of the necessities of life. They reduced
+almost entirely to subjection all the people of that country.</p>
+
+<p>The same year, after Easter, King Alfred, with a few followers,
+made for himself a stronghold in a place called Athelney,<a name="FNanchor_263" id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> and
+<span class="sidebar">Alfred in
+refuge at
+Athelney</span>
+from thence sallied, with his companions and the
+nobles of Somersetshire, to make frequent assaults
+upon the pagans. Also, in the seventh week
+after Easter, he rode to Egbert's stone, which is in the eastern
+part of the wood that is called Selwood.<a name="FNanchor_264" id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> Here he was met
+by all the folk of Somersetshire and Wiltshire and Hampshire,
+who had not fled beyond the sea for fear of the pagans; and
+when they saw the king alive after such great tribulation they
+received him, as he deserved, with shouts of joy, and encamped
+there for one night. At dawn on the following day the king broke
+camp and went to Okely, where he encamped for one night.
+The next morning he moved to Ethandune<a name="FNanchor_265" id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> and there fought
+bravely and persistently against the whole army of the pagans.
+<span class="sidebar">The battle of
+Ethandune and
+the establishment
+of peace
+(878)</span>
+By the help of God he defeated them with great
+slaughter and pursued them flying to their fortification.
+He at once slew all the men and carried
+off all the booty that he could find outside the
+fortress, which he immediately laid siege to with his entire army.
+And when he had been there fourteen days the pagans, driven
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>
+by famine, cold, fear, and finally by despair, asked for peace on
+the condition that they should give the king as many hostages
+as he should ask, but should receive none from him in return.
+Never before had they made a treaty with any one on such terms.
+The king, hearing this, took pity upon them and received such
+hostages as he chose. Then the pagans swore that they would
+immediately leave the kingdom, and their king, Guthrum,
+promised to embrace Christianity and receive baptism at Alfred's
+hands. All of these pledges he and his men fulfilled as they had
+promised.<a name="FNanchor_266" id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a></p>
+
+<h4>31. Alfred's Interest in Education</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>As an epoch of literary and educational advancement the reign of
+Alfred in England (871-901) was in many respects like that of Charlemagne
+among the Franks (768-814). Like Charlemagne, Alfred grew
+up with very slight education, at least of a literary sort; but both sovereigns
+were strongly dissatisfied with their ignorance, and both made
+earnest efforts to overcome their own defects and at the same time
+to raise the standard of intelligence among their people at large. When
+one considers how crowded were the reigns of both with wars and the
+pressing business of administration, such devotion to the interests of
+learning appears the more deserving of praise.</p>
+
+<p>In the first passage below, taken from Asser's life of Alfred, the
+anxiety of the king for the promotion of his own education and that
+of his children is clearly and strongly stated. We find him following
+Charlemagne's plan of bringing scholars from foreign countries. He
+brought them, too, from parts of Britain not under his direct control,
+and used them at the court, or in bishoprics, to perform the work of
+instruction. Curiously enough, whereas Charlemagne had found the
+chief of his Palace School, Alcuin, in England, Alfred was glad to
+secure the services of two men (Grimbald and John) who had made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>
+their reputations in monasteries situated within the bounds of the old
+Frankish empire.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from some native songs and epic poems, all the literature
+known to the Saxon people was in Latin, and but few persons in the
+kingdom knew Latin well enough to read it. The king himself did not,
+until about 887. It was supposed, of course, that the clergy were
+able to use the Latin Bible and the Latin ritual of the Church, but
+when Alfred came to investigate he found that even these men were
+often pretty nearly as ignorant as the people they were charged to
+instruct. What the king did, then, was to urge more study on the part
+of the clergy, under the direction of such men as Plegmund, Asser, Grimbald,
+John, and Werfrith. The people in general could not be expected
+to master a foreign language; hence, in order that they might
+not be shut off entirely from the first-hand use of books, Alfred undertook
+the translation of certain standard works from the Latin into the
+Saxon. Those thus translated were Boethius's <i>Consolations of Philosophy</i>,
+Orosius's <i>Universal History of the World</i>, Bede's <i>Ecclesiastical
+History of England</i>, and Pope Gregory the Great's <i>Pastoral Rule</i>. The
+second passage given below is Alfred's preface to his Saxon edition of
+the last-named book, taking the form of a letter to the scholarly
+Bishop Werfrith of Worcester. The <i>Pastoral Rule</i> [see <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>] was
+written by Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) as a body of instructions
+in doctrine and conduct for the clergy. Alfred's preface, as a
+picture of the ruin wrought by the long series of Danish wars, is of
+the utmost importance in the study of ninth and tenth century England,
+as well as a most interesting revelation of the character of the
+great king.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Asser, <i>De rebus gestis Ælfredi Magni</i>, Chaps. 75-78. Adapted
+from translation by J. A. Giles in <i>Six Old English Chronicles</i>
+(London, 1866), pp. 68-70.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) King Alfred's West-Saxon Version of Pope Gregory's <i>Pastoral
+Rule</i>. Edited by Henry Sweet in the Publications of the
+Early English Text Society (London, 1871), p. 2.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>Ethelwerd, the youngest [of Alfred's children],<a name="FNanchor_267" id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> by the divine
+counsels and the admirable prudence of the king, was consigned
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span>
+to the schools of learning, where, with the children of almost all
+the nobility of the country, and many also who were not noble,
+he prospered under the diligent care of his teachers. Books in
+both languages, namely, Latin and Saxon, were read in the school.<a name="FNanchor_268" id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a>
+<span class="sidebar">The education
+of Alfred's
+children</span>
+They also learned to write, so that before they
+were of an age to practice manly arts, namely,
+hunting and such pursuits as befit noblemen,
+they became studious and clever in the liberal arts. Edward<a name="FNanchor_269" id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a>
+and Ælfthryth<a name="FNanchor_270" id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> were reared in the king's court and received
+great attention from their attendants and nurses; nay, they continue
+to this day with the love of all about them, and showing
+friendliness, and even gentleness, towards all, both natives and
+foreigners, and in complete subjection to their father. Nor,
+among their other studies which pertain to this life and are fit
+for noble youths, are they suffered to pass their time idly and
+unprofitably without learning the liberal arts; for they have
+carefully learned the Psalms and Saxon books, especially the
+Saxon poems, and are continually in the habit of making use of
+books.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the king, during the frequent wars and other
+hindrances of this present life, the invasions of the pagans, and
+<span class="sidebar">The varied activities
+of the
+king</span>
+his own infirmities of body, continued to carry
+on the government, and to practice hunting in
+all its branches; to teach his workers in gold and
+artificers of all kinds, his falconers, hawkers and dog-keepers; to
+build houses, majestic and splendid, beyond all the precedents of
+his ancestors, by his new mechanical inventions; to recite the
+Saxon books, and especially to learn by heart the Saxon poems,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span>
+and to make others learn them.<a name="FNanchor_271" id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> And he alone never desisted
+from studying most diligently to the best of his ability. He attended
+the Mass and other daily services of religion. He was
+<span class="sidebar">His devout
+character</span>
+diligent in psalm-singing and prayer, at the hours
+both of the day and of the night. He also went
+to the churches, as we have already said, in the night-time to
+pray, secretly and unknown to his courtiers. He bestowed alms
+and gifts on both natives and foreigners of all countries. He was
+affable and pleasant to all, and curiously eager to investigate
+things unknown. Many Franks, Frisians, Gauls, pagans, Britons,
+Scots, and Armoricans,<a name="FNanchor_272" id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> noble and low-born, came voluntarily
+to his domain; and all of them, according to their nation and
+deserving, were ruled, loved, honored and enriched with money
+and power.<a name="FNanchor_273" id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> Moreover, the king was in the habit of hearing the
+divine Scriptures read by his own countrymen, or, if by any
+chance it so happened, in company with foreigners, and he attended
+to it with care and solicitude. His bishops, too, and all
+ecclesiastics, his earls and nobles, ministers<a name="FNanchor_274" id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> and friends, were
+loved by him with wonderful affection, and their sons, who were
+reared in the royal household, were no less dear to him than his
+own. He had them instructed in all kinds of good morals, and,
+among other things, never ceased to teach them letters night and
+day.</p>
+
+<p>But, as if he had no consolation in all these things, and though
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span>
+he suffered no other annoyance, either from within or without,
+he was harassed by daily and nightly affliction, so that he
+<span class="sidebar">Regret at his
+lack of education</span>
+complained to God and to all who were admitted
+to his intimate fondness, that Almighty God had
+made him ignorant of divine wisdom, and of
+the liberal arts&mdash;in this emulating the pious, the wise, and
+wealthy Solomon, king of the Hebrews, who at first, despising all
+present glory and riches, asked wisdom of God and found both,
+namely, wisdom and worldly glory; as it is written: "Seek first
+the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things
+shall be added unto you." But God, who is always the observer
+of the thoughts of the mind within and the author of all good
+intentions, and a most plentiful helper that good desires may be
+formed (for He would not prompt a man to good intentions, unless
+He also amply supplied that which the man justly and properly
+wishes to have) stimulated the king's mind within: as it is written,
+"I will hearken what the Lord God will say concerning me."
+He would avail himself of every opportunity to procure co-workers
+in his good designs, to aid him in his strivings after wisdom that
+he might attain to what he aimed at. And, like a prudent bee,
+which, going forth in summer with the early morning from its cell,
+steers its rapid flight through the uncertain tracks of ether and
+descends on the manifold and varied flowers of grasses, herbs,
+and shrubs, discovering that which pleases most, that it may
+bear it home, so did he direct his eyes afar and seek without
+that which he had not within, that is, in his own kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_275" id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p>
+
+<p>But God at that time, as some relief to the king's anxiety,
+yielding to his complaint, sent certain lights to
+<span class="sidebar">Learned men
+from Mercia
+brought to the
+English court</span>
+illuminate him, namely, Werfrith, bishop of the
+church of Worcester, a man well versed in divine
+Scripture, who, by the king's command, first turned the books
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span>
+of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory and Peter, his disciple, from
+Latin into Saxon, and sometimes putting sense for sense, interpreted
+them with clearness and elegance. After him was Plegmund,<a name="FNanchor_276" id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a>
+a Mercian by birth, archbishop of the church of Canterbury,
+a venerable man, and endowed with wisdom; Ethelstan
+also,<a name="FNanchor_277" id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> and Werwulf,<a name="FNanchor_278" id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> his priests and chaplains,<a name="FNanchor_279" id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> Mercians by birth
+and learned. These four had been invited from Mercia by King
+Alfred, who exalted them with many honors and powers in the
+kingdom of the West Saxons, besides the privileges which Archbishop
+Plegmund and Bishop Werfrith enjoyed in Mercia. By
+their teaching and wisdom the king's desires increased unceasingly,
+and were gratified. Night and day, whenever he had
+leisure, he commanded such men as these to read books to him,
+for he never suffered himself to be without one of them; wherefore
+he possessed a knowledge of every book, though of himself he
+could not yet understand anything of books, for he had not yet
+learned to read anything.<a name="FNanchor_280" id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the king's commendable desire could not be gratified even
+<span class="sidebar">Grimbald and
+John brought
+from the continent</span>
+in this; wherefore he sent messengers beyond the
+sea to Gaul, to procure teachers, and he invited
+from thence Grimbald,<a name="FNanchor_281" id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> priest and monk, a venerable
+man and good singer, adorned with every kind of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>
+ecclesiastical training and good morals, and most learned in
+holy Scripture. He also obtained from thence John,<a name="FNanchor_282" id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> also priest
+and monk, a man of most energetic talents, and learned in all
+kinds of literary science, and skilled in many other arts. By
+the teaching of these men the king's mind was much enlarged,
+and he enriched and honored them with much influence.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>King Alfred greets Bishop Werfrith with loving words and with
+friendship.</p>
+
+<p>I let it be known to thee that it has very often come into my
+mind what wise men there formerly were throughout England,
+<span class="sidebar">Alfred writes
+to Bishop Werfrith
+on the
+state of learning
+in England</span>
+both within the Church and without it; also what
+happy times there were then and how the kings
+who had power over the nation in those days
+obeyed God and His ministers; how they cherished
+peace, morality, and order at home, and at the same time enlarged
+their territory abroad; and how they prospered both in
+war and in wisdom. Often have I thought, also, of the sacred
+orders, how zealous they were both in teaching and learning,
+and in all the services they owed to God; and how foreigners
+came to this land in search of wisdom and instruction, which
+things we should now have to get from abroad if we were to have
+them at all.</p>
+
+<p>So general became the decay of learning in England that there
+were very few on this side of the Humber<a name="FNanchor_283" id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> who could understand
+the rituals<a name="FNanchor_284" id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> in English, or translate a letter from Latin into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span>
+English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the
+Humber who could do these things. There were so few, in fact,
+that I cannot remember a single person south of the Thames
+when I came to the throne. Thanks be to Almighty God that we
+now have some teachers among us. And therefore I enjoin thee
+to free thyself, as I believe thou art ready to do, from worldly
+matters, that thou mayst apply the wisdom which God has given
+thee wherever thou canst. Consider what punishments would
+come upon us if we neither loved wisdom ourselves nor allowed
+other men to obtain it. We should then care for the name only
+of Christian, and have regard for very few of the Christian
+virtues.</p>
+
+<p>When I thought of all this I remembered also how I saw the
+country before it had been all ravaged and burned; how the
+churches throughout the whole of England stood filled with
+treasures and books. There was also a great multitude of God's
+servants, but they had very little knowledge of books, for they
+could not understand anything in them because they were not
+written in their own language.<a name="FNanchor_285" id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> When I remembered all this I
+<span class="sidebar">Learning in
+the days before
+the Danish
+invasions</span>
+wondered extremely that the good and wise men
+who were formerly all over England and had
+learned perfectly all the books, did not wish to
+translate them into their own language. But again I soon
+answered myself and said: "Their own desire for learning was
+so great that they did not suppose that men would ever become
+so indifferent and that learning would ever so decay; and they
+wished, moreover, that wisdom in this land might increase with
+our knowledge of languages." Then I remembered how the
+law was first known in Hebrew and when the Greeks had learned
+it how they translated the whole of it into their own tongue,<a name="FNanchor_286" id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span>
+all other books besides. And again the Romans, when they had
+learned it, translated the whole of it into their own language.<a name="FNanchor_287" id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a>
+And also all other Christian nations translated a part of it into
+their languages.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it seems better to me, if you agree, for us also to
+translate some of the books which are most needful for all men
+<span class="sidebar">Plan to translate
+Latin
+books into
+English</span>
+to know into the language which we can all
+understand. It shall be your duty to see to it,
+as can easily be done if we have tranquility
+enough,<a name="FNanchor_288" id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> that all the free-born youth now in England, who are
+rich enough to be able to devote themselves to it, be set to learn
+as long as they are not fit for any other occupation, until they are
+well able to read English writing. And let those afterwards be
+taught more in the Latin language who are to continue learning
+and be promoted to a higher rank.</p>
+
+<p>When I remembered how the knowledge of Latin had decayed
+through England, and yet that many could read English writing,
+I began, among other various and manifold troubles of this
+kingdom, to translate into English the book which is called in
+<span class="sidebar">The translation
+of Pope
+Gregory's Pastoral
+Care</span>
+Latin <i>Pastoralis</i>, and in English <i>The Shepherd's
+Book</i>, sometimes word for word, and sometimes
+according to the sense, as I had learned it from
+Plegmund, my archbishop, and Asser, my bishop, and Grimbald,
+my mass-priest, and John, my mass-priest. And when I had
+learned it, as I could best understand it and most clearly interpret
+it, I translated it into English.</p>
+
+<p>I will send a copy of this book to every bishopric in my kingdom,
+and on each copy there shall be a clasp worth fifty mancuses.<a name="FNanchor_289" id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a>
+And I command in God's name that no man take the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>
+clasp from the book, or the book from the minster.<a name="FNanchor_290" id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> It is uncertain
+how long there may be such learned bishops as, thanks be
+to God, there now are almost everywhere; therefore, I wish these
+copies always to remain in their places, unless the bishop desires
+to take them with him, or they be loaned out anywhere, or any
+one wishes to make a copy of them.</p>
+
+<h4>32. Alfred's Laws</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Here are a few characteristic laws included by Alfred in the code
+which he drew up on the basis of old customs and the laws of some of
+the earlier Saxon kings. On the nature of the law of the early Germanic
+peoples, see <a href="#Page_59">p. 59</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Benjamin Thorpe, <i>The Ancient Laws and Institutes of
+England</i> (London, 1840), pp. 20-44 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If any one smite his neighbor with a stone, or with his fist, and
+he nevertheless can go out with a staff, let him get him a physician
+and do his work as long as he himself cannot.</p>
+
+<p>If an ox gore a man or a woman, so that they die, let it be
+stoned, and let not its flesh be eaten. The owner shall not be
+liable if the ox were wont to push with its horns for two or three
+days before, and he knew it not; but if he knew it, and would not
+shut it in, and it then shall have slain a man or a woman, let it
+be stoned; and let the master be slain, or the person killed be
+paid for, as the "witan"<a name="FNanchor_291" id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> shall decree to be right.</p>
+
+<p>Injure ye not the widows and the stepchildren, nor hurt them
+anywhere; for if ye do otherwise they will cry unto me and I will
+hear them, and I will slay you with my sword; and I will cause
+that your own wives shall be widows, and your children shall be
+stepchildren.</p>
+
+<p>If a man strike out another's eye, let him pay sixty shillings,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>
+and six shillings, and six pennies, and a third part of a penny, as
+'bot.'<a name="FNanchor_292" id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> If it remain in the head, and he cannot see anything
+with it, let one-third of the 'bot' be remitted.</p>
+
+<p>If a man strike out another's tooth in the front of his head,
+<span class="sidebar">Penalties for
+various crimes
+of violence</span>
+let him make 'bot' for it with eight shillings; if
+it be the canine tooth, let four shillings be paid
+as 'bot.' A man's grinder is worth fifteen shillings.</p>
+
+<p>If the shooting finger be struck off, the 'bot' is fifteen shillings;
+for its nail it is four shillings.</p>
+
+<p>If a man maim another's hand outwardly, let twenty shillings
+be paid him as 'bot,' if he can be healed; if it half fly off, then
+shall forty shillings be paid as 'bot.'</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XII.<br />
+THE ORDEAL</h3>
+
+<h4>33. Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Among the early Germans the settling of disputes and the testing
+of the guilt or innocence of an accused person were generally accomplished
+through the employment of one or both of two very interesting
+judicial practices&mdash;compurgation and the ordeal. According to the
+German conception of justice, when one person was accused of wrongdoing
+by another and chose to defend himself, he was not under obligation
+to prove directly that he did not commit the alleged misdeed;
+rather it was his business to produce, if he could, a sufficient number
+of persons who would take oath that they believed the accused to
+be a trustworthy man and that he was telling the truth when he
+denied that he was guilty. The persons brought forward to take this
+oath were known as compurgators, or "co-swearers," and the legal
+act thus performed was called compurgation. The number of compurgators
+required to free a man was usually from seven to twelve,
+though it varied greatly among different tribes and according to the
+rank of the parties involved. Naturally they were likely to be relatives
+or friends of the accused man, though it was not essential that they
+be such. It was in no wise expected that they be able to give facts or
+evidence regarding the case; in other words, they were not to serve at
+all as witnesses, such as are called in our courts to-day.</p>
+
+<p>If the accused succeeded in producing the required number of compurgators,
+and they took the oath in a satisfactory manner, the defendant
+was usually declared to be innocent and the case was dropped.
+If, however, the compurgators were not forthcoming, or there appeared
+some irregularity in their part of the procedure, resort would
+ordinarily be had to the ordeal. The ordeal was essentially an appeal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>
+to the gods for decision between two contending parties. It was based
+on the belief that the gods would not permit an innocent person to
+suffer by reason of an unjust accusation and that when the opportunity
+was offered under certain prescribed conditions the divine power would
+indicate who was in the right and who in the wrong. The ordeal, having
+its origin far back in the times when the Germans were pagans
+and before their settlements in the Roman Empire, was retained in
+common usage after the Christianizing and civilizing of the barbarian
+tribes. The administering of it simply passed from the old pagan
+priests to the Christian clergy, and the appeals were directed to the
+Christian's God instead of to Woden and Thor. Under Christian influence,
+the wager of battle (or personal combat to settle judicial questions),
+which had been exceedingly common, was discouraged as much
+as possible, and certain new modes of appeal to divine authority were
+introduced. Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the chief forms of
+the ordeal were: (1) the ordeal by walking through fire; (2) the ordeal
+by hot iron, in which the accused either carried a piece of hot iron a
+certain distance in his hands or walked barefoot over pieces of the
+same material; (3) the ordeal by hot water, in which the accused was
+required to plunge his bared arm into boiling water and bring forth a
+stone or other object from the bottom; (4) the ordeal by cold water,
+in which the accused was thrown, bound hand and foot, into a pond or
+stream, to sink if he were innocent, to float if he were guilty; (5) the
+ordeal of the cross, in which the accuser and accused stood with arms
+outstretched in the form of a cross until one of them could endure the
+strain of the unnatural attitude no longer; (6) the ordeal of the sacrament,
+in which the accused partook of the sacrament, the idea being
+that divine vengeance would certainly fall upon him in so doing if he
+were guilty; (7) the ordeal of the bread and cheese, in which the accused,
+made to swallow morsels of bread and cheese, was expected to
+choke if he were guilty; and (8) the judicial combat, which was generally
+reserved for freemen, and which, despite the opposition of the
+Church, did not die out until the end of the mediæval period.</p>
+
+<p>The three passages quoted below illustrate, respectively, the ordeal
+by hot water, by cold water, and by fire. The first (a) is a story told
+by the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours [see <a href="#Page_46">p. 46</a>]. The second (b)
+is an explanation of the cold water ordeal written by Hincmar, an archbishop
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span>
+of Rheims in the ninth century. The third (c) is an account,
+by Raymond of Agiles, of how Peter Bartholomew was put to the
+test by the ordeal of fire. This incident occurred at Antioch during
+the first crusade. Peter Bartholomew had just discovered a lance
+which he claimed was the one thrust into the side of Christ at the
+crucifixion and, some of the crusaders being skeptical as to the genuineness
+of the relic, the discoverer was submitted to the ordeal by fire to
+test the matter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, <i>Libri Miraculorum</i> [Gregory
+of Tours, "Books of Miracles"], Chap. 80. Text in <i>Monumenta
+Germaniæ Historica, Scriptores Merovingicarum</i>, Vol. I., p. 542.
+Translated by Arthur C. Howland in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations
+and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 4, pp. 10-11.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Hincmari Archiepiscopi Rhemensis, <i>De divortio Lotharii regis
+et Tetbergæ reginæ</i> [Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, "The Divorce
+of King Lothair and Queen Teutberga"], Chap. 6. Text in
+Migne, <i>Patroligiæ Cursus Completus</i>, Second Series, Vol. CXXV.,
+cols. 668-669. Translated by Arthur C. Howland, <i>ibid</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(c) Raimundus de Agiles, <i>Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem</i>
+[Raimond of Agiles, "History of the Franks who captured
+Jerusalem"], Chap. 18. Text in Migne, <i>Patrologiæ Cursus Completus</i>,
+Second Series, Vol. CLV., cols. 619-621.</p>
+
+<p>An Arian presbyter, disputing with a deacon of our religion,
+made venomous assertions against the Son of God and the Holy
+Ghost, as is the habit of that sect.<a name="FNanchor_293" id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> But when the deacon had
+discoursed a long time concerning the reasonableness of our faith,
+and the heretic, blinded by the fog of unbelief, continued to reject
+the truth (according as it is written, "Wisdom shall not enter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>
+the mind of the wicked") the former said: "Why weary ourselves
+<span class="sidebar">A challenge to
+the ordeal by
+hot water</span>
+with long discussions? Let acts demonstrate the truth.
+Let a kettle be heated over the fire and some one's
+ring be thrown into the boiling water. Let him
+who shall take it from the heated liquid be approved
+as a follower of the truth, and afterwards let the other
+party be converted to the knowledge of this truth. And do thou
+understand, O heretic, that this our party will fulfill the conditions
+with the aid of the Holy Ghost; thou shalt confess that there
+is no inequality, no dissimilarity, in the Holy Trinity." The
+heretic consented to the proposition and they separated, after
+appointing the next morning for the trial. But the fervor of
+faith in which the deacon had first made this suggestion began
+to cool through the instigation of the enemy [i.e., Satan]. Rising
+with the dawn, he bathed his arm in oil and smeared it with
+ointment. But nevertheless he made the round of the sacred
+places and called in prayer on the Lord. What more shall I say?
+About the third hour they met in the market place. The people
+came together to see the show. A fire was lighted, the kettle was
+<span class="sidebar">Preparations
+for the ordeal</span>
+
+placed upon it, and when it grew very hot the
+ring was thrown into the boiling water. The
+deacon invited the heretic to take it out of the water first. But
+he promptly refused, saying, "Thou who didst propose this trial
+art the one to take it out." The deacon, all of a tremble, bared
+his arm. And when the heretic presbyter saw it besmeared with
+ointment he cried out: "With magic arts thou hast thought to
+protect thyself, that thou hast made use of these salves, but what
+thou hast done will not avail." While they were thus quarreling,
+there came up a deacon from Ravenna named Iacinthus, who
+inquired what the trouble was about. When he learned the truth,
+he drew his arm out from under his robe at once and plunged his
+right hand into the kettle. Now the ring that had been thrown
+in was a little thing and very light, so that it was tossed about
+by the water as chaff would be blown about by the wind; and,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>
+searching for it a long time, he found it after about an hour.
+Meanwhile the flame beneath the kettle blazed up mightily, so
+that the greater heat might make it difficult for the ring to be
+followed by the hand; but the deacon extracted it at length and
+<span class="sidebar">Result of the
+ordeal</span>
+suffered no harm, protesting rather that at the
+bottom the kettle was cold while at the top it was
+just pleasantly warm. When the heretic beheld this, he was
+greatly confused and audaciously thrust his hand into the kettle
+saying, "My faith will aid me." As soon as his hand had been
+thrust in, all the flesh was boiled off the bones clear up to the
+elbow. And so the dispute ended.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>Now the one about to be examined is bound by a rope and cast
+into the water because, as it is written, "each one shall be holden
+with the cords of his iniquity." And it is manifest that he is bound
+for two reasons, namely, that he may not be able to practice any
+fraud in connection with the judgment, and that he may be drawn
+out at the right time if the water should receive him as innocent,
+so that he perish not. For as we read that Lazarus, who had been
+dead four days (by whom is signified each one buried under a
+load of crimes), was buried wrapped in bandages and, bound by
+the same bands, came forth from the sepulchre at the word of
+<span class="sidebar">How the ordeal
+of cold
+water is to be
+conducted</span>
+the Lord and was loosed by the disciples at His
+command; so he who is to be examined by this
+judgment is cast into the water bound, and is
+drawn forth again bound, and is either immediately set free by
+the decree of the judges, being purged, or remains bound until
+the time of his purgation and is then examined by the court....
+And in this ordeal of cold water whoever, after the invocation
+of God, who is the Truth, seeks to hide the truth by a
+lie, cannot be submerged in the waters above which the voice of
+the Lord God has thundered; for the pure nature of the water
+recognizes as impure, and therefore rejects as inconsistent with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>
+itself, such human nature as has once been regenerated by the
+waters of baptism and is again infected by falsehood.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(c)</p>
+
+<p>All these things were pleasing to us and, having enjoined on
+him a fast, we declared that a fire should be prepared upon the
+day on which the Lord was beaten with stripes and put upon
+the cross for our salvation. And the fourth day thereafter was
+the day before the Sabbath. So when the appointed day came
+round, a fire was prepared after the noon hour. The leaders and
+the people to the number of 60,000 came together. The priests
+<span class="sidebar">Preparations
+for the ordeal
+by fire</span>
+were there also with bare feet, clothed in ecclesiastical
+garments. The fire was made of dry
+olive branches, covering a space thirteen feet
+long; and there were two piles, with a space about a foot wide
+between them. The height of these piles was four feet. Now
+when the fire had been kindled so that it burned fiercely, I, Raimond,
+in the presence of the whole multitude, said: "If Omnipotent
+God has spoken to this man face to face, and the blessed Andrew
+has shown him our Lord's lance while he was keeping his
+vigil,<a name="FNanchor_294" id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> let him go through the fire unharmed. But if it is false,
+let him be burned, together with the lance, which he is to carry
+in his hand." And all responded on bended knees, "Amen."</p>
+
+<p>The fire was growing so hot that the flames shot up thirty
+cubits high into the air and scarcely any one dared approach
+<span class="sidebar">Peter Bartholomew
+passes
+through the
+flames</span>
+it. Then Peter Bartholomew, clothed only in
+his tunic and kneeling before the bishop of Albar,<a name="FNanchor_295" id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a>
+called God to witness that "he had seen Him
+face to face on the cross, and that he had heard from Him those
+things above written."... Then, when the bishop had
+placed the lance in his hand, he knelt and made the sign of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span>
+the cross and entered the fire with the lance, firm and unterrified.
+For an instant's time he paused in the midst of the flames,
+and then by the grace of God passed through.... But
+when Peter emerged from the fire so that neither his tunic was
+burned nor even the thin cloth with which the lance was wrapped
+up had shown any sign of damage, the whole people received him,
+after he had made over them the sign of the cross with the lance
+in his hand and had cried, "God help us!" All the people, I
+say, threw themselves upon him and dragged him to the ground
+and trampled on him, each one wishing to touch him, or to get a
+piece of his garment, and each thinking him near some one else.
+And so he received three or four wounds in the legs where the
+flesh was torn away, his back was injured, and his sides bruised.
+Peter had died on the spot, as we believe, had not Raimond Pelet,
+a brave and noble soldier, broken through the wild crowd with a
+band of friends and rescued him at the peril of their lives....
+After this, Peter died in peace at the hour appointed to him by
+God, and journeyed to the Lord; and he was buried in the place
+where he had carried the lance of the Lord through the fire.<a name="FNanchor_296" id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIII.<br />
+THE FEUDAL SYSTEM</h3>
+
+<h4>34. Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The history of the feudal system in Europe makes up a very large
+part of the history of the Middle Ages, particularly of the period between
+the ninth and the fourteenth centuries. This is true because
+feudalism, in one way or another, touched almost every phase of the
+life of western Europe during this long era. More than anything else,
+it molded the conditions of government, the character and course of
+war, the administration of justice, the tenure of land, the manner of
+everyday life, and even the relations of the Church with sovereigns
+and people. "Coming into existence," says a French historian, "in
+the obscure period that followed the dissolution of the Carolingian
+empire, the feudal régime developed slowly, without the intervention
+of a government, without the aid of a written law, without any general
+understanding among individuals; rather only by a gradual transformation
+of customs, which took place sooner or later, but in about the same
+way, in France, Italy, Christian Spain, and Germany. Then, toward
+the end of the eleventh century, it was transplanted into England and
+into southern Italy, in the twelfth and thirteenth into the Latin states
+of the East, and beginning with the fourteenth into the Scandinavian
+countries. This régime, established thus not according to a general
+plan but by a sort of natural growth, never had forms and usages that
+were everywhere the same. It is impossible to gather it up into a
+perfectly exact picture, which would not be in contradiction to several
+cases."<a name="FNanchor_297" id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a></p>
+
+<p>The country in which feudalism reached its fullest perfection was
+France and most of the passages here given to illustrate the subject
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>
+have to do with French life and institutions. In France, speaking generally,
+feudalism took shape during the ninth and tenth centuries,
+developed steadily until the thirteenth, and then slowly declined,
+leaving influences on society which have not yet all disappeared. When
+the system was complete&mdash;say by the tenth century&mdash;we can see in it
+three essential elements which may be described as the personal, the
+territorial, and the governmental. The personal element, in brief, was
+the relation between lord and vassal under which the former gave
+protection in return for the latter's fidelity. The territorial element
+was the benefice, or fief, granted to the vassal by the lord to be used
+on certain conditions by the former while the title to it remained with
+the latter. The governmental element was the rights of jurisdiction
+over his fief usually given by a lord to his vassal, especially if the fief
+were an important one. At one time it was customary to trace back
+all these features of the feudal system to the institutions of Rome.
+Later it became almost as customary to trace them to the institutions
+of the early Germans. But recent scholarship shows that it is quite
+unnecessary, in fact very misleading, to attempt to ascribe them wholly
+to either Roman or German sources, or even to both together. All that
+we can say is that in the centuries preceding the ninth these elements
+all existed in the society of western Europe and that, while something
+very like them ran far back into old Roman and German times, they
+existed in sixth and seventh century Europe primarily because conditions
+were then such as to <i>demand</i> their existence. Short extracts to
+illustrate the most important of these old feudal elements are given
+below. It should constantly be borne in mind that no one of these
+things&mdash;whether vassalage, the benefice, or the immunity&mdash;was in itself
+feudalism. Most of them could, and did, exist separately, and it was
+only when they were united, as commonly became the case in the ninth
+and tenth centuries, that the word feudalism can properly be brought
+into use, and then only as applied to the complete product.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(1) <span class="smcap">Vassalage</span></p>
+
+<p>For the personal element in feudalism it is possible to find two prototypes,
+one Roman and the other German. The first was the institution
+of the later Empire known as the <i>patrocinium</i>&mdash;the relation established
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span>
+between a powerful man (patron) and a weak one (client) when the
+latter pledged himself to perform certain services for the former in
+return for protection. The second was the German <i>comitatus</i>&mdash;a band
+of young warriors who lived with a prince or noble and went on campaigns
+under his leadership. The <i>patrocinium</i> doubtless survived in
+Roman Gaul long after the time of the Frankish invasion, but it is not
+likely that the <i>comitatus</i> ever played much part in that country. It
+seems that, with the exception of the king, the Frankish men of influence
+did not have bands of personal followers after the settlement
+on Roman soil. But, wholly aside from earlier practices, the conditions
+which the conquest, and the later struggles of the rival kings,
+brought about made it still necessary for many men who could not
+protect themselves or their property to seek the favor of some one who
+was strong enough to give them aid. The name which came to be
+applied to the act of establishing this personal relation was <i>commendation</i>.
+The man who promised the protection was the lord, and the man
+who pledged himself to serve the lord and be faithful to him was the
+<i>homo</i>, after the eighth century known as the vassal (<i>vassus</i>). In the
+eighth century, when the power of the Merovingian kings was ebbing
+away and the people were left to look out for themselves, large numbers
+entered into the vassal relation; and in the ninth century, when
+Carolingian power was likewise running low and the Northmen, Hungarians,
+and Saracens were ravaging the country, scarcely a free man
+was left who did not secure for himself the protection of a lord. The
+relation of vassalage was first recognized as legal in the capitularies of
+Charlemagne. Here is a Frankish formula of commendation dating
+from the seventh century&mdash;practically a blank application in which the
+names of the prospective lord and vassal could be inserted as required.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Eugene de Rozière, <i>Recueil Général des Formules usitées dans l'Empire
+des Francs du V<sup>e</sup> au X<sup>e</sup> siècle</i> ["General Collection of Formulae
+employed in the Frankish Empire from the Fifth to the Tenth
+Century"], Vol. I., p. 69. Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in
+<i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 3-4.</p>
+
+<p>To that magnificent lord &mdash;&mdash;, I, &mdash;&mdash;. Since it is
+well known to all how little I have wherewith to feed and clothe
+myself, I have therefore petitioned your piety, and your good-will
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span>
+has decreed to me, that I should hand myself over, or commend
+myself, to your guardianship, which I have thereupon
+done; that is to say, in this way, that you should aid and succor
+me, as well with food as with clothing, according as I shall be
+able to serve you and deserve it.</p>
+
+<p>And so long as I shall live I ought to provide service and
+honor to you, compatible with my free condition;<a name="FNanchor_298" id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> and I shall
+not, during the time of my life, have the right to withdraw from
+your control or guardianship; but must remain during the days
+of my life under your power or defense. Wherefore it is proper
+that if either of us shall wish to withdraw himself from these
+agreements, he shall pay &mdash;&mdash; shillings to the other party,
+and this agreement shall remain unbroken.<a name="FNanchor_299" id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a></p>
+
+<p>(Wherefore it is fitting that they should make or confirm
+between themselves two letters drawn up in the same form on
+this matter; which they have thus done.)</p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p class="center">(2) <span class="smcap">The Benefice</span></p>
+
+<p>The benefice, or grant of land to a vassal by a lord, by the Church,
+or by the king, had its origin among the Franks in what were known
+as the <i>precaria</i> of the Church. At the time of the Frankish settlement
+in Gaul, it was quite customary for the Church to grant land to men in
+answer to <i>preces</i> ("prayers," or requests), on condition that it might
+be recalled at any time and that the temporary holder should be unable
+to enforce any claims as against the owner. For the use of such land a
+small rent in money, in produce, or in service was usually paid. This
+form of tenure among the Franks was at first restricted to church
+lands, but by the eighth century lay owners, even the king himself, had
+come to employ it. The term <i>precarium</i> dropped out of use and all such
+grants, by whomsoever made, came to be known as benefices ("benefits,"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>
+or "favors"). The ordinary vassal might or might not once have
+had land in his own name, but if he had such he was expected to give
+over the ownership of it to his lord and receive it back as a benefice to
+be used on certain prescribed conditions. In time it became common,
+too, for lords to grant benefices out of their own lands to landless vassals.
+A man could be a vassal without having a benefice, but rarely,
+at least after the eighth century, could he have a benefice without entering
+into the obligations of vassalage. Benefices were at first granted
+by the Church with the understanding that they might be recalled at
+any time; later they were granted by Church, kings, and seigniors for
+life, or for a certain term of years; and finally, in the ninth and tenth
+centuries, they came generally to be regarded as hereditary. By the
+time the hereditary principle had been established, the name "fief"
+(<i>feodum</i>, <i>feudum</i>&mdash;whence our word feudal) had supplanted the older
+term "benefice." The tendency of the personal element of vassalage and
+the territorial element of the benefice, or fief, to merge was very strong,
+and by the tenth century nearly every vassal was also a fief-holder.
+The following formulæ belong to the seventh century. The first (a) is
+for the grant of lands to a church or monastery; the second (b) for
+their return to the grantor as a <i>precarium</i>&mdash;or what was known a
+century later as a benefice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Eugène de Rozière, <i>Recueil Général des Formules</i>, Vol. I., p. 473.
+Translated by E. P. Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 6-8.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>I, &mdash;&mdash;, in the name of God. I have settled in my mind
+that I ought, for the good of my soul, to make a gift of something
+from my possessions, which I have therefore done. And this
+is what I hand over, in the district named &mdash;&mdash;, in the place
+of which the name is &mdash;&mdash;, all those possessions of mine
+which there my father left me at his death, and which, as against
+my brothers, or as against my co-heirs, the lot legitimately
+brought me in the division,<a name="FNanchor_300" id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> or those which I was able afterward
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span>
+to add to them in any way, in their whole completeness, that is
+<span class="sidebar">Description of
+property yielded
+to a church
+or monastery</span>
+to say, the courtyard with its buildings, with slaves, houses,
+lands (cultivated and uncultivated), meadows,
+woods, waters, mills, etc. These, as I have said
+before, with all the things adjacent or belonging
+to them, I hand over to the church, which was built in honor
+of Saint &mdash;&mdash;, to the monastery which is called &mdash;&mdash;,
+where the Abbot &mdash;&mdash; is acknowledged to rule regularly
+over God's flock. On these conditions: that so long as life
+remains in my body, I shall receive from you as a benefice for
+<span class="sidebar">Terms of
+the contract</span>
+usufruct the possessions above described, and the
+due payment I will make to you and your successors
+each year, that is &mdash;&mdash; [amount named]. And my son
+shall have the same possessions for the days of his life, and shall
+make the above-named payment; and if my children should
+survive me, they shall have the same possessions during the days
+of their lives and shall make the same payment; and if God shall
+give me a son from a legitimate wife, he shall have the same
+possessions for the days of his life only, after the death of whom
+the same possessions, with all their improvements, shall return
+to your hands to be held forever; and if it should be my chance
+to beget sons from a legitimate marriage, these shall hold the
+same possessions after my death, making the above-named
+payment, during the time of their lives. If not, however, after
+my death, without subterfuge of any kind, by right of your
+authority, the same possessions shall revert to you, to be retained
+forever. If any one, however (which I do not believe
+will ever occur)&mdash;if I myself, or any other person&mdash;shall wish
+to violate the firmness and validity of this grant, the order of
+truth opposing him, may his falsity in no degree succeed; and
+<span class="sidebar">Penalty for
+faithlessness</span>
+for his bold attempt may he pay to the aforesaid
+monastery double the amount which his
+ill-ordered cupidity has been prevented from abstracting; and
+moreover let him be indebted to the royal authority for &mdash;&mdash;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span>
+solidi of gold; and, nevertheless, let the present charter remain
+inviolate with all that it contains, with the witnesses placed
+below.</p>
+
+<p>Done in &mdash;&mdash;, publicly, those who are noted below
+being present, or the remaining innumerable multitude of
+people.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>In the name of God, I, Abbot &mdash;&mdash;, with our commissioned
+brethren. Since it is not unknown how you, &mdash;&mdash;,
+by the suggestion of divine exhortation, did grant to &mdash;&mdash;
+[monastery named], to the church which is known to be constructed
+in honor of Saint &mdash;&mdash;, where we by God's authority
+exercise our pastoral care, all your possessions which
+you seemed to have in the district named, in the vill [village]
+named, which your father on his death bequeathed to you there,
+or which by your own labor you were able to gain there, or
+which, as against your brother or against &mdash;&mdash;, a co-heir,
+<span class="sidebar">The property
+again described</span>
+a just division gave you, with courtyard and
+buildings, gardens and orchards, with various
+slaves, &mdash;&mdash; by name, houses, lands, meadows,
+woods (cultivated and uncultivated), or with all the dependencies
+and appurtenances belonging to it, which it would
+be extremely long to enumerate, in all their completeness; but
+<span class="sidebar">Returned to
+the original
+owner to be
+used by him</span>
+afterwards, at your request, it has seemed proper
+to us to cede to you the same possessions to be
+held for usufruct; and you will not neglect to pay
+at annual periods the due <i>census</i> [i.e., the rental] hence, that is
+&mdash;&mdash; [amount named]. And if God should give you a son by
+your legal wife, he shall have the same possessions for the days
+of his life only, and shall not presume to neglect the above payment,
+and similarly your sons which you are seen to have at
+present, shall do for the days of their lives; after the death of
+whom, all the possessions above-named shall revert to us and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span>
+our successors perpetually. Moreover, if no sons shall have
+been begotten by you, immediately after your death, without
+any harmful contention, the possessions shall revert to the rulers
+or guardians of the above-named church, forever. Nor may any
+one, either ourselves or our successors, be successful in a rash
+attempt inordinately to destroy these agreements, but just as
+the time has demanded in the present <i>precaria</i>, may that be
+sure to endure unchanged which we, with the consent of our
+brothers, have decided to confirm.</p>
+
+<p>Done in &mdash;&mdash;, in the presence of &mdash;&mdash; and of others
+whom it is not worth while to enumerate. [Seal of the same
+abbot who has ordered this <i>precaria</i> to be made.]</p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p class="center">(3) <span class="smcap">The Immunity</span></p>
+
+<p>The most important element in the governmental phase of feudalism
+was what was known as the immunity. In Roman law immunity
+meant exemption from taxes and public services and belonged especially
+to the lands owned personally by the emperors. Such exemptions
+were, however, sometimes allowed to the lands of imperial officers
+and of men in certain professions, and in later times to the lands held
+by the Church. How closely this Roman immunity was connected
+with the feudal immunity of the Middle Ages is not clear. Doubtless
+the institution survived in Gaul, especially on church lands, long after
+the Frankish conquest. It is best, however, to look upon the typical
+Frankish immunity as of essentially independent origin. From the
+time of Clovis, the kings were accustomed to make grants of the sort
+to land-holding abbots and bishops, and by the time of Charlemagne
+nearly all such prelates had been thus favored. But such grants were
+not confined to ecclesiastics. Even in the seventh and eighth centuries
+lay holders of royal benefices often received the privileges of the immunity
+also. Speaking generally, the immunity exempted the lands
+to which it applied from the jurisdiction of the local royal officials,
+especially of the counts. The lands were supposed to be none the less
+ultimately subject to the royal authority, but by the grant of immunity
+the sovereign took their financial and judicial administration from the
+counts, who would ordinarily have charge, and gave it to the holders of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span>
+the lands. The counts were forbidden to enter the specified territories to
+collect taxes or fines, hold courts, and sometimes even to arrange for
+military service. The layman, or the bishop, or the abbot, who held
+the lands performed these services and was responsible only to the
+crown for them. The king's chief object in granting the immunity was
+to reward or win the support of the grantees and to curtail the authority
+of his local representatives, who in many cases threatened to become
+too powerful for the good of the state; but by every such grant
+the sovereign really lost some of his own power, and this practice came
+to be in no small measure responsible for the weakness of monarchy in
+feudal times.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the extracts below (a) is a seventh-century formula for
+the grant of an immunity by the king to a bishop. The second (b)
+is a grant made by Charlemagne, in 779, confirming an old immunity
+enjoyed by the monastery at Châlons-sur-Saône.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Legum Sectio V.,
+Formulæ</i>, Part I., pp. 43-44.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.),
+Vol. II., p. 287. Adapted from translation in Ephraim Emerton,
+<i>Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages</i> (new ed.,
+Boston, 1903), p. 246.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>We believe that we give our royal authority its full splendor
+if, with benevolent intentions, we bestow upon churches&mdash;or
+upon any persons&mdash;the favors which they merit, and if, with the
+aid of God, we give a written assurance of the continuance of
+these favors. We wish, then, to make known that at the request
+of a prelate, lord of &mdash;&mdash; [the estate named] and bishop
+of &mdash;&mdash; [the church named], we have accorded to him, for
+the sake of our eternal salvation, the following benefits: that in
+the domains of the bishop's church, both those which it possesses
+<span class="sidebar">A formula for
+a grant of immunity</span>
+to-day and those which by God's grace it may
+later acquire, no public official shall be permitted
+to enter, either to hold courts or to exact fines,
+on any account; but let these prerogatives be vested in full in
+the bishop and his successors. We ordain therefore that neither
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span>
+you nor your subordinates,<a name="FNanchor_301" id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> nor those who come after you, nor
+any person endowed with a public office, shall ever enter the
+domains of that church, in whatever part of our kingdom they
+may be situated, either to hold trials or to collect fines. All the
+taxes and other revenues which the royal treasury has a right to
+demand from the people on the lands of the said church, whether
+they be freemen or slaves, Romans or barbarians, we now bestow
+on the said church for our future salvation, to be used by the
+officials of the church forever for the best interests of the church.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>Charles, by the grace of God King of the Franks and Lombards
+and Patrician of the Romans, to all having charge of our
+affairs, both present and to come:</p>
+
+<p>By the help of the Lord, who has raised us to the throne of
+this kingdom, it is the chief duty of our clemency to lend a
+gracious ear to the need of all, and especially ought we devoutly
+to regard that which we are persuaded has been granted by preceding
+kings to church foundations for the saving of souls, and
+not to deny fitting benefits, in order that we may deserve to be
+partakers of the reward, but to confirm them in still greater
+security.</p>
+
+<p>Now the illustrious Hubert, bishop and ruler of the church of
+St. Marcellus, which lies below the citadel of Châlons,<a name="FNanchor_302" id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> where the
+<span class="sidebar">The old immunity
+enjoyed
+by the
+monastery at
+Châlons</span>
+precious martyr of the Lord himself rests in the
+body, has brought it to the attention of our
+Highness that the kings who preceded us, or
+our lord and father of blessed memory, Pepin, the
+preceding king, had by their charters granted complete immunities
+to that monastery, so that in the towns or on the lands
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>
+belonging to it no public judge, nor any one with power of hearing
+cases or exacting fines, or raising sureties, or obtaining
+lodging or entertainment, or making requisitions of any kind,
+should enter.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the aforesaid bishop, Hubert, has presented the
+original charters of former kings, together with the confirmations
+of them, to be read by us, and declares the same favors to
+be preserved to the present day; but desiring the confirmation
+of our clemency, he prays that our authority may confirm this
+grant anew to the monastery.</p>
+
+<p>Wherefore, having inspected the said charters of former kings,
+we command that neither you, nor your subordinates, nor your
+successors, nor any person having judicial powers, shall presume
+to enter into the villages which may at the present time be in
+possession of that monastery, or which hereafter may have been
+bestowed by God-fearing men [or may be about to be so bestowed].<a name="FNanchor_303" id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a>
+<span class="sidebar"><b>The immunity
+confirmed</b></span>
+Let no public officer enter for the hearing of cases,
+or for exacting fines, or procuring sureties, or
+obtaining lodging or entertainment, or making
+any requisitions; but in full immunity, even as the favor of former
+kings has been continued down to the present day, so in the
+future also shall it, through our authority, remain undiminished.
+And if in times past, through any negligence of abbots, or luke-warmness
+of rulers, or the presumption of public officers, anything
+has been changed or taken away, removed or withdrawn,
+from these immunities, let it, by our authority and favor, be
+restored. And, further, let neither you nor your subordinates
+presume to infringe upon or violate what we have granted.</p>
+
+<p>But if there be any one, <i>dominus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_304" id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> <i>comes</i> [count], <i>domesticus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_305" id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a>
+<i>vicarius</i>,<a name="FNanchor_306" id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> or one vested with any judicial power whatsoever, by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span>
+the indulgence of the good or by the favor of pious Christians or
+kings, who shall have presumed to infringe upon or violate these
+<span class="sidebar">Penalties for
+its violation</span>
+immunities, let him be punished with a fine of six
+hundred <i>solidi</i>,<a name="FNanchor_307" id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> two parts to go to the library of
+this monastery, and the third part to be paid into our treasury,
+so that impious men may not rejoice in violating that which
+our ancestors, or good Christians, may have conceded or granted.
+And whatever our treasury may have had a right to expect from
+this source shall go to the profit of the men of this church of
+St. Marcellus the martyr, to the better establishment of our
+kingdom and the good of those who shall succeed us.</p>
+
+<p>And that this decree may firmly endure we have ordered it to
+be confirmed with our own hand under our seal.</p>
+
+<h4>35. The Granting of Fiefs</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The most obvious feature of feudalism was a peculiar divided tenure
+of land under which the title was vested in one person and the use in
+another. The territorial unit was the fief, which in extent might be
+but a few acres, a whole county, or even a vast region like Normandy
+or Burgundy. Fiefs were granted to vassals by contracts which bound
+both grantor and grantee to certain specific obligations. The two
+extracts below are examples of the records of such feudal grants,
+bearing the dates 1167 and 1200 respectively. It should be remembered,
+however, that fiefs need not necessarily be land. Offices, payments
+of money, rights to collect tolls, and many other valuable things
+might be given by one man to another as fiefs in just the same way
+that land was given. Du Cange, in his <i>Glossarium Mediæ et Infimæ
+Latinitatis</i>, mentions eighty-eight different kinds of fiefs, and it has
+been said that this does not represent more than one-fourth of the total
+number. Nevertheless, the typical fief consisted of land. The term
+might therefore be defined in general as the land for which the vassal,
+or hereditary possessor, rendered to the lord, or hereditary proprietor,
+services of a special character which were considered honorable, such
+as military aid and attendance at courts.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Nicolas Brussel, <i>Nouvel Examen de l'Usage général des Fiefs en
+France pendant le XI, le XII, le XIII, et le XIV<sup>e</sup> Siècle</i> ["New
+Examination of the Customs of Fiefs in the 11th, the 12th, the
+13th, and the 14th Century"], Paris, 1727, Vol. I., p. 3, note.
+Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations
+and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 15-16.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Maximilien Quantin, <i>Recueil de Pièces du XIII<sup>e</sup> Siècle</i> ["Collection
+of Documents of the Thirteenth Century"], Auxerre,
+1873, No. 2, pp. 1-2. Translated by Cheyney, <i>ibid.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>In the name of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, Amen. I,
+Louis,<a name="FNanchor_308" id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> by the grace of God king of the French, make known to
+all present as well as to come, that at Mante in our presence,
+Count Henry of Champagne<a name="FNanchor_309" id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> conceded the fief of Savigny to
+<span class="sidebar">The count of
+Champagne
+grants a fief to
+the bishop of
+Beauvais</span>
+Bartholomew, bishop of Beauvais,<a name="FNanchor_310" id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> and his successors.
+And for that fief the said bishop has
+made promise and engagement for one knight
+and justice and service to Count Henry;<a name="FNanchor_311" id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> and
+he also agreed that the bishops who shall come after him will
+do likewise. In order that this may be understood and known
+to posterity we have caused the present charter to be attested
+by our seal. Done at Mante, in the year of the Incarnate Word,
+1167; present in our palace those whose names and seals are
+appended: seal of Thiebault, our steward; seal of Guy, the
+butler; seal of Matthew, the chamberlain; seal of Ralph, the
+constable. Given by the hand of Hugh, the chancellor.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>I, Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes,<a name="FNanchor_312" id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> make known to those
+present and to come that I have given in fee<a name="FNanchor_313" id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> to Jocelyn d'Avalon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>
+and his heirs the manor which is called Gillencourt,<a name="FNanchor_314" id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> which is of
+the castellanerie<a name="FNanchor_315" id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> of La Ferté-sur-Aube; and whatever the same
+Jocelyn shall be able to acquire in the same manor I have granted
+to him and his heirs in enlargement of that fief. I have granted,
+moreover, to him that in no free manor of mine will I retain men
+who are of this gift.<a name="FNanchor_316" id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> The same Jocelyn, moreover, on account
+of this has become my liege man, saving, however, his allegiance
+<span class="sidebar">A grant by
+Count Thiebault</span>
+to Gerad d'Arcy, and to the lord duke of Burgundy,
+and to Peter, count of Auxerre.<a name="FNanchor_317" id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> Done
+at Chouaude, by my own witness, in the year of
+the Incarnation of our Lord 1200, in the month of January.
+Given by the hand of Walter, my chancellor.</p>
+
+<h4>36. The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The personal relation between lord and vassal was established by
+the double ceremony of homage and fealty. Homage was the act by
+which the vassal made himself the man (<i>homo</i>) of the lord, while fealty
+was the oath of fidelity to the obligations which must ordinarily be
+assumed by such a man. The two were really distinct, though because
+they almost invariably went together they finally became confounded in
+the popular mind. The details of the ceremonies varied much in different
+times and places, but, in general, when homage was to be performed,
+the prospective vassal presented himself before his future seigneur
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>
+bareheaded and without arms; knelt, placed his hands in those of the
+seigneur, and declared himself his man; then he was kissed by the seigneur
+and lifted to his feet. In the act of fealty, the vassal placed his hand
+upon sacred relics, or upon the Bible, and swore eternal faithfulness to
+his seigneur. The so-called "act of investiture" generally followed, the
+seigneur handing over to the vassal a bit of turf, a stick, or some other
+object symbolizing the transfer of the usufruct of the property in question.
+The whole process was merely a mode of establishing a binding
+contract between the two parties. Below we have: (<i>a</i>) a mediæval
+definition of homage, taken from the customary law of Normandy;
+(<i>b</i>) an explanation of fealty, given in an old English law-book; (<i>c</i>) a
+French chronicler's account of the rendering of homage and fealty to
+the count of Flanders in the year 1127; and (<i>d</i>) a set of laws governing
+homage and fealty, written down in a compilation of the ordinances
+of Saint Louis (king of France, 1226-1270), but doubtless showing substantially
+the practice in France for a long time before King Louis's day.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) <i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i> ["The Old Custom of
+Normandy"], Chap. 29.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Sir Thomas Lyttleton, <i>Treatise of Tenures in French and
+English</i> (London, 1841), Bk. II., Chap. 2, p. 123.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(c) Galbert de Bruges, <i>De Multro, Traditione, et Occisione gloriosi
+Karoli comitis Flandriarum</i> ["Concerning the Murder, Betrayal,
+and Death of the glorious Charles, Count of Flanders"].
+Text in Henri Pirenne, <i>Histoire du Meurtre de Charles le Bon,
+comte de Flandre, par Galbert de Bruges</i> (Paris, 1891). Translated
+by Edward P. Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 3, p. 18.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(d) <i>Les Établissements de Saint Louis</i> ["The Ordinances of St.
+Louis"], Bk. II., Chap. 19. Text in Paul Viollet's edition (Paris,
+1881), Vol. II., pp. 395-398.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>Homage is a pledge to keep faith in respect to matters that are
+right and necessary, and to give counsel and aid. He who
+<span class="sidebar">A Norman
+definition
+of homage</span>
+would do homage ought to place his hands between
+those of the man who is to be his lord, and
+speak these words: "I become your man, to keep
+faith with you against all others, saving my allegiance to the
+duke of Normandy."
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>And when a free tenant shall swear fealty to his lord, let him
+place his right hand on the book<a name="FNanchor_318" id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> and speak thus: "Hear thou
+this, my lord, that I will be faithful and loyal to you and will
+keep my pledges to you for the lands which I claim to hold of
+<span class="sidebar">The oath
+of fealty</span>
+you, and that I will loyally perform for you the
+services specified, so help me God and the saints."
+Then he shall kiss the book; but he shall not kneel when he
+swears fealty, nor take so humble a posture as is required in
+homage.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(c)</p>
+
+<p>Through the whole remaining part of the day those who had
+been previously enfeoffed by the most pious count Charles, did
+homage to the count,<a name="FNanchor_319" id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> taking up now again their fiefs and offices
+and whatever they had before rightfully and legitimately obtained.
+On Thursday, the seventh of April, homages were again
+made to the count, being completed in the following order of
+faith and security:</p>
+
+<p>First they did their homage thus. The count asked if he was
+willing to become completely his man, and the other replied,
+<span class="sidebar">The rendering
+of homage and
+fealty to the
+count of Flanders</span>
+"I am willing"; and with clasped hands, surrounded
+by the hands of the count, they were
+bound together by a kiss. Secondly, he who had
+done homage gave his fealty to the representative
+of the count in these words, "I promise on my faith that I will
+in future be faithful to Count William, and will observe my
+homage to him completely, against all persons, in good faith and
+without deceit." Thirdly, he took his oath to this upon the
+relics of the saints. Afterwards, with a little rod which the count
+held in his hand, he gave investitures to all who by this agreement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span>
+had given their security and homage and accompanying
+oath.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(d)</p>
+
+<p>If any one would hold from a lord in fee, he ought to seek his
+lord within forty days. And if he does not do it within forty days,
+the lord may and ought to seize his fief for default of homage,
+and the things which are found there he should seize without
+compensation; and yet the vassal should be obliged to pay to
+his lord the redemption.<a name="FNanchor_320" id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> When any one wishes to enter into
+the fealty of a lord, he ought to seek him, as we have said above,
+and should speak as follows: "Sir, I request you, as my lord, to
+<span class="sidebar">An ordinance
+of St. Louis on
+homage and
+fealty</span>
+put me in your fealty and in your homage for
+such and such a thing situated in your fief, which
+I have bought." And he ought to say from what
+man, and this one ought to be present and in the fealty of the
+lord;<a name="FNanchor_321" id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> and whether it is by purchase or by escheat<a name="FNanchor_322" id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> or by inheritance
+he ought to explain; and with his hands joined, to
+speak as follows: "Sir, I become your man and promise to you
+fealty for the future as my lord, towards all men who may live
+or die, rendering to you such service as the fief requires, making
+to you your relief as you are the lord." And he ought to say
+whether for guardianship,<a name="FNanchor_323" id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> or as an escheat, or as an inheritance,
+or as a purchase.</p>
+
+<p>The lord should immediately reply to him: "And I receive
+you and take you as my man, and give you this kiss as a sign
+of faith, saving my right and that of others," according to the
+usage of the various districts.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>37. The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The feudal relation was essentially one of contract involving reciprocal
+relations between lord and vassal. In the following letter, written
+in the year 1020 by Bishop Fulbert of Chartres<a name="FNanchor_324" id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> to the duke of Aquitaine,
+we find laid down the general principles which ought to govern
+the discharge of these mutual obligations. It is affirmed that there
+were six things that no loyal vassal could do, and these are enumerated
+and explained. Then comes the significant statement that these
+negative duties must be supplemented with positive acts for the service
+and support of the lord. What some of these acts were will appear in
+the extracts in §<a href="#S38">38</a>. Bishop Fulbert points out also that the lord is
+himself bound by feudal law not to do things detrimental to the safety,
+honor, or prosperity of his vassal. The letter is an admirable statement
+of the spirit of the feudal system at its best. Already by 1020 a
+considerable body of feudal customs having the force of law had come
+into existence and it appears that Fulbert had made these customs the
+subject of some special study before answering the questions addressed
+to him by Duke William.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la
+France</i> ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul and of France"],
+Vol. X., p. 463.</p>
+
+<p>To William, most illustrious duke of the Aquitanians, Bishop
+Fulbert, the favor of his prayers:</p>
+
+<p>Requested to write something regarding the character of
+fealty, I have set down briefly for you, on the authority of the
+books, the following things. He who takes the oath of fealty to
+<span class="sidebar">What the vassal
+owes the
+lord</span>
+his lord ought always to keep in mind these six
+things: what is harmless, safe, honorable, useful,
+easy, and practicable.<a name="FNanchor_325" id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> <i>Harmless</i>, which means
+that he ought not to injure his lord in his body; <i>safe</i>, that he
+should not injure him by betraying his confidence or the defenses
+upon which he depends for security; <i>honorable</i>, that he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>
+should not injure him in his justice, or in other matters that relate
+to his honor; <i>useful</i>, that he should not injure him in his
+property; <i>easy</i>, that he should not make difficult that which his
+lord can do easily; and <i>practicable</i>, that he should not make
+impossible for the lord that which is possible.</p>
+
+<p>However, while it is proper that the faithful vassal avoid these
+injuries, it is not for doing this alone that he deserves his holding:
+for it is not enough to refrain from wrongdoing, unless that
+which is good is done also. It remains, therefore, that in the
+same six things referred to above he should faithfully advise and
+aid his lord, if he wishes to be regarded as worthy of his benefice
+and to be safe concerning the fealty which he has sworn.</p>
+
+<p>The lord also ought to act toward his faithful vassal in the
+same manner in all these things. And if he fails to do this, he
+<span class="sidebar">The obligations
+of the
+lord</span>
+will be rightfully regarded as guilty of bad faith,
+just as the former, if he should be found shirking,
+or willing to shirk, his obligations would be
+perfidious and perjured.<a name="FNanchor_326" id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a></p>
+
+<p>I should have written to you at greater length had I not been
+busy with many other matters, including the rebuilding of our
+city and church, which were recently completely destroyed by
+a terrible fire. Though for a time we could not think of anything
+but this disaster, yet now, by the hope of God's comfort,
+and of yours also, we breathe more freely again.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="S38" id="S38"></a>38. Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The obligations of vassals to lords outlined in the preceding selection
+were mainly of a moral character&mdash;such as naturally grew out of the
+general idea of loyalty and fidelity to a benefactor. They were largely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>
+negative and were rather vague and indefinite. So far as they went,
+they were binding upon lords and vassals alike. There were, however,
+several very definite and practical rights which the lords possessed with
+respect to the property and persons of their dependents. Some of these
+were of a financial character, some were judicial, and others were
+military. Five of the most important are illustrated by the passages
+given below.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Aids</span></p>
+
+<p>Under the feudal system the idea prevailed that the vassal's purse
+as well as his body was to be at the lord's service. Originally the
+right to draw upon his vassals for money was exercised by the lord
+whenever he desired, but by custom this ill-defined power gradually
+became limited to three sorts of occasions when the need of money
+was likely to be especially urgent, i.e., when the eldest son was knighted,
+when the eldest daughter was married, and when the lord was to be
+ransomed from captivity. In the era of the crusades, the starting of
+the lord on an expedition to the Holy Land was generally regarded as
+another emergency in which an aid might rightfully be demanded.
+The following extract from the old customary law of Normandy represents
+the practice in nearly all feudal Europe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i>, Chap. 35.</p>
+
+<p>In Normandy there are three chief aids. The first is to help
+make the lord's eldest son a knight; the second is to marry his
+eldest daughter; the third is to ransom the body of the lord
+from prison when he shall be taken captive during a war for the
+<span class="sidebar">The three
+aids</span>
+duke.<a name="FNanchor_327" id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> By this it appears that the <i>aide de chevalerie</i>
+[knighthood-aid] is due when the eldest son
+of the lord is made a knight. The eldest son is he who has the
+dignity of primogeniture.<a name="FNanchor_328" id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> The <i>aide de mariage</i> [marriage-aid] is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>
+due when the eldest daughter is married. The <i>aide de rançon</i>
+[ransom-aid] is due when it is necessary to deliver the lord from
+the prisons of the enemies of the duke. These aids are paid in
+some fiefs at the rate of half a relief, and in some at the rate of
+a third.<a name="FNanchor_329" id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+
+<p class="center">(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">Military Service</span></p>
+
+<p>From whatever point of view feudalism is regarded&mdash;whether as a
+system of land tenure, as a form of social organization, or as a type of
+government&mdash;the military element in it appears everywhere important.
+The feudal period was the greatest era of war the civilized world has
+ever known. Few people between the tenth and fourteenth centuries,
+except in the peasant classes, were able to live out their lives entirely
+in peace. Of greatest value to kings and feudal magnates, greater even
+than money itself, was a goodly following of soldiers; hence the almost
+universal requirement of military service by lords from their vassals.
+Fiefs were not infrequently granted out for no other purpose than to
+get the military service which their holders would owe. The amount
+of such service varied greatly in different times and places, but the
+following arrangement represents the most common practice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Les Établissements de Saint Louis</i>, Bk. I., Chap. 65. Text in Paul
+Viollet's edition (Paris, 1881), Vol. II., pp. 95-96.</p>
+
+<p>The baron and the vassals of the king ought to appear in his
+army when they shall be summoned, and ought to serve at their
+own expense for forty days and forty nights, with whatever number
+of knights they owe.<a name="FNanchor_330" id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> And he possesses the right to exact
+<span class="sidebar">The conditions
+of military service</span>
+from them these services when he wishes and
+when he has need of them. If, however, the king
+shall wish to keep them more than forty days and
+forty nights at their own expense, they need not remain unless
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>
+they desire.<a name="FNanchor_331" id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> But if he shall wish to retain them at his cost for
+the defense of the kingdom, they ought lawfully to remain.
+But if he shall propose to lead them outside of the kingdom,
+they need not go unless they are willing, for they have already
+served their forty days and forty nights.</p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+
+<p class="center">(<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">Wardship and Marriage</span></p>
+
+<p>Very important among the special prerogatives of the feudal lord
+was his right to manage, and enjoy the profits of, fiefs inherited by
+minors. When a vassal died, leaving an heir who was under age, the
+lord was charged with the care of the fief until the heir reached his or
+her majority. On becoming of age, a young man was expected to take
+control of his fief at once. But a young woman remained under wardship
+until her marriage, though if she married under age she could get
+possession of her fief immediately, just as she would had she waited
+until older. The control of the marriage of heiresses was largely in the
+hands of their lords, for obviously it was to the lord's interest that no
+enemy of his, nor any shiftless person, should become the husband of
+his ward. The lord could compel a female ward to marry and could
+oblige her to accept as a husband one of the candidates whom he offered
+her; but it was usually possible for the woman to purchase exemption
+from this phase of his jurisdiction. After the thirteenth century the
+right of wardship gradually declined in France, though it long continued
+in England. The following extract from the customs of Normandy
+sets forth the typical feudal law on the subject.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i>, Chap. 33.</p>
+
+<p>Heirs should be placed in guardianship until they reach the
+age of twenty years; and those who hold them as wards should
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span>
+give over to them all the fiefs which came under their control
+by reason of wardship, provided they have not lost anything by
+judicial process.... When the heirs pass out of the condition
+of wardship, their lords shall not impose upon them any
+reliefs for their fiefs, for the profits of wardship shall be reckoned
+in place of the relief.</p>
+
+<p>When a female ward reaches the proper age to marry, she
+should be married by the advice and consent of her lord, and by
+<span class="sidebar">The marriage
+of a female
+ward</span>
+the advice and consent of her relatives and
+friends, according as the nobility of her ancestry
+and the value of her fief may require; and
+upon her marriage the fief which has been held in guardianship
+should be given over to her. A woman cannot be freed from
+wardship except by marriage; and let it not be said that she is
+of age until she is twenty years old. But if she be married at
+the age at which it is allowable for a woman to marry, the fact of
+her marriage makes her of age and delivers her fief from wardship.</p>
+
+<p>The fiefs of those who are under wardship should be cared
+for attentively by their lords, who are entitled to receive the
+<span class="sidebar">The lord's obligation
+to care
+for the fief of
+his ward</span>
+produce and profits.<a name="FNanchor_332" id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> And in this connection let
+it be known that the lord ought to preserve in
+their former condition the buildings, the manor-houses,
+the forests and meadows, the gardens, the ponds, the
+mills, the fisheries, and the other things of which he has the profits.
+And he should not sell, destroy, or remove the woods, the houses,
+or the trees.</p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p class="center">(<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap">Reliefs</span></p>
+
+<p>A relief was a payment made to the lord by an heir before entering
+upon possession of his fief. The history of reliefs goes back to the time
+when benefices were not hereditary and when, if a son succeeded his
+father in the usufruct of a piece of property, it was regarded as an unusual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span>
+thing&mdash;a special favor on the part of the owner to be paid for by
+the new tenant. Later, when fiefs had become almost everywhere
+hereditary, the custom of requiring reliefs still survived. The amount
+was at first arbitrary, being arranged by individual bargains; but in
+every community, especially in France, the tendency was toward a fixed
+custom regarding it. Below are given some brief extracts from English
+Treasury records which show how men in England between the years
+1140 and 1230 paid the king for the privilege of retaining the fiefs held
+by their fathers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Thomas Madox, <i>History and Antiquities of the Exchequer of the
+Kings of England</i> (London, 1769), Vol. I., pp. 312-322 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Walter Hait renders an account of 5 marks of silver for the
+relief of the land of his father.</p>
+
+<p>Walter Brito renders an account of £66, 13s. and 4d. for the
+relief of his land.</p>
+
+<p>Richard of Estre renders an account of £15 for the relief for
+3 knights' fees which he holds from the honor of Mortain.</p>
+
+<p>Walter Fitz Thomas, of Newington, owes 28s. 4d. for having
+a fourth part of one knight's fee which had been seized into the
+hand of the king for default of relief.</p>
+
+<p>John of Venetia renders an account of 300 marks for the fine
+of his land and for the relief of the land which was his father's
+which he held from the king <i>in capite</i>.<a name="FNanchor_333" id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></p>
+
+<p>John de Balliol owes £150 for the relief of 30 knights' fees
+which Hugh de Balliol, his father, held from the king <i>in capite</i>,
+that is 100s. for each fee.</p>
+
+<p>Peter de Bruce renders an account of £100 for his relief for
+the barony which was of Peter his father.</p>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p class="center">(<i>e</i>) <span class="smcap">Forfeiture</span></p>
+
+<p>The lord's most effective means of compelling his vassals to discharge
+their obligations was his right to take back their fiefs for breach
+of feudal contract. Such a breach, or felony, as it was technically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>
+called, might consist in refusal to render military service or the required
+aids, ignoring the sovereign authority of the lord, levying war against
+the lord, dishonoring members of the lord's family, or, as in the case
+below, refusing to obey the lord's summons to appear in court. In
+practice the lords generally found it difficult to enforce the penalty of
+forfeiture and after the thirteenth century the tendency was to substitute
+money fines for dispossession, except in the most aggravated
+cases. The following is an account of the condemnation of Arnold
+Atton, a nobleman of south France, by the feudal court of Raymond,
+count of Toulouse, in the year 1249. The penalty imposed was the
+loss of the valuable château of Auvillars.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Teulet, <i>Layettes du Trésor des Cartes</i> ["Bureau of Treasury
+Accounts "], No. 3778, Vol. III., p. 70. Translated by Edward P.
+Cheyney in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV.,
+No. 3. pp. 33-34.</p>
+
+<p>Raymond, by the grace of God count of Toulouse, marquis of
+Provence, to the nobleman Arnold Atton, viscount of Lomagne,
+greeting:</p>
+
+<p>Let it be known to your nobility by the tenor of these presents
+what has been done in the matter of the complaints which we
+have made about you before the court of Agen; that you have
+not taken the trouble to keep or fulfill the agreements sworn by
+you to us, as is more fully contained in the instrument drawn up
+there, sealed with our seal by the public notary; and that you
+have refused contemptuously to appear before the said court for
+the purpose of doing justice, and have otherwise committed
+multiplied and great delinquencies against us. As your faults
+<span class="sidebar">The court's
+sentence upon
+Arnold Atton</span>
+have required, the aforesaid court of Agen has
+unanimously and concordantly pronounced sentence
+against you, and for these matters have
+condemned you to hand over and restore to us the château of
+Auvillars and all that land which you hold from us in fee, to be
+had and held by us by right of the obligation by which you have
+bound it to us for fulfilling and keeping the said agreements.</p>
+
+<p>Likewise it has declared that we are to be put into possession
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>
+of the said land and that it is to be handed over to us, on account
+of your contumacy, because you have not been willing to appear
+before the same court on the days which were assigned to you.
+Moreover, it has declared that you shall be held and required
+to restore the said land in whatsoever way we wish to receive it,
+with few or many, in peace or in anger, in our own person, by
+right of lordship. Likewise it has declared that you shall restore
+to us all the expenses which we have incurred, or the court
+itself has incurred, on those days which were assigned to you,
+or because of those days, and has condemned you to repay these
+to us.<a name="FNanchor_334" id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a></p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it has declared that the nobleman Gerald d'Armagnac,
+whom you hold captive, you shall liberate, and deliver him
+free to us. We demand, moreover, by right of our lordship that
+you liberate him.</p>
+
+<p>We call, therefore, upon your discretion in this matter, strictly
+enjoining you and commanding that you obey the aforesaid
+sentences in all things and fulfill them in all respects and in no
+way delay the execution of them.</p>
+
+<h4>39. The Peace and the Truce of God</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>War rather than peace was the normal condition of feudal society.
+Peasants were expected to settle their disputes in the courts of law,
+but lords and seigneurs possessed a legal right to make war upon their
+enemies and were usually not loath to exercise it. Private warfare was
+indeed so common that it all the time threatened seriously the lives and
+property of the masses of the people and added heavily to the afflictions
+which flood, drought, famine, and pestilence brought repeatedly
+upon them. The first determined efforts to limit, if not to abolish,
+the ravages of private war were made by the Church, partly because
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span>
+the Church itself often suffered by reason of them, partly because its
+ideal was that of peace and security, and partly because it recognized
+its duty as the protector of the poor and oppressed. Late in the tenth
+century, under the influence of the Cluniacs [see <a href="#Page_245">p. 245</a>], the clergy of
+France, both secular and regular, began in their councils to promulgate
+decrees which were intended to establish what was known as the Peace
+of God. These decrees, which were enacted by so many councils between
+989 and 1050 that they came to cover pretty nearly all France, proclaimed
+generally that any one who should use violence toward women, peasants,
+merchants, or members of the clergy should be excommunicated. The
+principle was to exempt certain classes of people from the operations
+of war and violence, even though the rest of the population should
+continue to fight among themselves. It must be said that these decrees,
+though enacted again and again, had often little apparent effect.</p>
+
+<p>Effort was then made in another direction. From about 1027 the
+councils began to proclaim what was known as the Truce of God,
+sometimes alone and sometimes in connection with the Peace. The
+purport of the Truce of God was that all men should abstain from warfare
+and violence during a certain portion of each week, and during
+specified church festivals and holy seasons. At first only Sunday was
+thus designated; then other days, until the time from Wednesday night
+to Monday morning was all included; then extended periods, as Lent,
+were added, until finally not more than eighty days remained of the
+entire year on which private warfare was allowable. As one writer has
+stated it, "the Peace of God was intended to protect certain classes
+at all times and the Truce to protect all classes at certain times." It
+was equally difficult to secure the acquiescence of the lawless nobles
+in both, and though the efforts of the Church were by no means without
+result, we are to think of private warfare as continuing quite common
+until brought gradually to an end by the rise of strong monarchies,
+by the turning of men to commerce and trade, and by the drawing off
+of military energies into foreign and international wars.</p>
+
+<p>The decree given below, which combines features of both the Peace
+and the Truce, was issued by the Council of Toulouges (near Perpignan)
+in 1041, or, as some scholars think, in 1065. Its substance was many
+times reënacted, notably by the Council of Clermont, in 1095, upon the
+occasion of the proclamation of the first Crusade. It should have procured
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>
+about 240 days of peace in every year and reduced war to about
+120 days, but, like the others, it was only indifferently observed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la
+France</i> ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul and of France"],
+Paris, 1876, Vol. XI., pp. 510-511.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> This Peace has been confirmed by the bishops, by the
+abbots, by the counts and viscounts and the other God-fearing
+nobles in this bishopric, to the effect that in the future, beginning
+with this day, no man may commit an act of violence in a church,
+<span class="sidebar">Acts of violence
+forbidden
+in or near
+churches</span>
+or in the space which surrounds it and which
+is covered by its privileges, or in the burying-ground,
+or in the dwelling-houses which are, or
+may be, within thirty paces of it.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> We do not include in this measure the churches which have
+been, or which shall be, fortified as châteaux, or those in which
+plunderers and thieves are accustomed to store their ill-gotten
+booty, or which give them a place of refuge. Nevertheless we
+desire that such churches be under this protection until complaint
+of them shall be made to the bishop, or to the chapter.
+If the bishop or chapter<a name="FNanchor_335" id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> act upon such information and lay hold
+of the malefactors, and if the latter refuse to give themselves up to
+the justice of the bishop or chapter, the malefactors and all their
+possessions shall not be immune, even within the church. A
+man who breaks into a church, or into the space within thirty
+paces around it, must pay a fine for sacrilege, and double this
+amount to the person wronged.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> Furthermore, it is forbidden that any one attack the clergy,
+who do not bear arms, or the monks and religious persons, or do
+<span class="sidebar">Attacks upon
+the clergy
+prohibited</span>
+them any wrong; likewise it is forbidden to despoil
+or pillage the communities of canons, monks, and
+religious persons, the ecclesiastical lands which
+are under the protection of the Church, or the clergy, who do not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>
+bear arms; and if any one shall do such a thing, let him pay a
+double composition.<a name="FNanchor_336" id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Let no one burn or destroy the dwellings of the peasants
+and the clergy, the dove-cotes and the granaries. Let no man
+dare to kill, to beat, or to wound a peasant or serf, or the wife of
+either, or to seize them and carry them off, except for misdemeanors
+which they may have committed; but it is not forbidden
+<span class="sidebar">Protection extended
+to the
+peasantry</span>
+to lay hold of them in order to bring them to
+justice, and it is allowable to do this even before
+they shall have been summoned to appear. Let
+not the raiment of the peasants be stolen; let not their ploughs,
+or their hoes, or their olive-fields be burned.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> ... Let any one who has broken the peace, and has
+not paid his fines within a fortnight, make amends to him whom
+he has injured by paying a double amount, which shall go to the
+bishop and to the count who shall have had charge of the case.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> The bishops of whom we have spoken have solemnly confirmed
+the Truce of God, which has been enjoined upon all
+<span class="sidebar">The Truce
+of God confirmed</span>
+Christians, from the setting of the sun of the
+fourth day of the week, that is to say, Wednesday,
+until the rising of the sun on Monday, the second
+day.... If any one during the Truce shall violate it, let
+him pay a double composition and subsequently undergo the
+ordeal of cold water.<a name="FNanchor_337" id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> When any one during the Truce shall kill
+<span class="sidebar">Penalties for
+violations of
+the Truce</span>
+a man, it has been ordained, with the approval of
+all Christians, that if the crime was committed
+intentionally the murderer shall be condemned to
+perpetual exile, but if it occurred by accident the slayer shall
+be banished for a period of time to be fixed by the bishops and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span>
+the canons. If any one during the Truce shall attempt to seize
+a man or to carry him off from his château, and does not succeed
+in his purpose, let him pay a fine to the bishop and to the
+chapter, just as if he had succeeded. It is likewise forbidden
+during the Truce, in Advent and Lent, to build any château
+or fortification, unless it was begun a fortnight before the
+time of the Truce. It has been ordained also that at all times
+disputes and suits on the subject of the Peace and Truce of God
+shall be settled before the bishop and his chapter, and likewise
+for the peace of the churches which have before been enumerated.
+When the bishop and the chapter shall have pronounced
+sentences to recall men to the observance of the Peace and the
+Truce of God, the sureties and hostages who show themselves
+hostile to the bishop and the chapter shall be excommunicated
+by the chapter and the bishop, with their protectors and partisans,
+as guilty of violating the Peace and the Truce of the
+Lord; they and their possessions shall be excluded from the
+Peace and the Truce of the Lord.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIV.<br />
+THE NORMAN CONQUEST</h3>
+
+<h4>40. The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The Northmen, under the leadership of the renowned Rollo, got
+their first permanent foothold in that important part of France since
+known as Normandy in the year 911 [see <a href="#Page_171">p. 171</a>]. Almost from the
+beginning the new county (later duchy) increased rapidly both in
+territorial extent and in political influence. The Northmen, or Normans,
+were a vigorous, ambitious, and on the whole very capable people,
+and they needed only the polishing which peaceful contact with the
+French could give to make them one of the most virile elements in the
+population of western Europe. They gave up their old gods and accepted
+Christianity, ceased to speak their own language and began the
+use of French, and to a considerable extent became ordinary soldiers
+and traders instead of the wild pirates their forefathers had been. The
+spirit of unrest, however, and the love of adventure so deeply ingrained
+in their natures did not die out, and we need not be surprised to learn
+that they continued still to enjoy nothing quite so much as war, especially
+if it involved hazardous expeditions across seas. Some went
+to help the Christians of Spain against the Saracens; some went to aid
+the Eastern emperors against the Turks; others went to Sicily and
+southern Italy, where they conquered weak rulers and set up principalities
+of their own; and finally, under the leadership of Duke William
+the Bastard, in 1066, they entered upon the greatest undertaking of all,
+i.e., the conquest of England and the establishment of a Norman
+chieftain upon the throne of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Duke William was one of the greatest and most ambitious feudal
+lords of France&mdash;more powerful really than the French king himself.
+He had overcome practically all opposition among his unruly vassals
+in Normandy, and by 1066, when the death of King Edward the Confessor
+occurred in England, he was ready to engage in great enterprises
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>
+which gave promise of enhanced power and renown. He had long
+cherished a claim to the English throne, and when he learned that in
+utter disregard of this claim the English witan had chosen Harold,
+son of the West Saxon Earl Godwin, to be Edward's successor, he prepared
+to invade the island kingdom and force an acknowledgment of
+what he pretended at least to believe were his rights. Briefly stated,
+William claimed the English throne on the ground (1) that through his
+wife Matilda, a descendant of Emma, Edward the Confessor's mother,
+he was a nearer heir than was Harold, who was only the late king's
+brother-in-law; (2) that on the occasion of a visit to England in 1051
+Edward had promised him the inheritance; and (3) that Harold himself,
+when some years before he had been shipwrecked on the coast of
+Normandy, had sworn on sacred relics to help him gain the crown.
+There is some doubt as to the actual facts in connection with both of
+these last two points, but the truth is that all of William's claims taken
+together were not worth much, since the recognized principle of the
+English government was that the king should be chosen by the wisemen,
+or witan. Harold had been so chosen and hence was in every way the
+legitimate sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>William, however, was determined to press his claims and, after
+obtaining the blessing of the Pope (Alexander II.), he gathered
+an army of perhaps 65,000 Normans and adventurers from all
+parts of France and prepared a fleet of some 1,500 transports at the
+mouth of the Dive to carry his troops across the Channel. September
+28, 1066, the start was made and the following day the host landed
+at Pevensey in Sussex. Friday, the 29th, Hastings was selected and
+fortified to serve as headquarters. The English were taken at great disadvantage.
+Only two days before the Normans crossed the Channel
+Harold with all the troops he could muster had been engaged in a great
+battle at Stamford Bridge, in Northumberland, with Harold Hardrada,
+king of Norway, who was making an independent invasion. The English
+had won the fight, but they were not in a position to meet the
+Normans as they might otherwise have been. With admirable energy,
+however, Harold marched his weary army southward to Senlac, a hill
+near the town of Hastings, and there took up his position to await an
+attack by the duke's army. The battle came on Saturday, October 14,
+and after a very stubborn contest, in which Harold was slain, it resulted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>
+in a decisive victory for the Normans. Thereafter the conquest
+of the entire kingdom, while by no means easy, was inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>William of Malmesbury, from whose <i>Chronicle of the Kings of England</i>
+our account of the battle and of the two contending peoples is taken, was
+a Benedictine monk, born of a Norman father and an English mother.
+He lived about 1095-1150 and hence wrote somewhat over half a century
+after the Conquest. While thus not strictly a contemporary, he
+was a man of learning and discretion and there is every reason to believe
+that he made his history as accurate as he was able, with the materials
+at his command. His parentage must have enabled him to understand
+both combatants in an unusual degree and, though his sympathies were
+with the conquerors, we may take his characterizations of Saxon and
+Norman alike to be at least fairly reliable. His <i>Chronicle</i> covers the
+period 449-1135, and for the years after 1066 it is the fullest, most
+carefully written, and most readable account of English affairs that we
+have.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, <i>De gestis regum Anglorum</i>
+[William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the Kings of England"],
+Bk. III. Adapted from translation by John Sharpe (London,
+1815), pp. 317-323.</p>
+
+<p>The courageous leaders mutually prepared for battle, each
+according to his national custom. The English passed the night<a name="FNanchor_338" id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a>
+without sleep, in drinking and singing, and in the morning proceeded
+without delay against the enemy. All on foot, armed
+with battle-axes, and covering themselves in front by joining
+<span class="sidebar">How the English
+prepared
+for battle</span>
+their shields, they formed an impenetrable body
+which would assuredly have secured their safety
+that day had not the Normans, by a pretended
+flight, induced them to open their ranks, which until that time,
+according to their custom, had been closely knit together.
+King Harold himself, on foot, stood with his brothers near the
+standard in order that, so long as all shared equal danger, none
+could think of retreating. This same standard William sent,
+after his victory, to the Pope. It was richly embroidered with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span>
+gold and precious stones, and represented the figure of a man
+fighting.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the Normans passed the whole night in
+confessing their sins, and received the communion of the Lord's
+body in the morning. Their infantry, with bows and arrows,
+formed the vanguard, while their cavalry, divided into wings,
+<span class="sidebar">How the Normans
+prepared</span>
+was placed in the rear. The duke, with serene
+countenance, declaring aloud that God would
+favor his as being the righteous side, called for his arms; and
+when, through the haste of his attendants, he had put on his
+hauberk<a name="FNanchor_339" id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> the rear part before, he corrected the mistake with a
+laugh, saying, "The power of my dukedom shall be turned into
+a kingdom." Then starting the song of Roland,<a name="FNanchor_340" id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> in order that
+the warlike example of that hero might stimulate the soldiers,
+and calling on God for assistance, the battle commenced on both
+sides, and was fought with great ardor, neither side yielding
+ground during the greater part of the day.</p>
+
+<p>Observing this, William gave a signal to his troops, that,
+pretending flight, they should withdraw from the field.<a name="FNanchor_341" id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> By
+means of this device the solid phalanx of the English opened for
+the purpose of cutting down the fleeing enemy and thus brought
+upon itself swift destruction; for the Normans, facing about,
+<span class="sidebar">William's
+strategem</span>
+attacked them, thus disordered, and compelled
+them to fly. In this manner, deceived by stratagem,
+they met an honorable death in avenging their country;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>
+nor indeed were they at all without their own revenge, for, by
+frequently making a stand, they slaughtered their pursuers in
+heaps. Getting possession of a higher bit of ground, they drove
+back the Normans, who in the heat of pursuit were struggling up
+the slope, into the valley beneath, where, by hurling their javelins
+and rolling down stones on them as they stood below, the
+English easily destroyed them to a man. Besides, by a short
+passage with which they were acquainted, they avoided a deep
+ditch and trod underfoot such a multitude of their enemies in
+that place that the heaps of bodies made the hollow level with
+the plain. This alternating victory, first of one side and then
+of the other, continued as long as Harold lived to check the retreat;
+but when he fell, his brain pierced by an arrow, the flight
+of the English ceased not until night.<a name="FNanchor_342" id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the battle both leaders distinguished themselves by their
+bravery. Harold, not content with the duties of a general and
+with exhorting others, eagerly assumed himself the work of a
+common soldier. He was constantly striking down the enemy
+<span class="sidebar">The valor
+of Harold</span>
+at close quarters, so that no one could approach
+him with impunity, for straightway both horse
+and rider would be felled by a single blow. So it was at long
+range, as I have said, that the enemy's deadly arrow brought
+him to his death. One of the Norman soldiers gashed his thigh
+with a sword, as he lay prostrate; for which shameful and cowardly
+action he was branded with ignominy by William and
+expelled from the army.</p>
+
+<p>William, too, was equally ready to encourage his soldiers by
+his voice and by his presence, and to be the first to rush forward
+to attack the thickest of the foe. He was everywhere fierce and
+furious. He lost three choice horses, which were that day killed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span>
+under him. The dauntless spirit and vigor of the intrepid general,
+however, still held out. Though often called back by the
+<span class="sidebar">William's bravery
+and ardor</span>
+thoughtful remonstrance of his bodyguard, he
+still persisted until approaching night crowned him
+with complete victory. And no doubt the hand of God so protected
+him that the enemy could draw no blood from his person,
+though they aimed so many javelins at him.</p>
+
+<p>This was a fatal day to England, and melancholy havoc was
+wrought in our dear country during the change of its lords.<a name="FNanchor_343" id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a>
+For it had long before adopted the manners of the Angles, which
+had indeed altered with the times; for in the first years of their
+arrival they were barbarians in their look and manner, warlike
+in their usages, heathen in their rites.</p>
+
+<p>After embracing the faith of Christ, by degrees and, in process
+of time, in consequence of the peace which they enjoyed, they
+consigned warfare to a secondary place and gave their whole
+attention to religion. I am not speaking of the poor, the meanness
+of whose fortune often restrains them from overstepping
+<span class="sidebar">Religious zeal
+of the Saxons
+before the Conquest</span>
+the bounds of justice; I omit, too, men of ecclesiastical
+rank, whom sometimes respect for their
+profession and sometimes the fear of shame
+suffers not to deviate from the true path; I speak
+of princes, who from the greatness of their power might have
+full liberty to indulge in pleasure. Some of these in their own
+country, and others at Rome, changing their habit, obtained a
+heavenly kingdom and a saintly fellowship. Many others during
+their whole lives devoted themselves in outward appearance
+to worldly affairs, but in order that they might expend their
+treasures on the poor or divide them amongst monasteries.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span></p>
+
+<p>What shall I say of the multitudes of bishops, hermits, and
+abbots? Does not the whole island blaze with such numerous
+relics of its own people that you can scarcely pass a village of
+any consequence without hearing the name of some new saint?
+And of how many more has all remembrance perished through
+the want of records?</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the attention to literature and religion had
+gradually decreased for several years before the arrival of the
+Normans. The clergy, contented with a little confused learning,
+could scarcely stammer out the words of the sacraments;
+and a person who understood grammar was an object of wonder
+and astonishment.<a name="FNanchor_344" id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> The monks mocked the rule of their order
+<span class="sidebar">Recent decline
+of learning and
+religion</span>
+by fine vestments and the use of every kind of
+food. The nobility, given up to luxury and
+wantonness, went not to church in the morning
+after the manner of Christians, but merely, in a careless manner,
+heard matins and masses from a hurrying priest in their chambers,
+amid the blandishments of their wives. The community,
+left unprotected, became a prey to the most powerful, who
+amassed fortunes, either by seizing on their property or by selling
+their persons into foreign countries; although it is characteristic
+of this people to be more inclined to reveling than to the
+accumulation of wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Drinking in parties was an universal practice, in which occupation
+they passed entire nights as well as days. They consumed
+their whole substance in mean and despicable houses,
+unlike the Normans and French, who live frugally in noble and
+splendid mansions. The vices attendant on drunkenness, which
+enervate the human mind, followed; hence it came about that
+when they resisted William, with more rashness and precipitate
+fury than military skill, they doomed themselves and their
+country to slavery by a single, and that an easy, victory.<a name="FNanchor_345" id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> For
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>
+nothing is less effective than rashness; and what begins with
+violence quickly ceases or is repelled. The English at that time
+<span class="sidebar">The English
+people described</span>
+wore short garments, reaching to the mid-knee;
+they had their hair cropped, their beards shaven,
+their arms laden with golden bracelets, their skin
+adorned with tattooed designs. They were accustomed to eat
+until they became surfeited, and to drink until they were sick.
+These latter qualities they imparted to their conquerors; as for
+the rest, they adopted their manners. I would not, however,
+have these bad characteristics ascribed to the English universally;
+I know that many of the clergy at that day trod the path
+of sanctity by a blameless life. I know that many of the laity,
+of all ranks and conditions, in this nation were well-pleasing to
+God. Be injustice far from this account; the accusation does not
+involve the whole, indiscriminately. But as in peace the mercy
+of God often cherishes the bad and the good together, so, equally,
+does His severity sometimes include them both in captivity.</p>
+
+<p>The Normans&mdash;that I may speak of them also&mdash;were at that
+time, and are even now, exceedingly particular in their dress
+and delicate in their food, but not so to excess. They are a race
+accustomed to war, and can hardly live without it; fierce in rushing
+against the enemy, and, where force fails to succeed, ready
+<span class="sidebar">A description
+of the Normans</span>
+to use stratagem or to corrupt by bribery. As
+I have said, they live in spacious houses with
+economy, envy their superiors, wish to excel their
+equals, and plunder their subjects, though they defend them
+from others; they are faithful to their lords, though a slight
+offense alienates them. They weigh treachery by its chance of
+success, and change their sentiments for money. The most
+hospitable, however, of all nations, they esteem strangers worthy
+of equal honor with themselves; they also intermarry with their
+vassals. They revived, by their arrival, the rule of religion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>
+which had everywhere grown lifeless in England.<a name="FNanchor_346" id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> You might
+see churches rise in every village, and monasteries in the towns
+and cities, built after a style unknown before; you might behold
+the country flourishing with renewed rites; so that each wealthy
+man accounted that day lost to him which he had neglected to
+signalize by some beneficent act.</p>
+
+<h4>41. William the Conqueror as Man and as King</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In the following passage, taken from the Saxon Chronicle, we have
+an interesting summary of the character of the Conqueror and of his
+conduct as king of England. Both the good and bad sides of the
+picture are clearly brought out and perhaps it is not quite easy to say
+which is given the greater prominence. On the one hand there is
+William's devotion to the Church, his establishment of peace and order,
+his mildness in dealing with all but those who had antagonized him,
+and the virtue of his personal life; on the other is his severity, rapacity,
+and pride, his heavy taxes and his harsh forest laws. As one writer
+says, "the Conquest was bad as well as good for England; but the
+harm was only temporary, the good permanent." It is greatly to the
+credit of the English chronicler that he was able to deal so fairly with
+the character of one whom he had not a few patriotic reasons for maligning.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>The Saxon Chronicle.</i> Translated by J. A. Giles (London, 1847),
+pp. 461-462.</p>
+
+<p>If any one would know what manner of man King William
+was, the glory that he obtained, and of how many lands he was
+lord, then will we describe him as we have known him, we who
+have looked upon him and who once lived at his court. This
+King William, of whom we are speaking, was a very wise and a
+great man, and more honored and more powerful than any of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span>
+his predecessors. He was mild to those good men who loved
+God, but severe beyond measure towards those who withstood
+<span class="sidebar">William's
+religious zeal</span>
+his will. He founded a noble monastery on the
+spot where God permitted him to conquer England,
+and he established monks in it, and he made it very rich.<a name="FNanchor_347" id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a>
+In his days the great monastery at Canterbury was built,<a name="FNanchor_348" id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> and
+many others also throughout England; moreover, this land was
+filled with monks who lived after the rule of St. Benedict; and
+such was the state of religion in his days that all who would
+might observe that which was prescribed by their respective
+orders.</p>
+
+<p>King William was also held in much reverence. He wore his
+crown three times every year when he was in England: at Easter
+he wore it at Winchester,<a name="FNanchor_349" id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> at Pentecost at Westminster,<a name="FNanchor_350" id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> and at
+Christmas at Gloucester.<a name="FNanchor_351" id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> And at these times all the men of
+<span class="sidebar">His strong
+government</span>
+England were with him, archbishops, bishops,
+abbots and earls, thanes<a name="FNanchor_352" id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> and knights.<a name="FNanchor_353" id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> So also
+was he a very stern and a wrathful man, so that none durst
+do anything against his will, and he kept in prison those earls
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span>
+who acted against his pleasure. He removed bishops from their
+sees<a name="FNanchor_354" id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> and abbots from their offices, and he imprisoned thanes,
+and at length he spared not his own brother Odo. This Odo was
+a very powerful bishop in Normandy. His see was that of
+Bayeux,<a name="FNanchor_355" id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> and he was foremost to serve the king. He had an
+earldom in England, and when William was in Normandy he
+[Odo] was the first man in this country [England], and him did
+William cast into prison.<a name="FNanchor_356" id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a></p>
+
+<p>Amongst other things, the good order that William established
+is not to be forgotten. It was such that any man, who was himself
+aught, might travel over the kingdom with a bosom full of
+gold unmolested; and no man durst kill another, however great
+the injury he might have received from him. He reigned over
+England, and being sharp-sighted to his own interest, he surveyed
+the kingdom so thoroughly that there was not a single
+<span class="sidebar">The extent of
+his power</span>
+hide of land throughout the whole of which he
+knew not the possessor, and how much it was
+worth, and this he afterwards entered in his register.<a name="FNanchor_357" id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> The land
+of the Britons [Wales] was under his sway, and he built castles
+therein; moreover he had full dominion over the Isle of Man;<a name="FNanchor_358" id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a>
+Scotland also was subject to him, from his great strength; the
+land of Normandy was his by inheritance, and he possessed the
+earldom of Maine;<a name="FNanchor_359" id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> and had he lived two years longer, he would
+have subdued Ireland by his prowess, and that without a battle.<a name="FNanchor_360" id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a></p>
+
+<p>Truly there was much trouble in these times, and very great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span>
+distress. He caused castles to be built and oppressed the poor.
+The king was also of great sternness, and he took from his subjects
+many marks of gold, and many hundred pounds of silver,
+and this, either with or without right, and with little need. He
+was given to avarice, and greedily loved gain.<a name="FNanchor_361" id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> He made large
+forests for the deer, and enacted laws therewith, so that whoever
+killed a hart or a hind should be blinded. As he forbade killing
+<span class="sidebar">His faults
+as a ruler</span>
+the deer, so also the boars; and he loved the tall
+stags as if he were their father. He also commanded
+concerning the hares, that they should go free.<a name="FNanchor_362" id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> The
+rich complained and the poor murmured, but he was so sturdy
+that he recked nought of them; they must will all that the king
+willed, if they would live, or would keep their lands, or would hold
+their possessions, or would be maintained in their rights. Alas
+that any man should so exalt himself, and carry himself in his
+pride over all! May Almighty God show mercy to his soul, and
+grant him the forgiveness of his sins! We have written concerning
+him these things, both good and bad, that virtuous men
+may follow after the good, and wholly avoid the evil, and
+may go in the way that leadeth to the kingdom of heaven.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XV.<br />
+THE MONASTIC REFORMATION OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH,
+AND TWELFTH CENTURIES</h3>
+
+<h4>42. The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the Benedictine Rule [see
+<a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>] was the code under which were governed practically all the
+monastic establishments of western Europe. There was a natural
+tendency, however, for the severe and exacting features of the Rule to
+be softened considerably in actual practice. As one writer puts it, "the
+excessive abstinence and many other of the mechanical observances of
+the rule were soon found to have little real utility when simply enforced
+by a rule, and not practiced willingly for the sake of self-discipline."
+The obligation of manual labor, for example, was frequently dispensed
+with in order that the monks might occupy themselves with the studies
+for which the Benedictines have always been famous. Too often such
+relaxation was but a pretext for the indulgence of idleness or vice.
+The disrepute into which such tendencies brought the monastics in
+the tenth and eleventh centuries gave rise to numerous attempts to
+revive the primitive discipline, the most notable of which was the so-called
+"Cluniac movement."</p>
+
+<p>The monastery of Cluny, on the borders of Aquitaine and Burgundy,
+was established under the terms of a charter issued by William the
+Pious, duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, September 11, 910.
+The conditions of its foundation, set forth in the text of the charter
+given below, were in many ways typical. The history of the monastery
+was, however, quite exceptional. During the invasions and civil wars
+of the latter half of the ninth century, many of the monasteries of western
+Europe had fallen under the control of unscrupulous laymen who
+used them mainly to satisfy their greed or ambition, and in consequence
+by the time that Cluny was founded the standard of monastic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span>
+life and service had been seriously impaired. The monks had grown
+worldly, education was neglected, and religious services had become
+empty formalities. Powerful nobles used their positions of advantage
+to influence, and often to dictate, the election of bishops and abbots,
+and the men thus elected were likely enough to be unworthy of their
+offices in both character and ability. The charter of the Cluny monastery,
+however, expressly provided that the abbot should be chosen by
+canonical election, i.e., by the monks, and without any sort of outside
+interference. The life of the monastery was to be regulated by the
+Benedictine Rule, though with rather less stress on manual labor and
+rather more on religious services and literary employment. Cluny,
+indeed, soon came to be one of the principal centers of learning in western
+Europe, as well as perhaps the greatest administrator of charity.</p>
+
+<p>Another notable achievement of Cluny was the building up of the so-called
+"Cluny Congregation." Hitherto it had been customary for monasteries
+to be entirely independent of one another, even when founded
+by monks sent out from a parent establishment. Cluny, however, kept
+under the control of her own abbot all monasteries founded by her
+agents and made the priors of these monasteries directly responsible
+to him. Many outside abbeys were drawn into the new system, so that
+by the middle of the twelfth century the Cluny congregation was comprised
+of more than two thousand monasteries, all working harmoniously
+under a single abbot-general. The majority of these were in France, but
+there were many also in Spain, Italy, Poland, Germany, and England.
+It was the Cluny monks who gave the Pope his chief support in the
+struggle to free the Church from lay investiture and simony and to
+enforce the ideal of a celibate clergy. This movement for reform may
+properly be said, indeed, to have originated with the Cluniacs and to
+have been taken up only later by the popes, chiefly by Gregory VII.
+By the end of the eleventh century Cluniac discipline had begun to
+grow lax and conditions were gradually shaped for another wave of
+monastic reform, which came with the establishment of the Carthusians
+(in 1084) and of the Cistercians (in 1098).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Martin Bouquet, <i>Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la
+France</i> ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul and of France"]
+(Paris, 1874), Vol. IX., pp. 709-711.</p>
+
+<p>To all who think wisely it is evident that the providence of
+God has made it possible for rich men, by using well their temporal
+possessions, to be able to merit eternal rewards....
+I, William, count and duke, after diligent reflection, and desiring
+to provide for my own safety while there is still time, have
+decided that it is advisable, indeed absolutely necessary, that
+<span class="sidebar">Motives
+for Duke
+William's
+benefaction</span>
+from the possessions which God has given me I
+should give some portion for the good of my soul.
+I do this, indeed, in order that I who have thus increased
+in wealth may not at the last be accused of having spent all
+in caring for my body, but rather may rejoice, when fate at length
+shall snatch all things away, in having preserved something for
+myself. I cannot do better than follow the precepts of Christ
+and make His poor my friends. That my gift may be durable and
+not transitory I will support at my own expense a congregation
+of monks. And I hope that I shall receive the reward of the
+righteous because I have received those whom I believe to be
+righteous and who despise the world, although I myself am not
+able to despise all things.<a name="FNanchor_363" id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a></p>
+
+<p>Therefore be it known to all who live in the unity of the faith
+and who await the mercy of Christ, and to those who shall succeed
+them and who shall continue to exist until the end of the
+world, that, for the love of God and of our Saviour Jesus Christ,
+I hand over from my own rule to the holy apostles, namely,
+<span class="sidebar">The land and
+other property
+ceded</span>
+Peter and Paul, the possessions over which I hold
+sway&mdash;the town of Cluny, with the court and
+demesne manor, and the church in honor of St.
+Mary, the mother of God, and of St. Peter, the prince of the
+apostles, together with all the things pertaining to it, the villas,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span>
+the chapels, the serfs of both sexes, the vines, the fields, the
+meadows, the woods, the waters and their outlets, the mills, the
+incomes and revenues, what is cultivated and what is not, all
+without reserve. These things are situated in or about the
+county of Mâcon<a name="FNanchor_364" id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a>, each one marked off by definite bounds. I
+give, moreover, all these things to the aforesaid apostles&mdash;I,
+William, and my wife Ingelberga&mdash;first for the love of God; then
+for the soul of my lord King Odo, of my father and my mother;
+for myself and my wife,&mdash;for the salvation, namely, of our souls
+and bodies; and not least, for that of Ava, who left me these
+things in her will; for the souls also of our brothers and sisters
+and nephews, and of all our relatives of both sexes; for our faithful
+ones who adhere to our service; for the advancement, also,
+and integrity of the Catholic religion. Finally, since all of us
+Christians are held together by one bond of love and faith, let
+this donation be for all&mdash;for the orthodox, namely, of past,
+present, or future times.</p>
+
+<p>I give these things, moreover, with this understanding, that
+in Cluny a monastery shall be constructed in honor of the holy
+apostles Peter and Paul, and that there the monks shall congregate
+and live according to the rule of St. Benedict, and that
+<span class="sidebar">A monastery
+to be established.</span>
+they shall possess and make use of these same
+things for all time. In such wise, however, that
+the venerable house of prayer which is there shall
+be faithfully frequented with vows and supplications, and that
+heavenly conversations shall be sought after with all desire and
+with the deepest ardor; and also that there shall be diligently
+directed to God prayers and exhortations, as well for me as for
+all, according to the order in which mention has been made of
+them above. And let the monks themselves, together with all
+aforesaid possessions, be under the power and dominion of the
+abbot Berno, who, as long as he shall live, shall preside over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span>
+them regularly according to his knowledge and ability.<a name="FNanchor_365" id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> But
+after his death, those same monks shall have power and permission
+<span class="sidebar">Election of
+abbots to be
+"canonical"</span>
+to elect any one of their order whom
+they please as abbot and rector, following the will
+of God and the rule promulgated by St. Benedict&mdash;in
+such wise that neither by the intervention of our own or
+of any other power may they be impeded from making a purely canonical
+election. Every five years, moreover, the aforesaid monks
+shall pay to the church of the apostles at Rome ten shillings to
+supply them with lights; and they shall have the protection of
+those same apostles and the defense of the Roman pontiff; and
+those monks may, with their whole heart and soul, according to
+their ability and knowledge, build up the aforesaid place.</p>
+
+<p>We will, further, that in our times and in those of our successors,
+according as the opportunities and possibilities of that
+<span class="sidebar">Works of charity
+enjoined</span>
+place shall allow, there shall daily, with the greatest
+zeal, be performed works of mercy towards
+the poor, the needy, strangers, and pilgrims.<a name="FNanchor_366" id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> It has pleased us
+also to insert in this document that, from this day, those same
+monks there congregated shall be subject neither to our yoke,
+nor to that of our relatives, nor to the sway of the royal might,
+nor to that of any earthly power. And, through God and all His
+saints, and by the awful day of judgment, I warn and admonish
+that no one of the secular princes, no count, no bishop, not even
+the pontiff of the aforesaid Roman see, shall invade the property
+of these servants of God, or alienate it, or diminish it, or exchange
+it, or give it as a benefice to any one, or set up any prelate
+over them against their will.<a name="FNanchor_367" id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>43. The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of Clairvaux</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The most important individual who had part in the twelfth century
+movement for monastic reform was unquestionably St. Bernard, of
+whom indeed it has been said with reason that for a quarter of a century
+there was no more influential man in Europe. Born in 1091, he came
+upon the scene when times were ripe for great deeds and great careers,
+whether with the crusading hosts in the East or in the vexed swirl of
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs in the West. Particularly were the
+times ripe for a great preacher and reformer&mdash;one who could avail himself
+of the fresh zeal of the crusading period and turn a portion of it to
+the regeneration of the corrupt and sluggish spiritual life which in far
+too great a measure had crept in to replace the earlier purity and devotion
+of the clergy. The need of reform was perhaps most conspicuous
+in the monasteries, for many monastic establishments had not been
+greatly affected by the Cluniac movement of the previous century, and
+in many of those which had been touched temporarily the purifying
+influences had about ceased to produce results. It was as a monastic
+reformer that St. Bernard rendered greatest service to the Church of
+his day, though he was far more than a mere zealot. He was, says
+Professor Emerton, more than any other man, representative of the
+spirit of the Middle Ages. "The monastery meant to him, not a place of
+easy and luxurious retirement, where a man might keep himself pure
+from earthly contact, nor even a home of learning, from which a man
+might influence his world. It meant rather a place of pitiless discipline,
+whereby the natural man should be reduced to the lowest terms and
+thus the spiritual life be given its largest liberty. The aim of Bernard
+was nothing less than the regeneration of society through the presence
+in it of devoted men, bound together by a compact organization, and
+holding up to the world the highest types of an ideal which had already
+fixed itself in the imagination of the age."<a name="FNanchor_368" id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a></p>
+
+<p>The founding of Clairvaux by St. Bernard, in 1115, was not the beginning
+of a new monastic order; the Cistercians, to whom the establishment
+properly belonged, had originated at Cîteaux seventeen years
+before. But in later times St. Bernard was very properly regarded as a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>
+second founder of the Cistercians, and the story of his going forth from
+the parent house to establish the new one affords an excellent illustration
+of the spirit which dominated the leaders in monastic reform in
+the eleventh and twelfth centuries and of the methods they employed
+to keep alive the lofty ideals of the old Benedictine system; and, although
+individual monasteries were founded under the most diverse
+circumstances, the story is of interest as showing us the precise way in
+which one monastic house took its origin. By the time of St. Bernard's
+death (1153) not fewer than a hundred and fifty religious houses had
+been regenerated under his inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>We are fortunate in possessing a composite biography of the great
+reformer which is practically contemporary. It is in five books, the first
+of which was written by William, abbot of St. Thierry of Rheims; the
+second by Arnold, abbot of Bonneval, near Chartres; and the third,
+fourth, and fifth by Geoffrey, a monk of Clairvaux and a former secretary
+of St. Bernard. William of St. Thierry (from whose portion of the
+biography selection "a" below is taken) wrote about 1140, Arnold and
+Geoffrey soon after Bernard's death in 1153.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, <i>Bernardus Clarævallensis</i> [William
+of Saint Thierry, "Life of St. Bernard"], Bk. I., Chaps. 1-4.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) The <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>. Translated in Edward L. Cutts, <i>Scenes
+and Characters of the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1872), pp. 11-12.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>Saint Bernard was born at Fontaines in Burgundy [near
+Dijon], at the castle of his father. His parents were famed
+among the famous of that age, most of all because of their piety.
+His father, Tescelin, was a member of an ancient and knightly
+family, fearing God and scrupulously just. Even when engaged
+in holy war he plundered and destroyed no one; he contented
+himself with his worldly possessions, of which he had an abundance,
+and used them in all manner of good works. With both
+<span class="sidebar">Bernard's
+parents</span>
+his counsel and his arms he served temporal lords,
+but so as never to neglect to render to the sovereign
+Lord that which was due Him. Bernard's mother, Alith,
+of the castle Montbar, mindful of holy law, was submissive to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span>
+her husband and, with him, governed the household in the fear
+of God, devoting herself to deeds of mercy and rearing her children
+in strict discipline. She bore seven children, six boys and
+one girl, not so much for the glory of her husband as for that
+of God; for all the sons became monks and the daughter a
+nun....<a name="FNanchor_369" id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a></p>
+
+<p>As soon as Bernard was of sufficient age his mother intrusted
+his education to the teachers in the church at Châtillon<a name="FNanchor_370" id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> and
+did everything in her power to enable him to make rapid progress.
+The young boy, abounding in pleasing qualities and endowed
+with natural genius, fulfilled his mother's every expectation;
+for he advanced in his study of letters at a speed beyond
+his age and that of other children of the same age. But in secular
+matters he began already, and very naturally, to humble himself
+<span class="sidebar">His early
+characteristics</span>
+in the interest of his future perfection, for
+he exhibited the greatest simplicity, loved to be
+in solitude, fled from people, was extraordinarily thoughtful,
+submitted himself implicitly to his parents, had little desire to
+converse, was devoted to God, and applied himself to his studies
+as the means by which he should be able to learn of God through
+the Scriptures....</p>
+
+<p>Determined that it would be best for him to abandon the
+world, he began to inquire where his soul, under the yoke of
+Christ, would be able to find the most complete and sure repose.
+The recent establishment of the order of Cîteaux<a name="FNanchor_371" id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> suggested
+itself to his thought. The harvest was abundant, but the
+<span class="sidebar">He decides to
+become a monk
+at Cîteaux</span>
+laborers were few, for hardly any one had sought
+happiness by taking up residence there, because of
+the excessive austerity of life and the poverty
+which there prevailed, but which had no terrors for the soul truly
+seeking God. Without hesitation or misgivings, he turned his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span>
+steps to that place, thinking that there he would be able to find
+seclusion and, in the secret of the presence of God, escape the
+importunities of men; wishing particularly there to gain a refuge
+from the vain glory of the noble's life, and to win purity of soul,
+and perhaps the name of saint.</p>
+
+<p>When his brothers, who loved him according to the flesh,
+discovered that he intended to become a monk, they employed
+every means to turn him to the pursuit of letters and to attach
+him to the secular life by the love of worldly knowledge. Without
+doubt, as he has himself declared, he was not a little moved
+by their arguments. But the memory of his devout mother
+urged him importunately to take the step. It often seemed to
+him that she appeared before him, reproaching him and reminding
+him that she had not reared him for frivolous things of that
+sort, and that she had brought him up in quite another hope.
+Finally, one day when he was returning from the siege of a
+château called Grancey, and was coming to his brothers, who
+were with the duke of Burgundy, he began to be violently tormented
+by these thoughts. Finding by the roadside a church,
+he went in and there prayed, with flooded eyes, lifting his hands
+toward Heaven and pouring out his heart like water before the
+Lord. That day fixed his resolution irrevocably. From that
+<span class="sidebar">His struggle
+and his victory</span>
+hour, even as the fire consumes the forests and
+the flame ravages the mountains, seizing everything,
+devouring first that which is nearest but advancing to
+objects farther removed, so did the fire which God had kindled
+in the heart of his servant, desiring that it should consume it,
+lay hold first of his brothers (of whom only the youngest, incapable
+yet of becoming a monk, was left to console his old
+father), then his parents, his companions, and his friends, from
+whom no one had ever expected such a step....</p>
+
+<p>The number of those who decided to take upon themselves
+monastic vows increased and, as one reads of the earliest sons
+of the Church, "all the multitude of those who believed were of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>
+one mind and one heart" [Acts v. 32]. They lived together and
+no one else dared mingle with them. They had at Châtillon a
+house which they possessed in common and in which they held
+meetings, dwelt together, and held converse with one another.
+<span class="sidebar">Bernard and
+his companions
+at Châtillon</span>
+No one was so bold as to enter it, unless he were
+a member of the congregation. If any one entered
+there, seeing and hearing what was done
+and said (as the Apostle declared of the Christians of Corinth),
+he was convinced by their prophecies and, adoring the Lord and
+perceiving that God was truly among them, he either joined himself
+to the brotherhood or, going away, wept at his own plight
+and their happy state....</p>
+
+<p>At that time, the young and feeble establishment at Cîteaux,
+under the venerable abbot Stephen,<a name="FNanchor_372" id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> began to be seriously weakened
+by its paucity of numbers and to lose all hope of having
+successors to perpetuate the heritage of holy poverty, for everybody
+revered the life of these monks for its sanctity but held aloof
+from it because of its austerity. But the monastery was suddenly
+<span class="sidebar">They enter
+Cîteaux</span>
+visited and made glad by the Lord in a
+happy and unhoped-for manner. In 1113, fifteen
+years after the foundation of the monastery, the servant of God,
+Bernard, then about twenty-three years of age, entered the
+establishment under the abbot Stephen, with his companions
+to the number of more than thirty, and submitted himself to the
+blessed yoke of Christ. From that day God prospered the house,
+and that vine of the Lord bore fruit, putting forth its branches
+from sea to sea.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the holy beginnings of the monastic life of that
+man of God. It is impossible to any one who has not been imbued
+as he with the spirit of God to recount the illustrious deeds
+of his career, and his angelic conduct, during his life on earth.
+He entered the monastery poor in spirit, still obscure and of no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>
+fame, with the intention of there perishing in the heart and
+memory of men, and hoping to be forgotten and ignored like a
+lost vessel. But God ordered it otherwise, and prepared him as
+a chosen vessel, not only to strengthen and extend the monastic
+order, but also to bear His name before kings and peoples to the
+ends of the earth....</p>
+
+<p>At the time of harvest the brothers were occupied, with the
+fervor and joy of the Holy Spirit, in reaping the grain. Since
+he [Bernard] was not able to have part in the labor, they bade
+him sit by them and take his ease. Greatly troubled, he had
+<span class="sidebar">Bernard prays
+for and obtains
+the ability to
+reap</span>
+recourse to prayer and, with much weeping, implored
+the Lord to grant him the strength to become
+a reaper. The simplicity of his faith did not
+deceive him, for that which he asked he obtained. Indeed from
+that day he prided himself in being more skilful than the others at
+that task; and he was the more given over to devotion during
+that labor because he realized that the ability to perform it
+was a direct gift from God. Refreshed by his employments of
+this kind, he prayed, read, or meditated continuously. If an
+opportunity for prayer in solitude offered itself, he seized it; but
+in any case, whether by himself or with companions, he preserved
+a solitude in his heart, and thus was everywhere alone. He read
+gladly, and always with faith and thoughtfulness, the Holy
+Scriptures, saying that they never seemed to him so clear as
+when read in the text alone, and he declared his ability to discern
+their truth and divine virtue much more readily in the
+<span class="sidebar">His devotion
+and knowledge
+of the Scriptures</span>
+source itself than in the commentaries which
+were derived from it. Nevertheless, he read
+humbly the saints and orthodox commentators
+and made no pretense of rivaling their knowledge; but, submitting
+his to theirs, and tracing it faithfully to its sources, he
+drank often at the fountain whence they had drawn. It is thus
+that, full of the spirit which has divinely inspired all Holy Scripture,
+he has served God to this day, as the Apostle says, with so
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span>
+great confidence, and such ability to instruct, convert, and sway.
+And when he preaches the word of God, he renders so clear and
+agreeable that which he takes from Scripture to insert in his
+discourse, and he has such power to move men, that everybody,
+both those clever in worldly matters and those who possess
+spiritual knowledge, marvel at the eloquent words which fall
+from his lips.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>Twelve monks and their abbot, representing our Lord and His
+apostles, were assembled in the church. Stephen placed a cross
+in Bernard's hands, who solemnly, at the head of his small band,
+walked forth from Cîteaux.... Bernard struck away to
+the northward. For a distance of nearly ninety miles he kept
+this course, passing up by the source of the Seine, by Châtillon,
+of school-day memories, until he arrived at La Ferté, about
+<span class="sidebar">Site selected
+for the new
+monastery</span>
+equally distant between Troyes and Chaumont,
+in the diocese of Langres, and situated on the
+river Aube.<a name="FNanchor_373" id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> About four miles beyond La Ferté
+was a deep valley opening to the east. Thick umbrageous forests
+gave it a character of gloom and wildness; but a gushing stream
+of limpid water which ran through it was sufficient to redeem
+every disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1115, Bernard took up his abode in the "Valley of
+Wormwood," as it was called, and began to look for means of
+shelter and sustenance against the approaching winter. The
+<span class="sidebar">The first building
+constructed</span>
+rude fabric which he and his monks raised with
+their own hands was long preserved by the pious
+veneration of the Cistercians. It consisted of
+a building covered by a single roof, under which chapel, dormitory,
+and refectory were all included. Neither stone nor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span>
+wood hid the bare earth, which served for a floor. Windows
+scarcely wider than a man's head admitted a feeble light. In
+this room the monks took their frugal meals of herbs and water.
+Immediately above the refectory was the sleeping apartment.
+It was reached by a ladder, and was, in truth, a sort of loft.
+Here were the monks' beds, which were peculiar. They were
+made in the form of boxes, or bins, of wooden planks, long and
+wide enough for a man to lie down in. A small space, hewn out
+with an axe, allowed room for the sleeper to get in or out. The
+inside was strewn with chaff, or dried leaves, which, with the
+woodwork, seem to have been the only covering permitted....</p>
+
+<p>The monks had thus got a house over their heads; but they
+had very little else. They had left Cîteaux in June. Their
+journey had probably occupied them a fortnight; their clearing,
+preparations, and building, perhaps two months; and thus they
+were near September when this portion of their labor was accomplished.
+Autumn and winter were approaching, and they
+had no store laid by. Their food during the summer had been
+a compound of leaves intermixed with coarse grain. Beech-nuts
+and roots were to be their main support during the winter.
+<span class="sidebar">Hardships
+encountered</span>
+And now to the privations of insufficient food
+was added the wearing out of their shoes and
+clothes. Their necessities grew with the severity of the season,
+until at last even salt failed them; and presently Bernard heard
+murmurs. He argued and exhorted; he spoke to them of the
+fear and love of God, and strove to rouse their drooping spirits
+by dwelling on the hopes of eternal life and Divine recompense.
+Their sufferings made them deaf and indifferent to their abbot's
+words. They would not remain in this valley of bitterness; they
+would return to Cîteaux. Bernard, seeing they had lost their
+trust in God, reproved them no more; but himself sought in
+earnest prayer for release from their difficulties. Presently a
+voice from heaven said, "Arise, Bernard, thy prayer is granted
+thee." Upon which the monks said, "What didst thou ask of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span>
+the Lord?" "Wait, and ye shall see, ye of little faith," was the
+reply; and presently came a stranger who gave the abbot ten
+livres.</p>
+
+<h4>44. A Description of Clairvaux</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The following is an interesting description of the abbey of Clairvaux,
+written by William of St. Thierry, the friend and biographer of Bernard.
+After giving an account of the external appearance and surroundings
+of the monastery, the writer goes on to portray the daily life and devotion
+of the monks who resided in it. In reading the description it
+should be borne in mind that Clairvaux was a new establishment,
+founded expressly to further the work of monastic reform, and that
+therefore at the time when William of St. Thierry knew it, it exhibited
+a state of piety and industry considerably above that to be found in
+the average abbey of the day.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, <i>Bernardus Clarævallensis</i> [William
+of Saint Thierry, "Life of St. Bernard"], Bk. I., Chap. 7. Translated
+in Edward L. Cutts, <i>Scenes and Characters of the Middle
+Ages</i> (London, 1872), pp. 12-14.</p>
+
+<p>At the first glance as you entered Clairvaux by descending the
+hill you could see that it was a temple of God; and the still,
+silent valley bespoke, in the modest simplicity of its buildings,
+the unfeigned humility of Christ's poor. Moreover, in this valley
+full of men, where no one was permitted to be idle, where one
+and all were occupied with their allotted tasks, a silence deep
+<span class="sidebar">The solitude
+of Clairvaux</span>
+as that of night prevailed. The sounds of labor, or
+the chants of the brethren in the choral service,
+were the only exceptions. The orderliness of this silence, and
+the report that went forth concerning it, struck such a reverence
+even into secular persons that they dreaded breaking it,&mdash;I will
+not say by idle or wicked conversation, but even by proper
+remarks. The solitude, also, of the place&mdash;between dense forests
+in a narrow gorge of neighboring hills&mdash;in a certain sense recalled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>
+the cave of our father St. Benedict,<a name="FNanchor_374" id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> so that while they strove
+to imitate his life, they also had some similarity to him in their
+habitation and loneliness....</p>
+
+<p>Although the monastery is situated in a valley, it has its
+foundations on the holy hills, whose gates the Lord loveth more
+than all the dwellings of Jacob. Glorious things are spoken of
+it, because the glorious and wonderful God therein worketh great
+marvels. There the insane recover their reason, and although
+their outward man is worn away, inwardly they are born again.
+<span class="sidebar">Marvelous
+works accomplished
+there</span>
+
+There the proud are humbled, the rich are made
+poor, and the poor have the Gospel preached to
+them, and the darkness of sinners is changed
+into light. A large multitude of blessed poor from the ends of
+the earth have there assembled, yet have they one heart and
+one mind; justly, therefore, do all who dwell there rejoice with
+no empty joy. They have the certain hope of perennial joy, of
+their ascension heavenward already commenced. In Clairvaux,
+they have found Jacob's ladder, with angels upon it; some
+descending, who so provide for their bodies that they faint not
+on the way; others ascending, who so rule their souls that their
+bodies hereafter may be glorified with them.</p>
+
+<p>For my part, the more attentively I watch them day by day,
+the more do I believe that they are perfect followers of Christ
+in all things. When they pray and speak to God in spirit and
+in truth, by their friendly and quiet speech to Him, as well
+<span class="sidebar">The piety of
+the monks</span>
+as by their humbleness of demeanor, they are
+plainly seen to be God's companions and friends.
+When, on the other hand, they openly praise God with psalms,
+how pure and fervent are their minds, is shown by their posture
+of body in holy fear and reverence, while by their careful pronunciation
+and modulation of the psalms, is shown how sweet to
+their lips are the words of God&mdash;sweeter than honey to their
+mouths. As I watch them, therefore, singing without fatigue
+from before midnight to the dawn of day, with only a brief interval,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span>
+they appear a little less than the angels, but much more
+than men....</p>
+
+<p>As regards their manual labor, so patiently and placidly, with
+such quiet countenances, in such sweet and holy order, do they
+perform all things, that although they exercise themselves at
+many works, they never seem moved or burdened in anything,
+whatever the labor may be. Whence it is manifest that that
+Holy Spirit worketh in them who disposeth of all things with
+sweetness, in whom they are refreshed, so that they rest even
+<span class="sidebar">Their manual
+labor</span>
+in their toil. Many of them, I hear, are bishops
+and earls, and many illustrious through their
+birth or knowledge; but now, by God's grace, all distinction of
+persons being dead among them, the greater any one thought
+himself in the world, the more in this flock does he regard himself
+as less than the least. I see them in the garden with hoes, in the
+meadows with forks or rakes, in the fields with scythes, in the
+forest with axes. To judge from their outward appearance,
+their tools, their bad and disordered clothes, they appear a race
+of fools, without speech or sense. But a true thought in my mind
+tells me that their life in Christ is hidden in the heavens. Among
+them I see Godfrey of Peronne, Raynald of Picardy, William of
+St. Omer, Walter of Lisle, all of whom I knew formerly in the
+old man, whereof I now see no trace, by God's favor. I knew
+them proud and puffed up; I see them walking humbly under
+the merciful hand of God.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVI.<br />
+THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE</h3>
+
+<h4>45. Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Hildebrand, who as pope was known as Gregory VII., was born
+about the year 1025 in the vicinity of the little Tuscan town of Soana.
+His education was received in the rich monastery of Saint Mary on the
+Aventine, of which one of his uncles was abbot. At the age of twenty-five
+he became chaplain to Pope Gregory VI., after whose fall from
+power he sought seclusion in the monastery at Cluny. In 1049, however,
+he again appeared in Italy, this time in the rôle of companion to
+the new pontiff, Leo IX. In a few years he became sub-deacon and
+cardinal and was intrusted with the municipal affairs and financial interests
+of the Holy See. He served as papal legate in France and in
+1057 was sent to Germany to obtain the consent of Empress Agnes to
+the hurried election of Stephen IX. While in these countries he became
+convinced that the evil conditions&mdash;simony, lay investiture, and
+non-celibacy of the clergy&mdash;which the Cluniacs were seeking to reform
+would never be materially improved by the temporal powers, and consequently
+that the only hope of betterment lay in the establishing of
+an absolute papal supremacy before which kings, and even emperors,
+should be compelled to bow in submission. In April, 1073, Hildebrand
+himself was made pope, nominally by the vote of the College of Cardinals,
+but really by the enthusiastic choice of the Roman populace. His
+whole training and experience had fitted him admirably for the place
+and had equipped him with the capacity to make of his office something
+more than had any of his predecessors. When he became pope
+it was with a very lofty ideal of what the papacy should be, and the
+surprising measure in which he was able to realize this ideal entitles
+him without question to be regarded as the greatest of all mediæval
+popes.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the document given below, the so-called <i>Dictatus Papæ</i>, Pope Gregory's
+conception of the nature of the papal power and its proper place
+in the world is stated in the form of a clear and forcible summary.
+Until recently the <i>Dictatus</i> was supposed to have been written by Gregory
+himself, but it has been fairly well demonstrated that it was composed
+not earlier than 1087 and was therefore the work of some one else
+(Gregory died in 1085). It conforms very closely to a collection of the
+laws of the Church published in 1087 by a certain cardinal by the name
+of Deusdedit. The document loses little or none of its value by reason
+of this uncertainty as to its authorship, for it represents Pope Gregory's
+views as accurately as if he were known to have written it. In judging
+Gregory's theories it should be borne in mind (1) that it was not personal
+ambition, but sincere conviction, that lay beneath them; (2) that the
+temporal states which existed in western Europe in Gregory's day were
+rife with feudal anarchy and oppression and often too weak to be capable
+of rendering justice; and (3) that Gregory claimed, not that the Church
+should actually assume the management of the civil government
+throughout Europe, but only that in cases of notorious failure of temporal
+sovereigns to live right and govern well, the supreme authority
+of the papacy should be brought to bear upon them, either to depose
+them or to compel them to mend their ways. It is worthy of note,
+however, that Gregory was careful to lay the foundations of a formidable
+political power in Italy, chiefly by availing himself of the practices of
+feudalism, as seen, for example, in the grant of southern Italy to the
+Norman Robert Guiscard to be held as a fief of the Roman see.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i>
+(München, 1889), Vol. III., p. 17.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> That the Roman Church was founded by God alone.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> That the Roman bishop alone is properly called universal.<a name="FNanchor_375" id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> That he alone has the power to depose bishops and reinstate
+them.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> That his legate, though of inferior rank, takes precedence
+of all bishops in council, and may give sentence of deposition
+against them.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> That the Pope has the power to depose [bishops] in their
+absence.<a name="FNanchor_376" id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> That we should not even stay in the same house with those
+who are excommunicated by him.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> That he alone may use the imperial insignia.<a name="FNanchor_377" id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> That the Pope is the only person whose feet are kissed by
+all princes.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> That the name which he bears belongs to him alone.<a name="FNanchor_378" id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> That he has the power to depose emperors.<a name="FNanchor_379" id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> That he may, if necessity require, transfer bishops from
+one see to another.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> That no general synod may be called without his consent.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> That no action of a synod, and no book, may be considered
+canonical without his authority.<a name="FNanchor_380" id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> That his decree can be annulled by no one, and that he
+alone may annul the decrees of any one.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> That he can be judged by no man.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> That no one shall dare to condemn a person who appeals
+to the apostolic see.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> That the Roman Church has never erred, nor ever, by
+the testimony of Scripture, shall err, to all eternity.<a name="FNanchor_381" id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> That no one can be considered Catholic who does not agree
+with the Roman Church.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> That he [the Pope] has the power to absolve the subjects
+of unjust rulers from their oath of fidelity.</p>
+
+<h4>46. Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (December, 1075)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The high ideal of papal supremacy over temporal sovereigns which
+Gregory cherished when he became pope in 1073, and which is set
+forth so forcibly in the <i>Dictatus</i>, was one whose validity no king or
+emperor could be brought to recognize. It involved an attitude of
+inferiority and submissiveness which monarchs felt to be quite inconsistent
+with the complete independence which they claimed in the
+management of the affairs of their respective states. Perhaps one may
+say that the theory in itself, as a mere expression of religious sentiment,
+was not especially obnoxious; many an earlier pope had proclaimed it
+in substance without doing the kings and emperors of Europe material
+injury. It was the firm determination and the aggressive effort of
+Gregory to reduce the theory to an actual working system that precipitated
+a conflict.</p>
+
+<p>The supreme test of Gregory's ability to make the papal power felt in
+the measure that he thought it should be came early in the pontificate in
+the famous breach with Henry IV. of Germany. Henry at the time was
+not emperor in name, but only "king of the Romans," the imperial
+coronation not yet having taken place.<a name="FNanchor_382" id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> For all practical purposes,
+however, he may be regarded as occupying the emperor's position, since
+all that was lacking was the performance of a more or less perfunctory
+ceremony. Henry's specific grievances against the Pope were that the
+latter had declared it a sin for an ecclesiastic to be invested with his
+office by a layman, though this was almost the universal practice in
+Germany, and that he had condemned five of the king's councilors for
+simony,<a name="FNanchor_383" id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> suspended the archbishop of Bremen, the bishops of Speyer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span>
+and Strassburg, and two Lombard bishops, and deposed the bishop of
+Florence. Half of the land and wealth of Germany was in the hands
+of bishops and abbots who, if the Pope were to have his way, would be
+released from all practical dependence upon the king and so would be
+free to encourage and take part in the feudal revolts which Henry was
+exerting himself so vigorously to crush. June 8, 1075, on the banks of
+the Unstrutt, the king won a signal victory over the rebellious feudal
+lords, after which he felt strong enough to defy the authority of
+Gregory with impunity. He therefore continued to associate with the
+five condemned councilors and, in contempt of recent papal declarations
+against lay investiture, took it upon himself to appoint and invest
+a number of bishops and abbots, though always with extreme care that
+the right kind of men be selected. Pope Gregory was, of course, not
+the man to overlook such conduct and at once made vigorous protest.
+The letter given below was written in December, 1075, and is one of a
+considerable series which passed back and forth across the Alps prior
+to the breaking of the storm in 1076-1077. At this stage matters had
+not yet got beyond the possibility of compromise and reconciliation;
+in fact Gregory writes as much as anything else to get the king's own
+statement regarding the reports of his conduct which had come to
+Rome. The tone of the letter is firm, it is true, but conciliatory. The
+thunder of subsequent epistles to the recreant Henry had not yet been
+brought into play.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i>
+(München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 18-22. Adapted from translation
+in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval
+History</i> (New York, 1905), pp. 147-150.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to Henry, the
+king, greeting and apostolic benediction,&mdash;that is, if he be obedient
+to the apostolic see as is becoming in a Christian king:</p>
+
+<p>It is with some hesitation that we have sent you our apostolic
+benediction, knowing that for all our acts as pope we must
+render an account to God, the severe judge. It is reported that
+you have willingly associated with men who have been excommunicated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span>
+by decree of the Pope and sentence of a synod.<a name="FNanchor_384" id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> If
+this be true, you are very well aware that you can receive the
+blessing neither of God nor of the Pope until you have driven
+<span class="sidebar">Henry exhorted
+to confess
+his sins</span>
+them from you and have compelled them to do
+penance, and have also yourself sought absolution
+and forgiveness for your transgressions with due
+repentance and good works. Therefore we advise you that, if
+you realize your guilt in this matter, you immediately confess
+to some pious bishop, who shall absolve you with our permission,
+prescribing for you penance in proportion to the fault, and who
+shall faithfully report to us by letter, with your permission, the
+nature of the penance required.</p>
+
+<p>We wonder, moreover, that you should continue to assure us
+by letter and messengers of your devotion and humility; that
+you should call yourself our son and the son of the holy mother
+Church, obedient in the faith, sincere in love, diligent in devotion;
+and that you should commend yourself to us with all zeal
+of love and reverence&mdash;whereas in fact you are constantly
+disobeying the canonical and apostolic decrees in important
+matters of the faith.... Since you confess yourself a son
+of the Church, you should treat with more honor the head of
+the Church, that is, St. Peter, the prince of the apostles. If you
+are one of the sheep of the Lord, you have been entrusted to
+<span class="sidebar">The Pope's
+claim to authority
+over
+temporal
+princes</span>
+him by divine authority, for Christ said to him:
+"Peter, feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16]; and again:
+"And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom
+of Heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt bind
+on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt
+loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19]. And
+since we, although an unworthy sinner, exercise his authority by
+divine will, the words which you address to us are in reality addressed
+directly to him. And although we read or hear only the
+words, he sees the heart from which the words proceed. Therefore
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span>
+your highness should be very careful that no insincerity be
+found in your words and messages to us; and that you show due
+reverence, not to us, indeed, but to omnipotent God, in those
+things which especially make for the advance of the Christian
+faith and the well-being of the Church. For our Lord said to the
+apostles and to their successors: "He that heareth you heareth
+me, and he that despiseth you despiseth me" [Luke, x. 16].
+For no one will disregard our admonitions if he believes that the
+decrees of the Pope have the same authority as the words of the
+apostle himself....<a name="FNanchor_385" id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p>
+
+<p>Now in the synod held at the apostolic seat to which the divine
+will has called us (at which some of your subjects also were
+present) we, seeing that the Christian religion had been weakened
+by many attacks and that the chief and proper motive,
+that of saving souls, had for a long time been neglected and
+slighted, were alarmed at the evident danger of the destruction
+of the flock of the Lord, and had recourse to the decrees and the
+<span class="sidebar">Abuses in the
+Church to be
+corrected</span>
+doctrine of the holy fathers. We decreed nothing
+new, nothing of our invention; but we decided
+that the error should be abandoned and the single
+primitive rule of ecclesiastical discipline and the familiar way
+of the saints should be again sought out and followed.<a name="FNanchor_386" id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> For we
+know that no other door to salvation and eternal life lies open
+to the sheep of Christ than that which was pointed out by Him
+who said: "I am the door: by me if any man enter in he shall be
+saved, and find pasture" [John, x. 9]; and this, we learn from
+the gospels and from the sacred writings, was preached by the
+apostles and observed by the holy fathers. And we have decided
+that this decree&mdash;which some, placing human above divine
+honor, have called an unendurable weight and an immense
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span>
+burden, but which we call by its proper name, that is, the truth
+and light necessary to salvation&mdash;is to be received and observed
+not only by you and your subjects, but also by all princes and
+peoples of the earth who confess and worship Christ; for it is
+greatly desired by us, and would be most fitting to you, that
+as you are greater than others in glory, in honor, and in virtue,
+so you should be more distinguished in devotion to Christ.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, that this decree may not seem to you beyond
+measure grievous and unjust, we have commanded you by your
+faithful ambassadors to send to us the wisest and most pious men
+whom you can find in your kingdom, so that if they can show
+or instruct us in any way how we can temper the sentence
+<span class="sidebar">Gregory disposed
+to treat
+Henry fairly</span>
+promulgated by the holy fathers without offense
+to the eternal King or danger to our souls, we
+may consider their advice. But, even if we had
+not warned you in so friendly a manner, it would have been only
+right on your part, before you violated the apostolic decrees, to
+ask justice of us in a reasonable manner in any matter in which
+we had injured or affected your honor. But from what you
+have since done and decreed it is evident how little you care
+for our warnings, or for the observance of justice.</p>
+
+<p>But since we hope that, while the long-suffering patience of
+God still invites you to repent, you may become wiser and your
+heart may be turned to obey the commands of God, we warn
+you with fatherly love that, knowing the rule of Christ to be
+over you, you should consider how dangerous it is to place your
+honor above His, and that you should not interfere with the
+liberty of the Church which He has deigned to join to Himself
+by heavenly union, but rather with faithful devotion you should
+offer your assistance to the increasing of this liberty to omnipotent
+God and St. Peter, through whom also your glory may be
+enhanced. You ought to recognize what you undoubtedly owe
+to them for giving you victory over your enemies,<a name="FNanchor_387" id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> that as they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span>
+have gladdened you with great prosperity, so they should see
+that you are thereby rendered more devout. And in order that
+<span class="sidebar">Henry's obligation
+to serve
+and obey the
+papacy</span>
+the fear of God, in whose hands is all power and
+all rule, may affect your heart more than these
+our warnings, you should recall what happened
+to Saul, when, after winning the victory which he gained by
+the will of the prophet, he glorified himself in his triumph and
+did not obey the warnings of the prophet, and how God reproved
+him; and, on the other hand, what grace King David acquired
+by reason of his humility, as well as his other virtues.</p>
+
+<h4>47. Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (January, 1076)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In 1059, when Nicholas II. was pope and Hildebrand was yet only a
+cardinal, a council assembled at the Lateran decreed that henceforth
+the right of electing the sovereign pontiff should be vested exclusively
+in the college of cardinals, or in other words, in seven cardinal bishops
+in the vicinity of Rome and a certain number of cardinal priests and
+deacons attached to the parishes of the city. The people and clergy
+generally were deprived of participation in the election, except so far
+as merely to give their consent. Hildebrand seems to have been the
+real author of the decree. Nevertheless, in 1073, when he was elevated
+to the papal chair, the decree of 1059 was in a measure ignored, for he
+was elected by popular vote and his choice was only passively sanctioned
+by the cardinals. When, therefore, the quarrel between him and
+Henry IV. came on, the latter was not slow to make use of the weapon
+which Hildebrand's (or Gregory's) uncanonical election placed in his
+hands. In replying, January 24, 1076, to the papal letter of December,
+1075, he bluntly addresses himself to "Hildebrand, not pope, but
+false monk," and writes a stinging epistle in the tone thus assumed
+in his salutation. In his arraignment of Gregory the king doubtless
+went far beyond the truth; but the fact remains that Gregory's dominating
+purposes in the interest of the papal authority threatened to cut
+deeply into the independence of all temporal sovereigns, and therefore
+rendered such resistance as Henry offered quite inevitable. In the interim
+between receiving the Pope's letter and dispatching his reply
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span>
+Henry had convened at Worms a council of the German clergy, and
+this body had decreed that Gregory, having wrongfully ascended the
+papal throne, should be compelled forthwith to abdicate it.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i>
+(München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 24-25. Translated in Oliver J.
+Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i>
+(New York, 1905), pp. 151-152.</p>
+
+<p>Henry, king not by usurpation, but by the holy ordination
+of God, to Hildebrand, not pope, but false monk.</p>
+
+<p>This is the salutation which you deserve, for you have never
+held any office in the Church without making it a source of confusion
+and a curse to Christian men, instead of an honor and a
+blessing. To mention only the most obvious cases out of many,
+you have not only dared to lay hands on the Lord's anointed,
+the archbishops, bishops, and priests, but you have scorned
+<span class="sidebar">Gregory declared
+to be
+only a demagogue</span>
+them and abused them, as if they were ignorant
+servants not fit to know what their master was
+doing. This you have done to gain favor with
+the vulgar crowd. You have declared that the bishops know
+nothing and that you know everything; but if you have such
+great wisdom you have used it not to build but to destroy.
+Therefore we believe that St. Gregory, whose name you have
+presumed to take, had you in mind when he said: "The heart of
+the prelate is puffed up by the abundance of subjects, and he
+thinks himself more powerful than all others." All this we have
+endured because of our respect for the papal office, but you have
+mistaken our humility for fear, and have dared to make an
+attack upon the royal and imperial authority which we received
+<span class="sidebar">The papal
+claim to temporal
+supremacy
+rejected</span>
+from God. You have even threatened to take it
+away, as if we had received it from you, and as if
+the Empire and kingdom were in your disposal
+and not in the disposal of God. Our Lord Jesus Christ has
+called us to the government of the Empire, but He never
+called you to the rule of the Church. This is the way you
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>
+have gained advancement in the Church: through craft you have
+obtained wealth; through wealth you have obtained favor;
+through favor, the power of the sword; and through the power
+of the sword, the papal seat, which is the seat of peace; and then
+from the seat of peace you have expelled peace. For you have
+incited subjects to rebel against their prelates by teaching them
+to despise the bishops, their rightful rulers. You have given to
+laymen the authority over priests, whereby they condemn and
+depose those whom the bishops have put over them to teach
+them. You have attacked me, who, unworthy as I am, have
+yet been anointed to rule among the anointed of God, and who,
+according to the teaching of the fathers, can be judged by no
+one save God alone, and can be deposed for no crime except
+infidelity. For the holy fathers in the time of the apostate
+Julian<a name="FNanchor_388" id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> did not presume to pronounce sentence of deposition
+against him, but left him to be judged and condemned by God.
+<span class="sidebar">Henry
+also cites
+Scripture</span>
+St. Peter himself said, "Fear God, honor the
+king" [1 Pet., ii. 17]. But you, who fear not God,
+have dishonored me, whom He hath established.
+St. Paul, who said that even an angel from heaven should be
+accursed who taught any other than the true doctrine, did not
+make an exception in your favor, to permit you to teach false
+doctrines. For he says, "But though we, or an angel from
+heaven, preach any other gospel unto you than that which we
+have preached unto you, let him be accursed" [Gal., i. 8]. Come
+down, then, from that apostolic seat which you have obtained
+by violence; for you have been declared accursed by St. Paul
+for your false doctrines, and have been condemned by us and
+our bishops for your evil rule. Let another ascend the throne
+of St. Peter, one who will not use religion as a cloak of violence,
+but will teach the life-giving doctrine of that prince of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>
+apostles. I, Henry, king by the grace of God, with all my
+bishops, say unto you: "Come down, come down, and be accursed
+through all the ages."</p>
+
+<h4>48. Henry IV. Deposed by Pope Gregory (1076)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The foregoing letter of Henry IV. was received at Rome with a storm
+of disapproval and the envoys who bore it barely escaped with their
+lives. A council of French and Italian bishops was convened in the Lateran
+(Feb. 24, 1076), and the king's haughty epistle, together with the
+decree of the council at Worms deposing Gregory, were read and allowed
+to have their effect. With the assent of the bishops, the Pope pronounced
+the sentence of excommunication against Henry and formally
+released all the latter's Christian subjects from their oath of allegiance.
+Naturally the action of Gregory aroused intense interest throughout
+Europe. In Germany it had the intended effect of detaching many
+influential bishops and abbots from the imperial cause and stirring
+the political enemies of the king to renewed activity. The papal
+ban became a pretext for the renewal of the hostility on part of
+his dissatisfied subjects which Henry had but just succeeded in
+suppressing.</p>
+
+<p>In the first part of the papal decree Gregory seeks to defend himself
+against the charges brought by Henry and the German clergy to the
+effect that he had mounted the papal throne through personal ambition
+and the employment of unbecoming means. It was indisputable
+that his election had not been strictly in accord with the decree
+of 1059, but it seems equally true that, as Gregory declares, he was
+placed at the helm of the Church contrary to his personal desires.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i>
+(München, 1889), Vol. III., p. 26. Translated in Oliver J. Thatcher
+and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i> (New
+York, 1905), pp. 155-156.</p>
+
+<p>St. Peter, prince of the apostles, incline thine ear unto me,
+I beseech thee, and hear me, thy servant, whom thou hast
+nourished from mine infancy and hast delivered from mine
+enemies that hate me for my fidelity to thee. Thou art my witness,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span>
+as are also my mistress, the mother of God, and St. Paul
+thy brother, and all the other saints, that the Holy Roman Church
+<span class="sidebar">Gregory denies
+that he ever
+sought the
+papal office</span>
+called me to its government against my own will,
+and that I did not gain thy throne by violence;
+that I would rather have ended my days in exile
+than have obtained thy place by fraud or for worldly ambition.
+It is not by my efforts, but by thy grace, that I am set to rule
+over the Christian world which was especially intrusted to thee
+by Christ. It is by thy grace, and as thy representative that
+God has given to me the power to bind and to loose in heaven
+and in earth. Confident of my integrity and authority, I now
+declare in the name of the omnipotent God, the Father, Son,
+and Holy Spirit, that Henry, son of the Emperor Henry,<a name="FNanchor_389" id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> is
+<span class="sidebar">Henry
+deposed by
+papal decree</span>
+deprived of his kingdom of Germany and Italy.
+I do this by thy authority and in defense of the
+honor of thy Church, because he has rebelled
+against it. He who attempts to destroy the honor of the Church
+should be deprived of such honor as he may have held. He has
+refused to obey as a Christian should; he has not returned to
+God from whom he had wandered; he has had dealings with
+excommunicated persons; he has done many iniquities; he has
+despised the warnings which, as thou art witness, I sent to him
+for his salvation; he has cut himself off from thy Church, and
+has attempted to rend it asunder; therefore, by thy authority,
+I place him under the curse. It is in thy name that I curse him,
+that all people may know that thou art Peter, and upon thy
+rock the Son of the living God has built his Church, and the
+gates of Hell shall not prevail against it.</p>
+
+<h4>49. The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In his contest with the Pope, Henry's chances of winning were from
+the outset diminished by the readiness of his subjects to take advantage
+of his misfortunes to recover political privileges they had lost under his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span>
+vigorous rule. In October, 1076, the leading German nobles, lay and
+clerical, encouraged by the papal decree of the preceding February,
+assembled at Tribur, near Mainz, and proceeded to formulate a plan
+of action. Henry, with the few followers who remained faithful, awaited
+the result at Oppenheim, just across the Rhine. The magnates at last
+agreed that unless Henry could secure the removal of the papal ban
+within a year he should be deposed from the throne. By the Oppenheim
+Convention he was forced to promise to revoke his sentence of
+deposition against Gregory and to offer him his allegiance. The promise
+was executed in a royal edict of the same month. Seeing that there
+remained no hope in further resistance, and hearing that Gregory was
+about to present himself in Germany to compel a final adjustment of
+the affair, Henry fled from Speyer, where he had been instructed by
+the nobles to remain, and by a most arduous winter journey over the
+Alps arrived at last at the castle of Canossa, in Tuscany,<a name="FNanchor_390" id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> where the
+Pope, on his way to Germany, was being entertained by one of his
+allies, the Countess Matilda. Gregory might indeed already have been
+on the Rhine but that he had heard of the move Henry was making and
+feared that he was proposing to stir up revolt in the papal dominions.
+The king was submissive, apparently conquered; yet Gregory was loath
+to end the conflict at this point. He had hoped to establish a precedent
+by entering German territory and there disposing of the crown according
+to his own will. But it was a cardinal rule of the Church that a
+penitent sincerely seeking absolution could not be denied, and in his
+request Henry was certainly importunate enough to give every appearance
+of sincerity. Accordingly, the result of the meeting of king [Emperor]
+and Pope at Canossa was that the ban of excommunication was
+revoked by the latter, while the former took an oath fully acknowledging
+the papal claims.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as he had saved his crown and frustrated the design of
+Gregory to cross the mountains into Germany, Henry may be said
+to have won a temporary advantage; and this was followed within a
+few years, when the struggle broke out again, by the practical expulsion
+of Gregory from Rome and his death in broken-hearted exile (1085).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>
+Nevertheless the moral effect of the Canossa episode, and of the events
+which followed, in the long run operated decidedly against the king's
+position and the whole imperial theory. The document below is a
+letter of Gregory to the German magnates giving an account of the
+submission of the king at Canossa, and including the text of the oath
+which he there took.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica Selecta</i>
+(München, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 33-34. Adapted from translation
+in Ernest F. Henderson, <i>Select Historical Documents of the Middle
+Ages</i> (London, 1896), pp. 385-388.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to all the
+archbishops, bishops, dukes, counts, and other princes of the
+realm of the Germans who defend the Christian faith, greeting
+and apostolic benediction.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as for love of justice you assumed common cause
+and danger with us in the struggle of Christian warfare, we have
+taken care to inform you, beloved, with sincere affection, how
+the king, humbled to penance, obtained the pardon of absolution
+and how the whole affair has progressed from his entrance into
+Italy to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>As had been agreed with the legates who had been sent to us
+on your part,<a name="FNanchor_391" id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> we came into Lombardy about twenty days before
+the date on which one of the commanders was to come over the
+<span class="sidebar">Gregory's
+advance into
+Tuscany</span>
+pass to meet us, awaiting his advent that we
+might cross over to the other side. But when the
+period fixed upon had already passed, and we
+were told that at this time on account of many difficulties&mdash;as
+we can readily believe&mdash;an escort could not be sent to meet
+us, we were involved in no little perplexity as to what would
+be best for us to do, having no other means of coming to you.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, however, we learned that the king was approaching.
+He also, before entering Italy, sent to us suppliant legates,
+offering in all things to render satisfaction to God, to St. Peter,
+and to us. And he renewed his promise that, besides amending
+his way of living, he would observe all obedience if only he might
+deserve to obtain from us the favor of absolution and the apostolic
+benediction. When, after long postponing a decision and
+holding frequent consultations, we, through all the envoys who
+<span class="sidebar">Henry at
+Canossa</span>
+passed, had severely taken him to task for his
+excesses, he came at length of his own accord,
+with a few followers, showing nothing of hostility or boldness,
+to the town of Canossa where we were tarrying. And there,
+having laid aside all the belongings of royalty, wretchedly, with
+bare feet and clad in wool, he continued for three days to stand
+before the gate of the castle. Nor did he desist from imploring
+with many tears, the aid and consolation of the apostolic mercy
+until he had moved all of those who were present there, and
+whom the report of it reached, to such pity and depth of compassion
+that, interceding for him with many prayers and tears,
+all wondered indeed at the unaccustomed hardness of our heart,
+while some actually cried out that we were exercising, not the
+dignity of apostolic severity, but the cruelty, as it were, of a
+tyrannical madness.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, won by the persistency of his suit and by the constant
+supplications of all who were present, we loosed the chain
+of the anathema<a name="FNanchor_392" id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> and at length received him into the favor of
+communion and into the lap of the holy mother Church, those
+being accepted as sponsors for him whose names are written
+below.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus accomplished these matters, we desire at the first
+opportunity to cross over to your country in order that, by
+God's aid, we may more fully arrange all things for the peace
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>
+of the Church and the concord of the kingdom, as has long
+been our wish. For we desire, beloved, that you should know
+<span class="sidebar">Gregory's purpose
+to visit
+Germany</span>
+beyond a doubt that the whole question at issue
+is as yet so little cleared up&mdash;as you can learn
+from the sponsors mentioned&mdash;that both our
+coming and the concurrence of your counsels are extremely
+necessary. Wherefore strive ye all to continue in the faith in
+which you have begun and in the love of justice; and know that
+we are not otherwise committed to the king save that, by word
+alone, as is our custom, we have said that he might have hopes
+from us in those matters in which, without danger to his soul
+or to our own, we might be able to help him to his salvation and
+honor, either through justice or through mercy.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Oath of King Henry</span></p>
+
+<p>I, King Henry, on account of the murmuring and enmity
+which the archbishops and bishops, dukes, counts and other
+princes of the realm of the Germans, and others who follow them
+in the same matter of dissension, bring to bear against me, will,
+within the term which our master Pope Gregory has constituted,
+either do justice according to his judgment or conclude peace
+according to his counsels&mdash;unless an absolute impediment should
+stand in his way or in mine. And on the removal of this impediment
+I shall be ready to continue in the same course. Likewise,
+if that same lord Pope Gregory shall wish to go beyond the
+mountains [i.e., into Germany], or to any other part of the
+world, he himself, as well as those who shall be in his escort or
+following, or who are sent by him, or come to him from any parts
+of the world whatever, shall be secure while going, remaining,
+or returning, on my part, and on the part of those whom I can
+constrain, from every injury to life or limb, or from capture.
+Nor shall he, by my consent, meet any other hindrance that is
+contrary to his dignity; and if any such be placed in his way I
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>
+will aid him according to my ability. So help me God and this
+holy gospel.</p>
+
+<h4>50. The Concordat of Worms (1122)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The veteran Emperor Henry IV. died at Liège in 1106 and was succeeded
+by his son, Henry V. The younger Henry had some months before
+been prompted by Pope Paschal II. to rebel against his father and,
+succeeding in this, had practically established himself on the throne
+before his legitimate time. Pope Paschal expected the son to be more
+submissive than the father had been and in 1106 issued a decree renewing
+the prohibition of lay investiture. Outside of Germany this
+evil had been brought almost to an end and, now that the vigorous
+Henry IV. was out of the way, the Pope felt that the time had come to
+make the reform complete throughout Christendom. But in this he
+was mistaken, for Henry V. proved almost as able and fully as determined
+a power to contend with as had been his father. In fact, the new
+monarch could command a much stronger army, and he was in no wise
+loath to use it. In 1110 he led a host of thirty thousand men across
+the Alps, compelled the submission of the north Italian towns, and
+marched on Rome. The outcome was a secret compact (February 4,
+1111) by which the king, on the one hand, was to abandon all claim to the
+right of investiture and the Pope, on the other, was to see that the ecclesiastical
+princes of the Empire (bishops and abbots holding large tracts
+of land) should give up all the lands which they had received by royal
+grant since the days of Charlemagne. The abandonment of investiture
+looked like a surrender on the part of Henry, but in reality all that he
+wanted was direct control over all the lands of the Empire, and if the
+ecclesiastical princes were to be dispossessed of these he cared little or
+nothing about having a part in the mere religious ceremony. This
+settlement was rendered impossible, however, by the attitude of the
+princes themselves, who naturally refused to be thus deprived of their
+landed property and chief source of income. The Pope was then forced
+to make a second compact surrendering the full right of investiture to
+the imperial authority, and Henry also got the coveted imperial coronation.
+But his triumph was short-lived. Rebellions among the German
+nobles robbed him of his strength and after years of wearisome bickerings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span>
+and petty conflicts he again came to the point where he was willing
+to compromise. Calixtus II., who became pope in 1119, was similarly
+inclined.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, in a diet at Worms, in 1122, the whole problem
+was taken up for settlement, and happily this time with success. The
+documents translated below contain the concessions made mutually by
+the two parties. Calixtus, in brief, grants that the elections of bishops
+and abbots may take place in the presence of the Emperor, or of his
+agents, and that the Emperor should have the right to invest them with
+the scepter, i.e., with their dignity as princes of the Empire. Henry,
+on his side, agrees to give up investiture with the ring and staff, i.e.,
+with spiritual functions, to allow free elections, and to aid in the
+restoration of church property which had been confiscated during the
+long struggle now drawing to a close. The settlement was in the nature
+of a compromise; but on the whole the papacy came off the better.
+In its largest aspects the great fifty-year struggle over the question
+of investiture was ended, though minor features of it remained to trouble
+all parties concerned for a long time to come.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.),
+Vol. II., pp. 75-76.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Text in Michael Doeberl, <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica
+Selecta</i>, Vol. III., p. 60.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>I, Bishop Calixtus, servant of the servants of God, do grant
+to thee, by the grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, the
+right to hold the elections of the bishops and abbots of the
+German realm who belong to the kingdom, in thy presence, without
+<span class="sidebar">The provision
+for elections</span>
+simony, and without any resort to violence;
+it being agreed that, if any dispute arise among
+those concerned, thou, by the counsel and judgment of the
+metropolitan [i.e., the archbishop] and the suffragan bishops,
+shalt extend favor and support to the party which shall seem
+to you to have the better case. Moreover, the person elected
+may receive from thee the <i>regalia</i> through the scepter, without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span>
+any exaction being levied;<a name="FNanchor_393" id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> and he shall discharge his rightful
+obligations to thee for them.<a name="FNanchor_394" id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a></p>
+
+<p>He who is consecrated in other parts of the Empire<a name="FNanchor_395" id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> shall
+receive the <i>regalia</i> from thee through the scepter, within six
+months, and without any exaction, and shall discharge his
+<span class="sidebar">Investiture
+with the
+scepter</span>
+rightful obligations to thee for them; those rights
+being excepted, however, which are known to
+belong to the Roman Church. In whatever cases
+thou shalt make complaint to me and ask my aid I will support
+thee according as my office requires. To thee, and to all
+those who are on thy side, or have been, in this period of strife,
+I grant a true peace.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, I, Henry, by
+the grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, for the love
+of God and of the holy Roman Church and of our lord Pope
+Calixtus, and for the saving of my soul, do give over to God,
+<span class="sidebar">Investiture
+with ring
+and staff</span>
+and to the holy apostles of God, Peter and Paul,
+and the holy Catholic Church, all investiture
+through ring and staff; and do concede that in
+all the churches that are in my kingdom or empire there shall
+be canonical election and free consecration.</p>
+
+<p>All the property and <i>regalia</i> of St. Peter which, from the beginning
+of this conflict until the present time, whether in the
+days of my father or in my own, have been confiscated, and
+<span class="sidebar">Restoration
+of confiscated
+property</span>
+which I now hold, I restore to the holy Roman
+Church. And as for those things which I do not
+now hold, I will faithfully aid in their restoration.
+The property also of all other churches and princes and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span>
+of every one, whether lay or ecclesiastical, which has been lost
+in the struggle, I will restore as far as I hold it, according to the
+counsel of the princes, or according to considerations of justice.
+I will also faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which
+I do not hold.</p>
+
+<p>And I grant a true peace to our lord Pope Calixtus, and to the
+holy Roman Church, and to all those who are, or have been, on
+its side. In matters where the holy Roman Church shall seek
+assistance, I will faithfully render it, and when it shall make
+complaint to me I will see that justice is done.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVII.<br />
+THE CRUSADES</h3>
+
+<h4>51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (1095)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Within a short time after the death of Mohammed (632) the whole
+country of Syria, including Palestine, was overrun by the Arabs, and the
+Holy City of Jerusalem passed out of Christian hands into the control of
+the infidels. The Arabs, however, shared the veneration of the Christians
+for the places associated with the life of Christ and did not greatly
+interfere with the pilgrims who flocked thither from all parts of the Christian
+world. In the tenth century the strong emperors of the Macedonian
+dynasty at Constantinople succeeded in winning back all of
+Syria except the extreme south, and the prospect seemed fair for the
+permanent possession by a Christian power of all those portions of the
+Holy Land which were regarded as having associations peculiarly sacred.
+This prospect might have been realized but for the invasions and conquests
+of the Seljuk Turks in the latter part of the eleventh century.
+These Turks came from central Asia and are to be carefully distinguished
+from the Ottoman Turks of more modern times. They had recently
+been converted to Mohammedanism and were now the fiercest and most
+formidable champions of that faith in its conflict with the Christian
+East. In 1071 Emperor Romanus Diogenes was defeated at Manzikert,
+in Armenia, and taken prisoner by the sultan Alp Arslan, and as a result
+not only Asia Minor, but also Syria, was forever lost to the Empire.
+The Holy City of Jerusalem was definitely occupied in 1076. The invaders
+established a stronghold at Nicæa, less than a hundred miles
+across the Sea of Marmora from Constantinople, and even threatened
+the capital itself, although they did not finally succeed in taking it until
+1453.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner were the Turks in possession of Jerusalem and the approaches
+thither, than pilgrims returning to western Europe began to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span>
+tell tales, not infrequently as true as they were terrifying, regarding insults
+and tortures suffered at the hand of the pitiless conquerors. The
+Emperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) put forth every effort to expel
+the intruders from Asia Minor, hoping to be able to regain the territories,
+including Syria, which they had stripped from the Empire; but his
+strength proved unequal to the task. Accordingly, in 1095, he sent an
+appeal to Pope Urban II. to enlist the Christian world in a united effort
+to save both the Empire and the Eastern Church. It used to be thought
+that Pope Sylvester II., about the year 1000, had suggested a crusade
+against the Mohammedans of the East, but it now appears that the first
+pope to advance such an idea was Gregory VII. (1073-1085), who in
+response to an appeal of Alexius's predecessor in 1074, had actually assembled
+an army of 50,000 men for the aid of the Emperor and had been
+prevented from carrying out the project only by the severity of the
+investiture controversy with Henry IV. of Germany. At any rate, it was
+not a difficult task for the ambassadors of Alexius to convince Pope
+Urban that he ought to execute the plan of Gregory. The plea for aid
+was made at the Council of Piacenza in March, 1095, and during the next
+few months Urban thought out the best method of procedure.</p>
+
+<p>At the Council of Clermont, held in November, 1095, the crusade was
+formally proclaimed through the famous speech which the Pope himself
+delivered after the regular business of the assembly had been transacted.
+Urban was a Frenchman and he knew how to appeal to the emotions and
+sympathies of his hearers. For the purpose of stirring up interest in the
+enterprise he dropped the Latin in which the work of the Council had
+been transacted and broke forth in his native tongue, much to the delight
+of his countrymen. There are four early versions of the speech,
+differing widely in contents, and none, of course, reproducing the exact
+words used by the speaker. The version given by Robert the Monk, a
+resident of Rheims, in the opening chapter of his history of the first
+crusade seems in most respects superior to the others. It was written
+nearly a quarter of a century after the Council of Clermont, but the
+writer in all probability had at least heard the speech which he was trying
+to reproduce; in any event we may take his version of it as a very
+satisfactory representation of the aspirations and spirit which impelled
+the first crusaders to their great enterprise. It has been well said that
+"many orations have been delivered with as much eloquence, and in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span>
+as fiery words as the Pope used, but no other oration has ever been able
+to boast of as wonderful results."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Robertus Monachus, <i>Historia Iherosolimitana</i> [Robert the Monk,
+"History of the Crusade to Jerusalem"], Bk. I., Chap. 1. Reprinted
+in <i>Recueildes Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux</i>
+(Paris, 1866), Vol. III., pp. 727-728. Adapted from translation
+by Dana C. Munro in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>,
+Vol. I., No. 2, pp. 5-8.</p>
+
+<p>In the year of our Lord's Incarnation one thousand and
+ninety-five, a great council was convened within the bounds of
+<span class="sidebar">The Council
+of Clermont</span>
+Gaul, in Auvergne, in the city which is called
+Clermont. Over this Pope Urban II. presided,
+with the Roman bishops and cardinals. This council was a
+famous one on account of the concourse of both French and
+German bishops, and of princes as well. Having arranged the
+matters relating to the Church, the lord Pope went forth into a
+certain spacious plain, for no building was large enough to hold
+all the people. The Pope then, with sweet and persuasive eloquence,
+addressed those present in words something like the
+following, saying:</p>
+
+<p>"Oh, race of Franks, race beyond the mountains [the Alps],
+race beloved and chosen by God (as is clear from many of your
+works), set apart from all other nations by the situation of your
+<span class="sidebar">Pope Urban
+appeals to the
+French</span>
+country, as well as by your Catholic faith and
+the honor you render to the holy Church: to you
+our discourse is addressed, and for you our
+exhortations are intended. We wish you to know what a serious
+matter has led us to your country, for it is the imminent peril
+threatening you and all the faithful that has brought us hither.</p>
+
+<p>"From the confines of Jerusalem and from the city of Constantinople
+a grievous report has gone forth and has been brought
+repeatedly to our ears; namely, that a race from the kingdom
+of the Persians, an accursed race, a race wholly alienated from
+God, 'a generation that set not their heart aright, and whose
+spirit was not steadfast with God' [Ps., lxxviii. 8], has violently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>
+invaded the lands of those Christians and has depopulated
+them by pillage and fire. They have led away a part of the
+<span class="sidebar">The ravages
+of the Turks</span>
+captives into their own country, and a part they
+have killed by cruel tortures. They have either
+destroyed the churches of God or appropriated them for the rites
+of their own religion. They destroy the altars, after having
+defiled them with their uncleanness.... The kingdom of
+the Greeks [the Eastern Empire] is now dismembered by them
+and has been deprived of territory so vast in extent that it could
+not be traversed in two months' time.</p>
+
+<p>"On whom, therefore, rests the labor of avenging these wrongs
+and of recovering this territory, if not upon you&mdash;you, upon
+whom, above all other nations, God has conferred remarkable
+glory in arms, great courage, bodily activity, and strength to
+humble the heads of those who resist you? Let the deeds of
+your ancestors encourage you and incite your minds to manly
+<span class="sidebar">Urban recalls
+the zeal and
+valor of the
+earlier Franks</span>
+achievements&mdash;the glory and greatness of King
+Charlemagne, and of his son Louis [the Pious],
+and of your other monarchs, who have destroyed
+the kingdoms of the Turks<a name="FNanchor_396" id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> and have extended the sway of the
+holy Church over lands previously pagan. Let the holy sepulcher
+of our Lord and Saviour, which is possessed by the unclean
+nations, especially arouse you, and the holy places which are
+now treated with ignominy and irreverently polluted with the
+filth of the unclean. Oh most valiant soldiers and descendants
+of invincible ancestors, do not degenerate, but recall the valor of
+your ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>"But if you are hindered by love of children, parents, or wife,
+remember what the Lord says in the Gospel, 'He that loveth
+father or mother more than me is not worthy of me' [Matt.,
+x. 37]. 'Every one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>
+sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for
+my name's sake, shall receive an hundred-fold, and shall inherit
+everlasting life' [Matt., xix. 29]. Let none of your possessions
+restrain you, nor anxiety for your family affairs. For this land
+which you inhabit, shut in on all sides by the seas and surrounded
+<span class="sidebar">The crusade as
+a desirable remedy
+for over
+population</span>
+by the mountain peaks, is too narrow
+for your large population; nor does it abound in
+wealth; and it furnishes scarcely food enough
+for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour
+one another, that you wage war, and that very many among you
+perish in civil strife.<a name="FNanchor_397" id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a></p>
+
+<p>"Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels
+end; let wars cease; and let all dissensions and controversies
+slumber. Enter upon the road of the Holy Sepulcher; wrest that
+land from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves. That
+land which, as the Scripture says, 'floweth with
+<span class="sidebar">Syria, a rich
+country</span>
+milk and honey' [Num., xiii. 27] was given by
+God into the power of the children of Israel. Jerusalem is the
+center of the earth; the land is fruitful above all others, like
+another paradise of delights. This spot the Redeemer of mankind
+has made illustrious by His advent, has beautified by His
+sojourn, has consecrated by His passion, has redeemed by His
+death, has glorified by His burial.</p>
+
+<p>"This royal city, however, situated at the center of the earth,
+is now held captive by the enemies of Christ and is subjected,
+by those who do not know God, to the worship of the heathen.
+She seeks, therefore, and desires to be liberated, and ceases not to
+implore you to come to her aid. From you especially she asks
+succor, because, as we have already said, God has conferred
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span>
+upon you, above all other nations, great glory in arms. Accordingly,
+undertake this journey eagerly for the remission of your
+sins, with the assurance of the reward of imperishable glory in
+the kingdom of heaven."</p>
+
+<p>When Pope Urban had skilfully said these and very many
+similar things, he so centered in one purpose the desires of all
+<span class="sidebar">Response to
+the appeal</span>
+who were present that all cried out, "It is the
+will of God! It is the will of God!" When the
+venerable Roman pontiff heard that, with eyes uplifted to heaven,
+he gave thanks to God and, commanding silence with his hand, said:</p>
+
+<p>"Most beloved brethren, to-day is manifest in you what the
+Lord says in the Gospel, 'Where two or three are gathered together
+in my name, there am I in the midst of them' [Matt.,
+xviii. 20]. For unless God had been present in your spirits, all
+of you would not have uttered the same cry; since, although
+<span class="sidebar">"Deus vult,"
+the war cry</span>
+the cry issued from numerous mouths, yet the
+origin of the cry was one. Therefore I say to you
+that God, who implanted this in your breasts, has drawn it forth
+from you. Let that, then, be your war cry in battle, because it
+is given to you by God. When an armed attack is made upon
+the enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of God:
+'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!'</p>
+
+<p>"And we neither command nor advise that the old or feeble,
+or those incapable of bearing arms, undertake this journey.
+Nor ought women to set out at all without their husbands, or
+brothers, or legal guardians. For such are more of a hindrance
+than aid, more of a burden than an advantage. Let the rich
+aid the needy; and according to their wealth let them take with
+them experienced soldiers. The priests and other clerks [clergy],
+<span class="sidebar">Who should go
+and who should
+remain</span>
+whether secular or regular, are not to go without
+the consent of their bishop; for this journey
+would profit them nothing if they went without
+permission. Also, it is not fitting that laymen should enter upon
+the pilgrimage without the blessing of their priests.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Whoever, therefore, shall decide upon this holy pilgrimage,
+and shall make his vow to God to that effect, and shall offer
+himself to Him for sacrifice, as a living victim, holy and acceptable
+to God, shall wear the sign of the cross of the Lord on his forehead
+or on his breast. When he shall return from his journey,
+having fulfilled his vow, let him place the cross on his back
+between his shoulders. Thus shall ye, indeed, by this twofold
+action, fulfill the precept of the Lord, as He commands in the
+Gospel, 'He that taketh not his cross, and followeth after me,
+is not worthy of me'" [Luke, xiv. 27].</p>
+
+<h4>52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The appeals of Pope Urban at Clermont and elsewhere met with ready
+response, especially among the French, but also to a considerable extent
+among Italians, Germans, and even English. A great variety of people
+were attracted by the enterprise, and from an equal variety of motives.
+Men whose lives had been evil saw in the crusade an opportunity of
+doing penance; criminals who perhaps cared little for penance but much
+for their own personal safety saw in it an avenue of escape from justice;
+merchants discovered in it a chance to open up new and valuable trade;
+knights hailed it as an invitation to deeds of valor and glory surpassing
+any Europe had yet known; ordinary malcontents regarded it as a chance
+to mend their fortunes; and a very large number of people looked upon
+it as a great spiritual obligation laid upon them and necessary to be
+performed in order to insure salvation in the world to come. By reason
+of all these incentives, some of them weighing much more in the mediæval
+mind than we can understand to-day, the crusade brought together men,
+women, and children from every part of Christendom. Both of the
+accounts given below of the assembling and starting of the crusaders
+are doubtless more or less exaggerated at certain points, yet in substance
+they represent what must have been pretty nearly the actual facts.</p>
+
+<p>William of Malmesbury was an English monk who lived in the first
+half of the twelfth century and wrote a very valuable <i>Chronicle of the
+Kings of England</i>, which reached the opening of the reign of Stephen
+(1135). He thus had abundant opportunity to learn of the first crusade
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span>
+from people who had actually participated in it. His rather humorous
+picture of the effects of Pope Urban's call is thus well worth reading.
+Better than it, however, is the account by the priest Fulcher of Chartres
+(1058-1124)&mdash;better because the writer himself took part in the crusade
+and so was a personal observer of most of the things he undertook
+to describe. Fulcher, in 1096, set out upon the crusade in the company
+of his lord, Etienne, count of Blois and Chartres, who was a man of
+importance in the army of Robert of Normandy. With the rest of Robert's
+crusaders he spent the winter in Italy and arrived at Durazzo in
+the spring of 1097. He had a part in the siege of Nicæa and in the battle
+of Dorylæum, but not in the siege of Antioch. Before reaching Jerusalem,
+in 1099, he became chaplain to a brother of Godfrey of Bouillon
+and was already making progress on his "history of the army of God."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, <i>De gestis regum Anglorum</i>
+[William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the Kings of England"],
+Bk. IV., Chap. 2. Adapted from translation by John
+Sharpe (London, 1815), p. 416.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Fulcherius Carnotensis, <i>Historia Iherosolimitana: gesta Francorum
+Iherusalem peregrinantium</i> [Fulcher of Chartres, "History
+of the Crusade to Jerusalem: the Deeds of the French
+Journeying Thither"], Chap. 6. Text in <i>Recueil des Historiens
+des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux</i> (Paris, 1866), Vol. III.,
+p. 328.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>Immediately the fame of this great event,<a name="FNanchor_398" id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> being spread
+through the universe, penetrated the minds of Christians with
+its mild breath, and wherever it blew there was no nation, however
+distant and obscure, that did not send some of its people.
+This zeal animated not only the provinces bordering on the
+Mediterranean, but all who had ever even heard of the name
+Christian in the most remote isles, and among barbarous nations.
+Then the Welshman abandoned his forests and neglected his
+hunting; the Scotchman deserted the fleas with which he is so
+<span class="sidebar">Universal interest
+in the
+crusade</span>
+familiar; the Dane ceased to swallow his intoxicating
+draughts; and the Norwegian turned his
+back upon his raw fish. The fields were left by
+the cultivators, and the houses by their inhabitants; all the cities
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span>
+were deserted. People were restrained neither by the ties of
+blood nor the love of country; they saw nothing but God. All
+that was in the granaries, or was destined for food, was left
+under the guardianship of the greedy agriculturist. The journey
+to Jerusalem was the only thing hoped for or thought of. Joy
+animated the hearts of all who set out; grief dwelt in the hearts
+of all who remained. Why do I say "of those who remained"?
+You might have seen the husband setting forth with his wife,
+with all his family; you would have laughed to see all the <i>penates</i><a name="FNanchor_399" id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a>
+put in motion and loaded upon wagons. The road was too
+narrow for the passengers, and more room was wanted for the
+travelers, so great and numerous was the crowd.<a name="FNanchor_400" id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>Such, then, was the immense assemblage which set out from
+the West. Gradually along the march, and from day to day, the
+army grew by the addition of other armies, coming from every
+direction and composed of innumerable people. Thus one saw
+an infinite multitude, speaking different languages and coming
+from divers countries. All did not, however, come together into
+<span class="sidebar">The multitude
+of crusaders</span>
+a single army until we had reached the city of
+Nicæa.<a name="FNanchor_401" id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> What shall I add? The isles of the sea
+and the kingdoms of the whole earth were moved by God, so
+that one might believe fulfilled the prophecy of David, who said
+in his Psalm: "All nations whom Thou hast made shall come
+and worship before Thee, O Lord, and shall glorify Thy name;"
+and so that those who reached the holy places afterwards said
+justly: "We will worship where His feet have stood." Concerning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span>
+this journey we read very many other predictions in the
+prophets, which it would be tedious to recall.</p>
+
+<p>Oh, how great was the grief, how deep the sighs, what weeping,
+what lamentations among the friends, when the husband
+left the wife so dear to him, his children also, and all his possessions
+of any kind, father, mother, brethren, or kindred! And
+<span class="sidebar">Mingled sorrow
+and joy of
+the crusaders</span>
+yet in spite of the floods of tears which those
+who remained shed for their friends about to
+depart, and in their very presence, the latter did
+not suffer their courage to fail, and, out of love for the Lord, in
+no way hesitated to leave all that they held most precious, believing
+without doubt that they would gain an hundred-fold
+in receiving the recompense which God has promised to those
+who love Him.</p>
+
+<p>Then the husband confided to his wife the time of his return
+and assured her that, if he lived, by God's grace he would return
+to her. He commended her to the Lord, gave her a kiss, and,
+weeping, promised to return. But the latter, who feared that
+she would never see him again, overcome with grief, was unable
+to stand, fell as if lifeless to the ground, and wept over her dear
+one whom she was losing in life, as if he were already dead.
+He, then, as if he had no pity (nevertheless he was filled with
+pity) and was not moved by the grief of his friends (and yet he
+was secretly moved), departed with a firm purpose. The sadness
+was for those who remained, and the joy for those who departed.
+What more can we say? "This is the Lord's doings, and it is
+marvelous in our eyes."</p>
+
+<h4>53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>One of the most important groups of sources on the crusades is the
+large body of letters which has come down to us, written by men who
+had an actual part in the various expeditions. These letters, addressed
+to parents, wives, children, vassals, or friends, are valuable alike for
+the facts which they contain and for the revelation they give of the spirit
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span>
+and motives of the crusaders. A considerable collection of the letters,
+in English translation, may be found in Roger de Hoveden's <i>Annals of
+English History</i>, Roger of Wendover's <i>Flowers of History</i>, and Matthew
+Paris's <i>English History</i> (all in the Bohn Library); also in Michaud's
+<i>History of the Crusades</i>, Vol. III., Appendix. In many respects the letter
+given below, written at Antioch by Count Stephen of Blois to his wife
+Adele, under date of March 29, 1098, is unexcelled in all the records of
+mediæval letter-writing. Count Stephen (a brother-in-law of Robert
+of Normandy, who was a son of William the Conqueror) was one of the
+wealthiest and most popular French noblemen who responded to Pope
+Urban's summons at Clermont. At least three of his letters to his wife
+survive, of which the one here given is the third in order of time.
+It discloses the ordinary human sentiments of the crusader and makes
+us feel that, unlike the modern man as he was, he yet had very much
+in common with the people of to-day and of all ages. He was at the
+same time a bold fighter and a tender husband, a religious enthusiast
+and a practical man of affairs. When the letter was written, the siege
+of Antioch had been in progress somewhat more than five months; it
+continued until the following June, when it ended in the capture of the
+city by the crusaders. Count Stephen was slain in the battle of Ramleh
+in 1102.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;D'Achery, <i>Spicilegium</i> ["Gleanings"], 2d edition, Vol. III., pp. 430-433.
+Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro in <i>Univ. of
+Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. I., No. 4, pp. 5-8.</p>
+
+<p>Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife,
+to his dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks,&mdash;his
+greeting and blessing.</p>
+
+<p>You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I
+sent to give you pleasure left me before Antioch safe and unharmed
+and, through God's grace, in the greatest prosperity.
+And already at that time, together with all the chosen army of
+<span class="sidebar">Count Stephen
+reports prosperity</span>
+Christ, endowed with great valor by Him, we
+have been continually advancing for twenty-three
+weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You
+may know for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>
+many other kind of riches I now have twice as much as your
+love had assigned to me when I left you. For all our princes,
+with the common consent of the whole army, though against my
+own wishes, have made me up to the present time the leader,
+chief, and director of their whole expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless you have heard that after the capture of the city
+of Nicæa we fought a great battle with the treacherous Turks
+and, by God's aid, conquered them.<a name="FNanchor_402" id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> Next we conquered for the
+Lord all Romania, and afterwards Cappadocia.<a name="FNanchor_403" id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> We had learned
+that there was a certain Turkish prince, Assam, dwelling in
+Cappadocia; so we directed our course thither. We conquered
+<span class="sidebar">Early achievements
+of the
+crusaders</span>
+all his castles by force and compelled him to flee
+to a certain very strong castle situated on a high
+rock. We also gave the land of that Assam to
+one of our chiefs, and in order that he might conquer the prince
+we left there with him many soldiers of Christ. Thence, continually
+following the wicked Turks, we drove them through the
+midst of Armenia,<a name="FNanchor_404" id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> as far as the great river Euphrates. Having
+left all their baggage and beasts of burden on the bank, they fled
+across the river into Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>The bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria,
+hastened by forced marches night and day, in order to be able
+to enter the royal city of Antioch before our approach.<a name="FNanchor_405" id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> Hearing
+of this, the whole army of God gave due praise and thanks
+to the all-powerful Lord. Hastening with great joy to this
+<span class="sidebar">The arrival at
+Antioch (1097)</span>
+chief city of Antioch, we besieged it and there
+had a great number of conflicts with the Turks;
+and seven times we fought with the citizens of the city and with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>
+the innumerable troops all the time coming to their aid. The latter
+we rushed out to meet and fought with the fiercest courage
+under the leadership of Christ. And in all these seven battles,
+by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered and most assuredly
+killed an innumerable host of them. In those battles, indeed,
+and in very many attacks made upon the city, many of our
+brethren and followers were killed and their souls were borne to
+the joys of paradise.</p>
+
+<p>We found the city of Antioch very extensive, fortified with the
+greatest strength and almost impossible to be taken. In addition,
+more than 5,000 bold Turkish soldiers had entered the city,
+not counting the Saracens, Publicans, Arabs, Turcopolitans,
+Syrians, Armenians, and other different races of whom an infinite
+multitude had gathered together there. In fighting against
+<span class="sidebar">The beginning
+of the siege</span>
+these enemies of God and of us we have, by God's
+grace, endured many sufferings and innumerable
+hardships up to the present time. Many also have already
+exhausted all their means in this most holy enterprise. Very
+many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a bodily death
+from starvation, if the mercy of God and our money had not
+come to their rescue. Lying before the city of Antioch, indeed,
+throughout the whole winter we suffered for our Lord Christ
+from excessive cold and enormous torrents of rain. What some
+say about the impossibility of bearing the heat of the sun in
+Syria is untrue, for the winter there is very similar to our winter
+in the West.</p>
+
+<p>I delight to tell you, dearest, what happened to us during Lent.
+Our princes had caused a fortress to be built before a certain
+gate which was between our camp and the sea. For the Turks,
+coming out of this gate daily, killed some of our men on their
+way to the sea. The city of Antioch is about five leagues distant
+from the sea. For this purpose they sent the excellent Bohemond
+and Raymond, count of St. Gilles,<a name="FNanchor_406" id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> to the sea with only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span>
+sixty horsemen, in order that they might bring mariners to aid
+in this work. When, however, they were returning to us with
+<span class="sidebar">The Christians
+defeated near
+the seashore</span>
+these mariners, the Turks collected an army, fell
+suddenly upon our two leaders, and forced them
+to a perilous flight. In that unexpected fight we
+lost more than 500 of our foot-soldiers&mdash;to the glory of God.
+Of our horsemen, however, we lost only two, for certain.</p>
+
+<p>On that same day, in order to receive our brethren with joy,
+and entirely ignorant of their misfortunes, we went out to meet
+them. When, however, we approached the above-mentioned
+gate of the city, a mob of foot-soldiers and horsemen from
+Antioch, elated by the victory which they had won, rushed upon
+us in the same manner. Seeing these, our leaders went to the
+camp of the Christians to order all to be ready to follow us into
+battle. In the meantime our men gathered together and the
+scattered leaders, namely, Bohemond and Raymond, with the
+remainder of their army came up and told of the great misfortune
+which they had suffered.</p>
+
+<p>Our men, full of fury at these most evil tidings, prepared to
+die for Christ and, deeply grieved for their brethren, rushed upon
+the wicked Turks. They, enemies of God and of us, hastily fled
+before us and attempted to enter the city. But by God's grace
+the affair turned out very differently; for, when they tried to
+cross a bridge built over the great river Moscholum,<a name="FNanchor_407" id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a>
+<span class="sidebar">A notable victory
+over the
+Turks</span>
+we followed them as closely as possible,
+killed many before they reached the bridge,
+forced many into the river, all of whom were killed, and we also
+slew many upon the bridge and very many at the narrow entrance
+to the gate. I am telling you the truth, my beloved,
+and you may be assured that in this battle we killed thirty
+emirs, that is, princes, and three hundred other Turkish nobles,
+not counting the remaining Turks and pagans. Indeed the number
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>
+of Turks and Saracens killed is reckoned at 1230, but of
+ours we did not lose a single man.</p>
+
+<p>On the following day (Easter), while my chaplain Alexander
+was writing this letter in great haste, a party of our men lying
+in wait for the Turks fought a successful battle with them and
+killed sixty horsemen, whose heads they brought to the army.</p>
+
+<p>These which I write to you are only a few things, dearest, of
+the many which we have done; and because I am not able to tell
+you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to
+watch carefully over your land, and to do your duty as you
+ought to your children and your vassals. You will certainly see
+me just as soon as I can possibly return to you. Farewell.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVIII.<br />
+THE GREAT CHARTER</h3>
+
+<h4>54. The Winning of the Charter</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The reign of King John (1199-1216) was an era of humiliation,
+though in the end one of triumph, for all classes of the English people.
+The king himself was perhaps the most unworthy sovereign who has
+ever occupied the English throne and one after another of his deeds
+and policies brought deep shame to every patriotic Englishman. His
+surrender to the papacy (1213) and his loss of the English possessions
+on the continent (1214) were only two of the most conspicuous results
+of his weakness and mismanagement. Indeed it was not these that
+touched the English people most closely, for after all it was rather their
+pride than their real interests that suffered by the king's homage to
+Innocent III. and his bitter defeat at Bouvines. Worse than these
+things were the heavy taxes and the illegal extortions of money, in
+which John went far beyond even his unscrupulous brother and predecessor,
+Richard. The king's expenses were very heavy, the more so by
+reason of his French wars, and to meet them he devised all manner of
+schemes for wringing money from his unwilling subjects. Land taxes
+were increased, scutage (payments in lieu of military service) was nearly
+doubled, levies of a thirteenth, a seventh, and other large fractions of
+the movable property of the realm were made, excessive fines were
+imposed, old feudal rights were revived and exercised in an arbitrary
+fashion, and property was confiscated on the shallowest of pretenses.
+Even the Church was by no means immune from the king's rapacity.
+The result of these high-handed measures was that all classes of the
+people&mdash;barons, clergy, and commons&mdash;were driven into an attitude
+of open protest. The leadership against the king fell naturally to the
+barons and it was directly in consequence of their action that John was
+brought, in 1215, to grant the Great Charter and to pledge himself to
+govern thereafter according to the ancient and just laws of the kingdom.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The account of the winning of the Charter given below comes from
+the hand of Roger of Wendover, a monk of St. Albans, a monastery in
+Hertfordshire which was famous in the thirteenth century for its group
+of historians and annalists. It begins with the meeting of the barons at
+St. Edmunds in Suffolk late in November, 1214, and tells the story to
+the granting of the Charter at Runnymede, June 15, 1215. On this subject,
+as well as on the entire period of English history from 1189 to
+1235, Roger of Wendover is our principal contemporary authority.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Rogerus de Wendover, <i>Chronica Majora, sive Liber qui dicitur
+Flores Historiarum</i> [Roger of Wendover, "Greater Chronicle, or the
+Book which is called the Flowers of History"]. Translated by
+J. A. Giles (London, 1849), Vol. II., pp. 303-324 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>About this time the earls and barons of England assembled
+at St. Edmunds, as if for religious duties, although it was
+for another reason;<a name="FNanchor_408" id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> for after they had discoursed together
+secretly for a time, there was placed before them the charter of
+King Henry the First, which they had received, as mentioned
+before, in the city of London from Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury.<a name="FNanchor_409" id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a>
+This charter contained certain liberties and laws granted
+to the holy Church as well as to the nobles of the kingdom, besides
+some liberties which the king added of his own accord.
+All therefore assembled in the church of St. Edmund, the king
+and martyr, and, commencing with those of the highest rank,
+they all swore on the great altar that, if the king refused to
+<span class="sidebar">A conference
+held by the
+barons against
+King John</span>
+grant these liberties and laws, they themselves
+would withdraw from their allegiance to him,
+and make war on him until he should, by a
+charter under his own seal, confirm to them everything that they
+required; and finally it was unanimously agreed that, after
+Christmas, they should all go together to the king and demand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span>
+the confirmation of the aforesaid liberties to them, and that
+they should in the meantime provide themselves with horses
+and arms, so that if the king should endeavor to depart from
+his oath they might, by taking his castles, compel him to satisfy
+their demands; and having arranged this, each man returned
+home....</p>
+
+<p>In the year of our Lord 1215, which was the seventeenth year
+of the reign of King John, he held his court at Winchester at
+Christmas for one day, after which he hurried to London, and
+<span class="sidebar">They demand
+a confirmation
+of the old liberties</span>
+took up his abode at the New Temple;<a name="FNanchor_410" id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> and at
+that place the above-mentioned nobles came to
+him in gay military array, and demanded the
+confirmation of the liberties and laws of King Edward, with
+other liberties granted to them and to the kingdom and church
+of England, as were contained in the charter, and above-mentioned
+laws of Henry the First. They also asserted that, at the
+time of his absolution at Winchester,<a name="FNanchor_411" id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> he had promised to restore
+those laws and ancient liberties, and was bound by his
+own oath to observe them. The king, hearing the bold tone of
+the barons in making this demand, much feared an attack from
+them, as he saw that they were prepared for battle. He, however,
+made answer that their demands were a matter of importance
+<span class="sidebar">A truce
+arranged</span>
+and difficulty, and he therefore asked
+a truce until the end of Easter, that, after due
+deliberation, he might be able to satisfy them as well as the
+dignity of his crown. After much discussion on both sides, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>
+king at length, although unwillingly, procured the archbishop of
+Canterbury, the bishop of Ely, and William Marshal, as his sureties
+that on the day agreed upon he would, in all reason, satisfy
+them all; on which the nobles returned to their homes. The king,
+however, wishing to take precautions against the future, caused
+all the nobles throughout England to swear fealty to him alone
+against all men, and to renew their homage to him; and, the
+better to take care of himself, on the day of St. Mary's purification,
+he assumed the cross of our Lord, being induced to this
+more by fear than devotion....<a name="FNanchor_412" id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Easter week of this same year, the above-mentioned nobles
+assembled at Stamford,<a name="FNanchor_413" id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> with horses and arms. They had now
+<span class="sidebar">The truce
+at an end</span>
+induced almost all the nobility of the whole kingdom
+to join them, and constituted a very large
+army; for in their army there were computed to be two thousand
+knights, besides horse-soldiers, attendants, and foot-soldiers, who
+were variously equipped.... The king at this time was
+awaiting the arrival of his nobles at Oxford.<a name="FNanchor_414" id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> On the Monday
+next after the octave of Easter,<a name="FNanchor_415" id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> the said barons assembled in the
+town of Brackley.<a name="FNanchor_416" id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> And when the king learned this, he sent the
+archbishop of Canterbury and William Marshal, earl of Pembroke,
+with some other prudent men, to them to inquire what the laws
+<span class="sidebar">The preliminary
+demands
+of the barons</span>
+and liberties were which they demanded. The
+barons then delivered to the messengers a paper,
+containing in great measure the laws and ancient
+customs of the kingdom, and declared that, unless the king immediately
+granted them and confirmed them under his own seal, they,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span>
+by taking possession of his fortresses, would force him to give them
+sufficient satisfaction as to their before-named demands. The
+archbishop, with his fellow messengers, then carried the paper
+to the king, and read to him the heads of the paper one by one
+throughout. The king, when he heard the purport of these
+heads, said derisively, with the greatest indignation, "Why,
+amongst these unjust demands, did not the barons ask for my
+kingdom also? Their demands are vain and visionary, and are
+unsupported by any plea of reason whatever." And at length
+he angrily declared with an oath that he would never grant
+them such liberties as would render him their slave. The principal
+of these laws and liberties which the nobles required to be
+confirmed to them are partly described above in the charter of
+King Henry,<a name="FNanchor_417" id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> and partly are extracted from the old laws of
+King Edward,<a name="FNanchor_418" id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> as the following history will show in due time.</p>
+
+<p>As the archbishop and William Marshal could not by any
+persuasion induce the king to agree to their demands, they
+<span class="sidebar">The castle of
+Northampton
+besieged by
+the barons</span>
+returned by the king's order to the barons, and
+duly reported to them all that they had heard from
+the king. And when the nobles heard what John
+said, they appointed Robert Fitz-Walter commander of their
+soldiers, giving him the title of "Marshal of the Army of God
+and the Holy Church," and then, one and all flying to arms, they
+directed their forces toward Northampton.<a name="FNanchor_419" id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> On their arrival
+there they at once laid siege to the castle, but after having stayed
+there for fifteen days, and having gained little or no advantage,
+they determined to move their camp. Having come without
+<i>petrariæ</i><a name="FNanchor_420" id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> and other engines of war, they, without accomplishing
+their purpose, proceeded in confusion to the castle of Bedford....<a name="FNanchor_421" id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a></p>
+
+<p>When the army of the barons arrived at Bedford, they were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span>
+received with all respect by William de Beauchamp.<a name="FNanchor_422" id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> Messengers
+from the city of London also came to them there, secretly
+telling them, if they wished to get into that city, to come there
+immediately. The barons, encouraged by the arrival of this
+agreeable message, immediately moved their camp and arrived
+<span class="sidebar">The city of
+London given
+over to the
+barons</span>
+at Ware. After this they marched the whole
+night and arrived early in the morning at the city
+of London, and, finding the gates open, on the
+24th of May (which was the Sunday next before our Lord's
+ascension) they entered the city without any tumult while the
+inhabitants were performing divine service; for the rich citizens
+were favorable to the barons, and the poor ones were afraid to
+murmur against them. The barons, having thus got into the city,
+placed their own guards in charge of each of the gates, and then
+arranged all matters in the city at will.<a name="FNanchor_423" id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> They then took security
+from the citizens, and sent letters through England to those
+earls, barons, and knights who appeared to be still faithful to
+the king (though they only pretended to be so) and advised them
+with threats, as they had regard for the safety of all their property
+and possessions, to abandon a king who was perjured and
+who made war against his barons, and together with them to
+stand firm and fight against the king for their rights and for
+peace; and that, if they refused to do this, they, the barons,
+would make war against them all, as against open enemies, and
+would destroy their castles, burn their houses and other buildings,
+and pillage their warrens, parks, and orchards....
+The greatest part of these, on receiving the message of the
+barons, set out to London and joined them, abandoning the
+king entirely....</p>
+
+<p>King John, when he saw that he was deserted by almost all,
+so that out of his regal superabundance of followers he retained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span>
+scarcely seven knights, was much alarmed lest the barons should
+attack his castles and reduce them without difficulty, as they
+<span class="sidebar">The conference
+between the
+king and the
+barons</span>
+would find no obstacle to their so doing. He
+deceitfully pretended to make peace for a time
+with the aforesaid barons, and sent William
+Marshal, earl of Pembroke, with other trustworthy messengers,
+to them, and told them that, for the sake of peace and for the
+exaltation and honor of the kingdom, he would willingly grant
+them the laws and liberties they demanded. He sent also a request
+to the barons by these same messengers that they appoint
+a suitable day and place to meet and carry all these matters into
+effect. The king's messengers then came in all haste to London,
+and without deceit, reported to the barons all that had been deceitfully
+imposed on them. They in their great joy appointed
+the fifteenth of June for the king to meet them, at a field lying
+<span class="sidebar">The charter
+granted at
+Runnymede</span>
+between Staines and Windsor.<a name="FNanchor_424" id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> Accordingly, at
+the time and place agreed upon the king and nobles
+came to the appointed conference, and when each
+party had stationed itself some distance from the other, they
+began a long discussion about terms of peace and the aforesaid
+liberties.... At length, after various points on both sides
+had been discussed, King John, seeing that he was inferior in
+strength to the barons, without raising any difficulty, granted the
+underwritten laws and liberties, and confirmed them by his charter
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>[Here ensues the Charter.]</p>
+
+<h4>55. Extracts from the Charter</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>No document in the history of any nation is more important than the
+Great Charter; in the words of Bishop Stubbs, the whole of the constitutional
+history of England is only one long commentary upon it. Its
+importance lay not merely in the fact that it was won from an unwilling
+sovereign by the united action of nobles, clergy, and people, but also in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span>
+the admirable summary which it embodies of the fundamental principles
+of English government, so far as they had ripened by the early years of
+the thirteenth century. The charter contained almost nothing that
+was not old. It was not even an instrument, like the Constitution of the
+United States, providing for the creation of a new government. It
+merely sought to gather up within a single reasonably brief document all
+the important principles which the best of the English sovereigns had
+recognized, but which such rulers as Richard and John had lately been
+improving every opportunity to evade. The primary purpose of the
+barons in forcing the king to grant the charter was not to get a new
+form of government or code of laws, but simply to obtain a remedy
+for certain concrete abuses, to resist the encroachments of the crown
+upon the traditional liberties of Englishmen, and to get a full and definite
+confirmation of these liberties in black and white. Not a new constitution
+was wanted, but good government in conformity with the old
+one. Naturally enough, therefore, the charter of 1215 was based in
+most of its important provisions upon that granted by Henry I. in 1100,
+even as this one was based on the righteous laws of the good Edward
+the Confessor. And after the same manner the charter of King John, in
+its turn, became the foundation for all future resistance of Englishmen
+to the evils of misgovernment, so that very soon it came naturally
+to be called <i>Magna Charta</i>&mdash;the Great Charter&mdash;by which designation
+it is known to this day.</p>
+
+<p>King John was in no true sense the author of the charter. Many
+weeks before the meeting at Runnymede the barons had drawn up their
+demands in written form, and when that meeting occurred they were
+ready to lay before the sovereign a formal document, in forty-nine
+chapters, to which they simply requested his assent. This preliminary
+document was discussed and worked over, the number of chapters
+being increased to sixty-two, but the charter as finally agreed upon
+differed from it only in minor details. It is a mistake to think of John
+as "signing" the charter after the fashion of modern sovereigns. There
+is no evidence that he could write, and at any rate he acquiesced in the
+terms of the charter only by having his seal affixed to the paper. The
+original "Articles of the Barons" is still preserved in the British Museum,
+but there is no <i>one</i> original Magna Charta in existence. Duplicate copies
+of the document were made for distribution among the barons, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>
+papers which are generally supposed to represent four of these still
+exist, two being in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The charter makes a lengthy document and many parts of it are too
+technical to be of service in this book; hence only a few of the most important
+chapters are here given. Translations of the entire document
+from the original Latin may be found in many places, among them the
+University of Pennsylvania <i>Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. I., No. 6;
+Lee, <i>Source Book of English History</i>, 169-180; Adams and Stephens,
+<i>Select Documents Illustrative of English Constitutional History</i>, pp. 42-52;
+and the <i>Old South Leaflets</i>, No. 5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in William Stubbs, <i>Select Charters Illustrative of English Constitutional
+History</i> (8th ed., Oxford, 1895), pp. 296-306. Adapted
+from translation in Sheldon Amos, <i>Primer of the English Constitution
+and Government</i> (London, 1895), pp. 189-201 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland,
+duke of Normandy, Aquitane, and count of Anjou, to his archbishops,
+bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciaries, foresters,
+sheriffs, governors, officers, and to all bailiffs, and his faithful
+subjects, greeting. Know ye, that we, in the presence of God,
+and for the salvation of our soul, and the souls of all our ancestors
+and heirs, and unto the honor of God and the advancement
+of Holy Church, and amendment of our Realm, ...
+have, in the first place, granted to God, and by this our present
+Charter confirmed, for us and our heirs forever:</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> That the Church of England shall be free, and have her
+whole rights, and her liberties inviolable; and we will have them
+<span class="sidebar">Liberties of the
+English Church
+guaranteed</span>
+so observed that it may appear thence that the freedom
+of elections, which is reckoned chief and indispensable
+to the English Church, and which we
+granted and confirmed by our Charter, and obtained the confirmation
+of the same from our Lord Pope Innocent III., before
+the discord between us and our barons, was granted of
+mere free will; which Charter we shall observe, and we do desire
+it to be faithfully observed by our heirs forever.<a name="FNanchor_425" id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> We also have granted to all the freemen of our kingdom,
+for us and for our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties,
+to be had and holden by them and their heirs, of us and our
+heirs forever. If any of our earls, or barons, or others who hold
+of us in chief by military service,<a name="FNanchor_426" id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> shall die, and at the time of his
+<span class="sidebar">The rate
+of reliefs</span>
+death his heir shall be of full age, and owe a relief,
+he shall have his inheritance by the ancient
+relief&mdash;that is to say, the heir or heirs of an earl, for a whole
+earldom, by a hundred pounds; the heir or heirs of a knight, for
+a whole knight's fee, by a hundred shillings at most; and whoever
+oweth less shall give less, according to the ancient custom
+of fees.<a name="FNanchor_427" id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> But if the heir of any such shall be under age, and shall
+be in ward, when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance
+without relief and without fine.<a name="FNanchor_428" id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> No scutage<a name="FNanchor_429" id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom, unless
+<span class="sidebar">The three
+aids</span>
+by the general council of our kingdom;<a name="FNanchor_430" id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> except
+for ransoming our person, making our eldest
+son a knight, and once for marrying our eldest daughter; and for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span>
+these there shall be paid no more than a reasonable aid. In like
+manner it shall be concerning the aids of the City of London.<a name="FNanchor_431" id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> And for holding the general council of the kingdom concerning
+the assessment of aids, except in the three cases aforesaid,
+and for the assessing of scutage, we shall cause to be summoned
+the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons
+of the realm, singly by our letters. And furthermore, we shall
+<span class="sidebar">The Great
+Council</span>
+cause to be summoned generally, by our sheriffs
+and bailiffs, all others who hold of us in chief, for
+a certain day, that is to say, forty days before their meeting at
+least, and to a certain place. And in all letters of such summons
+we will declare the cause of such summons. And summons being
+thus made, the business shall proceed on the day appointed,
+according to the advice of such as shall be present, although all
+that were summoned come not.<a name="FNanchor_432" id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> We will not in the future grant to any one that he may
+take aid of his own free tenants, except to ransom his body, and
+to make his eldest son a knight, and once to marry his eldest
+daughter; and for this there shall be paid only a reasonable
+aid.<a name="FNanchor_433" id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>36.</b> Nothing from henceforth shall be given or taken for a
+writ of inquisition of life or limb, but it shall be granted freely,
+and not denied.<a name="FNanchor_434" id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>39.</b> No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseised,<a name="FNanchor_435" id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> or
+outlawed,<a name="FNanchor_436" id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we pass
+upon him, nor will we send upon him,<a name="FNanchor_437" id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> unless by the lawful judgment
+of his peers,<a name="FNanchor_438" id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> or by the law of the land.<a name="FNanchor_439" id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>40.</b> We will sell to no man, we will not deny to any man,
+either justice or right.<a name="FNanchor_440" id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>41.</b> All merchants shall have safe and secure conduct to go
+out of, and to come into, England, and to stay there and to pass
+as well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient
+and allowed customs, without any unjust tolls, except in time
+<span class="sidebar">Freedom of
+commercial
+intercourse</span>
+of war, or when they are of any nation at war
+with us. And if there be found any such in our
+land, in the beginning of the war, they shall be
+detained, without damage to their bodies or goods, until it be
+known to us, or to our chief justiciary, how our merchants be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span>
+treated in the nation at war with us; and if ours be safe there,
+the others shall be safe in our dominions.<a name="FNanchor_441" id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>42.</b> It shall be lawful, for the time to come, for any one to go
+out of our kingdom and return safely and securely by land or
+by water, saving his allegiance to us (unless in time of war, by
+some short space, for the common benefit of the realm), except
+prisoners and outlaws, according to the law of the land, and
+people in war with us, and merchants who shall be treated as is
+above mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_442" id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>51.</b> As soon as peace is restored, we will send out of the kingdom
+all foreign knights, cross-bowmen, and stipendiaries, who
+are come with horses and arms to the molestation of our people.<a name="FNanchor_443" id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>60.</b> All the aforesaid customs and liberties, which we have
+granted to be holden in our kingdom, as much as it belongs to
+us, all people of our kingdom, as well clergy as laity, shall observe,
+as far as they are concerned, towards their dependents.<a name="FNanchor_444" id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>61.</b> And whereas, for the honor of God and the amendment
+of our kingdom, and for the better quieting the discord that
+<span class="sidebar">How the charter
+was to be
+enforced</span>
+has arisen between us and our barons, we have
+granted all these things aforesaid. Willing to
+render them firm and lasting, we do give and grant
+our subjects the underwritten security, namely, that the barons
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span>
+may choose five and twenty barons of the kingdom, whom they
+think convenient, who shall take care, with all their might, to
+hold and observe, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties
+we have granted them, and by this our present Charter confirmed....<a name="FNanchor_445" id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> ... It is also sworn, as well on our part as on the
+part of the barons, that all the things aforesaid shall be observed
+in good faith, and without evil duplicity. Given under our hand,
+in the presence of the witnesses above named, and many others,
+in the meadow called Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines,
+the 15th day of June, in the 17th year of our reign.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIX.<br />
+THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS</h3>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<h4>56. The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by Joinville</h4>
+
+<p>Louis IX., or St. Louis, as he is commonly called, was the eldest son
+of Louis VIII. and a grandson of Philip Augustus. He was born in 1214
+and upon the death of his father in 1226 he succeeded to the throne of
+France while yet but a boy of twelve. The recent reign of Philip Augustus
+(1180-1223) had been a period marked by a great increase in
+the royal power and by a corresponding lessening of the independent
+authority of the feudal magnates. The accession of a boy-king was
+therefore hailed by the discontented nobles as an opportunity to recover
+something at least of their lost privileges. It would doubtless have been
+such but for the vigilance, ability, and masculine aggressiveness of the
+young king's mother, Blanche of Castile. Aided by the clergy and the
+loyal party among the nobles, she, in the capacity of regent, successfully
+defended her son's interests against a succession of plots and uprisings,
+with the result that when Louis gradually assumed control of affairs in
+his own name, about 1236, the realm was in good order and the dangers
+which once had been so threatening had all but disappeared. The king's
+education and moral training had been well attended to, and he arrived
+at manhood with an equipment quite unusual among princes of his day.
+His reign extended to 1270 and became in some respects the most notable
+in all French history. In fact, whether viewed from the standpoint of
+his personal character or his practical achievements, St. Louis is
+generally admitted to have been one of the most remarkable sovereigns
+of mediæval Europe. He was famous throughout Christendom for his
+piety, justice, wisdom, and ability, being recognized as at once a devoted
+monk, a brave knight, and a capable king. In him were blended two
+qualities&mdash;vigorous activity and proneness to austere meditation&mdash;rarely
+combined in such measure in one person. His character may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span>
+be summed up by saying that he had all the virtues of his age and few
+of its vices. No less cynical a critic than Voltaire has declared that he
+went as far in goodness as it is possible for a man to go.</p>
+
+<p>Saint Louis being thus so interesting a character in himself, it is very
+fortunate that we have an excellent contemporary biography of him,
+from the hand of a friend and companion who knew him well. Sire de
+Joinville's <i>Histoire de Saint Louis</i> is a classic of French literature and
+in most respects the best piece of biographical writing that has come
+down to us from the Middle Ages. Joinville, or more properly John,
+lord of Joinville, was born in Champagne, in northern France, probably
+in 1225. His family was one of the most distinguished in Champagne
+and he himself had all the advantages that could come from being
+brought up at the refined court of the count of this favored district. In
+1248, when St. Louis set out on his first crusading expedition, Joinville,
+only recently become of age, took the cross and became a follower
+of the king, joining him in Cyprus and there first definitely entering
+his service. During the next six years the two were inseparable companions,
+and even after Joinville, in 1254, retired from the king's service
+in order to manage his estates in Champagne he long continued to make
+frequent visits of a social character to the court.</p>
+
+<p>Joinville's memoirs of St. Louis were completed about 1309&mdash;probably
+nine years before the death of the author&mdash;and they were first
+published soon after the death of Philip the Fair in 1314. They constitute
+by far the most important source of information on the history of
+France in the middle portion of the thirteenth century. Joinville had
+the great advantage of intimate acquaintance and long association with
+King Louis and, what is equally important, he seems to have tried to
+write in a spirit of perfect fairness and justice. He was an ardent
+admirer of Louis, but his biography did not fall into the tempting channel
+of mere fulsome and indiscriminate praise. Moreover, the work is a
+biography of the only really satisfactory type; it is not taken up with a
+bare recital of events in the life of the individual under consideration,
+but it has a broad background drawn from the general historical movements
+and conditions of the time. Its most obvious defects arise from
+the fact that it comprises largely the reminiscences of an old man, which
+are never likely to be entirely accurate or well-balanced. In his dedication
+of the treatise to Louis, eldest son of Philip IV., the author relates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span>
+that it had been written at the urgent solicitation of the deceased king's
+widow.</p>
+
+<p>The biography in print makes a good-sized volume and it is possible,
+of course, to reproduce here but a few significant passages from it.
+But these are perhaps sufficient to show what sort of man the saint-king
+really was, and it is just this insight into the character of the
+men of the Middle Ages that is most worth getting&mdash;and the hardest
+thing, as a rule, to get. Incidentally, the extract throws some light
+on the methods of warfare employed by the crusaders and the Turks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Jean, Sire de Joinville, <i>Histoire de Saint Louis</i>. Text edited by
+M. Joseph Noël (Natalis de Wailly) and published by the Société
+de l'Histoire de France (Paris, 1868). Translated by James
+Hutton under title of <i>Saint Louis, King of France</i> (London, 1868),
+<i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As I have heard him say, he [Saint Louis] was born on the day
+of St. Mark the Evangelist,<a name="FNanchor_446" id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> shortly after Easter. On that day
+<span class="sidebar">The king's
+birth</span>
+the cross is carried in procession in many places,
+and in France they are called black crosses. It
+was therefore a sort of prophecy of the great numbers of people
+who perished in those two crusades, i.e., in that to Egypt, and in
+that other, in the course of which he died at Carthage;<a name="FNanchor_447" id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> for many
+great sorrows were there on that account in this world, and many
+great joys are there now in Paradise on the part of those who in
+those two pilgrimages died true crusaders.</p>
+
+<p>God, in whom he put his trust, preserved him ever from his
+infancy to the very last; and especially in his infancy did He
+preserve him when he stood in need of help, as you will presently
+<span class="sidebar">His early
+training</span>
+hear. As for his soul, God preserved it through
+the pious instructions of his mother, who taught
+him to believe in God and to love Him, and placed about him
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span>
+none but ministers of religion. And she made him, while he was
+yet a child, attend to all his prayers and listen to the sermons
+on saints' days. He remembered that his mother used sometimes
+to tell him that she would rather he were dead than that
+he should commit a deadly sin.</p>
+
+<p>Sore need of God's help had he in his youth, for his mother,
+who came out of Spain, had neither relatives nor friends in all
+the realm of France. And because the barons of France saw that
+the king was an infant, and the queen, his mother, a foreigner,
+they made the count of Boulogne, the king's uncle, their chief,
+and looked up to him as their lord.<a name="FNanchor_448" id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> After the king was crowned,
+<span class="sidebar">Difficulties at
+the beginning
+of his reign</span>
+some of the barons asked of the queen to bestow
+upon them large domains; and because she would
+do nothing of the kind all the barons assembled
+at Corbei.<a name="FNanchor_449" id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> And the sainted king related to me how neither
+he nor his mother, who were at Montlhéri,<a name="FNanchor_450" id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> dared to return to
+Paris, until the citizens of Paris came, with arms in their hands,
+to escort them. He told me, too, that from Montlhéri to Paris
+the road was filled with people, some with and some without
+weapons, and that all cried unto our Lord to give him a long
+and happy life, and to defend and preserve him from his
+enemies....</p>
+
+<p>After these things it chanced, as it pleased God, that great
+illness fell upon the king at Paris, by which he was brought to
+such extremity that one of the women who watched by his side
+wanted to draw the sheet over his face, saying that he was dead;
+but another woman, who was on the other side of the bed,
+would not suffer it, for the soul, she said, had not yet left the
+<span class="sidebar">Louis takes
+the cross</span>
+body. While he was listening to the dispute between
+these two, our Lord wrought upon him and
+quickly sent him health; for before that he was dumb, and could
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span>
+not speak. He demanded that the cross should be given to
+him, and it was done. When the queen, his mother, heard that
+he had recovered his speech, she exhibited as much joy as could
+be; but when she was told by himself that he had taken the cross,
+she displayed as much grief as if she had seen him dead.</p>
+
+<p>After the king put on the cross, Robert, count of Artois,
+Alphonse, count of Poitiers, Charles, count of Anjou, who was
+afterwards king of Sicily&mdash;all three brothers of the king&mdash;also
+took the cross; as likewise did Hugh, duke of Burgundy, William,
+count of Flanders (brother to Count Guy of Flanders, the last
+who died), the good Hugh, count of Saint Pol, and Monseigneur
+<span class="sidebar">Prominent
+Frenchmen
+who followed
+his example</span>
+
+Walter, his nephew, who bore himself right manfully
+beyond seas, and would have been of great
+worth had he lived. There was also the count of
+La Marche, and Monseigneur Hugh le Brun, his son; the count
+of Sarrebourg, and Monseigneur d'Apremont, his brother, in
+whose company I myself, John, Seigneur de Joinville, crossed
+the sea in a ship we chartered, because we were cousins; and we
+crossed over in all twenty knights, nine of whom followed the
+count of Sarrebourg, and nine were with me....</p>
+
+<p>The king summoned his barons to Paris, and made them
+swear to keep faith and loyalty towards his children if anything
+happened to himself on the voyage. He asked the same of me,
+but I refused to take any oath, because I was not his vassal....</p>
+
+<p>In the month of August we went on board our ships at the
+Rock of Marseilles. The day we embarked the door of the vessel
+<span class="sidebar">Embarking on
+the Mediterranean</span>
+was opened, and the horses that we were to take
+with us were led inside. Then they fastened the
+door and closed it up tightly, as when one sinks a
+cask, because when the ship is at sea the whole of the door is
+under water. When the horses were in, our sailing-master
+called out to his mariners who were at the prow: "Are you all
+ready?" And they replied: "Sir, let the clerks and priests come
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span>
+forward." As soon as they had come nigh, he shouted to them;
+"Chant, in God's name!" And they with one voice chanted,
+"<i>Veni, Creator Spiritus.</i>" Then the master called out to his men:
+"Set sail, in God's name!" And they did so. And in a little
+time the wind struck the sails and carried us out of sight of
+land, so that we saw nothing but sea and sky; and every day
+the wind bore us farther away from the land where we were born.
+And thereby I show you how foolhardy he must be who would
+venture to put himself in such peril with other people's property
+in his possession, or while in deadly sin; for when you fall asleep
+at night you know not but that ere the morning you may be
+at the bottom of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>When we reached Cyprus, the king was already there, and we
+found an immense supply of stores for him, i.e., wine-stores and
+granaries. The king's wine-stores consisted of great piles of casks
+of wine, which his people had purchased two years before the
+king's arrival and placed in an open field near the seashore.
+<span class="sidebar">Preparations
+made in Cyprus</span>
+They had piled them one upon the other, so that
+when seen from the front they looked like a
+farmhouse. The wheat and barley had been
+heaped up in the middle of the field, and at first sight looked like
+hills; for the rain, which had long beaten upon the corn, had
+caused it to sprout, so that nothing was seen but green herbage.
+But when it was desired to transport it to Egypt, they broke off
+the outer coating with the green herbage, and the wheat and barley
+within were found as fresh as if they had only just been
+threshed out.</p>
+
+<p>The king, as I have heard him say, would gladly have pushed
+on to Egypt without stopping, had not his barons advised him
+to wait for his army, which had not all arrived. While the king
+was sojourning in Cyprus, the great Khan of Tartary<a name="FNanchor_451" id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> sent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span>
+envoys to him, the bearers of very courteous messages. Among
+other things, he told him that he was ready to aid him in conquering
+the Holy Land and in delivering Jerusalem out of the
+hands of the Saracens. The king received the messengers very
+graciously, and sent some to the Khan, who were two years
+absent before they could return. And with his messengers the
+<span class="sidebar">An embassy
+from the Khan</span>
+king sent to the Khan a tent fashioned like a
+chapel, which cost a large sum of money, for it
+was made of fine rich scarlet cloth. And the king, in the hope of
+drawing the Khan's people to our faith, caused to be embroidered
+inside the chapel, pictures representing the Annunciation of
+Our Lady, and other articles of faith. And he sent these things
+to them by the hands of two friars, who spoke the Saracen
+language, to teach and point out to them what they ought to
+believe....</p>
+
+<p>As soon as March came round, the king, and, by his command,
+the barons and other pilgrims, gave orders that the ships should
+be laden with wine and provisions, to be ready to sail when the
+king should give the signal. It happened that when everything
+was ready, the king and queen withdrew on board their ship on
+<span class="sidebar">The departure
+from Cyprus</span>
+the Friday before Whitsunday, and the king desired
+his barons to follow in his wake straight
+towards Egypt. On Saturday<a name="FNanchor_452" id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> the king set sail, and all
+the other vessels at the same time, which was a fine sight to
+behold, for it seemed as if the whole sea, as far as the eye could
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span>
+reach, was covered with sails, and the number of ships, great and
+small, was reckoned at 1,800....<a name="FNanchor_453" id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a></p>
+
+<p>Upon the arrival of the count of Poitiers, the king summoned
+all the barons of the army to decide in what direction he should
+march, whether towards Alexandria, or towards Babylon.<a name="FNanchor_454" id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a>
+It resulted that the good Count Peter of Brittany, and most of
+the barons of the army, were of the opinion that the king should
+lay siege to Alexandria, because that city is possessed of a good
+<span class="sidebar">Decision
+to proceed
+against Cairo</span>
+port where the vessels could lie that should bring
+provisions for the army. To this the count of Artois
+was opposed. He said that he could not advise
+going anywhere except to Babylon, because that was the
+chief town in all the realm of Egypt; he added, that whosoever
+wished to kill a serpent outright should crush its head. The
+king set aside the advice of his barons, and held to that of his
+brother.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of Advent, the king set out with his army to
+march against Babylon, as the count of Artois had counseled
+him. Not far from Damietta we came upon a stream of water
+which issued from the great river [Nile], and it was resolved
+that the army should halt for a day to dam up this branch, so
+that it might be crossed. The thing was done easily enough,
+for the arm was dammed up close to the great river. At the
+passage of this stream the sultan sent 500 of his knights, the
+best mounted in his whole army, to harass the king's troops,
+and retard our march.</p>
+
+<p>On St. Nicholas's day<a name="FNanchor_455" id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> the king gave the order to march
+and forbade that any one should be so bold as to sally out upon
+the Saracens who were before us. So it chanced that when the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span>
+army was in motion to resume the march and the Turks saw
+that no one would sally out against them, and learned from their
+spies that the king had forbidden it, they became emboldened
+<span class="sidebar">A skirmish between
+the Saracens
+and the
+Templars</span>
+and attacked the Templars,<a name="FNanchor_456" id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> who formed the
+advance-guard. And one of the Turks hurled to
+the ground one of the knights of the Temple,
+right before the feet of the horse of Reginald de Bichiers, who
+was at that time Marshal of the Temple. When the latter saw
+this, he shouted to the other brethren: "Have at them, in God's
+name! I cannot suffer any more of this." He dashed in his
+spurs, and all the army did likewise. Our people's horses were
+fresh, while those of the Turks were already worn out. Whence
+it happened, as I have heard, that not a Turk escaped, but
+all perished, several of them having plunged into the river,
+where they were drowned....<a name="FNanchor_457" id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a></p>
+
+<p>One evening when we were on duty near the cat castles, they
+brought against us an engine called <i>pierrière</i>,<a name="FNanchor_458" id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> which they had
+never done before, and they placed Greek fire<a name="FNanchor_459" id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> in the sling of
+the engine. When Monseigneur Walter de Cureil, the good
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span>
+knight, who was with me, saw that, he said to us: "Sirs, we are
+in the greatest peril we have yet been in; for if they set fire to
+our towers, and we remain here, we are dead men, and if we
+leave our posts which have been intrusted to us, we are put to
+shame; and no one can rescue us from this peril save God. It is
+therefore my opinion and my advice to you that each time they
+discharge the fire at us we should throw ourselves upon our
+elbows and knees, and pray our Lord to bring us out of this
+danger."</p>
+
+<p>As soon as they fired we threw ourselves upon our elbows and
+knees, as he had counseled us. The first shot they fired came
+between our two cat castles, and fell in front of us on the open
+place which the army had made for the purpose of damming the
+river. Our men whose duty it was to extinguish fires were all
+ready for it; and because the Saracens could not aim at them
+on account of the two wings of the sheds which the king had
+erected there, they fired straight up towards the clouds, so that
+<span class="sidebar">The Saracens
+make use of
+Greek fire</span>
+their darts came down from above upon the men.
+The nature of the Greek fire was in this wise, that
+it rushed forward as large around as a cask of
+verjuice,<a name="FNanchor_460" id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> and the tail of the fire which issued from it was as big
+as a large-sized spear. It made such a noise in coming that it
+seemed as if it were a thunderbolt from heaven and looked like a
+dragon flying through the air. It cast such a brilliant light that
+in the camp they could see as clearly as if it were daytime, because
+of the light diffused by such a bulk of fire. Three times
+that night they discharged the Greek fire at us, and four times
+they sent it from the fixed cross-bows. Each time that Our
+sainted king heard that they had discharged the Greek fire at
+us, he dressed himself on his bed and stretched out his hands
+towards our Lord, and prayed with tears: "Fair Sire God,
+preserve me my people!" And I verily believe that his prayers
+stood us in good stead in our hour of need. That evening, every
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span>
+time the fire fell, he sent one of his chamberlains to inquire in
+what state we were and if the fire had done us any damage.
+One time when they threw it, it fell close to the cat castle which
+Monseigneur de Courtenay's people were guarding, and struck
+on the river-bank. Then a knight named Aubigoiz called to
+me and said: "Sir, if you do not help us we are all burnt, for
+the Saracens have discharged so many of their darts dipped in
+Greek fire that there is of them, as it were, a great blazing
+hedge coming towards our tower."</p>
+
+<p>We ran forward and hastened thither and found that he spoke
+the truth. We extinguished the fire, but before we had done
+so the Saracens covered us with the darts they discharged from
+the other side of the river.</p>
+
+<p>The king's brothers mounted guard on the roof of the cat
+castles to fire bolts from cross-bows against the Saracens, and
+which fell into their camp. The king had commanded that when
+the king of Sicily<a name="FNanchor_461" id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> mounted guard in the daytime at the cat
+castles, we were to do so at night. One day when the king of
+Sicily was keeping watch, which we should have to do at night, we
+were in much trouble of mind because the Saracens had shattered
+<span class="sidebar">Progress of
+the conflict</span>
+our cat castles. The Saracens brought out the
+<i>pierrière</i> in the daytime, which they had hitherto
+done only at night, and discharged the Greek fire at our towers.
+They had advanced their engines so near to the causeway
+which the army had constructed to dam the river that no one
+dared to go to the towers, because of the huge stones which
+the engines flung upon the road. The consequence was that
+our two towers were burned, and the king of Sicily was so enraged
+about it that he came near flinging himself into the fire to
+extinguish it. But if he were wrathful, I and my knights, for
+our part, gave thanks to God; for if we had mounted guard at
+night, we should all have been burned....<a name="FNanchor_462" id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It came to pass that the sainted king labored so much that
+the king of England, his wife, and children, came to France
+to treat with him about peace between him and them. The
+members of his council were strongly opposed to this peace, and
+said to him:</p>
+
+<p>"Sire, we greatly marvel that it should be your pleasure to yield
+to the king of England such a large portion of your land, which
+<span class="sidebar">The treaty
+of Paris, 1259</span>
+you and your predecessors have won from him, and
+obtained through forfeiture. It seems to us that if
+you believe you have no right to it, you do not make fitting restitution
+to the king of England unless you restore to him all the conquests
+which you and your predecessors have made; but if you
+believe that you have a right to it, it seems to us that you are
+throwing away all that you yield to him."</p>
+
+<p>To this the sainted king replied after this fashion: "Sirs, I am
+certain that the king of England's predecessors lost most justly
+the conquests I hold; and the land which I give up to him I do
+not give because I am bound either towards himself or his heirs,
+but to create love between his children and mine, who are first
+cousins. And it seems to me that I am making a good use of
+what I give to him, because before he was not my vassal, but
+now he has to render homage to me."...<a name="FNanchor_463" id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After the king's return from beyond sea, he lived so devoutly
+that he never afterwards wore furs of different colors, nor minnever,<a name="FNanchor_464" id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a>
+nor scarlet cloth, nor gilt stirrups or spurs. His dress
+was of camlet<a name="FNanchor_465" id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> and of a dark blue cloth; the linings of his coverlets
+and garments were of doeskin or hare-legs.</p>
+
+<p>When rich men's minstrels entered the hall after the repast,
+bringing with them their viols, he waited to hear grace until the
+<span class="sidebar">The king's
+personal
+traits</span>
+minstrel had finished his chant; then he rose and
+the priests who said grace stood before him. When
+we were at his court in a private way,<a name="FNanchor_466" id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> he used to
+sit at the foot of his bed, and when the Franciscans and Dominicans<a name="FNanchor_467" id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a>
+who were there spoke of a book that would give him pleasure,
+he would say to them: "You shall not read to me, for, after
+eating, there is no book so pleasant as <i>quolibets</i>,"&mdash;that is, that
+every one should say what he likes. When men of quality dined
+with him, he made himself agreeable to them....</p>
+
+<p>Many a time it happened that in the summer he would go
+and sit down in the wood at Vincennes,<a name="FNanchor_468" id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> with his back to an oak,
+and make us take our seats around him. And all those who had
+complaints to make came to him, without hindrance from ushers
+or other folk. Then he asked them with his own lips: "Is there
+any one here who has a cause?"<a name="FNanchor_469" id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> Those who had a cause stood
+<span class="sidebar">His primitive
+method of dispensing
+justice</span>
+up, when he would say to them: "Silence all,
+and you shall be dispatched one after the other."
+Then he would call Monseigneur de Fontaines, or
+Monseigneur Geoffrey de Villette, and would say to one of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span>
+them: "Dispose of this case for me." When he saw anything to
+amend in the words of those who spoke for others, he would correct
+it with his own lips. Sometimes in summer I have seen him,
+in order to administer justice to the people, come into the garden
+of Paris dressed in a camlet coat, a surcoat of woollen stuff,
+without sleeves, a mantle of black taffety around his neck, his
+hair well combed and without coif, a hat with white peacock's
+feathers on his head. Carpets were spread for us to sit down
+upon around him, and all the people who had business to dispatch
+stood about in front of him. Then he would have it
+dispatched in the same manner as I have already described in
+the wood of Vincennes.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XX.<br />
+MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITY</h3>
+
+<h4>57. Some Twelfth Century Town Charters</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In the times of the Carolingians the small and scattered towns and
+villages of western Europe, particularly of France, were inhabited
+mainly by serfs and villeins, i.e., by a dependent rather than an independent
+population. With scarcely an exception, these urban centers
+belonged to the lords of the neighboring lands, who administered their
+affairs through mayors, provosts, bailiffs, or other agents, collected from
+them seigniorial dues as from the rural peasantry, and, in short, took
+entire charge of matters of justice, finance, military obligations, and
+industrial arrangements. There was no local self-government, nothing
+in the way of municipal organization separate from the feudal régime,
+and no important burgher class as distinguished from the agricultural
+laborers. By the twelfth century a great transformation is apparent.
+France has come to be dotted with strong and often largely independent
+municipalities, and a powerful class of bourgeoisie, essentially anti-feudal
+in character, has risen to play an increasing part in the nation's
+political and economic life. In these new municipalities there is a larger
+measure of freedom of person, security of property, and rights of self-government
+than Europe had known since the days of Charlemagne,
+perhaps even since the best period of the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The reason for this transformation&mdash;in other words, the origin of these
+new municipal centers&mdash;has been variously explained. One theory is
+that the municipal system of the Middle Ages was essentially a survival
+of that which prevailed in western Europe under the fostering influence
+of Rome. The best authorities now reject this view, for there is every
+reason to believe that, speaking generally, the barbarian invasions and
+feudalism practically crushed out the municipal institutions of the Empire.
+Another theory ascribes the origin of mediæval municipal government
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span>
+to the merchant and craft guilds, particularly the former; but
+there is little evidence to support the view. Undeniably the guild was
+an important factor in drawing groups of burghers together and forming
+centers of combination against local lords, but it was at best only one
+of several forces tending to the growth of municipal life. Other factors
+of larger importance were the military and the commercial. On the one
+hand, the need of protection led people to flock to fortified places&mdash;castles
+or monasteries&mdash;and settle in the neighborhood; on the other,
+the growth of commerce and industry, especially after the eleventh
+century, caused strategic places like the intersection of great highways
+and rivers to become seats of permanent and growing population. The
+towns which thus sprang up in response to new conditions and necessities
+in time took on a political as well as a commercial and industrial character,
+principally through the obtaining of charters from the neighboring
+lords, defining the measure of independence to be enjoyed and the respective
+rights of lord and town. Charters of the sort were usually
+granted by the lord, not merely because requested by the burghers,
+but because they were paid for and constituted a valuable source of
+revenue. Not infrequently, however, a charter was wrested from an
+unwilling lord through open warfare. It was in the first half of the
+twelfth century that town charters became common. As a rule they
+were obtained by the larger towns (it should be borne in mind that a
+population of 10,000 was large in the twelfth century), but not necessarily
+so, for many villages of two or three hundred people secured them
+also.</p>
+
+<p>The two great classes of towns were the <i>villes libres</i> (free towns)
+and the <i>villes franches</i>, or <i>villes de bourgeoisie</i> (franchise, or chartered,
+towns). The free towns enjoyed a large measure of independence.
+In relation to their lords they occupied essentially the position of vassals,
+with the legislative, financial, and judicial privileges which by the
+twelfth century all great vassals had come to have. The burghers
+elected their own officers, constituted their own courts, made their own
+laws, levied taxes, and even waged war. The leading types of free cities
+were the communes of northern France (governed by a provost and one
+or more councils, often essentially oligarchical) and the consulates of
+southern France and northern Italy (distinguished from the communes
+by the fact that the executive was made up of "consuls," and by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span>
+greater participation of the local nobility in town affairs). A typical
+free town of the commune type, was Laon, in the region of northern
+Champagne. In 1109 the bishop of Laon, who was lord of the city,
+consented to the establishment of a communal government. Three
+years later he sought to abolish it, with the result that an insurrection
+was stirred up in which he lost his life. King Louis VI. intervened and
+the citizens were obliged to submit to the authority of the new bishop,
+though in 1328 fear of another uprising led this official to renew the old
+grant. The act was ratified by Louis VI. in the text (a) given below.</p>
+
+<p>The other great class of towns&mdash;the franchise towns&mdash;differed from
+the free towns in having a much more limited measure of political and
+economic independence. They received grants of privileges, or "franchises,"
+from their lord, especially in the way of restrictions of rights of
+the latter over the persons and property of the inhabitants, but they
+remained politically subject to the lord and their government was partly
+or wholly under his control. Their charters set a limit to the lord's
+arbitrary authority, emancipated such inhabitants as were not already
+free, gave the citizens the right to move about and to alienate property,
+substituted money payments for the corvée, and in general made old
+regulations less burdensome; but as a rule no political rights were conferred.
+Paris, Tours, Orleans, and other more important cities on the
+royal domain belonged to this class. The town of Lorris, on the royal
+domain a short distance east of Orleans, became the common model for
+the type. Its charter, received from Louis VII. in 1155, is given in
+the second selection (b) below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Text in Vilevault and Bréquigny, <i>Ordonnances des Rois de
+France de la Troisième Race</i> ["Ordinances of the Kings of
+France of the Third Dynasty"], Paris, 1769, Vol. XI., pp. 185-187.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Text in Maurice Prou, <i>Les Coutumes de Lorris et leur Propagation
+aux XII<sup>e</sup> et XIII<sup>e</sup> Siècles</i> ["The Customs of Lorris and
+their Spread in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries"],
+Paris, 1884, pp. 129-141.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Let no one arrest any freeman or serf for any offense without
+due process of law.<a name="FNanchor_470" id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But if any one do injury to a clerk, soldier, or merchant,
+native or foreign, provided he who does the injury belongs to the
+<span class="sidebar">Provisions of
+the charter of
+Laon</span>
+same city as the injured person, let him, summoned
+after the fourth day, come for justice
+before the mayor and jurats.<a name="FNanchor_471" id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> If a thief is arrested, let him be brought to him on whose
+land he has been arrested; but if justice is not done by the lord,
+let it be done by the jurats.<a name="FNanchor_472" id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> We entirely abolish mortmain.<a name="FNanchor_473" id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> The customary tallages we have so reformed that every
+man owing such tallages, at the time when they are due, must
+pay four pence, and beyond that no more.<a name="FNanchor_474" id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Let men of the peace not be compelled to resort to courts
+outside the city.<a name="FNanchor_475" id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Every one who has a house in the parish of Lorris shall
+pay as <i>cens</i> sixpence only for his house, and for each acre of land
+that he possesses in the parish.<a name="FNanchor_476" id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> No inhabitant of the parish of Lorris shall be required to
+pay a toll or any other tax on his provisions; and let him not
+be made to pay any measurage fee on the grain which he has
+raised by his own labor.<a name="FNanchor_477" id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> No burgher shall go on an expedition, on foot or on horseback,
+from which he cannot return the same day to his home if
+he desires.<a name="FNanchor_478" id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> No burgher shall pay toll on the road to Étampes, to
+Orleans, to Milly (which is in the Gâtinais), or to Melun.<a name="FNanchor_479" id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> No one who has property in the parish of Lorris shall forfeit it
+<span class="sidebar">The charter
+of Lorris</span>
+for any offense whatsoever, unless the offense shall
+have been committed against us or any of our <i>hôtes</i>.<a name="FNanchor_480" id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> No person while on his way to the fairs and markets of
+Lorris, or returning, shall be arrested or disturbed, unless he
+shall have committed an offense on the same day.<a name="FNanchor_481" id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> No one, neither we nor any other, shall exact from the
+burghers of Lorris any tallage, tax, or subsidy.<a name="FNanchor_482" id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> If a man shall have had a quarrel with another, but without
+breaking into a fortified house, and if the parties shall have
+reached an agreement without bringing a suit before the provost,
+no fine shall be due to us or our provost on account of the affair.<a name="FNanchor_483" id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> No inhabitant of Lorris is to render us the obligation of
+<i>corvée</i>, except twice a year, when our wine is to be carried to
+Orleans, and not elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_484" id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> No one shall be detained in prison if he can furnish surety
+that he will present himself for judgment.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> Any burgher who wishes to sell his property shall have
+the privilege of doing so; and, having received the price of the
+sale, he shall have the right to go from the town freely and without
+molestation, if he so desires, unless he has committed some
+offense in it.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> Any one who shall dwell a year and a day in the parish of
+Lorris, without any claim having pursued him there, and without
+having refused to lay his case before us or our provost, shall
+abide there freely and without molestation.<a name="FNanchor_485" id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>35.</b> We ordain that every time there shall be a change of
+provosts in the town the new provost shall take an oath faithfully
+to observe these regulations; and the same thing shall be
+done by new sergeants<a name="FNanchor_486" id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> every time that they are installed.</p>
+
+<h4>58. The Colonization of Eastern Germany</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In the time of Charlemagne the Elbe River marked a pretty clear
+boundary between the Slavic population to the east and the Germanic
+to the west. There were many Slavs west of the Elbe, but no Germans
+east of it. There had been a time when Germans occupied large portions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span>
+of eastern Europe, but for one reason or another they gradually became
+concentrated toward the west, while Slavic peoples pushed in to fill the
+vacated territory. Under Charlemagne and his successors we can discern
+the earlier stages of a movement of reaction which has gone on in
+later times until the political map of all north central Europe has been
+remodeled. During the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries large portions
+of the "sphere of influence" (to use a modern phrase) which
+Charlemagne had created eastward from the Elbe were converted into
+German principalities and dependencies. German colonists pushed
+down the Danube, well toward the Black Sea, along the Baltic, past the
+Oder and toward the Vistula, and up the Oder into the heart of modern
+Poland. The Slavic population was slowly brought under subjection,
+Christianized, and to a certain extent Germanized. In the tenth century
+Henry I. (919-936) began a fresh forward movement against the Slavs,
+or Wends, as the Germans called them. Magdeburg, on the Elbe, was
+established as the chief base of operations. The work was kept up by
+Henry's son, Otto I. (936-973), but under his grandson, Otto II. (973-983),
+a large part of what had been gained was lost for a time through a
+Slavic revolt called out by the Emperor's preoccupation with affairs in
+Italy. Thereafter for a century the Slavs were allowed perforce to enjoy
+their earlier independence, and upon more than one occasion they
+were able to assume the aggressive against their would-be conquerors.
+In 1066 the city of Hamburg, on the lower Elbe, was attacked and
+almost totally destroyed. The imperial power was fast declining and the
+Franconian sovereigns had little time left from their domestic conflicts
+and quarrels with the papacy to carry on a contest on the east.</p>
+
+<p>The renewed advance which the Germans made against the Slavs in
+the later eleventh and earlier twelfth centuries was due primarily to the
+energy of the able princes of Saxony and to the pressure for colonization,
+which increased in spite of small encouragement from any
+except the local authorities. The document given below is a typical
+charter of the period, authorizing the establishment of a colony of Germans
+eastward from Hamburg, on the border of Brandenburg. It was
+granted in 1106 by the bishop of Hamburg, who as lord of the region
+in which the proposed settlement was to be made exercised the right
+not merely of giving consent to the undertaking, but also of prescribing
+the terms and conditions by which the colonists were to be bound.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span>
+As appears from the charter, the colony was expected to be a source
+of profit to the bishop; and indeed it was financial considerations on the
+part of lords, lay and spiritual, who had stretches of unoccupied land at
+their disposal, almost as much as regard for safety in numbers and the
+absolute dominance of Germanic peoples, that prompted these local
+magnates of eastern Germany so ardently to promote the work of
+colonization.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim, <i>Ausgewählte
+Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands
+im Mittelalter</i> ["Select Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional
+History of Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin,
+1904, pp. 159-160. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, <i>A Source
+Book for Mediæval History</i> (New York, 1905), pp. 572-573.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> In the name of the holy and undivided Trinity. Frederick,
+by the grace of God bishop of Hamburg, to all the faithful in
+Christ, gives a perpetual benediction. We wish to make known
+to all the agreement which certain people living this side of the
+Rhine, who are called Hollanders,<a name="FNanchor_487" id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> have made with us.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> These men came to us and earnestly begged us to grant
+them certain lands in our bishopric, which are uncultivated,
+<span class="sidebar">The Hollanders
+ask land
+for a colony</span>
+swampy, and useless to our people. We have
+consulted our subjects about this and, feeling
+that this would be profitable to us and to our
+successors, have granted their request.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The agreement was made that they should pay us every
+year one <i>denarius</i> for every hide of land. We have thought it
+necessary to determine the dimensions of the hide, in order that
+no quarrel may thereafter arise about it. The hide shall be
+720 royal rods long and thirty royal rods wide. We also grant
+them the streams which flow through this land.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> They agreed to give the tithe according to our decree, that
+is, every eleventh sheaf of grain, every tenth lamb, every tenth
+pig, every tenth goat, every tenth goose, and a tenth of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span>
+honey and of the flax. For every colt they shall pay a <i>denarius</i>
+on St. Martin's day [Nov. 11], and for every calf an obol [penny].</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> They promised to obey me in all ecclesiastical matters,
+<span class="sidebar">Obedience
+promised to
+the bishop of
+Hamburg</span>
+according to the decrees of the holy fathers,
+the canonical law, and the practice in the diocese
+of Utrecht.<a name="FNanchor_488" id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> They agreed to pay every year two marks for every 100
+hides for the privilege of holding their own courts for the settlement
+of all their differences about secular matters. They did
+this because they feared they would suffer from the injustice of
+<span class="sidebar">Judicial
+immunity</span>
+foreign judges.<a name="FNanchor_489" id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a> If they cannot settle the more
+important cases, they shall refer them to the
+bishop. And if they take the bishop with them for the purpose
+of deciding one of their trials,<a name="FNanchor_490" id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a> they shall provide for his support
+as long as he remains there by granting him one third of all the
+fees arising from the trial; and they shall keep the other two
+thirds.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> We have given them permission to found churches wherever
+they may wish on these lands. For the support of the
+priests who shall serve God in these churches we grant a tithe
+of our tithes from these parish churches. They promised that
+the congregation of each of these churches should endow their
+church with a hide for the support of their priest.<a name="FNanchor_491" id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> The names
+of the men who made this agreement with us are: Henry, the
+priest, to whom we have granted the aforesaid churches for life;
+and the others are laymen, Helikin, Arnold, Hiko, Fordalt, and
+Referic. To them and to their heirs after them we have granted
+the aforesaid land according to the secular laws and to the terms
+of this agreement.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>59. The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>About the middle of the thirteenth century the central authority of
+the Holy Roman Empire was for a time practically dissolved. Frederick
+II., the last strong ruler of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, died in 1250, and
+even he was so largely Italian in character and interests that he could
+bring himself to give little attention to German affairs. During the
+stormy period of the Interregnum (1254-1273) there was no universally
+recognized emperor at all. Germany had reached an advanced stage of
+political disintegration and it is scarcely conceivable that even a Henry
+IV. or a Frederick Barbarossa could have made the imperial power much
+more than a shadow and a name. But while the Empire was broken up
+into scores of principalities, independent cities, and other political fragments,
+its people were enjoying a vigorous and progressive life. The
+period was one of great growth of industry in the towns, and especially
+of commerce. The one serious disadvantage was the lack of a central
+police authority to preserve order and insure the safety of person and
+property. Warfare was all but ceaseless, robber-bands infested the
+rivers and highways, and all manner of vexatious conditions were imposed
+upon trade by the various local authorities. The natural result
+was the formation of numerous leagues and confederacies for the suppression
+of anarchy and the protection of trade and industry. The
+greatest of these was the Hanseatic League, which came to comprise
+one hundred and seventy-two cities, and the history of whose operations
+runs through more than three centuries. An earlier organization, which
+may be considered in a way a forerunner of the Hansa, was the Rhine
+League, established in 1254. At this earlier date Conrad IV., son of
+Frederick II., was fighting his half-brother Manfred for their common
+Sicilian heritage; William of Holland, who claimed the imperial title,
+was recognized in only a small territory and was quite powerless to affect
+conditions of disorder outside; the other princes, great and small, were
+generally engaged in private warfare; and the difficulties and dangers of
+trade and industry were at their maximum. To establish a power
+strong enough, and with the requisite disposition, to suppress the robbers
+and pirates who were ruining commerce, the leading cities of the
+Rhine valley&mdash;Mainz, Cologne, Worms, Speyer, Strassburg, Basel,
+Trier, Metz, and others&mdash;entered into a "league of holy peace," to endure
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span>
+for a period of ten years, dating from July 13, 1254. The more significant
+terms of the compact are set forth in the selection below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim, <i>Ausgewählte
+Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands
+im Mittelalter</i> ["Select Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional
+History of Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin,
+1904, pp. 251-254. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, <i>A Source
+Book for Mediæval History</i> (New York, 1905), pp. 606-609.</p>
+
+<p>In the name of the Lord, amen. In the year of our Lord 1254,
+on the octave of St. Michael's day [a week after Sept. 29] we,
+the cities of the upper and lower Rhine, leagued together for the
+preservation of peace, met in the city of Worms. We held a
+conference there and carefully discussed everything pertaining to
+<span class="sidebar">The league
+formed at
+Worms</span>
+a general peace. To the honor of God, and of the
+holy mother Church, and of the holy Empire,
+which is now governed by our lord, William,
+king of the Romans,<a name="FNanchor_492" id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> and to the common advantage of all, both
+rich and poor alike, we made the following laws. They are for
+the benefit of all, both poor and great, the secular clergy, monks,
+laymen, and Jews. To secure these things, which are for the
+public good, we will spare neither ourselves nor our possessions.
+The princes and lords who take the oath are joined with us.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> We decree that we will make no warlike expeditions, except
+those that are absolutely necessary and determined on by the
+wise counsel of the cities and communes. We will mutually
+aid each other with all our strength in securing redress for our
+grievances.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> We decree that no member of the league, whether city
+<span class="sidebar">No dealings
+to be had with
+enemies of the
+league</span>
+or lord, Christian or Jew, shall furnish food,
+arms, or aid of any kind, to any one who opposes
+us or the peace.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> And no one in our cities shall give credit, or make a loan,
+to them.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> No citizen of any of the cities in the league shall associate
+with such, or give them counsel, aid, or support. If any one is
+convicted of doing so, he shall be expelled from the city and
+punished so severely in his property that he will be a warning
+to others not to do such things.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> If any knight, in trying to aid his lord who is at war with
+us, attacks or molests us anywhere outside of the walled towns
+of his lord, he is breaking the peace, and we will in some way
+<span class="sidebar">A warning
+to enemies</span>
+inflict due punishment on him and his possessions,
+no matter who he is. If he is caught in any of
+the cities, he shall be held as a prisoner until he makes proper
+satisfaction. We wish to be protectors of the peasants, and we
+will protect them against all violence if they will observe the
+peace with us. But if they make war on us, we will punish them,
+and if we catch them in any of the cities, we will punish them
+as malefactors.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> We wish the cities to destroy all the ferries except those
+in their immediate neighborhood, so that there shall be no
+ferries except those near the cities which are in the league.
+This is to be done in order that the enemies of the peace may be
+deprived of all means of crossing the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> We decree that if any lord or knight aids us in promoting
+the peace, we will do all we can to protect him. Whoever does
+not swear to keep the peace with us, shall be excluded from the
+general peace.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> Above all, we wish to affirm that we desire to live in
+mutual peace with the lords and all the people of the province,
+and we desire that each should preserve all his rights.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> Under threat of punishment we forbid any citizen to revile
+the lords, although they may be our enemies. For although we
+wish to punish them for the violence they have done us, yet before
+making war on them we will first warn them to cease from
+injuring us.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> We decree that all correspondence about this matter with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span>
+the cities of the lower Rhine shall be conducted from Mainz, and
+from Worms with the cities of the upper Rhine. From these
+<span class="sidebar">Mainz and
+Worms to be
+the capitals
+of the league</span>
+two cities all our correspondence shall be carried
+on and all who have done us injury shall be
+warned. Those who have suffered injury shall
+send their messengers at their own expense.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> We also promise, both lords and cities, to send four
+official representatives to whatever place a conference is to be
+<span class="sidebar">The governing
+body of the
+league</span>
+held, and they shall have full authority from
+their cities to decide on all matters. They shall
+report to their cities all the decisions of the meeting.
+All who come with the representatives of the cities, or who
+come to them while in session, shall have peace, and no judgment
+shall be enforced against them.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> No city shall receive non-residents, who are commonly
+called "pfahlburgers," as citizens.<a name="FNanchor_493" id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> We firmly declare that if any member of the league
+breaks the peace, we will proceed against him at once as if he
+were not a member, and compel him to make proper satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> We promise that we will faithfully keep each other informed
+by letter about our enemies and all others who may be
+able to do us damage, in order that we may take timely counsel
+to protect ourselves against them.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> We decree that no one shall violently enter the house of
+monks or nuns, of whatever order they may be, or quarter themselves
+upon them, or demand or extort food or any kind of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span>
+service from them, contrary to their will. If any one does this,
+he shall be held as a violator of the peace.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> We decree that each city shall try to persuade each of
+its neighboring cities to swear to keep the peace. If they do not
+<span class="sidebar">The league to
+be enlarged</span>
+do so, they shall be entirely cut off from the
+peace, so that if any one does them an injury,
+either in their persons or their property, he shall not thereby
+break the peace.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> We wish all members of the league, cities, lords, and all
+others, to arm themselves properly and prepare for war, so that
+whenever we call upon them we shall find them ready.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> We decree that the cities between the Moselle and Basel
+shall prepare 100 war boats, and the cities below the Moselle
+<span class="sidebar">Military
+preparations
+of the league</span>
+shall prepare 500, well equipped with bowmen,
+and each city shall prepare herself as well as
+she can and supply herself with arms for knights
+and foot-soldiers.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXI.<br />
+UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT LIFE</h3>
+
+<p>The modern university is essentially a product of the Middle Ages.
+The Greeks and Romans had provisions for higher education, but nothing
+that can properly be termed universities, with faculties, courses of
+study, examinations, and degrees. The word "universitas" in the
+earlier mediæval period was applied indiscriminately to any group or
+body of people, as a guild of artisans or an organization of the clergy,
+and only very gradually did it come to be restricted to an association
+of teachers and students&mdash;the so-called <i>universitas societas magistrorum
+discipulorumque</i>. The origins of mediæval universities are, in most
+cases, rather obscure. In the earlier Middle Ages the interests of
+learning were generally in the keeping of the monks and the work of
+education was carried on chiefly in monastic schools, where the subjects
+of study were commonly the seven liberal arts inherited from Roman
+days.<a name="FNanchor_494" id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> By the twelfth century there was a relative decline of these
+monastic schools, accompanied by a marked development of cathedral
+schools in which not only the seven liberal arts but also new subjects
+like law and theology were taught. The twelfth century renaissance
+brought a notable revival of Roman law, medicine, astronomy, and
+philosophy; by 1200 the whole of Aristotle's writings had become known;
+and the general awakening produced immediate results in the larger
+numbers of students who flocked to places like Paris and Bologna where
+exceptional teachers were to be found.</p>
+
+<p>Out of these conditions grew the earliest of the universities. No
+definite dates for the beginnings of Paris, Bologna, Oxford, etc., can
+be assigned, but the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are to be considered
+their great formative period. Bologna was specifically the creation of
+the revived study of the Roman law and of the fame of the great law
+teacher Irnerius. The university sprang from a series of organizations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span>
+effected first by the students and later by the masters, or teachers, and
+modeled after the guilds of workmen. It became the pattern for most of
+the later Italian and Spanish universities. Paris arose in a different
+way. It grew directly out of the great cathedral school of Notre Dame
+and, unlike Bologna, was an organization at the outset of masters rather
+than of students. It was presided over by the chancellor, who had had
+charge of education in the cathedral and who retained the exclusive
+privilege of granting licenses to teach (the <i>licentia docendi</i>), or, in other
+words, degrees.<a name="FNanchor_495" id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> Rising to prominence in the twelfth century, especially
+by virtue of the teaching of Abelard (1079-1142), Paris became in time
+the greatest university of the Middle Ages, exerting profound influence
+not only on learning, but also on the Church and even at times on political
+affairs. The universities of the rest of France, as well as the German
+universities and Oxford and Cambridge in England, were copied pretty
+closely after Paris.</p>
+
+<h4>60. Privileges Granted to Students and Masters</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Throughout the Middle Ages numerous special favors were showered
+upon the universities and their students by the Church. Patronage and
+protection from the secular authorities were less to be depended on,
+though the courts of kings were not infrequently the rendezvous of
+scholars, and the greater seats of learning after the eleventh century
+generally owed their prosperity, if not their origin, to the liberality of
+monarchs such as Frederick Barbarossa or Philip Augustus. The
+recognition of the universities by the temporal powers came as a rule
+earlier than that by the Church. The edict of the Emperor Frederick I.,
+which comprises selection (a) below, was issued in 1158 and is not to
+be considered as limited in its application to the students of any particular
+university, though many writers have associated it solely with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span>
+the University of Bologna. That the statute was decreed at the solicitation
+of the Bologna doctors of law admits of little doubt, but, as
+Rashdall observes, it was "a general privilege conferred on the student
+class throughout the Lombard kingdom."<a name="FNanchor_496" id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> By some writers it is said
+to have been the earliest formal grant of privileges for university students,
+but this cannot be true as Salerno (notable chiefly for medical
+studies) received such grants from Robert Guiscard and his son Roger
+before the close of the eleventh century.</p>
+
+<p>Until the year 1200 the students of Paris enjoyed no privileges such
+as those conferred upon the Italian institutions by Frederick. In that
+year a tavern brawl occurred between some German students and
+Parisian townspeople, in which five of the students lost their lives.
+The provost of the city, instead of attempting to repress the disorder,
+took sides against the students and encouraged the populace. Such
+laxity stirred the king, Philip Augustus, to action. Fearing that the
+students would decamp <i>en masse</i>, he hastened to comply with their
+appeal for redress. The provost and his lieutenants were arrested
+and a decree was issued [given, in part, in selection (b)] exempting
+the scholars from the operation of the municipal law in criminal cases.
+Pope Innocent III. at once confirmed the privileges and on his part
+relaxed somewhat the vigilance of the Church. Such liberal measures,
+however, did not insure permanent peace. In less than three decades
+another conflict with the provost occurred which was so serious as to
+result in a total suspension of the university's activities for more than
+two years.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Pertz ed.),
+Vol. II., p. 114. Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro
+in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. II., No. 3,
+pp. 2-4.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Text in <i>Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis</i> ["Cartulary of
+the University of Paris"], No. 1., p. 59. Adapted from translation
+in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 4-7.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>After a careful consideration of this subject by the bishops,
+abbots, dukes, counts, judges, and other nobles of our sacred
+palace, we, from our piety, have granted this privilege to all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span>
+scholars who travel for the sake of study, and especially to the
+professors of divine and sacred laws,<a name="FNanchor_497" id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a> namely, that they may
+<span class="sidebar">Security
+of travel and
+residence for
+scholars</span>
+go in safety to the places in which the studies
+are carried on, both they themselves and their
+messengers, and may dwell there in security.
+For we think it fitting that, during good behavior, those should
+enjoy our praise and protection, by whose learning the world
+is enlightened to the obedience of God and of us, his ministers,
+and the life of the subject is molded; and by a special consideration
+we defend them from all injuries.</p>
+
+<p>For who does not pity those who exile themselves through
+love for learning, who wear themselves out in poverty in place
+of riches, who expose their lives to all perils and often suffer
+bodily injury from the vilest men? This must be endured with
+vexation. Therefore, we declare by this general and perpetual
+law, that in the future no one shall be so rash as to venture to
+<span class="sidebar">Regulation
+concerning
+the collection
+of debts</span>
+inflict any injury on scholars, or to occasion any
+loss to them on account of a debt owed by an
+inhabitant of their province&mdash;a thing which we
+have learned is sometimes done by an evil custom.<a name="FNanchor_498" id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> And let it
+be known to the violators of this constitution, and also to those
+who shall at the time be the rulers of the places, that a fourfold
+restitution of property shall be exacted from all and that, the
+mark of infamy being affixed to them by the law itself, they
+shall lose their office forever.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, if any one shall presume to bring a suit against them
+on account of any business, the choice in this matter shall be
+<span class="sidebar">Judicial
+privileges of
+scholars</span>
+given to the scholars, who may summon the
+accusers to appear before their professors or the
+bishop of the city, to whom we have given jurisdiction
+in this matter.<a name="FNanchor_499" id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a> But if, indeed, the accuser shall attempt
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span>
+to drag the scholar before another judge, even if his cause is a
+very just one, he shall lose his suit for such an attempt.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the safety of the students at Paris in the future,
+by the advice of our subjects we have ordained as follows:</p>
+
+<p>We will cause all the citizens of Paris to swear that if any one
+sees an injury done to any student by any layman,<a name="FNanchor_500" id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> he will
+testify truthfully to this, nor will any one withdraw in order not
+to see [the act]. And if it shall happen that any one strikes a
+student, except in self-defense, especially if he strikes the student
+with a weapon, a club, or a stone, all laymen who see [the act]
+<span class="sidebar">Protection
+for scholars
+against crimes
+of violence</span>
+shall in good faith seize the malefactor, or malefactors,
+and deliver them to our judge; nor shall
+they run away in order not to see the act, or
+seize the malefactor, or testify to the truth. Also, whether the
+malefactor is seized in open crime or not, we will make a legal
+and full examination through clerks, or laymen, or certain lawful
+persons; and our count and our judges shall do the same. And
+if by a full examination we, or our judges, are able to learn that
+he who is accused, is guilty of the crime, then we, or our judges,
+shall immediately inflict a penalty, according to the quality and
+nature of the crime; notwithstanding the fact that the criminal
+may deny the deed and say that he is ready to defend himself
+in single combat, or to purge himself by the ordeal by water.<a name="FNanchor_501" id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p>
+
+<p>Also, neither our provost nor our judges shall lay hands on a
+student for any offense whatever; nor shall they place him in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span>
+our prison, unless such a crime has been committed by the
+student, that he ought to be arrested. And in that case, our
+judge shall arrest him on the spot, without striking him at all,
+unless he resists, and shall hand him over to the ecclesiastical
+judge,<a name="FNanchor_502" id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> who ought to guard him in order to satisfy us and the
+one suffering the injury. And if a serious crime has been committed,
+our judge shall go or shall send to see what is done with
+the student. If, indeed, the student does not resist arrest and
+yet suffers any injury, we will exact satisfaction for it, according
+<span class="sidebar">Scholars to be
+tried and punished
+under
+ecclesiastical
+authority</span>
+to the aforesaid examination and the aforesaid
+oath. Also our judges shall not lay hands
+on the chattels of the students of Paris for any
+crime whatever. But if it shall seem that these
+ought to be sequestrated, they shall be sequestrated and guarded
+after sequestration by the ecclesiastical judge, in order that
+whatever is judged legal by the Church may be done with the
+chattels.<a name="FNanchor_503" id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> But if students are arrested by our count at such
+an hour that the ecclesiastical judge cannot be found and be
+present at once, our provost shall cause the culprits to be guarded
+in some student's house without any ill-treatment, as is said
+above, until they are delivered to the ecclesiastical judge.</p>
+
+<p>In order, moreover, that these [decrees] may be kept more
+carefully and may be established forever by a fixed law, we have
+decided that our present provost and the people of Paris shall
+<span class="sidebar">The oath required
+of the
+provost and
+people of Paris</span>
+affirm by an oath, in the presence of the scholars,
+that they will carry out in good faith all the
+above-mentioned [regulations]. And always in
+the future, whosoever receives from us the office of provost in
+Paris, among the inaugural acts of his office, namely, on the first
+or second Sunday, in one of the churches of Paris&mdash;after he has
+been summoned for the purpose&mdash;shall affirm by an oath, publicly
+in the presence of the scholars, that he will keep in good
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span>
+faith all the above-mentioned [regulations].<a name="FNanchor_504" id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> And that these
+decrees may be valid forever, we have ordered this document
+to be confirmed by the authority of our seal and by the characters
+of the royal name signed below.</p>
+
+<h4>61. The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Until the middle of the fourteenth century Germany possessed no
+university. In the earlier mediæval period, when palace and monastic
+schools were multiplying in France, Italy, and England, German culture
+was too backward to permit of a similar movement beyond the
+Rhine; and later, when in other countries universities were springing
+into prosperity, political dissensions long continued to thwart such
+enterprises among the Germans. Germany was not untouched by the
+intellectual movements of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but her
+young men were obliged to seek their learning at Oxford or Paris or
+Bologna. The first German university was that of Prague, in Bohemia,
+founded by Emperor Charles IV., a contemporary of Petrarch, and
+chartered in 1348. Once begun, the work of establishing such institutions
+went on rapidly, until ere long every principality of note had its
+own university. Vienna was founded in 1365, Erfurt was given papal
+sanction in 1379, Heidelberg was established in 1386, and Cologne
+followed in 1388. The document given below is the charter of privileges
+issued for Heidelberg in October, 1386, by the founder, Rupert I., Count
+Palatine of the Rhine. Marsilius Inghen became the first rector of the
+university. He and two other masters began lecturing October 19,
+1386&mdash;one on logic, another on the epistle to Titus, the third on the
+philosophy of Aristotle. Within four years over a thousand students
+had been in attendance at the university.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Edward Winkelmann, <i>Urkundenbuch der Universität
+Heidelberg</i> ["Cartulary of the University of Heidelberg"], Heidelberg,
+1886, Vol. I., pp. 5-6. Translated in Ernest F. Henderson,
+<i>Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages</i> (London, 1896),
+pp. 262-266.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> We, Rupert the elder, by the grace of God count palatine
+of the Rhine, elector of the Holy Empire,<a name="FNanchor_505" id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> and duke of Bavaria,&mdash;lest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span>
+we seem to abuse the privilege conceded to us by the
+apostolic see of founding a place of study at Heidelberg similar
+to that at Paris, and lest, for this reason, being subjected to the
+divine judgment, we should deserve to be deprived of the privilege
+granted&mdash;do decree, with provident counsel (which decree
+is to be observed unto all time), that the University of Heidelberg
+shall be ruled, disposed, and regulated according to the
+modes and manners accustomed to be observed in the University
+<span class="sidebar">The university
+to be organized
+on the
+model of Paris</span>
+of Paris.<a name="FNanchor_506" id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> Also that, as a handmaid of Paris&mdash;a
+worthy one let us hope&mdash;the latter's steps shall
+be imitated in every way possible; so that,
+namely, there shall be four faculties in it: the first, of sacred
+theology and divinity; the second, of canon and civil law, which,
+by reason of their similarity, we think best to comprise under
+one faculty; the third, of medicine; the fourth, of liberal arts&mdash;of
+the three-fold philosophy, namely, primal, natural, and moral,
+three mutually subservient daughters.<a name="FNanchor_507" id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> We wish this institution
+to be divided and marked out into four nations, as it is at
+Paris;<a name="FNanchor_508" id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> and that all these faculties shall make one university,
+and that to it the individual students, in whatever of the said
+faculties they are, shall unitedly belong like lawful sons to one
+mother.</p>
+
+<p>Likewise [we desire] that this university shall be governed by
+one rector,<a name="FNanchor_509" id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> and that the various masters and teachers, before
+they are admitted to the common pursuits of our institution,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span>
+shall swear to observe the statutes, laws, privileges, liberties, and
+franchises of the same, and not reveal its secrets, to whatever
+grade they may rise. Also that they will uphold the honor of
+the rector and the rectorship of our university, and will obey
+<span class="sidebar">The obligations
+of the masters</span>
+the rector in all things lawful and honest, whatever
+be the grade to which they may afterwards
+happen to be promoted. Moreover, that the various masters
+and bachelors shall read their lectures and exercise their scholastic
+functions and go about in caps and gowns of a uniform and
+similar nature, according as has been observed at Paris up to
+this time in the different faculties.</p>
+
+<p>And we will that if any faculty, nation, or person shall oppose
+the aforesaid regulations, or stubbornly refuse to obey them,
+or any one of them&mdash;which God forbid&mdash;from that time forward
+that same faculty, nation, or person, if it do not desist upon
+being warned, shall be deprived of all connection with our aforesaid
+institution, and shall not have the benefit of our defense or
+<span class="sidebar">Internal government
+of the
+university further
+provided
+for</span>
+protection. Moreover, we will and ordain that
+as the university as a whole may do for those
+assembled here and subject to it, so each faculty,
+nation, or province of it may enact lawful statutes,
+such as are suitable to its needs, provided that through them,
+or any one of them, no prejudice is done to the above regulations
+and to our institution, and that no kind of impediment arise
+from them. And we will that when the separate bodies shall
+have passed the statutes for their own observance, they may
+make them perpetually binding on those subject to them and
+on their successors. And as in the University of Paris the
+various servants of the institution have the benefit of the various
+privileges which its masters and scholars enjoy, so in starting
+our institution in Heidelberg, we grant, with even greater
+liberality, through these presents, that all the servants, i.e., its
+pedells,<a name="FNanchor_510" id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> librarians, lower officials, preparers of parchment,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span>
+scribes, illuminators and others who serve it, may each and all,
+without fraud, enjoy in it the same privileges, franchises, immunities
+and liberties with which its masters or scholars are
+now or shall hereafter be endowed.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Lest in the new community of the city of Heidelberg, their
+misdeeds being unpunished, there be an incentive to the scholars
+of doing wrong, we ordain, with provident counsel, by these presents,
+that the bishop of Worms, as judge ordinary of the clerks
+of our institution, shall have and possess, now and hereafter
+while our institution shall last, prisons, and an office in our
+town of Heidelberg for the detention of criminal clerks. These
+<span class="sidebar">The jurisdiction
+of the
+bishop of
+Worms</span>
+things we have seen fit to grant to him and his
+successors, adding these conditions: that he shall
+permit no clerk to be arrested unless for a misdemeanor;
+that he shall restore any one detained for such fault, or
+for any light offense, to his master, or to the rector if the latter asks
+for him, a promise having been given that the culprit will appear
+in court and that the rector or master will answer for him if the
+injured parties should go to law about the matter. Furthermore,
+that, on being requested, he will restore a clerk arrested for a
+crime on slight evidence, upon receiving a sufficient pledge&mdash;sponsors
+if the prisoner can obtain them, otherwise an oath if
+he cannot obtain sponsors&mdash;to the effect that he will answer in
+court the charges against him; and in all these things there shall
+be no pecuniary exactions, except that the clerk shall give satisfaction,
+<span class="sidebar">Conditions of
+imprisonment</span>
+reasonably and according to the rule of
+the aforementioned town, for the expenses which
+he incurred while in prison. And we desire that he will detain
+honestly and without serious injury a criminal clerk thus arrested
+for a crime where the suspicion is grave and strong, until
+the truth can be found out concerning the deed of which he is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span>
+suspected. And he shall not for any cause, moreover, take away
+any clerk from our aforesaid town, or permit him to be taken
+away, unless the proper observances have been followed, and
+he has been condemned by judicial sentence to perpetual imprisonment
+for a crime.</p>
+
+<p>We command our advocate and bailiff and their servants in
+our aforesaid town, under pain of losing their offices and our
+favor, not to lay a detaining hand on any master or scholar of
+our said institution, nor to arrest him or allow him to be
+<span class="sidebar">Limitations
+upon power to
+arrest students</span>
+arrested, unless the deed be such that that
+master or scholar ought rightly to be detained.
+He shall be restored to his rector or master, if he
+is held for a slight cause, provided he will swear and promise to
+appear in court concerning the matter; and we decree that a
+slight fault is one for which a layman, if he had committed it,
+ought to have been condemned to a light pecuniary fine. Likewise,
+if the master or scholar detained be found gravely or
+strongly suspected of the crime, we command that he be handed
+over by our officials to the bishop or to his representative in our
+said town, to be kept in custody.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> By the tenor of these presents we grant to each and all
+the masters and scholars that, when they come to the said institution,
+while they remain there, and also when they return
+from it to their homes, they may freely carry with them, both
+coming and going, throughout all the lands subject to us, all
+things which they need while pursuing their studies, and all the
+<span class="sidebar">Students exempted
+from
+various imposts</span>
+goods necessary for their support, without any
+duty, levy, imposts, tolls, excises, or other exactions
+whatever. And we wish them and each
+one of them, to be free from the aforesaid imposts when purchasing
+corn, wines, meat, fish, clothes and all things necessary for
+their living and for their rank. And we decree that the scholars
+from their stock in hand of provisions, if there remain over one
+or two wagonloads of wine without their having practised deception,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span>
+may, after the feast of Easter of that year, sell it at
+wholesale without paying impost. We grant to them, moreover,
+that each day the scholars, of themselves or through their servants,
+may be allowed to buy in the town of Heidelberg, at the
+accustomed hour, freely and without impediment or hurtful
+delay, any eatables or other necessaries of life.</p>
+
+<p>4. Lest the masters and scholars of our institution of Heidelberg
+may be oppressed by the citizens, moved by avarice,
+through extortionate prices of lodgings, we have seen fit to
+decree that henceforth each year, after Christmas, one expert
+from the university on the part of the scholars, and one prudent,
+<span class="sidebar">How rates for
+lodging should
+be fixed</span>
+pious, and circumspect citizen on the part of the
+citizens, shall be authorized to determine the
+price of the students' lodgings. Moreover, we will
+and decree that the various masters and scholars shall, through
+our bailiff, our judge and the officials subject to us, be defended
+and maintained in the quiet possession of the lodgings given to
+them free or of those for which they pay rent. Moreover, by the
+tenor of these presents, we grant to the rector and the university,
+or to those designated by them, entire jurisdiction concerning
+the payment of rents for the lodgings occupied by the students,
+concerning the making and buying of books, and the borrowing
+of money for other purposes by the scholars of our institution;
+also concerning the payment of assessments, together with
+everything that arises from, depends upon, and is connected with
+these.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, we command our officials that, when the rector
+requires our and their aid and assistance for carrying out his
+sentences against scholars who try to rebel, they shall assist our
+clients and servants in this matter; first, however, obtaining
+lawful permission to proceed against clerks from the lord bishop
+of Worms, or from one deputed by him for this purpose.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>62. Mediæval Students' Songs</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>"When we try to picture to ourselves," says Mr. Symonds in one of
+his felicitous passages, "the intellectual and moral state of Europe in
+the Middle Ages, some fixed and almost stereotyped ideas immediately
+suggest themselves. We think of the nations immersed in a gross mental
+lethargy; passively witnessing the gradual extinction of arts and sciences
+which Greece and Rome had splendidly inaugurated; allowing libraries
+and monuments of antique civilization to crumble into dust; while they
+trembled under a dull and brooding terror of coming judgment, shrank
+from natural enjoyment as from deadly sin, or yielded themselves with
+brutal eagerness to the satisfaction of vulgar appetites. Preoccupation
+with the other world in this long period weakens man's hold upon the
+things that make his life desirable.... Prolonged habits of extra-mundane
+contemplation, combined with the decay of real knowledge,
+volatilize the thoughts and aspirations of the best and wisest into dreamy
+unrealities, giving a false air of mysticism to love, shrouding art in allegory,
+reducing the interpretation of texts to an exercise of idle ingenuity,
+and the study of nature to an insane system of grotesque and pious
+quibbling. The conception of man's fall and of the incurable badness of
+this world bears poisonous fruit of cynicism and asceticism, that two-fold
+bitter almond hidden in the harsh monastic shell. Nature is regarded
+with suspicion and aversion; the flesh, with shame and loathing,
+broken by spasmodic outbursts of lawless self-indulgence."<a name="FNanchor_511" id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a></p>
+
+<p>All of these ideas are properly to be associated with the Middle Ages,
+but it must be borne in mind that they represent only one side of the
+picture. They are drawn very largely from the study of monastic
+literature and produce a somewhat distorted impression. Though many
+conditions prevailing in mediæval times operated strongly to paralyze
+the intellects and consciences of men, the fundamental manifestations
+and expressions of human instinct and vitality were far from crushed
+out. The life of many people was full and varied and positive&mdash;not
+so different, after all, from that of men and women to-day. That this
+was true is demonstrated by a wealth of literature reflecting the jovial
+and exuberant aspects of mediæval life, which has come down to us
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span>
+chiefly in two great groups&mdash;the poetry of the troubadours and the songs
+of the wandering students. "That so bold, so fresh, so natural, so pagan
+a view of life," continues Mr. Symonds in the passage quoted, "as the
+Latin songs of the Wandering Students exhibit, should have found clear
+and artistic utterance in the epoch of the Crusades, is indeed enough to
+bid us pause and reconsider the justice of our stereotyped ideas about
+that period. This literature makes it manifest that the ineradicable
+appetites and natural instincts of men and women were no less vigorous
+in fact, though less articulate and self-assertive, than they had been in
+the age of Greece and Rome, and than they afterwards displayed themselves
+in what is known as the Renaissance. The songs of the Wandering
+Students were composed for the most part in the twelfth century.
+Uttering the unrestrained emotions of men attached by a slender tie
+to the dominant clerical class and diffused over all countries, they
+bring us face to face with a body of opinion which finds in studied
+chronicle or labored dissertation of the period no echo. On the one side,
+they express that delight in life and physical enjoyment which was a
+main characteristic of the Renaissance; on the other, they proclaim that
+revolt against the corruption of Papal Rome which was the motive force
+of the Reformation. Who were these Wandering Students? As their
+name implies, they were men, and for the most part young men, traveling
+from university to university in search of knowledge. Far from
+their homes, without responsibilities, light of purse and light of heart,
+careless and pleasure-seeking, they ran a free, disreputable course,
+frequenting taverns at least as much as lecture-rooms, more capable of
+pronouncing judgment upon wine or woman than upon a problem of
+divinity or logic. These pilgrims to the shrines of knowledge formed a
+class apart. According to tendencies prevalent in the Middle Ages,
+they became a sort of guild, and with pride proclaimed themselves an
+Order."<a name="FNanchor_512" id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a></p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the mediæval students' songs is derived from two
+principal sources: (1) a richly illuminated thirteenth-century manuscript
+now preserved at Munich and edited in 1847 under the title <i>Carmina
+Burana</i>; and (2) another thirteenth-century manuscript published (with
+other materials) in 1841 under the title <i>Latin Poems commonly attributed
+to Walter Mapes</i>. Many songs occur in both collections. The half-dozen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span>
+given in translation below very well illustrate the subjects, tone,
+and style of these interesting bits of literature.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Texts in Edélestand du Méril, <i>Poésies Populaires Latines du Moyen
+Age</i> ["Popular Latin Poetry of the Middle Ages"], Paris, 1847,
+<i>passim</i>. Translated in John Addington Symonds, <i>Wine, Women,
+and Song: Mediæval Latin Students' Songs</i> (London, 1884), pp. 12-136,
+<i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first is a tenth century piece, marked by an element of tenderness
+in sentiment which is essentially modern. It is the invitation of a young
+man to his mistress, bidding her to a little supper at his home.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="o1">"Come therefore now, my gentle fere,</p>
+<p>Whom as my heart I hold full dear;</p>
+<p>Enter my little room, which is</p>
+<p>Adorned with quaintest rarities:</p>
+<p>There are the seats with cushions spread,</p>
+<p>The roof with curtains overhead:</p>
+<p>The house with flowers of sweetest scent</p>
+<p>And scattered herbs is redolent:</p>
+<p>A table there is deftly dight</p>
+<p>With meats and drinks of rare delight;</p>
+<p>There too the wine flows, sparkling, free;</p>
+<p>And all, my love, to pleasure thee.</p>
+<p>There sound enchanting symphonies;</p>
+<p>The clear high notes of flutes arise;</p>
+<p>A singing girl and artful boy</p>
+<p>Are chanting for thee strains of joy;</p>
+<p>He touches with his quill the wire,</p>
+<p>She tunes her note unto the lyre:</p>
+<p>The servants carry to and fro</p>
+<p>Dishes and cups of ruddy glow;</p>
+<p>But these delights, I will confess,</p>
+<p>Than pleasant converse charm me less;</p>
+<p>Nor is the feast so sweet to me</p>
+<p>As dear familiarity.</p>
+<p>Then come now, sister of my heart,</p>
+<p>That dearer than all others art,</p>
+<p>Unto mine eyes thou shining sun,</p>
+<p>Soul of my soul, thou only one!</p>
+<p>I dwelt alone in the wild woods,</p>
+<p>And loved all secret solitudes;</p>
+<p>Oft would I fly from tumults far,</p>
+<p>And shunned where crowds of people are.</p>
+<p>O dearest, do not longer stay!</p>
+<p>Seek we to live and love to-day!</p>
+<p>I cannot live without thee, sweet!</p>
+<p>Time bids us now our love complete."</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">354</a></span>
+The next is a begging petition, addressed by a student on the road
+to some resident of the place where he was temporarily staying. The
+supplication for alms, in the name of learning, is cast in the form of
+a sing-song doggerel.</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>I, a wandering scholar lad,</p>
+<p class="i1">Born for toil and sadness,</p>
+<p>Oftentimes am driven by</p>
+<p class="i1">Poverty to madness.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Literature and knowledge I</p>
+<p class="i1">Fain would still be earning,</p>
+<p>Were it not that want of pelf</p>
+<p class="i1">Makes me cease from learning.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>These torn clothes that cover me</p>
+<p class="i1">Are too thin and rotten;</p>
+<p>Oft I have to suffer cold,</p>
+<p class="i1">By the warmth forgotten.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Scarce I can attend at church,</p>
+<p class="i1">Sing God's praises duly;</p>
+<p>Mass and vespers both I miss,</p>
+<p class="i1">Though I love them truly.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Oh, thou pride of N&mdash;&mdash;,<a name="FNanchor_513" id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a></p>
+<p class="i1">By thy worth I pray thee</p>
+<p>Give the suppliant help in need,</p>
+<p class="i1">Heaven will sure repay thee.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Take a mind unto thee now</p>
+<p class="i1">Like unto St. Martin;<a name="FNanchor_514" id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a></p>
+<p>Clothe the pilgrim's nakedness</p>
+<p class="i1">Wish him well at parting.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>So may God translate your soul</p>
+<p class="i1">Into peace eternal,</p>
+<p>And the bliss of saints be yours</p>
+<p class="i1">In His realm supernal.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">355</a></span>
+The following jovial <i>Song of the Open Road</i> throbs with exhilaration
+and even impudence. Two vagabond students are drinking together
+before they part. One of them undertakes to expound the laws of the
+brotherhood which bind them together. The refrain is intended apparently
+to imitate a bugle call.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>We in our wandering,</p>
+<p>Blithesome and squandering,</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Eat to satiety,</p>
+<p>Drink to propriety;</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Laugh till our sides we split,</p>
+<p>Rags on our hides we fit;</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">356</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Jesting eternally,</p>
+<p>Quaffing infernally.</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Craft's in the bone of us,</p>
+<p>Fear 'tis unknown of us;</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>When we're in neediness,</p>
+<p>Thieve we with greediness:</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Brother catholical,</p>
+<p>Man apostolical,</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Say what you will have done,</p>
+<p>What you ask 'twill be done!</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Folk, fear the toss of the</p>
+<p>Horns of philosophy!</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Here comes a quadruple</p>
+<p>Spoiler and prodigal!<a name="FNanchor_515" id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a></p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>License and vanity</p>
+<p>Pamper insanity:</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>As the Pope bade us do,</p>
+<p>Brother to brother's true:</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Brother, best friend, adieu!</p>
+<p>Now, I must part from you!</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>When will our meeting be?</p>
+<p>Glad shall our greeting be!</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+
+<p>Vows valedictory</p>
+<p>Now have the victory:</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Clasped on each other's breast,</p>
+<p>Brother to brother pressed,</p>
+<p class="i2">Tara, tantara, teino!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here is a song entitled <i>The Vow to Cupid</i>.</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Winter, now thy spite is spent,</p>
+<p>Frost and ice and branches bent!</p>
+<p>Fogs and furious storms are o'er,</p>
+<p>Sloth and torpor, sorrow frore,</p>
+<p>Pallid wrath, lean discontent.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Comes the graceful band of May!</p>
+<p>Cloudless shines the limpid day,</p>
+<p>Shine by night the Pleiades;</p>
+<p>While a grateful summer breeze</p>
+<p>Makes the season soft and gay.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">358</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Golden Love! shine forth to view!</p>
+<p>Souls of stubborn men subdue!</p>
+<p>See me bend! what is thy mind?</p>
+<p>Make the girl thou givest kind,</p>
+<p>And a leaping ram's thy due!<a name="FNanchor_516" id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>O the jocund face of earth,</p>
+<p>Breathing with young grassy birth!</p>
+<p>Every tree with foliage clad,</p>
+<p>Singing birds in greenwood glad,</p>
+<p>Flowering fields for lovers' mirth!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Here is another song of exceedingly delicate sentiment. It is entitled
+<i>The Love-Letter in Spring</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Now the sun is streaming,</p>
+<p class="i1">Clear and pure his ray;</p>
+<p>April's glad face beaming</p>
+<p class="i1">On our earth to-day.</p>
+<p>Unto love returneth</p>
+<p class="i1">Every gentle mind;</p>
+<p>And the boy-god burneth</p>
+<p class="i1">Jocund hearts to bind.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>All this budding beauty,</p>
+<p class="i1">Festival array,</p>
+<p>Lays on us the duty</p>
+<p class="i1">To be blithe and gay.</p>
+<p>Trodden ways are known, love!</p>
+<p class="i1">And in this thy youth,</p>
+<p>To retain thy own love</p>
+<p class="i1">Were but faith and truth.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>In faith love me solely,</p>
+<p class="i1">Mark the faith of me,</p>
+<p>From thy whole heart wholly,</p>
+<p class="i1">From the soul of thee.</p>
+<p>At this time of bliss, dear,</p>
+<p class="i1">I am far away;</p>
+<p>Those who love like this, dear,</p>
+<p class="i1">Suffer every day!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Next to love and the springtime, the average student set his affections
+principally on the tavern and the wine-bowl. From his proneness to
+frequent the tavern's jovial company of topers and gamesters naturally
+sprang a liberal supply of drinking songs. Here is a fragment from one
+of them.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Some are gaming, some are drinking,</p>
+<p>Some are living without thinking;</p>
+<p>And of those who make the racket,</p>
+<p>Some are stripped of coat and jacket;</p>
+<p>Some get clothes of finer feather,</p>
+<p>Some are cleaned out altogether;</p>
+<p>No one there dreads death's invasion,</p>
+<p>But all drink in emulation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Finally may be given, in the original Latin, a stanza of a drinking
+song which fell to such depths of irreverence as to comprise a parody of
+Thomas Aquinas's hymn on the Lord's Supper.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p><i>Bibit hera, bibit herus,</i></p>
+<p><i>Bibit miles, bibit clerus,</i></p>
+<p><i>Bibit ille, bibit illa,</i></p>
+<p><i>Bibit servus cum ancilla,</i></p>
+<p><i>Bibit velox, bibit piger,</i></p>
+<p><i>Bibit albus, bibit niger,</i></p>
+<p><i>Bibit constans, bibit vagus,</i></p>
+<p><i>Bibit rudis, bibit magus.</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">360</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXII.<br />
+THE FRIARS</h3>
+
+<p>From the twelfth century onwards one of the most conspicuous
+features of the internal development of the mediæval Church was the
+struggle to combat worldliness among ecclesiastics and to preserve the
+purity of doctrine and uprightness of living which had characterized
+the primitive Christian clergy. As the Middle Ages advanced to their
+close, unimpeachable evidence accumulates that the Church was increasingly
+menaced by grave abuses. This evidence appears not only
+in contemporary records and chronicles but even more strikingly in the
+great protesting movements which spring up in rapid succession&mdash;particularly
+the rise of heretical sects, such as the Waldenses and the Albigenses,
+and the inauguration of systematic efforts to regenerate the church
+body without disrupting its unity. These latter efforts at first took the
+form of repeated revivals of monastic enthusiasm and self-denial,
+marked by the founding of a series of new orders on the basis of the
+Benedictine Rule&mdash;the Cluniacs, the Carthusians, the Cistercians, and
+others of their kind [see <a href="#Page_245">p. 245</a>]. This resource proving ineffective, the
+movement eventually came to comprise the establishment of wholly
+new and independent organizations&mdash;the mendicant orders&mdash;on principles
+better adapted than were those of monasticism to the successful
+propagation of simplicity and purity of Christian living. The chief of
+these new orders were the Franciscans, known also as Gray Friars and
+as Minorites, and the Dominicans, sometimes called Black Friars or
+Preaching Friars. Both were founded in the first quarter of the thirteenth
+century, the one by St. Francis of Assisi; the other by the Spanish
+nobleman, St. Dominic.</p>
+
+<p>The friars, of whatsoever type, are clearly to be distinguished from the
+monks. In the first place, their aims were different. The monks, in so
+far as they were true to their principles, lived in more or less seclusion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">361</a></span>
+from the rest of the world and gave themselves up largely to prayer and
+meditation; the fundamental purpose of the friars, on the other hand,
+was to mingle with their fellow-men and to spend their lives in active
+religious work among them. Whereas the old monasticism had been
+essentially selfish, the new movement was above all of a missionary and
+philanthropic character. In the second place, the friars were even more
+strongly committed to a life of poverty than were the monks, for they
+renounced not only individual property, as did the monks, but also collective
+property, as the monks did not. They were expected to get their
+living either by their own labor or by begging. They did not dwell in
+fixed abodes, but wandered hither and thither as inclination and duty
+led. Their particular sphere of activity was the populous towns; unlike
+the monks, they had no liking for rural solitudes. As one writer has
+put it, "their houses were built in or near the great towns; and to the
+majority of the brethren the houses of the orders were mere temporary
+resting-places from which they issued to make their journeys through
+town and country, preaching in the parish churches, or from the steps of
+the market-crosses, and carrying their ministrations to every castle
+and every cottage."</p>
+
+<p>Both the Franciscans and the Dominicans were exempt from control
+by the bishops in the various dioceses and were ardent supporters of
+the papacy, which showered privileges upon them and secured in
+them two of its strongest allies. The organization of each order
+was elaborate and centralized. At the head was a master, or
+general, who resided at Rome and was assisted by a "chapter." All
+Christendom was divided into provinces, each of which was directed
+by a prior and provincial chapter. And over each individual "house"
+was placed a prior, or warden, appointed by the provincial chapter.
+In their earlier history the zeal and achievements of the friars were
+remarkable. Nearly all of the greatest men of the thirteenth and early
+fourteenth centuries&mdash;as Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Dun Scotus,
+and Albertus Magnus&mdash;were members of one of the mendicant orders.
+Unfortunately, with the friars as with the monks, prosperity brought
+decadence; and by the middle of the fourteenth century their ardor had
+cooled and their boasted self-denial had pretty largely given place to self-indulgence.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">362</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>63. The Life of St. Francis</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Saint Francis, the founder of the Franciscan order, was born,
+probably in 1182, at Assisi, a small town in central Italy. His boyhood
+was unpromising, but when he was about twenty years of age a great
+change came over him, the final result of which was the making of one
+of the most splendid and altogether lovable characters of the entire
+Middle Ages. From a wild, reckless, although cultured, youth he developed
+into a sympathetic, self-denying, sweet-spirited saint. Finding
+himself, after his conversion, possessed of a natural loathing for the
+destitute and diseased, especially lepers, he disciplined himself until he
+could actually take a certain sort of pleasure in associating with these
+outcasts of society. When his father, a wealthy and aristocratic cloth-merchant,
+protested against this sort of conduct, the young man
+promptly cast aside his gentlemanly raiment, clad himself in the worn-out
+garments of a gardener, and adopted the life of the wandering
+hermit. In 1209, in obedience to what he conceived to be a direct commission
+from heaven, he began definitely to imitate the early apostles
+in his manner of living and to preach the gospel of the older and purer
+Christianity. By 1210 he had a small body of followers, and in that year
+he sought and obtained Pope Innocent III.'s sanction of his work,
+though the papal approval was expressed only orally and more than a
+decade was to elapse before the movement received formal recognition.
+About 1217 Francis and his companions took up missionary work on a
+large scale. Members of the brotherhood were dispatched to England,
+Germany, France, Spain, Hungary, and several other countries, with
+instructions to spread the principles which by this time were coming
+to be recognized as peculiarly Franciscan. The success of these efforts
+was considerable, though in some places the brethren were ill treated and
+an appeal had to be made to the Pope for protection.</p>
+
+<p>The several selections given below have been chosen to illustrate the
+principal features of the life and character of St. Francis. We are
+fortunate in possessing a considerable amount of literature, contemporary
+or nearly so, relating to the personal career of this noteworthy
+man. In the first place, we have some writings of St. Francis himself&mdash;the
+Rule (<a href="#Page_373">p. 373</a>), the Will (<a href="#Page_376">p. 376</a>), some poems, some reported sermons,
+and fragments of a few letters. Then we have several biographies, of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">363</a></span>
+which the most valuable, because not only the earliest but also the least
+conventional, are the <i>Mirror of Perfection</i> and the <i>Legend of the Three
+Companions</i>. These were written by men who knew St. Francis intimately
+and who could avow "we who were with him have heard him
+say" or "we who were with him have seen," such and such things. The
+"three companions" were Brothers Leo, Rufinus, and Angelo&mdash;all men of
+noble birth, the last-named being the first soldier to be identified with
+the order. The <i>Mirror of Perfection</i> was written in 1227 by Brother Leo,
+who of all men probably knew St. Francis best. It is a vivid and fascinating
+portrait drawn from life. The <i>Legend of the Three Companions</i>
+was written in 1246. The later biographies, such as the
+official <i>Life</i> by St. Bonaventura (1261) and the <i>Little Flowers of St.
+Francis</i> (written probably in the fourteenth century), though until recently
+the best known of the group, are relatively inferior in value.
+In them the real St. Francis is conventionalized and much obscured.</p>
+
+<p>The first passage here reproduced (a) comes from the <i>Legend of the
+Three Companions</i>; the others (b) are taken from the <i>Mirror of
+Perfection</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) <i>Legenda S. Francisci Assisiensis quæ dicitur Legenda trium
+sociorum.</i> Adapted from translation by E. G. Salter, under
+title of "The Legend of the Three Companions," in the Temple
+Classics (London, 1902), pp. 8-24, <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) <i>Speculum Perfectionis.</i> Translated by Constance, Countess
+de la Warr, under title of "The Mirror of Perfection," (London,
+1902), <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p>Francis, born in the city of Assisi, which lies in the confines
+of the Vale of Spoleto, was at first named John by his mother.
+Then, when his father, in whose absence he had been born, returned
+from France, he was afterward named Francis<a name="FNanchor_517" id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a>. After
+he was grown up, and had become of a subtle wit, he practiced
+the art of his father, that is, trade. But [he did so] in a very
+different manner, for he was a merrier man than was his father,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span>
+and more generous, given to jests and songs, going about the
+city of Assisi day and night in company with his kind, most
+free-handed in spending; insomuch that he consumed all his
+income and his profits in banquets and other matters. On this
+<span class="sidebar">His youthful
+vanities and
+waywardness</span>
+account he was often rebuked by his parents,
+who told him he ran into so great expense on
+himself and on others that he seemed to be no
+son of theirs, but rather of some mighty prince. Nevertheless,
+because his parents were rich and loved him most tenderly, they
+bore with him in such matters, not being disposed to chastise
+him. Indeed, his mother, when gossip arose among the neighbors
+concerning his prodigal ways, made answer: "What think
+ye of my son? He shall yet be the son of God by grace." But
+he himself was free-handed, or rather prodigal, not only in these
+things, but even in his clothes he was beyond measure sumptuous,
+using stuffs more costly than it befitted him to wear. So wayward
+was his fancy that at times on the same coat he would
+cause a costly cloth to be matched with one of the meanest sort.</p>
+
+<p>Yet he was naturally courteous, in manner and word, after
+the purpose of his heart, never speaking a harmful or shameful
+word to any one. Nay, indeed, although he was so gay and
+wanton a youth, yet of set purpose would he make no reply to
+those who said shameful things to him. And hence was his
+fame so spread abroad throughout the whole neighborhood that
+<span class="sidebar">His redeeming
+qualities</span>
+it was said by many who knew him that he
+would do something great. By these steps of
+godliness he progressed to such grace that he would say in communing
+with himself: "Seeing that thou art bountiful and
+courteous toward men, from whom thou receivest naught save
+a passing and empty favor, it is just that thou shouldst be
+courteous and bountiful toward God, who is Himself most
+bountiful in rewarding His poor." Wherefore thenceforward
+did he look with goodwill upon the poor, bestowing alms upon
+them abundantly. And although he was a merchant, yet was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">365</a></span>
+he a most lavish dispenser of this world's riches. One day, when
+he was standing in the warehouse in which he sold goods, and
+was intent on business, a certain poor man came to him asking
+alms for the love of God. Nevertheless, he was held back by
+the covetousness of wealth and the cares of merchandise, and
+<span class="sidebar">A lesson in
+charity</span>
+denied him the alms. But forthwith, being looked
+upon by the divine grace, he rebuked himself of
+great churlishness, saying, "Had this poor man asked thee
+aught in the name of a great count or baron, assuredly thou
+wouldst have given him what he had asked. How much more
+then oughtest thou to have done it for the King of Kings and
+Lord of all?" By reason whereof he thenceforth determined
+in his heart never again to deny anything asked in the name of
+so great a Lord....</p>
+
+<p>Now, not many days after he returned to Assisi,<a name="FNanchor_518" id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> he was
+chosen one evening by his comrades as their master of the revels,
+to spend the money collected from the company after his own
+fancy. So he caused a sumptuous banquet to be made ready,
+as he had often done before. And when they came forth from
+the house, and his comrades together went before him, going
+through the city singing while he carried a wand in his hand
+as their master, he was walking behind them, not singing, but
+meditating very earnestly. And lo! suddenly he was visited
+by the Lord, and his heart was filled with such sweetness that
+he could neither speak nor move; nor was he able to feel and
+<span class="sidebar">A vision in
+the midst of
+revelry</span>
+hear anything except that sweetness only, which
+so separated him from his physical senses that&mdash;as
+he himself afterward said&mdash;had he then been
+pricked with knives all over at once, he could not have moved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">366</a></span>
+from the spot. But when his comrades looked back and saw
+him thus far off from them, they returned to him in fear, staring
+at him as one changed into another man. And they asked him,
+"What were you thinking about, that you did not come along
+with us? Perchance you were thinking of taking a wife." To
+them he replied with a loud voice: "Truly have you spoken, for
+I thought of taking to myself a bride nobler and richer and fairer
+than ever you have seen." And they mocked at him. But this
+he said not of his own accord, but inspired of God; for the bride
+herself was true Religion, whom he took unto him, nobler,
+richer, and fairer than others in her poverty.</p>
+
+<p>And so from that hour he began to grow worthless in his own
+eyes, and to despise those things he had formerly loved, although
+not wholly so at once, for he was not yet entirely freed from the
+vanity of the world. Nevertheless, withdrawing himself little by
+little from the tumult of the world, he made it his study to
+treasure up Jesus Christ in his inner man, and, hiding from the
+eyes of mockers the pearl that he would fain buy at the price of
+selling his all, he went oftentimes, and as it were in secret, daily
+to prayer, being urged thereto by the foretaste of that sweetness
+that had visited him more and more often, and compelled him
+to come from the streets and other public places to prayer.
+Although he had long done good unto the poor, yet from this
+time forth he determined still more firmly in his heart never
+<span class="sidebar">His increasing
+zeal in charity</span>
+again to deny alms to any poor man who should
+ask it for the love of God, but to give alms
+more willingly and bountifully than had been his practice.
+Whenever, therefore, any poor man asked of him an alms
+out of doors, he would supply him with money if he could;
+if he had no ready money, he would give him his cap or girdle
+rather than send the poor man away empty. And if it happened
+that he had nothing of this kind, he would go to some hidden
+place, and strip off his shirt, and send the poor man thither that
+he might take it, for the sake of God. He also would buy vessels
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">367</a></span>
+for the adornment of churches, and would send them in all
+secrecy to poor priests....</p>
+
+<p>So changed, then, was he by divine grace (although still in
+the secular garb) that he desired to be in some city where he
+might, as one unknown, strip off his own clothes and exchange
+them for those of some beggar, so that he might wear his instead
+and make trial of himself by asking alms for the love of God.
+Now it happened that at that time he had gone to Rome on a
+pilgrimage. And entering the church of St. Peter, he reflected
+on the offerings of certain people, seeing that they were small,
+and spoke within himself: "Since the Prince of the Apostles
+should of right be magnificently honored, why do these folk
+make such sorry offerings in the church wherein his body rests?"
+And so in great fervency he put his hand into his purse and drew
+it forth full of money, and flung it through the grating of the
+altar with such a crash that all who were standing by marveled
+greatly at so splendid an offering. Then, going forth in front
+of the doors of the church, where many beggars were gathered
+to ask alms, he secretly borrowed the rags of one among the
+<span class="sidebar">He begs alms
+at Rome</span>
+neediest and donned them, laying aside his own
+clothing. Then, standing on the church steps
+with the other beggars, he asked an alms in French, for he loved
+to speak the French tongue, although he did not speak it correctly.
+Thereafter, putting off the rags, and taking again his
+own clothes, he returned to Assisi, and began to pray the Lord
+to direct his way. For he revealed unto none his secret, nor
+took counsel of any in this matter, save only of God (who had
+begun to direct his way) and at times of the bishop of Assisi.
+For at that time no true Poverty was to be found anywhere, and
+she it was that he desired above all things of this world, being
+minded in her to live&mdash;yea, and to die....</p>
+
+<p>Now when on a certain day he was praying fervently unto the
+Lord, answer was made unto him: "Francis, all those things that
+thou hast loved after the flesh, and hast desired to have, thou
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">368</a></span>
+must needs despise and hate, if thou wouldst do My will, and
+after thou shalt have begun to do this the things that aforetime
+seemed sweet unto thee and delightful shall be unbearable unto
+thee and bitter, and from those that aforetime thou didst loathe
+thou shalt drink great sweetness and delight unmeasured."
+Rejoicing at these words, and consoled in the Lord, when he
+<span class="sidebar">Francis and
+the leper</span>
+had ridden nigh unto Assisi, he met one that was
+a leper. And because he had been accustomed
+greatly to loathe lepers, he did violence to himself, and dismounted
+from his horse, gave him money, and kissed his hand.
+And receiving from him the kiss of peace, he remounted his
+horse and continued his journey. Thenceforth he began more
+and more to despise himself, until by the grace of God he had
+attained perfect mastery over himself.</p>
+
+<p>A few days later, he took much money and went to the quarter
+of the lepers, and, gathering all together, gave to each an alms,
+kissing his hand. As he departed, in very truth that which had
+aforetime been bitter to him, that is, the sight and touch of
+lepers, was changed into sweetness. For, as he confessed, the
+sight of lepers had been so grievous to him that he had been
+accustomed to avoid not only seeing them, but even going near
+their dwellings. And if at any time he happened to pass their
+abodes, or to see them, although he was moved by compassion
+to give them an alms through another person, yet always would
+he turn aside his face, stopping his nostrils with his hand. But,
+through the grace of God, he became so intimate a friend of the
+lepers that, even as he recorded in his Will,<a name="FNanchor_519" id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> he lived with them
+and did humbly serve them.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>A very spiritual friar, who was familiar with Blessed Francis,
+erected at the hermitage where he lived a little cell in a solitary
+spot, where Blessed Francis could retire and pray when he came
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span>
+thither. When he arrived at this place the friar took him to the
+cell, and Blessed Francis said, "This cell is too splendid"&mdash;it
+<span class="sidebar">How St. Francis
+would not
+dwell in an
+adorned cell</span>
+was, indeed, built only of wood, and smoothed
+with a hatchet&mdash;"if you wish me to remain here,
+make it within and without of branches of trees
+and clay." For the poorer the house or cell, the more was he
+pleased to live therein. When the friar had done this, Blessed
+Francis remained there several days. One day he was out of the
+cell when a friar came to see him, who, coming thereafter to the
+place where Blessed Francis was, was asked, "Whence came
+you, Brother?" He answered, "I come from your cell." Then
+said Blessed Francis: "Since you have called it mine, let another
+dwell there and not I." And, in truth, we who were with him
+often heard him say: "The foxes have holes, and the birds of the
+<span class="sidebar">Or in a cell
+called his
+own</span>
+air have their nests, but the Son of Man hath
+not where to lay His head." And again he would
+say: "When the Lord remained in the desert, and
+fasted forty days and forty nights, He did not make for Himself
+a cell or a house, but found shelter amongst the rocks of the
+mountain." For this reason, and to follow His example, he
+would not have it said that a cell or house was his, nor would he
+allow such to be constructed.... When he was nigh unto
+death he caused it to be written in his Testament<a name="FNanchor_520" id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> that all the
+cells and houses of the friars should be of wood and clay, the
+better to safeguard poverty and humility.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">At the beginning of the Order, when the friars were at Rivo-Torto,<a name="FNanchor_521" id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a>
+near Assisi, there was among them one friar who would
+<span class="sidebar">A lazy
+friar</span>
+not pray, work, nor ask for alms, but only eat.
+Considering this, Blessed Francis knew by the Holy
+Spirit that he was a carnal man, and said to him, "Brother Fly, go
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span>
+your way, since you consume the labor of the brethren, and are
+slothful in the work of the Lord, like the idle and barren drone who
+earns nothing and does not work, but consumes the labor and earnings
+of the working bee." He, therefore, went his way, and as
+he was a carnally-minded man he neither sought for mercy nor
+obtained it.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">Having at a time suffered greatly from one of his serious
+attacks of illness, when he felt a little better he began to think
+that during his sickness he had exceeded his usual allowance of
+food, whereas he had really eaten very little. Though not quite
+recovered from the ague, he caused the people of Assisi to be
+called together in the public square to listen to a sermon. When
+he had finished preaching, he told the people to remain where
+they were until he came back to them, and entered the cathedral
+of St. Rufinus with many friars and Brother Peter of Catana,
+who had been a canon of that church, and was now the first
+Minister-General<a name="FNanchor_522" id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> appointed by Blessed Francis. To Brother
+<span class="sidebar">Public humiliation
+inflicted
+upon himself</span>
+Peter Francis spoke, enjoining him under obedience
+not to contradict what he was about to say.
+Brother Peter replied: "Brother, neither is it
+possible, as between you and me, nor do I wish to do anything
+save what is pleasing to you." Then, taking off his tunic,
+Blessed Francis bade him place a rope around his neck and drag
+him thus before the people to the place where he had preached.
+At the same time he ordered another friar to carry a bowlful
+of ashes to the place, and when he got there to throw the ashes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">371</a></span>
+into his face. But this order was not obeyed by the friar out
+of the pity and compassion he felt for him.</p>
+
+<p>Brother Peter, taking the rope, did as he had been told; but
+he and all the other friars shed tears of compassion and bitterness.
+When he [Francis] stood thus bared before the people in
+the place where he had preached, he cried: "You, and all those
+who by my example have been induced to abandon the world
+and enter Religion to lead the lives of friars, I confess before
+God and you that in my illness I have eaten meat and broths
+made of meat." And all the people could not refrain from weeping,
+especially as at that time it was very cold and he had scarcely
+recovered from the fever. Beating their breasts where they
+stood, they exclaimed, "If this saint, for just and manifest necessity,
+with shame of body thus accuses himself, whose life we know
+to be holy, and who has imposed on himself such great abstinence
+and austerity since his first conversion to Christ (whom
+we here, as it were, see in the flesh), what will become of us sinners
+who all our lifetime seek to follow our carnal appetites?"</p>
+
+<p class="p2">Blessed Francis, wholly wrapped up in the love of God, discerned
+perfectly the goodness of God not only in his own soul,
+now adorned with the perfection of virtue, but in every creature.
+On account of which he had a singular and intimate love of
+<span class="sidebar">St. Francis
+and the larks</span>
+creatures, especially of those in which was figured
+anything pertaining to God or the Order. Wherefore
+above all other birds he loved a certain little bird which is
+called the lark, or by the people, the cowled lark. And he used to
+say of it: "Sister Lark hath a cowl like a Religious; and she is a
+humble bird, because she goes willingly by the road to find there
+any food. And if she comes upon it in foulness, she draws it out
+and eats it. But, flying, she praises God very sweetly, like a good
+Religious, despising earthly things, whose conversation is always
+in the heavens, and whose intent is always to the praise of God.
+Her clothes (that is, her feathers), are like to the earth and she
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span>
+gives an example to Religious that they should not have delicate
+and colored garments, but common in price and color, as earth
+is commoner than the other elements." And because he perceived
+this in them, he looked on them most willingly. Therefore
+it pleased the Lord, that these most holy little birds should
+show some sign of affection towards him in the hour of his
+death. For late in the Sabbath day after vespers, before the
+night in which he passed away to the Lord, a great multitude
+of that kind of birds called larks came on the roof of the house
+where he was lying, and, flying about, made a wheel like a circle
+around the roof, and, sweetly singing, seemed likewise to praise
+the Lord.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">We who were with Blessed Francis and write these things,
+testify that many times we heard him say: "If I could speak
+with the Emperor,<a name="FNanchor_523" id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> I would supplicate and persuade him that,
+for the love of God and me, he would make a special law that no
+man should snare or kill our sisters, the larks, nor do them any
+harm. Also, that all chief magistrates of cities and lords of
+castles and villages should, every year, on the day of the Lord's
+<span class="sidebar">His desire that
+birds and animals
+be fed on
+Christmas day</span>
+Nativity, compel men to scatter wheat and other
+grain on the roads outside cities and castles, that
+our Sister Larks and all other birds might have to
+eat on that most solemn day; and that, out of reverence for the
+Son of God, who on that night was laid by the most Blessed
+Virgin Mary in a manger between an ox and an ass, all who have
+oxen and asses should be obliged on that night to provide them
+with abundant and good fodder; and also that on that day the
+poor should be most bountifully fed by the rich."</p>
+
+<p>For Blessed Francis held in higher reverence than any other
+the Feast of the Lord's Nativity, saying, "After the Lord was
+born, our salvation became a necessity." Therefore he desired
+that on this day all Christians should rejoice in the Lord, and,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">373</a></span>
+for the love of Him who gave Himself for us, should generously
+provide not only for the poor, but also for the beasts and birds.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">Next to fire he most loved water, which is the symbol of holy
+penance and tribulation, whereby the stains are washed from
+the soul, and by which the first cleansing of the soul takes place
+in holy baptism. Hence, when he washed his hands, he would
+select a place where he would not tread the water underfoot.
+<span class="sidebar">His regard for
+trees, stones,
+and all created
+things</span>
+When he walked over stones he would tread on
+them with fear and reverence, for the love of
+Him who is called the Rock, and when reciting
+the words of the Psalm, <i>Thou hast exalted me on a rock</i>, would
+add with great reverence and devotion, "beneath the foot of
+the rock hast thou exalted me."</p>
+
+<p>In the same way he would tell the friars who cut and prepared
+the wood not to cut down the whole tree, but only such
+branches as would leave the tree standing, for love of Him who
+died for us on the wood of the Cross. So, also, he would tell the
+friar who was the gardener not to cultivate all the ground for
+vegetables and herbs for food, but to set aside some part to
+produce green plants which should in their time bear flowers
+for the friars, for love of Him who was called "The Flower of
+the Field," and "The Lily of the Valley." Indeed he would say
+the Brother Gardener should always make a beautiful little
+garden in some part of the land, and plant it with sweet-scented
+herbs bearing lovely flowers, which in the time of their blossoming
+invited men to praise Him who made all herbs and flowers.
+For every creature cries aloud: "God has made me for thee, O
+man!"</p>
+
+<h4>64. The Rule of St. Francis</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>There is every reason for believing that St. Francis set out upon his
+mission with no idea whatever of founding a new religious order. His
+fundamental purpose was to revive what he conceived to be the purer
+Christianity of the apostolic age, and so far as this involved the announcement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span>
+of any definite principles or rules he was quite content to draw
+them solely from the Scriptures. We have record, for example, of how
+when (in 1209) St. Francis had yet but two followers, he led them to the
+steps of the church of St. Nicholas at Assisi and there read to them
+three times the words of Jesus sending forth his disciples,<a name="FNanchor_524" id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> adding,
+"This, brethren, is our life and our rule, and that of all who may join us.
+Go, then, and do as you have heard." As his field of labor expanded,
+however, and the number of the friars increased, St. Francis decided to
+write out a definite Rule for the brotherhood and go to Rome to procure
+its approval by the Pope. The Rule as thus formulated, in 1210, has not
+come down to us. We know only that it was extremely simple and that
+it was composed almost wholly of passages from the Bible (doubtless
+those read to the companions at Assisi), with a few precepts about the
+occupations and manner of living of the brethren. This first Rule indeed
+proved too simple and brief to satisfy the demands of the growing order.
+A general injunction, such as "be poor," was harder to apply and to
+live up to than a more specific set of instructions explaining just what
+was to be considered poverty and what was not. The brethren, moreover,
+were soon preaching and laboring in all the countries of western
+Europe and questions were continually coming up regarding their relations
+with the temporal powers in those countries, with the local clergy,
+with the papal government, and also among themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Reluctantly, and with a heart-felt warning against the insidious
+influences of ambition and organization, the founder finally brought himself
+to the task of drawing up a constitution for the order which had surprised
+him, and in a certain sense grieved him, by the very elaborateness
+of its development. During the winter of 1220-21, when physical infirmities
+were foreshadowing the end, Francis worked out the document generally
+known as the Rule of 1221, which became the basis for the Rule of
+1223, quoted in part below. Before the Rule took its final form, the influence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">375</a></span>
+of the Church was brought to bear through the papacy, with the
+result that most of the freshness and vigor that St. Francis put into the
+earlier effort was crushed out in the interest of ecclesiastical regularity.
+Only a small portion of the document can be reproduced here, but
+enough, perhaps, to show something as to what the manner of life of the
+Franciscan friar was expected to be. The extract may profitably be
+compared with the Benedictine Rule governing the monks [see <a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>].</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Bullarium Romanum</i> ["Collection of Papal Bulls"], editio Taurinensis,
+Vol. III., p. 394. Adapted from translation in Ernest F.
+Henderson, <i>Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages</i> (London,
+1896), pp. 344-349 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> This is the rule and way of living of the Minorite brothers,
+namely, to observe the holy Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ,
+living in obedience, without personal possessions, and in chastity.
+Brother Francis promises obedience and reverence to our lord
+Pope Honorius,<a name="FNanchor_525" id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a> and to his successors who canonically enter
+upon their office, and to the Roman Church. And the other
+brothers shall be bound to obey Brother Francis and his successors.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> I firmly command all the brothers by no means to receive
+coin or money, of themselves or through an intervening person.
+<span class="sidebar">Money in no
+case to be received
+by the
+brothers</span>
+But for the needs of the sick and for clothing the
+other brothers, the ministers alone and the
+guardians shall provide through spiritual friends,
+as it may seem to them that necessity demands, according to
+time, place and the coldness of the temperature. This one thing
+being always borne in mind, that, as has been said, they receive
+neither coin nor money.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Those brothers to whom God has given the ability to labor
+shall labor faithfully and devoutly, in such manner that idleness,
+the enemy of the soul, being averted, they may not extinguish
+<span class="sidebar">The obligation
+to labor</span>
+the spirit of holy prayer and devotion, to which
+other temporal things should be subservient. As
+a reward, moreover, for their labor, they may receive for themselves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">376</a></span>
+and their brothers the necessities of life, but not coin or
+money; and this humbly, as becomes the servants of God and
+the followers of most holy poverty.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> The brothers shall appropriate nothing to themselves,
+neither a house, nor a place, nor anything; but as pilgrims and
+strangers in this world, in poverty and humility serving God,
+they shall confidently go seeking for alms. Nor need they be
+ashamed, for the Lord made Himself poor for us in this world.</p>
+
+<h4>65. The Will of St. Francis</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The will which St. Francis prepared just before his death (1226)
+contains an admirable statement of the principles for which he labored,
+as well as a notable warning to his successors not to allow the order to
+fall away from its original high ideals. Among the later Franciscans
+the Will acquired a moral authority superior even to that of the Rule.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Amoni, <i>Legenda Trium Sociorum</i> ["Legend of the Three
+Companions"], Appendix, p. 110. Translation adapted from Paul
+Sabatier, <i>Life of St. Francis of Assisi</i> (New York, 1894), pp. 337-339.</p>
+
+<p>God gave it to me, Brother Francis, to begin to do penance in
+the following manner: when I was yet in my sins it seemed to me
+too painful to look upon the lepers, but the Lord Himself led
+me among them, and I had compassion upon them. When I
+left them, that which had seemed to me bitter had become sweet
+and easy. A little while after, I left the world,<a name="FNanchor_526" id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a> and God gave
+me such faith that I would kneel down with simplicity in any
+of his churches, and I would say, "We adore thee, Lord Jesus
+Christ, here and in all thy churches which are in the world, and
+we bless thee that by Thy holy cross Thou hast ransomed the
+world."</p>
+
+<p>Afterward the Lord gave me, and still gives me, so great a
+faith in priests who live according to the form of the holy Roman
+Church, because of their sacerdotal character, that even if they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">377</a></span>
+persecuted me I would have recourse to them, and even though
+I had all the wisdom of Solomon, if I should find poor secular
+<span class="sidebar">St. Francis not
+hostile to the
+existing Church</span>
+priests, I would not preach in their parishes
+against their will.<a name="FNanchor_527" id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> I desire to respect them like
+all the others, to love them and honor them as
+my lords. I will not consider their sins, for in them I see the
+Son of God, and they are my lords. I do this because here below
+I see nothing, I perceive nothing physically of the most high
+Son of God, except His most holy body and blood, which the
+priests receive and alone distribute to others.<a name="FNanchor_528" id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p>
+
+<p>I desire above all things to honor and venerate all these most
+holy mysteries and to keep them precious. Wherever I find the
+sacred name of Jesus, or his words, in unsuitable places, I desire
+to take them away and put them in some decent place; and I
+pray that others may do the same. We ought to honor and
+revere all the theologians and those who preach the most holy
+word of God, as dispensing to us spirit and life.</p>
+
+<p>When the Lord gave me the care of some brothers, no one
+showed me what I ought to do, but the Most High himself revealed
+to me that I ought to live according to the model of the
+holy gospel. I caused a short and simple formula to be written
+and the lord Pope confirmed it for me.<a name="FNanchor_529" id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a></p>
+
+<p>Those who volunteered to follow this kind of life distributed
+all they had to the poor. They contented themselves with
+<span class="sidebar">Poverty and
+labor enjoined</span>
+one tunic, patched within and without, with
+the cord and breeches, and we desired to have
+nothing more.... We loved to live in poor and abandoned
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span>
+churches, and we were ignorant and were submissive to all.
+I worked with my hands and would still do so, and I firmly
+desire also that all the other brothers work, for this makes for
+goodness. Let those who know no trade learn one, not for the
+purpose of receiving wages for their toil, but for their good
+example and to escape idleness. And when we are not given the
+price of our work, let us resort to the table of the Lord, begging
+our bread from door to door. The Lord revealed to me the
+salutation which we ought to give: "God give you peace!"</p>
+
+<p>Let the brothers take great care not to accept churches,
+dwellings, or any buildings erected for them, except as all is
+in accordance with the holy poverty which we have vowed in
+the Rule; and let them not live in them except as strangers and
+pilgrims. I absolutely forbid all the brothers, in whatsoever
+place they may be found, to ask any bull from the court of
+<span class="sidebar">No further
+privileges
+to be sought
+from the Pope</span>
+Rome, whether directly or indirectly, in the interest
+of church or convent, or under pretext of
+preaching, or even for the protection of their
+bodies. If they are not received anywhere, let them go of themselves
+elsewhere, thus doing penance with the benediction of
+God....</p>
+
+<p>And let the brothers not say, "This is a new Rule"; for this is
+only a reminder, a warning, an exhortation. It is my last will
+and testament, that I, little Brother Francis, make for you, my
+blessed brothers, in order that we may observe in a more Catholic
+way the Rule which we promised the Lord to keep.</p>
+
+<p>Let the ministers-general, all the other ministers, and the
+custodians be held by obedience to add nothing to and take
+<span class="sidebar">No additions
+to be made to
+the Rule or
+the Will</span>
+nothing away from these words. Let them always
+keep this writing near them beside the Rule; and
+in all the assemblies which shall be held, when
+the Rule is read, let these words be read also.</p>
+
+<p>I absolutely forbid all the brothers, clerics and laymen, to
+introduce comments in the Rule, or in this Will, under pretext
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">379</a></span>
+of explaining it. But since the Lord has given me to speak and
+to write the Rule and these words in a clear and simple manner,
+so do you understand them in the same way without commentary,
+and put them in practice until the end.</p>
+
+<p>And whoever shall have observed these things, may he be
+crowned in heaven with the blessings of the heavenly Father,
+and on earth with those of his well-beloved Son and of the Holy
+Spirit, the Consoler, with the assistance of all the heavenly
+virtues and all the saints.</p>
+
+<p>And I, little Brother Francis, your servant, confirm to you,
+so far as I am able, this most holy benediction. Amen.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">380</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIII.<br />
+THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL POWERS IN THE LATER
+MIDDLE AGES</h3>
+
+<h4>66. The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Two of the most effective weapons at the service of the mediæval
+Church were excommunication and the interdict. By the ban of excommunication
+the proper ecclesiastical authorities could exclude a
+heretic or otherwise objectionable person from all religious privileges,
+thereby cutting him off from association with the faithful and consigning
+him irrevocably (unless he repented) to Satan. The interdict differed
+from excommunication in being less sweeping in its condemnatory character,
+and also in being applied to towns, provinces, or countries rather
+than to individuals. As a rule the interdict undertook to deprive the
+inhabitants of a specified region of the use of certain of the sacraments,
+of participation in the usual religious services, and of the right of Christian
+burial. It did not expel men from church membership, as did
+excommunication, but it suspended most of the privileges and rights
+flowing from such membership. The interdict was first employed by the
+clergy of north France in the tenth and eleventh centuries. In the
+twelfth it was adopted by the papacy on account of its obvious value
+as a means of disciplining the monarchs of western Europe. Because
+of its effectiveness in stirring up popular indignation against sovereigns
+who incurred the papal displeasure, by the time of Innocent III. (1198-1216)
+it had come to be employed for political as well as for purely
+religious purposes, though generally the two considerations were closely
+intertwined. A famous and typical instance of its use was that of the
+year 1200, described below.</p>
+
+<p>In August, 1193, Philip Augustus, king of France, married Ingeborg,
+second sister of King Knut VI. of Denmark. At the time Philip was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span>
+contemplating an invasion of England and hoped through the marriage
+to assure himself of Danish aid. Circumstances soon changed his plans,
+however, and almost immediately he began to treat his new wife coldly,
+with the obvious purpose of forcing her to return to her brother's court.
+Failing in this, he convened his nobles and bishops at Compiègne and
+got from them a decree of divorce, on the flimsy pretext that the marriage
+with Ingeborg had been illegal on account of the latter's distant
+relationship to Elizabeth of Hainault, Philip's first wife. Ingeborg
+and her brother appealed to Rome, and Pope Celestine III. dispatched
+letter after letter and legate after legate to the French court, but without
+result. Indeed, after three years, Philip, to clinch the matter, as he
+thought, married Agnes of Meran, daughter of a Bavarian nobleman,
+and shut up Ingeborg in a convent at Soissons. In 1198, while the
+affair stood thus, Celestine died and was succeeded by Innocent III.,
+under whom the papal power was destined to attain a height hitherto
+unknown. Innocent flatly refused to sanction the divorce or to recognize
+the second marriage, although he was not pope, of course, until
+some years after both had occurred. On the ground that the whole
+subject of marriage lay properly within the jurisdiction of the Church,
+Innocent demanded that Philip cast off the beautiful Agnes and
+restore Ingeborg to her rightful place. This Philip promptly refused
+to do.</p>
+
+<p>The threat of an interdict failing to move him, the Pope proceeded to
+put his threat into execution. In January, 1200, the interdict was pronounced
+and, though the king's power over the French clergy was so
+strong that many refused to heed the voice from Rome, gradually
+the discontent and indignation of the people grew until after nine
+months it became apparent that the king must yield. He did so as
+gracefully as he could, promising to take back Ingeborg and submit
+the question of a divorce to a council presided over by the papal legate.
+This council, convened in 1201 at Soissons, decided against the king and
+in favor of Ingeborg; but Philip had no intention to submit in good
+faith and, until the death of Agnes in 1204, he maintained his policy of
+procrastination and double-dealing. Even in the later years of the reign
+the unfortunate Ingeborg had frequent cause to complain of harshness
+and neglect at the hand of her royal husband.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal portions of Innocent's interdict.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">382</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Martène, Edmond, and Durand, Ursin, <i>Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum</i>
+["New Collection of Unpublished Documents"], Paris, 1717,
+Vol. IV., p. 147. Adapted from translation by Arthur C. Howland
+in <i>Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints</i>, Vol. IV., No. 4, pp. 29-30.</p>
+
+<p>Let all the churches be closed; let no one be admitted to them,
+except to baptize infants; let them not be otherwise opened,
+except for the purpose of lighting the lamps, or when the priest
+shall come for the Eucharist and holy water for the use of the
+sick. We permit Mass to be celebrated once a week, on Friday,
+early in the morning, to consecrate the Host<a name="FNanchor_530" id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> for the use of the
+sick, but only one clerk is to be admitted to assist the priest.
+<span class="sidebar">Partial suspension
+of
+the services
+and offices of
+the Church</span>
+Let the clergy preach on Sunday in the vestibules
+of the churches, and in place of the Mass let them
+deliver the word of God. Let them recite the
+canonical hours<a name="FNanchor_531" id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> outside the churches, where the
+people do not hear them; if they recite an epistle or a gospel, let
+them beware lest the laity hear them; and let them not permit
+the dead to be interred, nor their bodies to be placed unburied
+in the cemeteries. Let them, moreover, say to the laity that
+they sin and transgress grievously by burying bodies in the
+earth, even in unconsecrated ground, for in so doing they assume
+to themselves an office pertaining to others.</p>
+
+<p>Let them forbid their parishioners to enter churches that may
+be open in the king's territory, and let them not bless the wallets
+of pilgrims, except outside the churches. Let them not celebrate
+<span class="sidebar">How Easter
+should be observed</span>
+the offices in Passion week, but refrain
+even until Easter day, and then let them celebrate
+in private, no one being admitted except
+the assisting priest, as above directed; let no one communicate,
+even at Easter, unless he be sick and in danger of death. During
+the same week, or on Palm Sunday, let them announce to their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">383</a></span>
+parishioners that they may assemble on Easter morning before
+the church and there have permission to eat flesh and consecrated
+bread.... Let the priest confess all who desire
+it in the portico of the church; if the church have no portico,
+<span class="sidebar">Arrangements
+for confession</span>
+we direct that in bad or rainy weather, and not
+otherwise, the nearest door of the church may
+be opened and confessions heard on its threshold (all being excluded
+except the one who is to confess), so that the priest and
+the penitent can be heard by those who are outside the church.
+If, however, the weather be fair, let the confession be heard in
+front of the closed doors. Let no vessels of holy water be placed
+outside the church, nor shall the priests carry them anywhere;
+for all the sacraments of the Church beyond these two
+which are reserved<a name="FNanchor_532" id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> are absolutely prohibited. Extreme unction,
+which is a holy sacrament, may not be given.<a name="FNanchor_533" id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a></p>
+
+<h4>67. The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In the history of the mediæval Church at least three great periods of
+conflict between the papacy and the temporal powers can be distinguished.
+The first was the era of Gregory VII. and Henry IV. of Germany
+[see <a href="#Page_261">p. 261</a>]; the second was that of Innocent III. and John of
+England and Philip Augustus of France [see <a href="#Page_380">p. 380</a>]; the third was that
+of Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France. In many respects the
+most significant document pertaining to the last of these struggles is
+the papal bull, given below, commonly designated by its opening words,
+<i>Unam Sanctam</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The question at issue in the conflict of Boniface VIII. and Philip the
+Fair was the old one as to whether the papacy should be allowed to
+dominate European states in temporal as well as in spiritual matters.
+The Franconian emperors, in the eleventh century, made stubborn
+resistance to such domination, but the immediate result was only partial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">384</a></span>
+success, while later efforts to keep up the contest practically ruined the
+power of the house of Hohenstaufen. Even Philip Augustus, at the
+opening of the thirteenth century, had been compelled to yield, at least
+outwardly, to the demands of the papacy respecting his marriages
+and his national policies. With the revival of the issue under Boniface
+and Philip, however, the tide turned, for at last there had arisen
+a nation whose sovereign had so firm a grip upon the loyalty of his subjects
+that he could defy even the power of Rome with impunity.</p>
+
+<p>The quarrel between Boniface and Philip first assumed importance
+in 1296&mdash;two years after the accession of the former and eleven after
+that of the latter. The immediate subject of dispute was the heavy
+taxes which Philip was levying upon the clergy of France and the
+revenues from which he was using in the prosecution of his wars with
+Edward I. of England; but royal and papal interests were fundamentally
+at variance and as both king and pope were of a combative temper, a
+conflict was inevitable, irrespective of taxes or any other particular
+cause of controversy. In 1096 Boniface issued the famous bull <i>Clericis
+Laicos</i>, forbidding laymen (including monarchs) to levy subsidies on the
+clergy without papal consent and prohibiting the clergy to pay subsidies
+so levied. Philip the Fair was not mentioned in the bull, but the
+measure was clearly directed primarily at him. He retaliated by prohibiting
+the export of money, plate, etc., from the realm, thereby cutting
+off the accustomed papal revenues from France. In 1297 an apparent
+reconciliation was effected, the Pope practically suspending the
+bull so far as France was concerned, though only to secure relief from
+the conflict with Philip while engaged in a struggle with the rival Colonna
+family at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In 1301 the contest was renewed, mainly because of the indiscretion
+of a papal legate, Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who vilified the
+king and was promptly imprisoned for his violent language. Boniface
+took up the cause of Saisset and called an ecclesiastical council to regulate
+the affairs of church and state in France and to rectify the injuries
+wrought by King Philip. The claim to papal supremacy in temporal as
+well as spiritual affairs, which Boniface proposed thus to make good,
+was boldly stated in a new bull&mdash;that of <i>Ausculta Fili</i>&mdash;in 1301. At the
+same time the bull <i>Clericis Laicos</i> was renewed for France. Philip knew
+that the Franconians and his own Capetian predecessors had failed in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">385</a></span>
+their struggles with Rome chiefly for the reason that they had been
+lacking in consistent popular support. National feeling was unquestionably
+stronger in the France of 1301 than in the Germany of 1077, or even
+in the France of 1200; but to make doubly sure, Philip, in 1302, caused
+the first meeting of a complete States General to be held, and from this
+body, representing the various elements of the French people, he got
+reliable pledges of support in his efforts to resist the temporal aggressions
+of the papacy. It was at this juncture that Boniface issued the bull
+<i>Unam Sanctam</i>, which has well been termed the classic mediæval expression
+of the papal claims to universal temporal sovereignty.</p>
+
+<p>In 1303 an assembly of French prelates and magnates, under the
+inspiration of Philip, brought charges of heresy and misconduct against
+Boniface and called for a meeting of a general ecclesiastical council to
+depose him. Boniface decided to issue a bull excommunicating and
+deposing Philip. But before the date set for this step (September, 1303)
+a catastrophe befell the papacy which resulted in an unexpected termination
+of the episode. On the day before the bull of deposition was to
+be issued William of Nogaret, whom Philip had sent to Rome to force
+Boniface to call a general council to try the charges against himself,
+led a band of troops to Anagni and took the Pope prisoner with the intention
+of carrying him to France for trial. After three days the inhabitants
+of Anagni attacked the Frenchmen and drove them out and
+Boniface, who had barely escaped death, returned to Rome. The unfortunate
+Pope never recovered, however, from the effects of the outrage
+and his death in October (1303) left Philip, by however unworthy
+means, a victor. From this point the papacy passes under the domination
+of the French court and in 1309 began the dark period of the so-called
+Babylonian Captivity, during most of which the popes dwelt at
+Avignon under conditions precisely the reverse of the ideal which Boniface
+so clearly asserted in <i>Unam Sanctam</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text based upon the papal register published by P. Mury in <i>Revue
+des Questions Historiques</i>, Vol. XLVI. (July, 1889), pp. 255-256.
+Translated in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source
+Book for Mediæval History</i> (New York), 1905, pp. 314-317.</p>
+
+<p>The true faith compels us to believe that there is one holy
+Catholic Apostolic Church, and this we firmly believe and plainly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">386</a></span>
+confess. And outside of her there is no salvation or remission
+of sins, as the Bridegroom says in the Song of Solomon: "My
+dove, my undefiled, is but one; she is the only one of her mother,
+she is the choice one of her that bare her" [Song of Sol., vi. 9];
+which represents the one mystical body, whose head is Christ,
+but the head of Christ is God [1 Cor., xi. 3]. In this Church there
+<span class="sidebar">An assertion
+of the unity
+of the Church</span>
+is "one Lord, one faith, one baptism" [Eph.,
+iv. 5]. For in the time of the flood there was only
+one ark, that of Noah, prefiguring the one Church,
+and it was "finished above in one cubit" [Gen., vi. 16], and had
+but one helmsman and master, namely, Noah. And we read
+that all things on the earth outside of this ark were destroyed.
+This Church we venerate as the only one, since the Lord said by
+the prophet: "Deliver my soul from the sword; my darling from
+the power of the dog" [Ps., xxii. 20]. He prayed for his soul, that
+is, for himself, the head; and at the same time for the body, and
+he named his body, that is, the one Church, because there is but
+one Bridegroom [John, iii. 29], and because of the unity of the
+faith, of the sacraments, and of his love for the Church. This
+is the seamless robe of the Lord which was not rent but parted
+by lot [John, xix. 23].</p>
+
+<p>Therefore there is one body of the one and only Church, and
+one head, not two heads, as if the Church were a monster. And
+this head is Christ, and his vicar, Peter and his successor; for the
+Lord himself said to Peter: "Feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16].
+And he said "my sheep," in general, not these or those sheep in
+particular; from which it is clear that all were committed to him.
+<span class="sidebar">An allusion to
+the Petrine
+Supremacy</span>
+If, therefore, Greeks [i.e., the Greek Church] or
+any one else say that they are not subject to Peter
+and his successors, they thereby necessarily confess
+that they are not of the sheep of Christ. For the Lord says,
+in the Gospel of John, that there is one fold and only one shepherd
+[John, x. 16]. By the words of the gospel we are taught that
+the two swords, namely, the spiritual authority and the temporal,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">387</a></span>
+are in the power of the Church. For when the apostles said
+"Here are two swords" [Luke, xxii. 38]&mdash;that is, in the Church,
+since it was the apostles who were speaking&mdash;the Lord did not
+answer, "It is too much," but "It is enough." Whoever denies
+that the temporal sword is in the power of Peter does not properly
+understand the word of the Lord when He said: "Put up thy
+sword into the sheath" [John, xviii. 11]. Both swords, therefore,
+<span class="sidebar">The proper relation
+of spiritual
+and temporal
+powers</span>
+the spiritual and the temporal, are in the power
+of the Church. The former is to be used by the
+Church, the latter for the Church; the one by the
+hand of the priest, the other by the hand of kings and knights,
+but at the command and permission of the priest. Moreover, it
+is necessary for one sword to be under the other, and the temporal
+authority to be subjected to the spiritual; for the apostle
+says, "For there is no power but of God: and the powers that be
+are ordained of God" [Rom., xiii. 1]; but they would not be ordained
+unless one were subjected to the other, and, as it were,
+the lower made the higher by the other.</p>
+
+<p>For, according to St. Dionysius,<a name="FNanchor_534" id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> it is a law of divinity that
+the lowest is made the highest through the intermediate. According
+to the law of the universe all things are not equally and
+directly reduced to order, but the lowest are fitted into their
+order through the intermediate, and the lower through the
+higher. And we must necessarily admit that the spiritual power
+<span class="sidebar">The superiority
+of the
+spiritual</span>
+surpasses any earthly power in dignity and honor,
+because spiritual things surpass temporal things.
+We clearly see that this is true from the paying
+of tithes, from the benediction, from the sanctification, from the
+receiving of the power, and from the governing of these things.
+For the truth itself declares that the spiritual power must
+establish the temporal power and pass judgment on it if it is
+not good. Thus the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning the Church
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">388</a></span>
+and the ecclesiastical power is fulfilled: "See, I have this day
+set thee over the nations and over the kingdoms, to root out,
+and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build,
+and to plant" [Jer., i. 10].</p>
+
+<p>Therefore if the temporal power errs, it will be judged by the
+spiritual power, and if the lower spiritual power errs, it will be
+<span class="sidebar">The highest
+spiritual power
+(the papacy)
+responsible to
+God alone</span>
+judged by its superior. But if the highest
+spiritual power errs, it cannot be judged by
+men, but by God alone. For the apostle says:
+"But he that is spiritual judgeth all things, yet
+he himself is judged of no man" [1 Cor., ii. 15]. Now this authority,
+although it is given to man and exercised through man,
+is not human, but divine. For it was given by the word of the
+Lord to Peter, and the rock was made firm to him and his successors,
+in Christ himself, whom he had confessed. For the Lord
+said to Peter: "Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be
+bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall
+be loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19].</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, whosoever resisteth this power thus ordained of
+God resisteth the ordinance of God [Rom., xiii. 2], unless there
+are two principles [beginnings], as Manichæus<a name="FNanchor_535" id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> pretends there
+are. But this we judge to be false and heretical. For Moses says
+that, not in the beginnings, but in the beginning, God created
+<span class="sidebar">Submission to
+the papacy essential
+to salvation</span>
+the heaven and the earth [Gen., i. 1]. We therefore
+declare, say, and affirm that submission on
+the part of every man to the bishop of Rome is
+altogether necessary for his salvation.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">389</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>68. The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The "Babylonian Captivity"&mdash;begun in 1305, or perhaps more properly
+in 1309, when the French Pope, Clement V., took up his residence
+regularly at Avignon&mdash;lasted until 1377. During these sixty or seventy
+years the College of Cardinals consisted chiefly of Frenchmen, all of the
+seven popes were of French nationality, and for the most part the
+papal authority was little more than a tool in the hands of the aggressive
+French sovereigns. In 1377, at the solicitation of the Italian clergy
+and people, Pope Gregory XI. removed to Rome, where he died in 1378.
+In the election that followed the Roman populace, determined to bring
+the residence of the popes at Avignon to an end once for all, demanded a
+Roman, or at least an Italian, pope. The majority of the cardinals were
+French, but they could not agree upon a French candidate and, intimidated
+by the threats of the mob, they at last chose a Neapolitan who
+took the name Urban VI. A few months of Urban's obstinate administration
+convinced the cardinals that they had made a serious mistake,
+and, on the ground that their choice had been unduly influenced by
+popular clamor, they sought to nullify the election and to replace Urban
+by a Genevan who took the title Clement VII. Urban utterly refused
+thus to be put aside, so that there were now two popes, each duly elected
+by the College of Cardinals and each claiming the undivided allegiance
+of Christendom. This was the beginning of the Great Schism, destined
+to work havoc in the Church for a full generation, or until finally ended
+in 1417. Clement VII. fixed his abode at Avignon and French influence
+secured for him the support of Spain, Scotland, and Sicily. The rest of
+Europe, displeased with the subordination of the papacy to France and
+French interests, declared for Urban, who was pledged to maintain the
+papal capital at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>France must be held responsible in the main for the evils of the Great
+Schism&mdash;a breach in the Church which she deliberately created and for
+many years maintained; but she herself suffered by it more than any
+other nation of Europe because of the annates,<a name="FNanchor_536" id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> the <i>décime</i>,<a name="FNanchor_537" id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> and other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">390</a></span>
+taxes which were imposed upon the French clergy and people to support
+the luxurious and at times extravagant papal court at Avignon, or which
+were exacted by ambitious monarchs under the cover of papal license.
+In the course of time the impossible situation created by the Schism
+demanded a remedy and in fairness it should be observed that in the
+work of adjustment the leading part was taken by the French. After
+the death of Clement VII., in 1394, the French court sincerely desired
+to bring the Schism to an end on terms that would be fair to all. Already
+in 1393 King Charles VI. had laid the case before the University
+of Paris and asked for an opinion as to the best course to be pursued.
+The authorities of the university requested each member of the various
+faculties to submit his idea of a solution of the problem and from the
+mass of suggestions thus brought together a committee of fifty-four
+professors, masters, and doctors worked out the three lines of action
+set forth in selection (a) below. The first plan, i.e., that both popes
+should resign as a means of restoring harmony, was accepted as the
+proper one by an assembly of the French clergy convened in 1395. It
+was doomed to defeat, however, by the vacillation of both Benedict
+XIII. at Avignon and Boniface IX. at Rome, and in the end it was
+agreed to fall back upon the third plan which the University of Paris had
+proposed, i.e., the convening of a general council. There was no doubt
+that such a council could legally be summoned only by the pope, but
+finally the cardinals attached to both popes deserted them and united
+in issuing the call in their own name.</p>
+
+<p>The council met at Pisa in 1409 and proceeded to clear up the question
+of its own legality and authority by issuing the unequivocal declaration
+comprised in (b) below. It furthermore declared both popes deposed and
+elected a new one, who took the name Alexander V. Neither of the
+previous popes, however, recognized the council's action, so now there
+were three rivals instead of two and the situation was only so much
+worse than before. In 1410 Alexander V. died and the cardinals chose
+as his successor John XXIII., a man whose life was notoriously wicked,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">391</a></span>
+but who was far from lacking in political sagacity. Three years later
+the capture of Rome by the king of Naples forced John to appeal for
+assistance to the Emperor Sigismund; and Sigismund demanded, before
+extending the desired aid, that a general church council be summoned
+to meet on German soil for the adjustment of the tangled papal situation.
+The result was the Council of Constance, whose sessions extended
+from November, 1414, to April, 1418, and which, because of its general
+European character, was able to succeed where the Council of Pisa had
+failed. In the decree <i>Sacrosancta</i> given below (c), issued in April,
+1415, we have the council's notable assertion of its supreme authority
+in ecclesiastical matters, even as against the pope himself. The
+Schism was healed with comparative facility. Gregory XII., who
+had been the pope at Rome, but who was now in exile, sent envoys
+to offer his abdication. Benedict XIII., likewise a fugitive,
+was deposed and found himself without supporters. John XXIII.
+was deposed for his unworthy character and had no means of offering
+resistance. The cardinals, together with representatives of the
+five "nations" into which the council was divided, harmoniously selected
+for pope a Roman cardinal, who assumed the name of Martin V. This
+was in 1417. The Schism was at an end, though the work of combating
+heresy and of propagating reform within the Church went on in successive
+councils, notably that of Basel (1431-1449).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Lucæ d'Achery, <i>Spicilegium, sive Collectio veterum aliquot
+Scriptorum qui in Galliæ Bibliothecis Delituerant</i> ["Gleanings,
+or a Collection of some Early Writings, which survive in Gallic
+Libraries"], Paris, 1723, Vol. I., p. 777. Translated in
+Thatcher and McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i>
+(New York, 1905), pp. 326-327.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Raynaldus, <i>Annales, anno 1409</i> ["Annals, year 1409"], §71.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(c) Von der Hardt, <i>Magnum Constantiense Concilium</i> ["Great
+Council of Constance"], Vol. II., p. 98.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p><i>The first way.</i> Now the first way to end the Schism is that
+both parties should entirely renounce and resign all rights which
+they may have, or claim to have, to the papal office.</p>
+
+<p><i>The second way.</i> But if both cling tenaciously to their rights
+and refuse to resign, as they have thus far done, we would propose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">392</a></span>
+a resort to arbitration. That is, that they should together choose
+worthy and suitable men, or permit such to be chosen in a
+<span class="sidebar">Three possible
+solutions of the
+Schism offered
+by the University
+of Paris</span>
+regular and canonical way, and these should have
+full power and authority to discuss the case and
+decide it, and if necessary and expedient and
+approved by those who, according to the canon
+law, have the authority [i.e., the cardinals], they might also
+have the right to proceed to the election of a pope.</p>
+
+<p><i>The third way.</i> If the rival popes, after being urged in a
+brotherly and friendly manner, will not accept either of the
+above ways, there is a third way which we propose as an excellent
+remedy for this sacrilegious schism. We mean that the
+matter should be left to a general council. This general council
+might be composed, according to canon law, only of prelates; or,
+since many of them are very illiterate, and many of them are
+bitter partisans of one or the other pope, there might be joined
+with the prelates an equal number of masters and doctors of
+theology and law from the faculties of approved universities.
+Or, if this does not seem sufficient to any one, there might be added,
+besides, one or more representatives from cathedral chapters and
+the chief monastic orders, to the end that all decisions might be
+rendered only after most careful examination and mature deliberation.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p>This holy and general council, representing the universal
+Church, decrees and declares that the united college of cardinals
+was empowered to call the council, and that the power to call
+<span class="sidebar">Declarations
+of the Council
+of Pisa (1409)</span>
+such a council belongs of right to the aforesaid
+holy college of cardinals, especially now when
+there is a detestable schism. The council further
+declares that this holy council, representing the universal Church,
+caused both claimants of the papal throne to be cited in the
+gates and doors of the churches of Pisa to come and hear the
+final decision [in the matter of the Schism] pronounced, or to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">393</a></span>
+give a good and sufficient reason why such sentence should not
+be rendered.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(c)</p>
+
+<p>This holy synod of Constance, being a general council, and
+legally assembled in the Holy Spirit for the praise of God and
+for ending the present schism, and for the union and reformation
+of the Church of God in its head and in its members, in order
+more easily, more securely, more completely, and more fully to
+bring about the union and reformation of the Church of God,
+<span class="sidebar">The Council of
+Constance asserts
+its superiority
+to even
+the papacy</span>
+ordains, declares, and decrees as follows: First it
+declares that this synod, legally assembled, is a
+general council, and represents the Catholic
+church militant and has its authority directly
+from Christ; and everybody, of whatever rank or dignity, including
+also the pope, is bound to obey this council in those
+things which pertain to the faith, to the ending of this schism,
+and to a general reformation of the Church in its head and members.
+Likewise it declares that if any one, of whatever rank,
+condition, or dignity, including also the pope, shall refuse to
+obey the commands, statutes, ordinances, or orders of this holy
+council, or of any other holy council properly assembled, in
+regard to the ending of the Schism and to the reformation of the
+Church, he shall be subject to the proper punishment, and, unless
+he repents, he shall be duly punished, and, if necessary, recourse
+shall be had to other aids of justice.</p>
+
+<h4>69. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The Council of Basel, convened in 1431, had for its object a thoroughgoing
+reformation of the Church, "in its head and its members," from
+papacy to parish priest. Like all of the councils of the period, its spirit
+was distinctly anti-papal and for this reason Pope Eugene IV. sought
+to bring it under his control by transferring it to Bologna and, failing
+in this, to turn its deliberations into channels other than criticism of
+the papacy. While the negotiations of Eugene and the council were in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">394</a></span>
+progress a step fraught with great significance was taken in France in
+the promulgation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges.<a name="FNanchor_538" id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> France was
+the only country in which the principles laid down by the councils&mdash;Pisa,
+Constance, Basel, and the rest&mdash;had taken firm hold. In 1438
+Charles VII. convened at Bourges an assembly composed of leading prelates,
+councillors, and princes of the royal blood, to which the Pope and
+the Council of Basel both sent delegates. This assembly proceeded to
+adapt the decrees of the council to the conditions and needs of France,
+on the evident assumption that the will of the French magnates in such
+matters was superior to that of both pope and council, so far as France
+was concerned. The action at Bourges well illustrates the growing
+spirit of French nationality which had sprung up since the recent
+achievements of Joan of Arc.</p>
+
+<p>The Pragmatic Sanction dealt in the main with four subjects&mdash;the
+authority of church councils, the diminishing of papal patronage,
+the restriction of papal taxation, and the limitation of appeals
+to Rome. Together these matters are commonly spoken of as the
+"Gallican liberties," i.e., the liberties of the Gallic or French church,
+and they implied the right of the national church to administer its own
+affairs with only the slightest interference from the pope or other outside
+powers; in other words, they were essentially anti-papal. Louis XI., the
+successor of Charles VII., for diplomatic reasons, sought to revoke the
+Pragmatic Sanction, but the Parlement of Paris refused to register
+the ordinance and for all practical purposes the Pragmatic was maintained
+until 1516. In that year Francis I. established the relations of
+the papacy and the French clergy on the basis of a new "concordat,"
+which, however, was not very unlike the Pragmatic. The Pragmatic
+is of interest to the student of French history mainly because of the degree
+in which it enhanced the power of the crown, particularly in respect
+to the ecclesiastical affairs of the realm, and because of the testimony
+it bears to the declining influence of the papacy in the stronger
+nations like France and England. The text printed below represents
+only an abstract of the document, which in all included thirty-three
+chapters.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">395</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source.&mdash;Text in Vilevault et Bréquigny, <i>Ordonnances des Rois de France
+de la Troisième Race</i> (Paris, 1772), Vol. XIII., pp. 267-291.</p>
+
+<p>The king declares that, according to the oath taken at their
+coronation, kings are bound to defend and protect the holy
+<span class="sidebar">Charles VII.
+recognizes the
+obligations of
+the king to the
+Church</span>
+Church, its ministers and its sacred offices, and
+zealously to guard in their kingdoms the decrees
+of the holy fathers. The general council assembled
+at Basel to continue the work begun by
+the councils of Constance and Siena,<a name="FNanchor_539" id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> and to labor for the reform
+of the Church, in both its head and members, having had presented
+to it numerous decrees and regulations, with the request
+that it accept them and cause them to be observed in the kingdom,
+the king has convened an assembly composed of prelates
+and other ecclesiastics representing the clergy of France and of
+the Dauphiné.<a name="FNanchor_540" id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> He has presided in person over its deliberations,
+surrounded by his son, the princes of the blood, and the principal
+lords of the realm. He has listened to the ambassadors of the
+Pope and the council. From the examination of prelates and
+<span class="sidebar">Abuses prevalent
+in the
+French church</span>
+the most renowned doctors, and from the thoroughgoing
+discussions of the assembly, it appears
+that, from the falling into decay of the early
+discipline, the churches of the kingdom have been made to suffer
+from all sorts of insatiable greed; that the <i>réserve</i> and the <i>grâce</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">396</a></span>
+<i>expectative</i><a name="FNanchor_541" id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a> have given rise to grievous abuses and unbearable
+burdens; that the most notable and best endowed benefices have
+fallen into the hands of unknown men, who do not conform at
+all to the requirement of residence and who do not understand the
+speech of the people committed to their care, and consequently
+are neglectful of the needs of their souls, like mercenaries who
+dream of nothing whatever but temporal gain; that thus the
+worship of Christ is declining, piety is enfeebled, the laws of the
+Church are violated, and buildings for religious uses are falling
+in ruin. The clergy abandon their theological studies, because
+there is no hope of advancement. Conflicts without number rage
+over the possession of benefices, plurality of which is coveted by
+an execrable ambition. Simony is everywhere glaring; the
+prelates and other collators<a name="FNanchor_542" id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a> are pillaged of their rights and their
+ministry; the rights of patrons are impaired; and the wealth of
+the kingdom goes into the hands of foreigners, to the detriment
+of the clergy.</p>
+
+<p>Since, in the judgment of the prelates and other ecclesiastics,
+the decrees of the holy council of Basel seemed to afford a suitable
+<span class="sidebar">The decrees of
+Basel accepted
+with some
+modifications</span>
+remedy for all these evils, after mature deliberation,
+we have decided to accept them&mdash;some
+without change, others with certain modifications&mdash;without
+wishing to cast doubt upon the power and authority
+of the council, but at the same time taking account of
+the necessities of the occasion and of the customs of the nation.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> General councils shall be held every ten years, in places to
+be designated by the pope.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> The authority of the general council is superior to that of
+the pope in all that pertains to the faith, the extirpation of
+schism, and the reform of the Church in both head and members.<a name="FNanchor_543" id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> Election is reëstablished for ecclesiastical offices; but the
+king, or the princes of his kingdom, without violating the canonical
+rules, may make recommendations when elections are to occur
+in the chapters or the monasteries.<a name="FNanchor_544" id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> The popes shall not have the right to reserve the collation
+of benefices, or to bestow any benefice before it becomes vacant.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> All grants of benefices made by the pope in virtue of the
+<i>droit d'expectative</i> are hereby declared null. Those who shall
+have received such benefices shall be punished by the secular
+power. The popes shall not have the right to interfere by the creation
+of canonships.<a name="FNanchor_545" id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Appeals to Rome are prohibited until every other grade of
+jurisdiction shall have been exhausted.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> Annates are prohibited.<a name="FNanchor_546" id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">398</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIV.<br />
+THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH, AND FOURTEENTH
+CENTURIES</h3>
+
+<h4>70. The Peace of Constance (1183)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>With the election of Frederick Barbarossa as emperor, in 1152, a new
+stage of the great papal-imperial combat was entered upon, though
+under conditions quite different from those surrounding the contest in
+the preceding century [see <a href="#Page_261">Chap. XVI]</a>. The Empire was destined to
+succumb in the end to the papacy, but with a sovereign of Frederick's
+energy and ability at its head it was able at least to make a stubborn
+fight and to meet defeat with honor. The new reign was inaugurated by
+a definite announcement of the Emperor's intention to consolidate and
+strengthen the imperial government throughout all Germany and Italy.
+The task in Germany was far from simple; in Italy it was the most formidable
+that could have been conceived, and this for the reason that the
+Italian population was largely gathered in cities with strong political
+and military organization, with all the traditions of practical independence,
+and with no thought of submitting to the government of an emperor
+or any other claimant to more than merely nominal sovereignty.</p>
+
+<p>Trouble began almost at once between Frederick and the free commune
+of Milan, though war was averted for a time by the oaths taken to the
+Emperor on the occasion of his first expedition across the Alps in 1154.
+Between that date and 1158 the consuls of the city were detected in
+treacherous conduct and, the people refusing to disavow them, in the
+latter year the Emperor again crossed the Alps, bent on nothing less
+than the annihilation of the commune and the dispersion of its inhabitants.
+He carried with him a larger army than a head of the Holy
+Roman Empire had ever led into Italy. The Milanese submitted, under
+conditions extremely humiliating, and Frederick, after being assured
+by the doctors of law at the new university of Bologna that he was acting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">399</a></span>
+quite within the letter of the Roman law, proceeded to lay claim to the
+<i>regalia</i> (royal rights, such as tolls from roads and rivers, products of
+mines, and the estates of criminals), to the right to levy an extraordinary
+war tax, and to that of appointing the chief civic magistrates. Disaffection
+broke out at once in many of the communes, but chiefly at
+Milan; whereupon Frederick came promptly to the conclusion that the
+time had arrived to rid himself of this irreconcilable opponent of his
+measures. The city was besieged and, after its inhabitants had been
+starved into surrender, almost completely destroyed (1162).</p>
+
+<p>Only temporarily did the barbarous act have its intended effect; the
+net result was a widespread revival of the communal spirit, which expressed
+itself in the formation of a sturdy confederacy known as the
+Lombard League. One of the League's first acts was to rebuild Milan,
+under whose leadership the struggle with the Emperor was actively
+renewed. In 1168 a new city was founded at the foot of the Alps near
+Pavia to serve as a base of operations in the campaign which the League
+proposed to wage against the common enemy. It was given the name
+Alessandria (or Alexandria) in honor of Pope Alexander III., who was
+friendly to the cause of the cities. In 1174 Frederick began an open
+attack on the League, but in 1176, at Legnano, he suffered an overwhelming
+defeat, due largely to his failure to receive reinforcements
+from Germany. The adjustment of peace was intrusted to an assembly
+at Venice in which all parties were represented. The result was the
+treaty of Venice (1177), the advantages of which were wholly against the
+Empire. A truce of six years was granted the cities, with the understanding
+that all details were to be arranged within, or at the expiration
+of, that time.</p>
+
+<p>When the close of the period arrived, in 1183, Frederick no longer
+dreamed of subduing and punishing the rebellious Italians, but instead
+was quite ready to agree to a permanent peace. The result was
+the Peace of Constance, which has been described as the earliest international
+agreement of the kind in modern history. By this instrument
+the theoretical overlordship of the Emperor in Italy was reasserted,
+though in fact it had never been denied. Beyond this, however, the
+communes were recognized as essentially independent. Those who had
+enjoyed the right to choose their own magistrates retained it; their
+financial obligations to the Emperor were clearly defined; and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">400</a></span>
+League was conceded to be a legitimate and permanent organization.
+By yielding on numerous vital points the Empire had vindicated its
+right to exist, but its administrative machinery, so far as Italy was
+concerned, was still further impaired. This machinery, it must be
+said, had never been conspicuously effective south of the Alps. As
+for Frederick, he set out in 1189 upon the Third Crusade, during the
+course of which he met his death in Asia Minor without being permitted
+to see the Holy Land.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica</i>, Legum Sectio IV. (Weiland
+ed.), Vol. I., pp. 411-418. Adapted from translation in Oliver J.
+Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i>
+(New York, 1905,) pp. 199-202.</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> We, Frederick, emperor of the Romans, and our son Henry,
+king of the Romans,<a name="FNanchor_547" id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a> hereby grant to you, the cities, territories,
+<span class="sidebar">Concessions to
+the cities of
+the League</span>
+and persons of the League, the <i>regalia</i> and other
+rights within and without the cities, as you have
+been accustomed to hold them; that is, each member
+of the League shall have the same rights as the city of Verona
+has had in the past, or has now.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> The members of the League shall exercise freely and without
+interference from us all the rights which they have exercised of old.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> These are the rights which are guaranteed to you: the
+<i>fodrum</i>,<a name="FNanchor_548" id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> forests, pastures, bridges, streams, mills, fortifications
+of the cities, criminal and civil jurisdiction, and all other rights
+which concern the welfare of the city.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> The <i>regalia</i> which are not to be granted to the members
+of the League shall be determined in the following manner: in
+<span class="sidebar">How the regalia
+remaining
+to the Emperor
+were to
+be determined</span>
+the case of each city, certain men shall be chosen
+for this purpose from both the bishopric and the
+city; these men shall be of good repute, capable
+of deciding these questions, and such as are not
+prejudiced against either party. Acting with the bishop of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">401</a></span>
+diocese, they shall swear to inquire into the questions of the
+<i>regalia</i> and to set aside those that by right belong to us. If,
+however, the cities do not wish to submit to this inquisition,
+they shall pay to us an annual tribute of 2,000 marks in silver as
+compensation for our <i>regalia</i>. If this sum seems excessive, it
+may be reduced.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> If anyone appeals to us in regard to matters which are
+by this treaty admitted to be under your jurisdiction, we agree
+not to hear such an appeal.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> All privileges, gifts, and concessions made in the time of the
+war by us or our representatives to the prejudice or injury of the
+cities, territories, or members of the League are to be null and void.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Consuls<a name="FNanchor_549" id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> of cities where the bishop holds the position of
+count from the king or emperor shall receive their office from
+the bishop, if this has been the custom before. In all other cities
+<span class="sidebar">The
+consuls</span>
+the consuls shall receive their office from us, in
+the following manner: after they have been
+elected by the city they shall be invested with office by our
+representative in the city or bishopric, unless we are ourselves
+in Lombardy, in which case they shall be invested by us. At the
+end of every five years each city shall send its representative to
+us to receive the investiture.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> This arrangement shall be observed by our successor, and
+all such investitures shall be free.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> After our death, the cities shall receive investiture in the
+same way from our son and from his successors.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> The Emperor shall have the right of hearing appeals in
+cases involving more than 25 pounds, saving the right of the
+<span class="sidebar">Appeals to
+the Emperor</span>
+church of Brescia to hear appeals. The appellant
+shall not, however, be compelled to come to
+Germany, but he shall appeal to the representative of the Emperor
+in the city or bishopric. This representative shall examine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">402</a></span>
+the case fairly and shall give judgment according to the laws and
+customs of that city. The decision shall be given within two
+months from the time of appeal, unless the case shall have been
+deferred by reason of some legal hindrance or by the consent of
+both parties.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> The consuls of cities shall take the oath of allegiance to
+the Emperor before they are invested with office.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> Our vassals shall receive investiture from us and shall
+take the vassal's oath of fidelity. All other persons between the
+<span class="sidebar">The oath
+of fidelity</span>
+ages of 15 and 70 shall take the ordinary oath of
+fidelity to the Emperor unless there be some good
+reason why this oath should be omitted.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> All injuries, losses, and damages which we or our followers
+have sustained from the League, or any of its members or allies,
+are hereby pardoned, and all such transgressors are hereby received
+back into our favor.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> We will not remain longer than is necessary in any city
+or bishopric.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> It shall be permitted to the cities to erect fortifications
+within or without their boundaries.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> It shall be permitted to the League to
+<span class="sidebar">Recognition of
+the League's
+right to exist</span>
+maintain its organization as it now is, or to renew
+it as often as it desires.</p>
+
+<h4>71. Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of Frederick II.</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Frederick II. (1194-1250), king of Naples and Sicily and emperor of
+the Holy Roman Empire, was a son of Emperor Henry VI. and a grandson
+of Frederick Barbarossa. When his father died (1197) it was intended
+that the young child's uncle, Philip of Hohenstaufen, should
+occupy the imperial throne temporarily as regent. Philip, however,
+proceeded to assume the position as if in his own right and became engaged
+in a deadly conflict with a rival claimant, Otto IV., during which
+the Pope, Innocent III., fanned the flames of civil war and made the situation
+contribute chiefly to the aggrandizement of papal authority in temporal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">403</a></span>
+affairs. In 1208 Philip was assassinated and in the following year
+Otto received the imperial crown at Rome. Almost immediately, however,
+disagreement broke out between the Pope and the new Emperor,
+chiefly because of the latter's ambition to become king of Sicily. Repenting
+that he had befriended Otto, Innocent promptly excommunicated
+him and set on foot a movement&mdash;in which he enlisted the services
+of Philip Augustus of France&mdash;to supplant the obnoxious Emperor by
+Frederick of Sicily (the later Frederick II.). Otto was a nephew of
+Richard I. and John of England and the latter was easily persuaded to
+enter into an alliance with him against the papal-French-Sicilian combination.
+The result was the battle of Bouvines [see <a href="#Page_297">p. 297</a>], in 1214,
+in which John and Otto were hopelessly defeated. Meanwhile, in 1212,
+Frederick had received a secret embassy from Otto's discontented subjects
+in Germany, offering him the imperial crown if he would come and
+claim it. In response he had gathered an army and, with the approval
+of Innocent and of Philip Augustus, had crossed the Alps for the purpose
+of winning over the German people from Otto to himself. The
+battle of Bouvines (in which Frederick was not engaged, but from which
+he profited immensely) was the death-blow to Otto's cause and Frederick
+was soon recognized universally as head of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Frederick II. (1212-1250) was a period of large importance
+in European history. The Emperor's efforts and achievements&mdash;his
+crusade, his great quarrel with Gregory IX. and Innocent IV., his legislation,
+his struggles with the Lombard League&mdash;were full of interest and
+significance, but, after all, not more so than the purely personal aspects
+of his career. Mr. Bryce has a passage which states admirably the position
+of Frederick with reference to his age and its problems. A portion
+of it is as follows: "Out of the long array of the Germanic successors of
+Charles [Charlemagne], he is, with Otto III.,<a name="FNanchor_550" id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a> the only one who comes
+before us with a genius and a frame of character that are not those of a
+Northern or a Teuton. There dwelt in him, it is true, all the energy
+and knightly valor of his father Henry and his grandfather Frederick I.
+But along with these, and changing their direction, were other gifts,
+inherited perhaps from his half Norman, half Italian mother and fostered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">404</a></span>
+by his education in Sicily, where Mussulman and Byzantine influences
+were still potent, a love of luxury and beauty, an intellect refined,
+subtle, philosophical. Through the mist of calumny and legend
+it is but dimly that the truth of the man can be discerned, and the outlines
+that appear serve to quicken rather than appease the curiosity
+with which we regard one of the most extraordinary personages in history.
+A sensualist, yet also a warrior and a politician; a profound law-giver
+and an impassioned poet; in his youth fired by crusading fervor,
+in later life persecuting heretics while himself accused of blasphemy and
+unbelief; of winning manners and ardently beloved by his followers, but
+with the stain of more than one cruel deed upon his name, he was the
+marvel of his own generation, and succeeding ages looked back with
+awe, not unmingled with pity, upon the inscrutable figure of the last
+emperor who had braved all the terrors of the Church and died beneath
+her ban, the last who had ruled from the sands of the ocean to the shores
+of the Ionian Sea. But while they pitied they condemned. The undying
+hatred of the papacy threw round his memory a lurid light; him
+and him alone of all the imperial line, Dante, the worshipper of the
+empire, must perforce deliver to the flames of hell."<a name="FNanchor_551" id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following selections from the <i>Greater Chronicle</i> of Matthew
+Paris comprise some of the stories which were current in Frederick's
+day regarding his manners, ideas, and deeds. Frederick was far ahead
+of his age and it was inevitable that the qualities in him which men could
+not understand or appreciate should become the grounds for dark
+rumors and unsavory suspicions. Matthew Paris was an English monk
+of St. Albans. It is thought that he was called <i>Parisiensis</i>, "the
+Parisian," because of having been born or educated in the capital of
+France. He seems to have confined his attention wholly to the study of
+history, and mainly to the history of his own country. His <i>Chronicle</i>
+takes up the story of English and continental affairs in detail with the
+year 1235 (where Roger of Wendover had stopped in his <i>Flowers of
+History</i>) and continues to the year 1259. His book has been described as
+"probably the most generally useful historical production of the thirteenth
+century."<a name="FNanchor_552" id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Matthæus Parisiensis, <i>Chronica Majora</i> [Matthew Paris, "Greater
+Chronicle"]. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles (London,
+1852), Vol. I., pp. 157-158, 166-167, 169-170; Vol. II., pp. 84-85,
+103.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the same year [1238] the fame of the Emperor
+Frederick was clouded and marred by his jealous enemies and
+rivals; for it was imputed to him that he was wavering in the
+Catholic faith, or wandering from the right way, and had given
+<span class="sidebar">Frederick
+suspected
+of heresy</span>
+utterance to some speeches, from which it could
+be inferred and suspected that he was not only
+weak in the Catholic faith, but&mdash;what was a
+much greater and more serious crime&mdash;that there was in him an
+enormity of heresy, and the most dreadful blasphemy, to be detested
+and execrated by all Christians. For it was reported that
+the Emperor Frederick had said (although it may not be proper
+to mention it) that three imposters had so craftily deceived their
+contemporaries as to gain for themselves the mastery of the
+world: these were Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet [Mohammed]; and
+that he had impiously given expression to some wicked and incredible
+ravings and blasphemies respecting the most holy
+Eucharist. Far be it from any discreet man, much less a Christian,
+to employ his tongue in such raving blasphemy. It was
+also said by his rivals that the Emperor agreed with and believed in
+the law of Mahomet more than that of Jesus Christ. A rumor
+<span class="sidebar">Accusation
+of friendly relations
+with
+the Saracens</span>
+also crept amongst the people (which God forbid
+to be true of such a great prince) that he had
+been for a long time past in alliance with the
+Saracens, and was more friendly to them than to the Christians;
+and his rivals, who were endeavoring to blacken his fame, attempted
+to establish this by many proofs. Whether they sinned
+or not, He alone knows who is ignorant of nothing....</p>
+
+<p>In Lent, of the same year [1239], seeing the rash proceedings
+of the Emperor, and that his words pleaded excuse for his
+sins,&mdash;namely, that by the assistance of some of the nobles
+and judges of Sardinia he had taken into his own possession,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span>
+and still held, the land and castles of the bishop of Sardinia, and
+constantly declared that they were a portion of the Empire, and
+<span class="sidebar">Frederick's
+seizure of the
+lands belonging
+to a bishop</span>
+that he by his first and chief oath would preserve
+the rights of the Empire to the utmost of his
+power, and would also collect the scattered portions
+of it,&mdash;the Pope<a name="FNanchor_553" id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> was excited to the most
+violent anger against him. He set forth some very serious complaints
+and claims against the Emperor and wrote often boldly and
+carefully to him, advising him repeatedly by many special messengers,
+whose authority ought to have obtained from him the
+greatest attention, to restore the possessions he had seized, and to
+desist from depriving the Church of her possessions, of which she
+was endowed by long prescription. And, like a skilful physician,
+who at one time makes use of medicines, at another of the knife,
+and at another of the cauterizing instrument, he mixed threats
+with entreaties, friendly messages with fearful denunciations.
+As the Emperor, however, scornfully rejected his requests, and
+<span class="sidebar">Refusing to restore
+them, he
+is excommunicated</span>
+excused his actions by arguments founded on
+reason, his holiness the Pope, on Palm Sunday,
+in the presence of a great many of the cardinals,
+in the spirit of glowing anger, solemnly excommunicated the
+said Emperor Frederick, as though he would at once have hurled
+him from his imperial dignity, consigning him with terrible
+denunciations to the possession of Satan at his death; and, as it
+were, thundering forth the fury of his anger, he excited terror in
+all his hearers....<a name="FNanchor_554" id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Emperor, on hearing of this, was inflamed with violent
+anger, and with oft-repeated reproaches accused the Church and
+its rulers of ingratitude to him, and of returning evil for good.
+He recalled to their recollection how he had exposed himself and
+his property to the billows and to a thousand kinds of danger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">407</a></span>
+for the advancement of the Church's welfare and the increase of
+the Catholic faith, and affirmed that whatever honors the Church
+possessed in the Holy Land had been acquired by his toil and
+<span class="sidebar">Frederick accuses
+the Pope
+of ingratitude
+and jealousy</span>
+industry. "But," said he, "the Pope, jealous at
+such a happy increase being acquired for the
+Church by a layman, and who desires gold and
+silver rather than an increase of the faith (as witness his proceedings),
+and who extorts money from all Christendom in the name
+of tithes, has, by all the means in his power, done his best to
+supplant me, and has endeavored to disinherit me while fighting
+for God, exposing my body to the weapons of war, to sickness,
+and to the snares of his enemies, after encountering the dangers
+of the unsparing billows. See what sort of protection is this of
+our father's! What kind of assistance in difficulties is this
+afforded by the vicar of Jesus Christ"!...<a name="FNanchor_555" id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a></p>
+
+<p>"Besides, he is united by a detestable alliance with the Saracens,&mdash;has
+ofttimes sent messages and presents to them, and
+in turn received the same from them with respect and alacrity...;
+and what is a more execrable offense, he, when formerly
+in the country beyond sea, made a kind of arrangement, or rather
+collusion, with the sultan, and allowed the name of Mahomet
+to be publicly proclaimed in the temple of the Lord day and
+<span class="sidebar">Further accusation
+of an
+alliance with
+the Saracens</span>
+night; and lately, in the case of the sultan of Babylon
+[Cairo], who, by his own hands, and through his
+agents, had done irreparable mischief and injury
+to the Holy Land and its Christian inhabitants, he caused that
+sultan's ambassadors, in compliment to their master, as is reported,
+to be honorably received and nobly entertained in his
+kingdom of Sicily. He also, in opposition to the Christians,
+abuses the pernicious and horrid rites of other infidels, and, entering
+into an alliance of friendship with those who wickedly
+pay little respect to and despise the Apostolic See, and have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">408</a></span>
+seceded from the unity of the Church, he, laying aside all respect
+for the Christian religion, caused, as is positively asserted, the
+duke of Bavaria, of illustrious memory, a special and devoted
+ally of the Roman Church, to be murdered by the assassins. He
+has also given his daughter in marriage to Battacius, an enemy
+of God and the Church, who, together with his aiders, counsellors,
+and abettors, was solemnly expelled from the communion
+of the Christians by sentence of excommunication. Rejecting
+the proceedings and customs of Catholic princes, neglecting
+his own salvation and the purity of his fame, he does not employ
+<span class="sidebar">His neglect of
+pious and charitable
+works</span>
+himself in works of piety; and what is more (to
+be silent on his wicked and dissolute practices),
+although he has learned to practice oppression to
+such a degree, he does not trouble himself to relieve those oppressed
+by injuries, by extending his hand, as a Christian prince
+ought, to bestow alms, although he has been eagerly aiming at
+the destruction of the churches, and has crushed religious men
+and other ecclesiastical persons with the burden and persecution
+of his yoke. And it is not known that he ever built or founded
+either churches, monasteries, hospitals, or other pious places.
+Now these are not light, but convincing, grounds for suspicions
+of heresy being entertained against him."...</p>
+
+<p>When the Emperor Frederick was made fully aware of all
+these proceedings [i.e., his excommunication at Lyons] he could
+not contain himself, but burst into a violent rage and, darting a
+scowling look on those who sat around him, he thundered forth:
+"The Pope in his synod has disgraced me by depriving me of
+my crown. Whence arises such great audacity? Whence proceeds
+such rash presumption? Where are my chests which
+<span class="sidebar">Frederick's
+wrath at his
+excommunication</span>
+contain my treasures?" And on their being
+brought and unlocked before him, by his order,
+he said, "See if my crowns are lost now;" then
+finding one, he placed it on his head and, being thus crowned,
+he stood up, and, with threatening eyes and a dreadful voice, unrestrainable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span>
+from passion, he said aloud, "I have not yet lost my
+crown, nor will I be deprived of it by any attacks of the Pope
+or the council, without a bloody struggle. Does his vulgar pride
+raise him to such heights as to enable him to hurl from the
+imperial dignity me, the chief prince of the world, than whom
+none is greater&mdash;yea, who am without an equal? In this matter
+my condition is made better: in some things I <i>was</i> bound to
+obey, at least to respect, him; but now I am released from all
+ties of affection and veneration, and also from the obligation of
+any kind of peace with him." From that time forth, therefore,
+he, in order to injure the Pope more effectually and perseveringly,
+did all kinds of harm to his Holiness, in his money, as well as in
+his friends and relatives.</p>
+
+<h4>72. The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The century following the death of Frederick II. (1250) was a period
+of unrest and turbulence in German history, the net result of which
+politically was the almost complete triumph of the princes, lay and clerical,
+over the imperial power. By 1350 the local magnates had come to
+be virtually sovereign throughout their own territories. They enjoyed
+the right of legislation and the privileges of coining money and levying
+taxes, and in many cases they had scarcely so much as a feudal bond to
+remind them of their theoretical allegiance to the Empire. The one principle
+of action upon which they could agree was that the central monarchy
+should be kept permanently in the state of helplessness to which
+it had been reduced. The power of choosing a successor when a vacancy
+arose in the imperial office had fallen gradually into the hands of seven
+men, who were known as the "electors" and who were recognized in the
+fourteenth century as possessing collective importance far greater than
+that of the emperor. Three of these seven&mdash;the archbishops of Mainz,
+Trier, and Cologne&mdash;were great ecclesiastics; the other four&mdash;the king
+of Bohemia, the margrave of Brandenburg, the duke of Saxony, and the
+count palatine of the Rhine&mdash;were equally influential laymen. This
+electoral college first came into prominence at the election of Rudolph I.
+(of the House of Hapsburg) at the end of the Interregnum in 1273.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span>
+From that time until the termination of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806
+these seven men (eight after 1648 and nine after 1692) played a part in
+German history not inferior to that of the emperors. They imposed
+upon their candidates such conditions as they chose, and when the bearer
+of the imperial title grew restive and difficult to control they did not
+hesitate to make war upon him, or even in extreme cases to depose him.
+It has been well said that never in all history have worse scandals been
+connected with any sort of elections than were associated repeatedly
+with the actions of these German electors.</p>
+
+<p>The central document in German constitutional history in the Middle
+Ages is the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. (1347-1378), promulgated
+in 1356. For a century prior to the reign of Charles the question of the
+imperial succession had been one of extreme perplexity. The electoral
+college had grown up to assume the responsibility, but this body rested
+on no solid legal basis and its acts were usually regarded as null by all
+whom they displeased, with the result that a civil war succeeded pretty
+nearly every election. Charles was shrewd enough to see that the existing
+system could not be set aside; the electors were entirely too powerful
+to permit of that. But he also saw that it might at least be improved
+by giving it the quality of legality which it had hitherto lacked.
+The result of his efforts in this direction was the Golden Bull, issued and
+confirmed at the diets of Nürnberg (Nuremberg) and Metz in 1356.
+The document, thenceforth regarded as the fundamental law of the
+Empire, dealt with a wide variety of subjects. It confirmed the electorship
+in the person of the king of Bohemia which had long been disputed
+by a rival branch of the family;<a name="FNanchor_556" id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a> it made elaborate provision for the election
+of the emperor by the seven magnates; it defined the social and
+political prerogatives of these men and prescribed the relations which
+they should bear to their subjects, to other princes, and to the emperor;
+and it made numerous regulations regarding conspiracies, coinage, immunities,
+the forfeiture of fiefs, the succession of electoral princes, etc.
+In a word, as Mr. Bryce has put it, the document "confessed and legalized
+the independence of the Electors and the powerlessness of the
+crown."<a name="FNanchor_557" id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a> Only a few selections from it can be given here, particularly
+those bearing on the methods of electing the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">411</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Wilhelm Altmann und Ernst Bernheim, <i>Ausgewählte
+Urkunden zur Erläuterung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands
+im Mittelalter</i> ["Select Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional
+History of Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin,
+1904, pp. 54-83. Adapted from translation in Oliver J. Thatcher
+and Edgar H. McNeal, <i>Source Book for Mediæval History</i> (New
+York, 1905), pp. 284-295 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I. <b>1.</b> We decree and determine by this imperial edict that,
+whenever the electoral princes are summoned according to the
+ancient and praiseworthy custom to meet and elect a king of
+the Romans and future emperor, each one of them shall be bound
+<span class="sidebar">Guarantee
+of safety of
+travel for the
+electors</span>
+to furnish on demand an escort and safe-conduct
+to his fellow electors or their representatives,
+within his own lands and as much farther as he
+can, for the journey to and from the city where the election is
+to be held. Any electoral prince who refuses to furnish escort
+and safe-conduct shall be liable to the penalties for perjury and
+to the loss of his electoral vote for that occasion.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> We decree and command also that all other princes who
+hold fiefs from the Empire, by whatever title, and all counts,
+barons, knights, clients, nobles, commoners, citizens, and all
+corporations of towns, cities, and territories of the Empire, shall
+furnish escort and safe-conduct for this occasion to every electoral
+prince or his representatives, on demand, within their own
+lands and as much farther as they can. Violators of this decree
+shall be punished as follows: princes, counts, barons, knights,
+<span class="sidebar">Penalties for
+violation of the
+safe-conduct of
+the electors</span>
+clients, and all others of noble rank, shall suffer
+the penalties of perjury, and shall lose the fiefs
+which they hold of the emperor or any other lord,
+and all their possessions; citizens and corporations shall also
+suffer the penalty for perjury, shall be deprived of all the rights,
+liberties, privileges, and graces which they have received from
+the Empire, and shall incur the ban of the Empire against their
+persons and property. Those whom we deprive of their rights
+for this offense may be attacked by any man without appealing
+to a magistrate, and without danger of reprisal; for they are rebels
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span>
+against the state and the Empire, and have attacked the honor
+and security of the prince, and are convicted of faithlessness and
+perfidy.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> We also command that the citizens and corporations of
+cities shall furnish supplies to the electoral princes and their
+<span class="sidebar">Supplies for
+the use of the
+electors</span>
+representatives on demand at the regular price and
+without fraud, whenever they arrive at, or depart
+from, the city on their way to or from the election.
+Those who violate this decree shall suffer the penalties
+described in the preceding paragraph for citizens and corporations.
+If any prince, count, baron, knight, client, noble, commoner,
+citizen, or city shall attack or molest in person or goods
+any of the electoral princes or their representatives, on their way
+to or from an election, whether they have safe-conduct or not,
+he and his accomplices shall incur the penalties above described,
+according to his position and rank.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> When the news of the death of the king of the Romans
+has been received at Mainz, within one month from the date of
+<span class="sidebar">The electors
+to be summoned
+by the
+archbishop
+of Mainz</span>
+receiving it the archbishop of Mainz shall send
+notices of the death and the approaching election
+to all the electoral princes. But if the archbishop
+neglects or refuses to send such notices,
+the electoral princes are commanded on their fidelity to assemble
+on their own motion and without summons at the city
+of Frankfort,<a name="FNanchor_558" id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a> within three months from the death of the emperor,
+for the purpose of electing a king of the Romans and
+future emperor.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> Each electoral prince or his representatives may bring
+with him to Frankfort at the time of the election a retinue of
+200 horsemen, of whom not more than 50 shall be armed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">413</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> If any electoral prince, duly summoned to the election,
+fails to come, or to send representatives with credentials containing
+<span class="sidebar">How a vote
+might be forfeited</span>
+full authority, or if he (or his representatives)
+withdraws from the place of the election
+before the election has been completed, without
+leaving behind substitutes fully accredited and empowered, he
+shall lose his vote in that election.</p>
+
+<p>II. <b>2.</b><a name="FNanchor_559" id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a> "I, archbishop of Mainz, archchancellor of the Empire
+for Germany,<a name="FNanchor_560" id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a> electoral prince, swear on the holy gospels here
+before me, and by the faith which I owe to God and to the Holy
+<span class="sidebar">The oath taken
+by the electors</span>
+Roman Empire, that with the aid of God, and
+according to my best judgment and knowledge,
+I will cast my vote, in this election of the king of the Romans
+and future emperor, for a person fitted to rule the Christian
+people. I will give my voice and vote freely, uninfluenced by
+any agreement, price, bribe, promise, or anything of the sort,
+by whatever name it may be called. So help me God and all
+the saints."</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> After the electors have taken this oath, they shall proceed
+to the election, and shall not depart from Frankfort until the
+<span class="sidebar">Provision
+to ensure
+an election</span>
+majority have elected a king of the Romans and
+future emperor, to be ruler of the world and of
+the Christian people. If they have not come to a
+decision within thirty days from the day on which they took
+the above oath, after that they shall live upon bread and water
+and shall not leave the city until the election has been decided.</p>
+
+<p>III. <b>1.</b> To prevent any dispute arising between the archbishops
+of Trier, Mainz, and Cologne, electoral princes of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span>
+Empire, as to their priority and rank in the diet,<a name="FNanchor_561" id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> it has been decided
+and is hereby decreed, with the advice and consent of all
+the electoral princes, ecclesiastical and secular, that the archbishop
+of Trier shall have the seat directly opposite and facing the
+<span class="sidebar">Order of precedence
+of the
+three archbishops</span>
+emperor; that the archbishop of Mainz shall have
+the seat at the right of the emperor when the diet
+is held in the diocese or province of Mainz, or
+anywhere in Germany except in the diocese of Cologne; that the
+archbishop of Cologne shall have the seat at the right of the
+emperor when the diet is held in the diocese or province of
+Cologne, or anywhere in Gaul or Italy. This applies to all public
+ceremonies&mdash;court sessions, conferring of fiefs, banquets, councils,
+and all occasions on which the princes meet with the emperor
+for the transaction of imperial business. This order of
+seating shall be observed by the successors of the present archbishops
+of Cologne, Trier, and Mainz, and shall never be questioned.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <b>1.</b> In the imperial diet, at the council-board, table, and
+all other places where the emperor or king of the Romans meets
+with the electoral princes, the seats shall be arranged as follows:
+<span class="sidebar">Seating
+arrangement
+at table</span>
+On the right of the emperor, first, the archbishop
+of Mainz, or of Cologne, according to the province
+in which the meeting is held, as arranged above;
+second, the king of Bohemia, because he is a crowned and
+anointed prince; third, the count palatine of the Rhine; on the
+left of the emperor, first, the archbishop of Cologne, or of Mainz;
+second, the duke of Saxony; third, the margrave of Brandenburg.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> When the imperial throne becomes vacant, the archbishop
+of Mainz shall have the authority, which he has had from of old,
+to call the other electors together for the election. It shall be
+his peculiar right also, when the electors have convened for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">415</a></span>
+election, to collect the votes, asking each of the electors separately
+in the following order: first, the archbishop of Trier, who
+shall have the right to the first vote, as he has had from of old;
+<span class="sidebar">The order
+of voting</span>
+then the archbishop of Cologne, who has the office
+of first placing the crown upon the head of the
+king of the Romans; then the king of Bohemia, who has the priority
+among the secular princes because of his royal title; fourth,
+the count palatine of the Rhine; fifth, the duke of Saxony;
+sixth, the margrave of Brandenburg. Then the princes shall ask
+the archbishop of Mainz in turn to declare his choice and vote.
+At the diet, the margrave of Brandenburg shall offer water to
+the emperor or king, to wash his hands; the king of Bohemia
+shall have the right to offer him the cup first, although, by reason
+of his royal dignity, he shall not be bound to do this unless
+he desires; the count palatine of the Rhine shall offer him food;
+and the duke of Saxony shall act as his marshal in the accustomed
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>XI. <b>1.</b> We decree also that no count, baron, noble, vassal,
+burggrave,<a name="FNanchor_562" id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a> knight, client, citizen, burgher, or other subject of
+the churches of Cologne, Mainz, or Trier, of whatever status,
+condition, or rank, shall be cited, haled, or summoned to any
+authority before any tribunal outside of the territories, boundaries,
+and limits of these churches and their dependencies, or
+before any judge, except the archbishop and their judges....
+We refuse to hear appeals based upon the authority of others
+<span class="sidebar">Judicial
+privileges of
+the electors
+confirmed and
+enlarged</span>
+over the subjects of these princes; if these princes
+are accused by their subjects of injustice, appeal
+shall lie to the imperial diet, and shall be
+heard there and nowhere else.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> We extend this right by the present law to the secular
+electoral princes, the count palatine of the Rhine; the duke of
+Saxony, and the margrave of Brandenburg, and to their heirs,
+successors, and subjects forever.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">416</a></span></p>
+
+<p>XII. <b>1.</b> It has been decided in the general diet held at Nürnberg<a name="FNanchor_563" id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a>
+with the electoral princes, ecclesiastical and secular, and
+other princes and magnates, by their advice and with their consent,
+that in the future, the electoral princes shall meet every
+<span class="sidebar">The electors to
+meet annually</span>
+year in some city of the Empire four weeks after
+Easter. This year they are to meet at that date
+in the imperial city of Metz.<a name="FNanchor_564" id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> On that occasion, and on every
+meeting thereafter, the place of assembling for the following
+year shall be fixed by us, with the advice and consent of the
+princes. This ordinance shall remain in force as long as it shall
+be pleasing to us and to the princes; and as long as it is in effect,
+we shall furnish the princes with safe-conduct for that assembly,
+going, staying, and returning.</p>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXV.<br />
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR</h3>
+
+<p>Our chief contemporary source of information on the history of the
+Hundred Years' War is Jean Froissart's <i>Chronicles of England, France,
+and the Adjoining Countries, from the Latter Part of the Reign of Edward II.
+to the Coronation of Henry IV.</i>,<a name="FNanchor_565" id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> and it is from this important work that
+all of the extracts (except texts of treaties) which are included in this
+chapter have been selected. Froissart was a French poet and historian,
+born at Beaumont, near Valenciennes in Hainault, in 1337, when the
+Hundred Years' War was just beginning. He lived until the early part
+of the fifteenth century, 1410 being one of the conjectural dates of his
+death. He was a man of keen mental faculties and had enjoyed the advantages
+of an unusually thorough education during boyhood. This
+native ability and training, together with his active public life and admirable
+opportunities for observation, constituted his special qualification
+for the writing of a history of his times. Froissart represents a type of
+mediæval chronicler which was quite rare, in that he was not a monk
+living in seclusion but a practical man of affairs, accustomed to travel
+and intercourse with leading men in all the important countries of western
+Europe. He lived for five years at the English court as clerk of the
+Queen's Chamber; many times he was sent by the French king on diplomatic
+missions to Scotland, Italy, and other countries; and he made
+several private trips to various parts of Europe for the sole purpose of
+acquiring information. Always and everywhere he was observant and
+quick to take advantage of opportunities to ascertain facts which he
+could use, and we are told that after it came to be generally known that he
+was preparing to write an extended history of his times not a few kings
+and princes took pains to send him details regarding events which they
+desired to have recorded. The writing of the <i>Chronicles</i> was a life work.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">418</a></span>
+When only twenty years of age Froissart submitted to Isabella, wife of
+King Edward III. of England, an account of the battle of Poitiers, in
+which the queen's son, the famous Black Prince, had won distinction in
+the previous year. Thereafter the larger history was published book by
+book, until by 1373 it was complete to date. Subsequently it was extended
+to the year 1400 (it had begun with the events of 1326), while
+the earlier portions were rewritten and considerably revised. And, in
+deed, when death came to the author he was still working at his arduous
+but congenial task. "As long as I live," he wrote upon one occasion,
+"by the grace of God I shall continue it; for the more I follow it and
+labor thereon, the more it pleases me. Even as a gentle knight or esquire
+who loves arms, while persevering and continuing develops himself
+therein, thus do I, laboring and striving with this matter, improve
+and delight myself."</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Chronicles</i> as they have come down to us are written in a lively
+and pleasing style. It need hardly be said that they are not wholly
+accurate; indeed, on the whole, they are quite inaccurate, measured even
+by mediæval standards. Froissart was obliged to rely for a large portion
+of his information upon older chronicles and especially upon conversations
+and interviews with people in various parts of Europe. Such
+sources are never wholly trustworthy and it must be admitted that our
+author was not as careful to sift error from truth as he should have
+been. His credulity betrayed him often into accepting what a little
+investigation would have shown to be false, and only very rarely did he
+make any attempt, as a modern historian would do, to increase and
+verify his knowledge by a study of documents. Still, the <i>Chronicles</i>
+constitute an invaluable history of the period they cover. The facts
+they record, the events they explain, the vivid descriptions they contain,
+and the side-lights they throw upon the life and manners of an
+interesting age unite to give them a place of peculiar importance among
+works of their kind. And, wholly aside from their historical value, they
+constitute one of the monuments of mediæval French literature.</p>
+
+<h4>73. An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The causes, general and specific, of the Hundred Years' War were
+numerous. The most important were: (1) The long-standing bad feeling
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span>
+between the French and English regarding the possession of Normandy
+and Guienne. England had lost the former to France and she had never
+ceased to hope for its recovery; on the other hand, the French were
+resolved upon the eventual conquest of the remaining English continental
+possession of Guienne and were constantly asserting themselves
+there in a fashion highly irritating to the English; (2) the assistance and
+general encouragement given the rebellious Scots by the French; (3)
+the pressure brought to bear upon the English crown by the popular
+party in Flanders to claim the French throne and to resort to war to
+obtain it. The Flemish wool trade was a very important item in England's
+economic prosperity and it was felt to be essential at all hazards
+to prevent the extension of French influence in Flanders, which would
+inevitably mean the checking, if not the ruin, of the commercial relations
+of the Flemish and the English; and (4) the claim to the throne of France
+which Edward III., king of England, set up and prepared to defend. It
+is this last occasion of war that Froissart describes in the passage below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Siméon Luce (ed.), <i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> [published
+for the Société de l'Histoire de France], Paris, 1869, Chap. I.
+Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's Chronicles</i> (London,
+1803), Vol. I., pp. 6-7.</p>
+
+<p>History tells us that Philip, king of France, surnamed the
+Fair,<a name="FNanchor_566" id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a> had three sons, besides his beautiful daughter Isabella,
+married to the king of England.<a name="FNanchor_567" id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> These three sons were very
+handsome. The eldest, Louis, king of Navarre, during the lifetime
+of his father, was called Louis Hutin; the second was named
+Philip the Great, or the Long; and the third, Charles. All these
+were kings of France, after their father Philip, by legitimate
+succession, one after the other, without having by marriage any
+male heirs.<a name="FNanchor_568" id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a> Yet on the death of the last king, Charles, the
+twelve peers and barons of France<a name="FNanchor_569" id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a> did not give the kingdom
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span>
+to Isabella, the sister, who was queen of England, because they
+said and maintained, and still insist, that the kingdom of
+<span class="sidebar">The succession
+to the French
+throne in 1328</span>
+France is so noble that it ought not to go to a
+woman; consequently neither to Isabella nor to
+her son, the king of England; for they held that
+the son of a woman cannot claim any right of succession where
+that woman has none herself.<a name="FNanchor_570" id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a> For these reasons the twelve
+peers and barons of France unanimously gave the kingdom of
+France to the lord Philip of Valois, nephew of King Philip,<a name="FNanchor_571" id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> and
+thus put aside the queen of England (who was sister to Charles,
+the late king of France) and her son. Thus, as it seemed to
+many people, the succession went out of the right line, which has
+been the occasion of the most destructive wars and devastations
+of countries, as well in France as elsewhere, as you will learn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">421</a></span>
+hereafter; the real object of this history being to relate the great
+enterprises and deeds of arms achieved in these wars, for from
+the time of good Charlemagne, king of France, never were such
+feats performed.</p>
+
+<h4>74. Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of France</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Due to causes which have been mentioned, the relations of England
+and France at the accession of Philip VI. in 1328 were so strained that
+only a slight fanning of the flames was necessary to bring on an open
+conflict. Edward III.'s persistent demand to be recognized as king of
+France sufficed to accomplish this result. The war did not come at once,
+for neither king felt himself ready for it; but it was inevitable and preparations
+for it were steadily pushed on both sides from 1328 until its formal
+declaration by Edward nine years later. These preparations were
+not merely military and naval but also diplomatic. The primary object
+of both sovereigns was to secure as many and as strong foreign alliances
+as possible. In pursuit of this policy Philip soon assured himself of the
+support of Louis de Nevers, count of Flanders, King John of Bohemia,
+Alphonso XI. of Castile, and a number of lesser princes of the north.
+Edward was even more successful. In Spain and the Scandinavian
+countries many local powers allied themselves with him; in the Low
+Countries, especially Flanders and Brabant, the people and the princes
+chose generally to identify themselves with his cause; and the climax
+came in July, 1337, when a treaty of alliance was concluded with the Emperor,
+Louis of Bavaria. War was begun in this same year, and in 1338
+Edward went himself to the continent to undertake a direct attack on
+France from Flanders as a base. The years 1338 and 1339 were consumed
+with ineffective operations against the walled cities of the French
+frontier, Philip steadily refusing to be drawn into an open battle such
+as Edward desired. The following year the English king resolved to
+declare himself sovereign of France. The circumstances attending this
+important step are detailed in the passage from Froissart given below.</p>
+
+<p>Heretofore Edward had merely protested that by reason of his being a
+grandson of Philip the Fair he should have been awarded the throne by
+the French barons in 1328; now, at the instigation of his German and
+Flemish allies, he flatly announces that he <i>is</i> of right the king and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span>
+that Philip VI. is to be deposed as an usurper. Of course this was a declaration
+which Edward could make good only by victory in the war upon
+which he had entered. But the claim thus set up rendered it inevitable
+that the war should be waged to the bitter end on both sides.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France
+edition), Chap. XXXI. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's
+Chronicles</i>, Vol. I., pp. 110-112.</p>
+
+<p>When King Edward had departed from Flanders and arrived
+at Brabant he set out straight for Brussels, whither he was attended
+by the duke of Gueldres, the duke of Juliers, the marquis
+of Blanckenburg, the earl of Mons, the lord John of Hainault, the
+<span class="sidebar">The conference
+at Brussels</span>
+lord of Fauquemont, and all the barons of the
+Empire who were allied to him, as they wished
+to consider what was next to be done in this war which they had
+begun. For greater expedition, they ordered a conference to be
+held in the city of Brussels, and invited James van Arteveld<a name="FNanchor_572" id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a> to
+attend it, who came thither in great array, and brought with
+him all the councils from the principal towns of Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>At this parliament the king of England was advised by his
+allies of the Empire to solicit the Flemings to give him their aid
+and assistance in this war, to challenge the king of France, and
+to follow King Edward wherever he should lead them, and in
+return he would assist them in the recovery of Lisle, Douay, and
+Bethune.<a name="FNanchor_573" id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> The Flemings heard this proposal with pleasure;
+but they requested of the king that they might consider it among
+themselves and in a short time they would give their answer.</p>
+
+<p>The king consented and soon after they made this reply:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span>
+"Beloved sire, you formerly made us a similar request; and we
+are willing to do everything in reason for you without prejudice
+to our honor and faith. But we are pledged by promise on oath,
+under a penalty of two millions of florins, to the apostolical
+<span class="sidebar">Proposition
+made by the
+Flemings to
+King Edward</span>
+chamber,<a name="FNanchor_574" id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> not to act offensively against the king
+of France in any way, whoever he may be, without
+forfeiting this sum, and incurring the sentence
+of excommunication. But if you will do what we will tell you,
+you will find a remedy, which is, that you take the arms of
+France, quarter them with those of England, and call yourself
+king of France. We will acknowledge your title as good, and
+we will demand of you quittance for the above sum, which you
+will grant us as king of France. Thus we shall be absolved and
+at liberty to go with you wherever it pleases you."</p>
+
+<p>The king summoned his council, for he was loath to take the
+title and arms of France, seeing that at present he had not conquered
+any part of that kingdom and that it was uncertain whether
+he ever should. On the other hand, he was unwilling to lose the
+aid and assistance of the Flemings, who could be of greater
+service to him than any others at that period. He consulted,
+therefore, with the lords of the Empire, the lord Robert d'Artois,<a name="FNanchor_575" id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a>
+and his most privy councilors, who, after having duly weighed
+the good and bad, advised him to make for answer to the Flemings,
+<span class="sidebar">The agreement
+concluded</span>
+that if they would bind themselves under
+their seals, to an agreement to aid him in carrying
+on the war, he would willingly comply with their conditions,
+and would swear to assist them in the recovery of Lisle, Douay,
+and Bethune. To this they willingly consented. A day was
+fixed for them to meet at Ghent,<a name="FNanchor_576" id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> where the king and the greater
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">424</a></span>
+part of the lords of the Empire, and in general the councils from
+the different towns in Flanders, assembled. The above-mentioned
+proposals and answers were then repeated, sworn to, and
+sealed; and the king of England bore the arms of France, quartering
+them with those of England. He also took the title of
+king of France from that day forward.</p>
+
+<h4>75. The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In the spring of 1340 Edward returned to England to secure money
+and supplies with which to prosecute the war. The French king thought
+he saw in this temporary withdrawal of his enemy an opportunity to
+strike him a deadly blow. A fleet of nearly two hundred vessels was
+gathered in the harbor of Sluys, on the Flemish coast, with a view to
+attacking the English king on his return to the continent and preventing
+him from again securing a foothold in Flanders. Edward, however,
+accepted the situation and made ready to fight his way back to the country
+of his allies. June 24, 1340, he boldly attacked the French at Sluys.
+The sharp conflict which ensued resulted in a brilliant victory for the
+English. Philip's fleet found itself shut up in the harbor and utterly
+unable to withstand the showers of arrows shot by the thousands of
+archers who crowded the English ships. The French navy was annihilated,
+England was relieved from the fear of invasion, and the whole
+French coast was laid open to attack.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France
+edition), Chap. XXXVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's
+Chronicles</i>, Vol. I., pp. 141-143.</p>
+
+<p>He [King Edward] and his whole navy sailed from the Thames
+the day before the eve of St. John the Baptist, 1340,<a name="FNanchor_577" id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> and made
+straight for Sluys.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Hugh Quiriel, Sir Peter Bahucet, and Barbenoir, were at
+that time lying between Blankenburg and Sluys with upwards
+of one hundred and twenty large vessels, without counting
+others. These were manned with about forty thousand men,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">425</a></span>
+Genoese and Picards, including mariners. By the orders of the
+king of France, they were there at anchor, awaiting the return
+of the king of England, to dispute his passage.</p>
+
+<p>When the king's fleet had almost reached Sluys, they saw so
+many masts standing before it that they looked like a wood.
+The king asked the commander of his ship what they could be.
+The latter replied that he imagined they must be that armament
+of Normans which the king of France kept at sea, and which
+had so frequently done him much damage, had burned his good
+<span class="sidebar">Edward determines
+to fight
+at Sluys</span>
+town of Southampton and taken his large ship
+the <i>Christopher</i>. The king replied, "I have for
+a long time desired to meet them, and now,
+please God and St. George, we will fight with them; for, in
+truth, they have done me so much mischief that I will be revenged
+on them if it be possible."</p>
+
+<p>The king then drew up all his vessels, placing the strongest
+in front, and his archers on the wings. Between every two
+vessels with archers there was one of men-at-arms. He stationed
+some detached vessels as a reserve, full of archers, to assist and
+help such as might be damaged. There were in this fleet a great
+many ladies from England, countesses, baronesses, and knights'
+and gentlemen's wives, who were going to attend on the queen
+at Ghent.<a name="FNanchor_578" id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a> These the king had guarded most carefully by three
+hundred men-at-arms and five hundred archers.</p>
+
+<p>When the king of England and his marshals had properly
+divided the fleet, they hoisted their sails to have the wind on
+their quarter, as the sun shone full in their faces (which they
+considered might be of disadvantage to them) and stretched out
+a little, so that at last they got the wind as they wished. The
+Normans, who saw them tack, could not help wondering why they
+<span class="sidebar">The French
+make ready</span>
+did so, and remarked that they took good care to
+turn about because they were afraid of meddling
+with them. They perceived, however, by his banner, that the king
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">426</a></span>
+was on board, which gave them great joy, as they were eager to
+fight with him. So they put their vessels in proper order, for
+they were expert and gallant men on the seas. They filled the
+<i>Christopher</i>, the large ship which they had taken the year before
+from the English, with trumpets and other warlike instruments,
+and ordered her to fall upon the English.</p>
+
+<p>The battle then began very fiercely. Archers and cross-bowmen
+shot with all their might at each other, and the men-at-arms
+engaged hand to hand. In order to be more successful,
+they had large grapnels and iron hooks with chains, which they
+flung from ship to ship to moor them to each other. There were
+many valiant deeds performed, many prisoners made, and many
+rescues. The <i>Christopher</i>, which led the van, was recaptured
+<span class="sidebar">The battle
+rages</span>
+by the English, and all in her taken or killed.
+There were then great shouts and cries, and the
+English manned her again with archers, and sent her to fight
+against the Genoese.</p>
+
+<p>This battle was very murderous and horrible. Combats at
+sea are more destructive and obstinate than upon land, for it is
+not possible to retreat or flee&mdash;every one must abide his fortune,
+and exert his prowess and valor. Sir Hugh Quiriel and his companions
+were bold and determined men; they had done much
+mischief to the English at sea and destroyed many of their ships.
+The combat, therefore, lasted from early in the morning until
+noon,<a name="FNanchor_579" id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a> and the English were hard pressed, for their enemies were
+four to one, and the greater part men who had been used to the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>The king, who was in the flower of his youth, showed himself
+on that day a gallant knight, as did the earls of Derby, Pembroke,
+Hereford, Huntingdon, Northampton, and Gloucester;
+the lord Reginald Cobham, lord Felton, lord Bradestan, sir
+Richard Stafford, the lord Percy, sir Walter Manny, sir Henry
+de Flanders, sir John Beauchamp, sir John Chandos, the lord
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">427</a></span>
+Delaware, Lucie lord Malton, and the lord Robert d'Artois,
+now called earl of Richmond. I cannot remember the names of
+<span class="sidebar">The English
+triumph</span>
+all those who behaved so valiantly in the combat.
+But they did so well that, with some assistance
+from Bruges and those parts of the country, the French were
+completely defeated, and all the Normans and the others were
+killed or drowned, so that not one of them escaped.<a name="FNanchor_580" id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a></p>
+
+<p>After the king had gained this victory, which was on the eve
+of St. John's day,<a name="FNanchor_581" id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a> he remained all that night on board his
+ship before Sluys, and there were great noises with trumpets and
+all kinds of other instruments.</p>
+
+<h4>76. The Battle of Crécy (1346)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>In July, 1346, Edward III. landed on the northwest coast of Normandy
+with a splendid army of English, Irish, and Welsh, including ten
+thousand men skilled in the use of the long bow. He advanced eastward,
+plundering and devastating as he went, probably with the ultimate intention
+of besieging Calais. Finding the passage of the Seine impossible
+at Rouen, he ascended the river until he came into the vicinity of Paris,
+only to learn that Philip with an army twice the size of that of the English
+had taken up a position on the Seine to turn back the invasion.
+The French king allowed himself to be outwitted, however, and Edward
+got out of the trap into which he had fallen by marching northward to
+the village of Crécy in Ponthieu. With an army that had grown to outnumber
+the English three to one Philip advanced in the path of the
+enemy, first to Abbeville on the Somme, and later to Crécy, slightly to
+the east of which Edward had taken his stand for battle. The English
+arrived at Crécy about noon on Friday, August 25. The French were
+nearly a day behind, having spent the night at Abbeville and set out
+thence over the roads to Crécy before sunrise Saturday morning. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">428</a></span>
+army of the English numbered probably about 14,000, besides an uncertain
+reserve of Welsh and Irish troops; that of the French numbered
+about 70,000, including 15,000 Genoese cross-bowmen. The course of
+the battle is well described by Froissart in the passage below. Doubtless
+the account is not accurate in every particular, yet it must be correct
+in the main and it shows very vividly the character of French and English
+warfare in this period. Despite the superior numbers of the French,
+the English had small difficulty in winning a decisive victory. This was
+due to several things. In the first place, the French army was a typical
+feudal levy and as such was sadly lacking in discipline and order, while
+the English troops were under perfect control. In the next place, the
+use of the long-bow gave the English infantry a great advantage over
+the French knights, and even over the Genoese mercenaries, who could
+shoot just once while an English long-bowman was shooting twelve times.
+In the third place, Philip's troops were exhausted before entering the
+battle and it was a grievous error on the part of the king to allow the
+conflict to begin before his men had an opportunity for rest.<a name="FNanchor_582" id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> The greatest
+significance of the English victory lay in the blow it struck at feudalism,
+and especially the feudal type of warfare. It showed very clearly
+that the armored knight was no match for the common foot-soldier, armed
+simply with his long-bow, and that feudal methods and ideals had come
+to be inconsistent with success in war.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France
+edition), Chap. LX. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's
+Chronicles</i>, Vol. I., pp. 320-329 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The king of England, as I have mentioned before, encamped
+this Friday in the plain,<a name="FNanchor_583" id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a> for he found the country abounding
+in provisions; but if they should have failed, he had an abundance
+in the carriages which attended him. The army set about furbishing
+and repairing their armor; and the king gave a supper that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">429</a></span>
+evening to the earls and barons of his army, where they made
+good cheer. On their taking leave, the king remained alone with
+the lord of his bed-chamber. He retired into his oratory and,
+falling on his knees before the altar, prayed to God, that if he
+should fight his enemies on the morrow he might come off with
+honor. About midnight he went to his bed and, rising early
+the next day, he and the Prince of Wales<a name="FNanchor_584" id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a> heard Mass and communicated.
+The greater part of his army did the same, confessed,
+and made proper preparations.</p>
+
+<p>After Mass the king ordered his men to arm themselves and
+assemble on the ground he had before fixed on. He had enclosed
+<span class="sidebar">The English
+prepare for
+battle</span>
+a large park near a wood, on the rear of
+his army, in which he placed all his baggage-wagons
+and horses; and this park had but one
+entrance. His men-at-arms and archers remained on foot.
+The king afterwards ordered, through his constable and his
+two marshals, that the army should be divided into three
+battalions....</p>
+
+<p>The king then mounted a small palfrey, having a white wand
+in his hand and, attended by his two marshals on each side of
+him, he rode through all the ranks, encouraging and entreating
+the army, that they should guard his honor. He spoke this so
+gently, and with such a cheerful countenance, that all who had
+been dejected were immediately comforted by seeing and hearing
+him.</p>
+
+<p>When he had thus visited all the battalions, it was near ten
+o'clock. He retired to his own division and ordered them all to
+eat heartily afterwards and drink a glass. They ate and drank at
+their ease; and, having packed up pots, barrels, etc., in the carts,
+they returned to their battalions, according to the marshals'
+orders, and seated themselves on the ground, placing their
+helmets and bows before them, that they might be the fresher
+when their enemies should arrive.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">430</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That same Saturday, the king of France arose betimes and
+heard Mass in the monastery of St. Peter's in Abbeville,<a name="FNanchor_585" id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> where
+he was lodged. Having ordered his army to do the same, he
+left that town after sunrise. When he had marched about two
+leagues from Abbeville and was approaching the enemy, he was
+advised to form his army in order of battle, and to let those on
+foot march forward, that they might not be trampled on by the
+horses. The king, upon this, sent off four knights&mdash;the lord
+<span class="sidebar">The French
+advance from
+Abbeville to
+Crécy</span>
+Moyne of Bastleberg, the lord of Noyers, the
+lord of Beaujeu, and the lord of Aubigny&mdash;who
+rode so near to the English that they could clearly
+distinguish their position. The English plainly perceived that
+they were come to reconnoitre. However, they took no notice
+of it, but suffered them to return unmolested. When the king
+of France saw them coming back, he halted his army, and the
+knights, pushing through the crowds, came near the king, who
+said to them, "My lords, what news?" They looked at each
+other, without opening their mouths; for no one chose to speak
+first. At last the king addressed himself to the lord Moyne,
+who was attached to the king of Bohemia, and had performed
+very many gallant deeds, so that he was esteemed one of the
+most valiant knights in Christendom. The lord Moyne said,
+"Sir, I will speak, since it pleases you to order me, but with the
+assistance of my companions. We have advanced far enough
+to reconnoitre your enemies. Know, then, that they are drawn
+up in three battalions and are awaiting you. I would advise,
+for my part (submitting, however, to better counsel), that you
+halt your army here and quarter them for the night; for before
+the rear shall come up and the army be properly drawn out, it
+<span class="sidebar">Philip's
+knights advise
+delay</span>
+will be very late. Your men will be tired and in
+disorder, while they will find your enemies fresh
+and properly arrayed. On the morrow, you may
+draw up your army more at your ease and may reconnoitre at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">431</a></span>
+leisure on what part it will be most advantageous to begin the
+attack; for, be assured, they will wait for you."</p>
+
+<p>The king commanded that it should be so done; and the two
+marshals rode, one towards the front, and the other to the rear,
+crying out, "Halt banners, in the name of God and St. Denis."
+Those that were in the front halted; but those behind said they
+would not halt until they were as far forward as the front.
+When the front perceived the rear pushing on, they pushed forward;
+and neither the king nor the marshals could stop them,
+<span class="sidebar">Confusion in
+the French
+ranks</span>
+but they marched on without any order until
+they came in sight of their enemies.<a name="FNanchor_586" id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a> As soon as
+the foremost rank saw them, they fell back at
+once in great disorder, which alarmed those in the rear, who
+thought they had been fighting. There was then space and
+room enough for them to have passed forward, had they been
+willing to do so. Some did so, but others remained behind.</p>
+
+<p>All the roads between Abbeville and Crécy were covered with
+common people, who, when they had come within three leagues
+of their enemies, drew their swords, crying out, "Kill, kill;" and
+with them were many great lords who were eager to make show
+of their courage. There is no man, unless he had been present,
+who can imagine, or describe truly, the confusion of that day;
+especially the bad management and disorder of the French,
+whose troops were beyond number.</p>
+
+<p>The English, who were drawn up in three divisions and seated
+on the ground, on seeing their enemies advance, arose boldly
+<span class="sidebar">The English
+prepare for
+battle</span>
+and fell into their ranks. That of the prince<a name="FNanchor_587" id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a>
+was the first to do so, whose archers were formed
+in the manner of a portcullis, or harrow, and the
+men-at-arms in the rear. The earls of Northampton and
+Arundel, who commanded the second division, had posted themselves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">432</a></span>
+in good order on his wing to assist and succor the prince,
+if necessary.</p>
+
+<p>You must know that these kings, dukes, earls, barons, and
+lords of France did not advance in any regular order, but one
+after the other, or in any way most pleasing to themselves. As
+soon as the king of France came in sight of the English his blood
+began to boil, and he cried out to his marshals, "Order the
+Genoese forward, and begin the battle, in the name of God and
+St. Denis."</p>
+
+<p>There were about fifteen thousand Genoese cross-bowmen; but
+they were quite fatigued, having marched on foot that day six
+leagues, completely armed, and with their cross-bows. They
+told the constable that they were not in a fit condition to do any
+great things that day in battle. The earl of Alençon, hearing this,
+said, "This is what one gets by employing such scoundrels, who
+fail when there is any need for them."</p>
+
+<p>During this time a heavy rain fell, accompanied by thunder
+and a very terrible eclipse of the sun; and before this rain a
+great flight of crows hovered in the air over all those battalions,
+making a loud noise. Shortly afterwards it cleared up and the
+sun shone very brightly; but the Frenchmen had it in their faces,
+and the English at their backs.</p>
+
+<p>When the Genoese were somewhat in order they approached
+the English and set up a loud shout in order to frighten them;
+but the latter remained quite still and did not seem to hear it.
+They then set up a second shout and advanced a little forward;
+but the English did not move. They hooted a third time, advancing
+with their cross-bows presented, and began to shoot.
+The English archers then advanced one step forward and shot
+their arrows with such force and quickness that it seemed as
+if it snowed.</p>
+
+<p>When the Genoese felt these arrows, which pierced their arms,
+heads, and through their armor, some of them cut the strings
+of their cross-bows, others flung them on the ground, and all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">433</a></span>
+turned about and retreated, quite discomfited. The French had
+a large body of men-at-arms on horseback, richly dressed, to
+<span class="sidebar">The Genoese
+mercenaries
+repulsed</span>
+support the Genoese. The king of France, seeing
+them thus fall back, cried out, "Kill me those
+scoundrels; for they stop up our road, without
+any reason." You would then have seen the above-mentioned
+men-at-arms lay about them, killing all that they could of
+these runaways.</p>
+
+<p>The English continued shooting as vigorously and quickly as
+before. Some of their arrows fell among the horsemen, who
+were sumptuously equipped and, killing and wounding many,
+made them caper and fall among the Genoese, so that they were
+in such confusion they could never rally again. In the English
+army there were some Cornish and Welshmen on foot who had
+<span class="sidebar">Slaughter by
+the Cornish
+and Welsh</span>
+armed themselves with large knives. These, advancing
+through the ranks of the men-at-arms
+and archers, who made way for them, came upon
+the French when they were in this danger and, falling upon earls,
+barons, knights and squires, slew many, at which the king of
+England was afterwards much exasperated.</p>
+
+<p>The valiant king of Bohemia was slain there. He was called
+Charles of Luxemburg, for he was the son of the gallant king
+and emperor, Henry of Luxemburg.<a name="FNanchor_588" id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> Having heard the order
+of the battle, he inquired where his son, the lord Charles, was.
+His attendants answered that they did not know, but believed
+that he was fighting. The king said to them: "Sirs, you are
+all my people, my friends and brethren at arms this day; therefore,
+as I am blind, I request of you to lead me so far into the
+engagement that I may strike one stroke with my sword." The
+<span class="sidebar">Death of the
+king of Bohemia</span>
+knights replied that they would lead him forward
+immediately; and, in order that they might
+not lose him in the crowd, they fastened the reins
+of all their horses together, and put the king at their head,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">434</a></span>
+that he might gratify his wish, and advanced towards the enemy.
+The king rode in among the enemy, and made good use of his
+sword; for he and his companions fought most gallantly. They
+advanced so far that they were all slain; and on the morrow they
+were found on the ground, with their horses all tied together.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the day, some French, Germans, and Savoyards had
+broken through the archers of the prince's battalion, and had
+engaged with the men-at-arms, upon which the second battalion
+came to his aid; and it was time, for otherwise he would
+have been hard pressed. The first division, seeing the danger
+they were in, sent a knight<a name="FNanchor_589" id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a> in great haste to the king of England,
+who was posted upon an eminence, near a windmill. On
+the knight's arrival, he said, "Sir, the earl of Warwick, the
+lord Stafford, the lord Reginald Cobham, and the others who are
+about your son are vigorously attacked by the French; and they
+entreat that you come to their assistance with your battalion
+for, if the number of the French should increase, they fear he
+will have too much to do."</p>
+
+<p>The king replied: "Is my son dead, unhorsed, or so badly
+wounded that he cannot support himself?" "Nothing of the
+sort, thank God," rejoined the knight; "but he is in so hot an
+engagement that he has great need of your help." The king
+<span class="sidebar">Edward gives
+the Black
+Prince a chance
+to win his spurs</span>
+answered, "Now, Sir Thomas, return to those
+who sent you and tell them from me not to send
+again for me this day, or expect that I shall come,
+let what will happen, as long as my son has life; and say that I
+command them to let the boy win his spurs; for I am determined,
+if it please God, that all the glory and honor of this day
+shall be given to him, and to those into whose care I have entrusted
+him." The knight returned to his lords and related the
+king's answer, which greatly encouraged them and made them
+regret that they had ever sent such a message.</p>
+
+<p>Late after vespers, the king of France had not more about him
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">435</a></span>
+than sixty men, every one included. Sir John of Hainault, who
+was of the number, had once remounted the king; for the latter's
+horse had been killed under him by an arrow. He said to the king,
+"Sir, retreat while you have an opportunity, and do not expose
+<span class="sidebar">King Philip
+abandons the
+field of battle</span>
+yourself so needlessly. If you have lost this
+battle, another time you will be the conqueror."
+After he had said this, he took the bridle of the
+king's horse and led him off by force; for he had before entreated
+him to retire.</p>
+
+<p>The king rode on until he came to the castle of La Broyes,
+where he found the gates shut, for it was very dark. The king
+ordered the governor of it to be summoned. He came upon the
+battlements and asked who it was that called at such an hour.
+The king answered, "Open, open, governor; it is the fortune of
+France." The governor, hearing the king's voice, immediately
+descended, opened the gate, and let down the bridge. The king
+and his company entered the castle; but he had with him only
+five barons&mdash;Sir John of Hainault, the lord Charles of Montmorency,
+the lord of Beaujeu, the lord of Aubigny, and the lord
+of Montfort. The king would not bury himself in such a place as
+that, but, having taken some refreshments, set out again with
+his attendants about midnight, and rode on, under the direction
+of guides who were well acquainted with the country, until,
+about daybreak, he came to Amiens, where he halted.</p>
+
+<p>This Saturday the English never quitted their ranks in pursuit
+of any one, but remained on the field, guarding their position
+<span class="sidebar">The English
+after the
+battle</span>
+and defending themselves against all who
+attacked them. The battle was ended at the hour
+of vespers. When, on this Saturday night, the
+English heard no more hooting or shouting, nor any more crying
+out to particular lords, or their banners, they looked upon the
+field as their own and their enemies as beaten.</p>
+
+<p>They made great fires and lighted torches because of the
+darkness of the night. King Edward then came down from his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">436</a></span>
+post, who all that day had not put on his helmet, and, with his
+whole battalion, advanced to the Prince of Wales, whom he
+embraced in his arms and kissed, and said, "Sweet son, God
+give you good preference. You are my son, for most loyally have
+you acquitted yourself this day. You are worthy to be a
+sovereign." The prince bowed down very low and humbled
+himself, giving all honor to the king his father.</p>
+
+<p>The English, during the night, made frequent thanksgivings
+to the Lord for the happy outcome of the day, and without
+rioting; for the king had forbidden all riot or noise.</p>
+
+<h4>77. The Sack of Limoges (1370)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>As a single illustration of the devastation wrought by the Hundred
+Years' War, and of the barbarity of the commanders and troops engaged
+in it, Froissart's well-known description of the sack of Limoges in 1370
+by the army of the Black Prince is of no small interest. In some respects,
+of course, circumstances in connection with this episode were exceptional,
+and we are not to imagine that such heartless and indiscriminate massacres
+were common. Yet the evidence which has survived all goes to
+show that the long course of the war was filled with cruelty and destruction
+in a measure almost inconceivable among civilized peoples in more
+modern times.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;<i>Chroniques de Jean Froissart</i> (Société de l'Histoire de France
+edition), Chap. XCVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes, <i>Froissart's
+Chronicles</i>, Vol. II., pp. 61-68 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When word was brought to the prince that the city of Limoges<a name="FNanchor_590" id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a>
+had become French, that the bishop, who had been his companion
+and one in whom he had formerly placed great confidence,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">437</a></span>
+was a party to all the treaties and had greatly aided and
+assisted in the surrender, he was in a violent passion and held
+<span class="sidebar">The Black
+Prince resolves
+to retake
+Limoges</span>
+the bishop and all other churchmen in very low
+estimation, in whom formerly he had put great
+trust. He swore by the soul of his father, which
+he had never perjured, that he would have it back again, that
+he would not attend to anything before he had done this, and
+that he would make the inhabitants pay dearly for their treachery....<a name="FNanchor_591" id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a></p>
+
+<p>All these men-at-arms were drawn out in battle-array and took
+the field, when the whole country began to tremble for the
+consequences. At that time the Prince of Wales was not able
+to mount his horse, but was, for his greater ease, carried in a
+litter. They followed the road to the Limousin,<a name="FNanchor_592" id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a> in order to get
+to Limoges, where in due time they arrived and encamped all
+around it. The prince swore he would never leave the place
+until he had regained it.</p>
+
+<p>The bishop of the place and the inhabitants found that they
+had acted wickedly and had greatly incensed the prince, for which
+they were very repentant, but that was now of no avail, as they
+were not the masters of the town.<a name="FNanchor_593" id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> When the prince and his
+marshals had well considered the strength and force of Limoges,
+and knew the number of people that were in it, they agreed that
+<span class="sidebar">The town to
+be undermined</span>
+they could never take it by assault, but said they
+would attempt it by another manner. The prince
+was always accustomed to carry with him on his expeditions a
+large body of miners. These were immediately set to work and
+made great progress. The knights who were in the town soon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span>
+perceived that they were undermining them, and on that account
+began to countermine to prevent the effect....</p>
+
+<p>The Prince of Wales remained about a month, and not more,
+before the city of Limoges. He would not allow any assaults or
+skirmishing, but kept his miners steadily at work. The knights
+in the town perceived what they were about and made countermines
+to destroy them, but they failed in their attempt. When
+the miners of the prince (who, as they found themselves countermined,
+kept changing the line of direction of their own mine)
+had finished their business, they came to the prince and said,
+"My lord, we are ready, and will throw down, whenever it pleases
+you, a very large part of the wall into the ditch, through the
+breach of which you may enter the town at your ease and without
+danger."</p>
+
+<p>This news was very agreeable to the prince, who replied: "I
+desire, then, that you prove your words to-morrow morning at
+six o'clock." The miners set fire to the combustibles in the
+mine, and on the morrow morning, as they had foretold the
+<span class="sidebar">The English
+assault</span>
+prince, they flung down a great piece of wall which
+filled the ditches. The English saw this with
+pleasure, for they were armed and prepared to enter the town.
+Those on foot did so and ran to the gate, which they destroyed,
+as well as the barriers, for there were no other defenses; and all
+this was done so suddenly that the inhabitants had not time to
+prevent it.</p>
+
+<p>The prince, the duke of Lancaster, the earls of Cambridge and
+of Pembroke, sir Guiscard d'Angle and the others, with their
+men, rushed into the town. You would then have seen pillagers,
+active to do mischief, running through the town, slaying men,
+women, and children, according to their orders. It was a most
+melancholy business; for all ranks, ages, and sexes cast themselves
+on their knees before the prince, begging for mercy; but
+he was so inflamed with passion and revenge that he listened
+to none. But all were put to the sword, wherever they could
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">439</a></span>
+be found, even those who were not guilty. For I know not
+<span class="sidebar">Barbarity of
+the sack</span>
+why the poor were not spared, who could not have had any
+part in the treason; but they suffered for it, and
+indeed more than those who had been the leaders
+of the treachery.</p>
+
+<p>There was not that day in the city of Limoges any heart so
+hardened, or that had any sense of religion, that did not deeply
+bewail the unfortunate events passing before men's eyes; for
+upwards of three thousand men, women, and children were put to
+death that day. God have mercy on their souls, for they were
+truly martyrs.... The entire town was pillaged, burned,
+and totally destroyed. The English then departed, carrying
+with them their booty and prisoners.</p>
+
+<h4>78. The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The most important documents in the diplomatic history of the Hundred
+Years' War are the texts of the treaty of London (1359), the treaty
+of Bretigny (1360), the truce of Paris (1396), the treaty of Troyes (1420),
+the treaty of Arras (1435), and the truce of Tours (1444). Brief extracts
+from two of these are given below. The treaty of Bretigny was negotiated
+soon after the refusal of the French to ratify the treaty of London.
+In November, 1359, King Edward III., with his son, Edward, the Black
+Prince, and the duke of Lancaster, crossed the Channel, marched on
+Rheims, and threatened Paris. Negotiations for a new peace were actively
+opened in April, 1360, after the English had established themselves
+at Montlhéri, south from Paris. The French king, John II., who had
+been taken prisoner at Poitiers (1356), gave full powers of negotiation
+to his son Charles, duke of Normandy and regent of the kingdom. For
+some time no definite conclusions were reached, owing chiefly to Edward's
+unwillingness to renounce his claim to the French throne. Late
+in April the negotiations were transferred to Chartres, subsequently to
+Bretigny. Finally, on the eighth of May, representatives of the two parties
+signed the so-called treaty of Bretigny. Although the instrument
+was promptly ratified by the French regent and by the Black Prince
+(and, if we may believe Froissart, by the two kings themselves), it was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">440</a></span>
+afterwards revised and accepted in a somewhat different form by the
+monarchs and their following assembled at Calais (October 24, 1360).
+The most important respect in which the second document differed from
+the first was the omission of Article 12 of the first treaty, in which Edward
+renounced his claim to the throne of France and the sovereignty of
+Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Brittany, and Flanders; nevertheless
+Edward, at Calais, made this renunciation in a separate convention,
+which for all practical purposes was regarded as a part of the treaty.
+The passages printed below are taken from the Calais text. Most of the
+thirty-nine articles composing the document are devoted to mere details.
+The war was renewed after a few years, and within two decades
+the English had lost all the territory guaranteed to them in 1360, except
+a few coast towns.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of Troyes (1420) belongs to one of the most stormy periods
+in all French history. The first two decades of the fifteenth century
+were marked by a cessation of the war with England (until its renewal
+in 1415), but also unfortunately by the outbreak of a desperate civil
+struggle between two great factions of the French people, the Burgundians
+and the Armagnacs. The Burgundians, led by Philip the Bold
+and John the Fearless (successive dukes of Burgundy), stood for a policy
+of friendship with England, while the Armagnacs, comprising the adherents
+of Charles, duke of Orleans, whose wife was a daughter of the
+count of Armagnac, advocated the continuation of the war with the
+English; though, in reality, the forces which kept the two factions apart
+were jealousy and ambition rather than any mere question of foreign
+relations. The way was prepared for a temporary Burgundian triumph
+by the notable victory of the English at Agincourt in 1415 and by the
+assassination of John the Fearless at Paris in 1419, which made peace
+impossible and drove the Burgundians openly into the arms of the English.
+Philip the Good, the new duke of Burgundy, became the avowed
+ally of the English king Henry V., who since 1417 had been slowly but
+surely conquering Normandy and now had the larger portion of it in
+his possession. Philip recognized Henry as the true heir to the French
+throne and in 1419 concluded with him two distinct treaties on that
+basis. Charles VI., the reigning king of France, was mentally unbalanced
+and the queen, who bitterly hated the Armagnacs (with whom her son,
+the Dauphin Charles, was actively identified), was easily persuaded by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">441</a></span>
+Duke Philip to acquiesce in a treaty by which the succession should be
+vested in the English king upon the death of Charles VI. The result
+was the treaty of Troyes, signed May 21, 1420. According to agreements
+already entered into by Philip and Henry, the latter was to marry
+Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. (the marriage was not mentioned in
+the treaty of Troyes, but it was clearly assumed), and he was to act as
+regent of France until Charles VI.'s death and then become king in his
+own name. Most of the thirty-one articles of the treaty were taken up
+with a definition of Henry's position and obligations as regent and prospective
+sovereign of France.</p>
+
+<p>In due time the marriage of Henry and Catherine took place and
+Henry assumed the regency, though the Armagnacs, led by the Dauphin,
+refused absolutely to accept the settlement. War broke out, in the
+course of which (in 1422) Henry V. died and was succeeded by his infant
+son, Henry VI. In the same year Charles VI. also died, which
+meant that the young Henry would become king of France. With such
+a prospect the future of the country looked dark. Nevertheless, the
+death of Charles VI. and of Henry V. came in reality as a double blessing.
+Henry V. might long have kept the French in subjection and his
+position as Charles VI.'s son-in-law gave him some real claim to rule in
+France. But with the field cleared, as it was in 1422, opportunity was
+given for the Dauphin Charles (Charles VII.) to retrieve the fallen fortunes
+of his country&mdash;a task which, with more or less energy and skill,
+he managed in the long run to accomplish.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Sources&mdash;(a) Text in Eugène Cosneau, <i>Les Grands Traités de la Guerre de
+Cent Ans</i> ["The Great Treaties of the Hundred Years' War"],
+Paris, 1889, pp. 39-68 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="source_add">(b) Text in Cosneau, <i>ibid.</i> pp. 102-115 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(a)</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> The king of England shall hold for himself and his heirs,
+for all time to come, in addition to that which he holds in Guienne
+<span class="sidebar">Territories
+conceded to
+the English
+by the treaty
+of Bretigny</span>
+and Gascony, all the possessions which are
+enumerated below, to be held in the same manner
+that the king of France and his sons, or any
+of their ancestors, have held them....<a name="FNanchor_594" id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">442</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> And likewise the said king and his eldest son<a name="FNanchor_595" id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a> shall give
+order, by their letters patent to all archbishops and other prelates
+of the holy Church, and also to counts, viscounts, barons, nobles,
+citizens, and others of the cities, lands, countries, islands, and
+places before mentioned, that they shall be obedient to the king
+of England and to his heirs and at their ready command, in the
+same manner in which they have been obedient to the kings and
+to the crown of France. And by the same letters they shall
+liberate and absolve them from all homage, pledges, oaths, obligations,
+subjections, and promises made by any of them to the
+kings and to the crown of France in any manner.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> It is agreed that the king of France shall pay to the king
+of England three million gold crowns, of which two are worth
+an obol of English money.<a name="FNanchor_596" id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> It is agreed that honest alliances, friendships, and confederations
+shall be formed by the two kings of France and
+<span class="sidebar">Provision
+regarding
+alliances</span>
+England and their kingdoms, not repugnant to
+the honor or the conscience of one king or the
+other. No alliances which they have, on this side
+or that, with any person of Scotland or Flanders, or any other
+country, shall be allowed to stand in the way.<a name="FNanchor_597" id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center">(b)</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> After our death,<a name="FNanchor_598" id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> and from that time forward, the crown
+<span class="sidebar">The Treaty of
+Troyes fixes
+the succession
+upon Henry V</span>
+and kingdom of France, with all their rights and
+appurtenances, shall be vested permanently in our
+son [son-in-law], King Henry, and his heirs.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> ... The power and authority to govern and to control
+the public affairs of the said kingdom shall, during our life-time,
+be vested in our son, King Henry, with the advice of the nobles
+and the wise men who are obedient to us, and who have consideration
+for the advancement and honor of the said kingdom....</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> It is agreed that during our life-time we shall designate
+our son, King Henry, in the French language in this fashion, <i>Notre</i>
+<span class="sidebar">Henry's
+title</span>
+<i>très cher fils Henri, roi d'Angleterre, héritier de
+France</i>; and in the Latin language in this manner,
+<i>Noster præcarissimus filius Henricus, rex Angliæ, heres Franciæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> ... [It is agreed] that the two kingdoms shall be
+governed from the time that our said son, or any of his heirs,
+shall assume the crown, not divided between different kings at
+<span class="sidebar">Union of
+France and
+England to be
+through the
+crown only</span>
+the same time, but under one person, who shall
+be king and sovereign lord of both kingdoms,
+observing all pledges and all other things, to each
+kingdom its rights, liberties or customs, usages and
+laws, not submitting in any manner one kingdom to the other.<a name="FNanchor_599" id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>29.</b> In consideration of the frightful and astounding crimes
+and misdeeds committed against the kingdom of France by
+Charles, the said Dauphin, it is agreed that we, our son Henry,
+and also our very dear son Philip, duke of Burgundy, will never
+treat for peace or amity with the said Charles.<a name="FNanchor_600" id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">444</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXVI.<br />
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE</h3>
+
+<p>The question as to when the Middle Ages came to an end cannot be
+answered with a specific date, or even with a particular century. The
+transition from the mediæval world to the modern was gradual and was
+accomplished at a much earlier period in some lines than in others.
+Roughly speaking, the change fell within the two centuries and a half
+from 1300 to 1550. This transitional epoch is commonly designated
+the Age of the Renaissance, though if the term is taken in its most proper
+sense as denoting the flowering of an old into a new culture it scarcely
+does justice to the period, for political and religious developments in
+these centuries were not less fundamental than the revival and fresh
+stimulus of culture. But in the earlier portion of the period, particularly
+the fourteenth century, the intellectual awakening was the most obvious
+feature of the movement and, for the time being, the most important.</p>
+
+<p>The renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was not the
+first that Europe had known. There had been a notable revival of learning
+in the time of Charlemagne&mdash;the so-called Carolingian renaissance;
+another at the end of the tenth century, in the time of the Emperor
+Otto III. and Pope Sylvester II.; and a third in the twelfth century,
+with its center in northern France. The first two, however, had proved
+quite transitory, and even the third and most promising had dried up
+in the fruitless philosophy of the scholastics.</p>
+
+<p>Before there could be a vital and permanent intellectual revival it was
+indispensable that the mediæval attitude of mind undergo a fundamental
+change. This attitude may be summed up in the one phrase,
+the absolute dominance of "authority"&mdash;the authority, primarily, of
+the Church, supplemented by the writings of a few ancients like Aristotle.
+The scholars of the earlier Middle Ages busied themselves, not with
+research and investigation whereby to increase knowledge, but rather
+with commenting on the Scriptures, the writings of the Church fathers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">445</a></span>
+and Aristotle, and drawing conclusions and inferences by reasoning from
+these accepted authorities. There was no disposition to question what
+was found in the books, or to supplement it with fresh information. Only
+after about 1300 did human interests become sufficiently broadened to
+make men no longer altogether content with the mere process of threshing
+over the old straw. Gradually there began to appear scholars who
+suggested the idea, novel for the day, that the books did not contain all
+that was worth knowing, and also that perchance some things that had
+long gone unquestioned just because they were in the books were not
+true after all. In other words, they proposed to investigate things for
+themselves and to apply the tests of observation and impartial reason.</p>
+
+<p>The most influential factor in producing this change of attitude was
+the revival of classical literature and learning. The Latin classics, and
+even some of the Greek, had not been unknown in the earlier Middle
+Ages, but they had not been read widely, and when read at all they had
+been valued principally as models of rhetoric rather than as a living literature
+to be enjoyed for the ideas that were contained in it and the
+forms in which they were expressed. These ideas were, of course, generally
+pagan, and that in itself was enough to cause the Church to look
+askance at the use of classical writings, except for grammatical or antiquarian
+purposes. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, however,
+due to a variety of causes, the reading of the classics became commoner
+than since Roman days, and men, bringing to them more open minds,
+were profoundly attracted by the fresh, original, human ideas of life and
+the world with which Vergil and Horace and Cicero, for example, overflowed.
+It was all a new discovery of the world and of man, and from the
+<i>humanitas</i> which the scholars found set forth as the classical conception
+of culture they themselves took the name of "humanists," while the subjects
+of their studies came to be known as the <i>litteræ humaniores</i>. This
+first great phase of the Renaissance&mdash;the birth of humanism&mdash;found
+its finest expression in Dante and Petrarch, and it cannot be studied
+with better effect than in certain of the writings of these two men.</p>
+
+<h4>79. Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Dante Alighieri was born at Florence in 1265. Of his early life little
+is known. His family seems to have been too obscure to have much part
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">446</a></span>
+in the civil struggles with which Florence, and all Italy, in that day
+were vexed. The love affair with Beatrice, whose story Boccaccio relates
+with so much zest, is the one sharply-defined feature of Dante's
+youth and early manhood. It is known that at the age of eighteen the
+young Florentine was a poet and was winning wide recognition for his
+sonnets. Much time was devoted by him to study of literature and the
+arts, but the details of his employments, intellectual and otherwise, are
+impossible to make out. In 1290 occurred the death of Beatrice, which
+event marked an epoch in the poetical lover's life. In his sorrow he
+took refuge in the study of such books as Boëthius's <i>Consolations of
+Philosophy</i> and Cicero's <i>Friendship</i>, and became deeply interested in
+literary, and especially philosophical, problems. In 1295 he entered
+political life, taking from the outset a prominent part in the deliberations
+of the Florentine General Council and the Council of Consuls of the Arts.
+He assumed a firm attitude against all forms of lawlessness and in resistance
+to any external interference in Florentine affairs. Owing to
+conditions which he could not influence, however, his career in this
+direction was soon cut short and most of the remainder of his life was
+spent as a political exile, at Lucca, Verona, Ravenna, and other Italian
+cities, with a possible visit to Paris. He died at Ravenna, September 14,
+1321, in his fifty-seventh year.</p>
+
+<p>Dante has well been called "the Janus-faced," because he stood at
+the threshold of the new era and looked both forward and backward.
+His <i>Divine Comedy</i> admirably sums up the mediæval spirit, and yet it
+contains many suggestions of the coming age. His method was essentially
+that of the scholastics, but he knew many of the classics and had
+a genuine respect for them as literature. He was a mediævalist in his
+attachment to the Holy Roman Empire, yet he cherished the purely
+modern ambition of a united Italy. It is deeply significant that he
+chose to write his great poem&mdash;one of the most splendid in the world's
+literature&mdash;in the Italian tongue rather than the Latin. Aside from
+the fact that this, more than anything else, caused the Tuscan dialect,
+rather than the rival Venetian and Neapolitan dialects, to become the
+modern Italian, it evidenced the new desire for the popularization of
+literature which was a marked characteristic of the dawning era. Not
+content with putting his greatest effort in the vernacular, Dante undertook
+formally to defend the use of the popular tongue for literary purposes.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">447</a></span>
+This he did in <i>Il Convito</i> ("The Banquet"), a work whose date
+is quite uncertain, but which was undoubtedly produced at some time
+while its author was in exile. It is essentially a prose commentary upon
+three <i>canzoni</i> written for the honor and glory of the "noble, beautiful,
+and most compassionate lady, Philosophy." In it Dante sought to set
+philosophy free from the schools and from the heavy disputations of the
+scholars and to render her beauty visible even to the unlearned. It was
+the first important work on philosophy written in the Italian tongue, an
+innovation which the author rightly regarded as calling for some explanation
+and defense. The passage quoted from it below comprises this
+defense. Similar views on the nobility of the vulgar language, as compared
+with the Latin, were later set forth in fuller form in the treatise
+<i>De Vulgari Eloquentia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Dante Alighieri, <i>Il Convito</i> ["The Banquet"], Bk. I., Chaps. 5-13
+<i>passim</i>. Translated by Katharine Hillard (London, 1889), pp.
+17-47 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>V. <b>1.</b> This bread being cleansed of its accidental impurities,<a name="FNanchor_601" id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a>
+we have now but to free it from one [inherent] in its substance,
+that is, its being in the vulgar tongue, and not in Latin; so that
+we might metaphorically call it made of oats instead of wheat.
+<span class="sidebar">Reasons
+for using
+the Italian</span>
+And this [fault] may be briefly excused by three
+reasons, which moved me to prefer the former
+rather than the latter [language]. The first arises
+from care to avoid an unfit order of things; the second, from a
+consummate liberality; the third, from a natural love of one's
+own tongue. And I intend here in this manner to discuss, in due
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">448</a></span>
+order, these things and their causes, that I may free myself from
+the reproach above named.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> For, in the first place, had it [the commentary] been in
+Latin, it would have been sovereign rather than subject, by its
+nobility, its virtue, and its beauty. By its nobility, because
+Latin is enduring and incorruptible, and the vulgar tongue is
+unstable and corruptible. For we see that the ancient books of
+Latin tragedy and comedy cannot be changed from the form we
+<span class="sidebar">The Latin fixed,
+the Italian
+changeable</span>
+have to-day, which is not the case with the vulgar
+tongue, as that can be changed at will. For we
+see in the cities of Italy, if we take notice of the
+past fifty years, how many words have been lost, or invented, or
+altered; therefore, if a short time can work such changes, how
+much more can a longer period effect! So that I think, should
+they who departed this life a thousand years ago return to their
+cities, they would believe them to be occupied by a foreign
+people, so different would the language be from theirs. Of this
+I shall speak elsewhere more fully, in a book which I intend to
+write, God willing, on <i>Vulgar Eloquence</i>.<a name="FNanchor_602" id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a></p>
+
+<p>VII. <b>4.</b> ... The Latin could only have explained them
+[the <i>canzoni</i>] to scholars; for the rest would not have understood
+it. Therefore, as among those who desire to understand them
+there are many more illiterate than learned, it follows that the
+Latin would not have fulfilled this behest as well as the vulgar
+tongue, which is understood both by the learned and the unlearned.
+Also the Latin would have explained them to people
+of other nations, such as Germans, English, and others; in doing
+which it would have exceeded their order.<a name="FNanchor_603" id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> For it would have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">449</a></span>
+been against their will I say, speaking generally, to have explained
+<span class="sidebar">Translations
+cannot preserve
+the literary
+splendor
+of the originals</span>
+their meaning where their beauty could not go with it.
+And, moreover, let all observe that nothing
+harmonized by the laws of the Muses<a name="FNanchor_604" id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a> can be
+changed from its own tongue to another one
+without destroying all its sweetness and harmony.
+And this is the reason why Homer is not turned from
+Greek into Latin like the other writings we have of theirs [the
+Greeks];<a name="FNanchor_605" id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a> and this is why the verses of the Psalter<a name="FNanchor_606" id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a> lack musical
+sweetness and harmony; for they have been translated from
+Hebrew to Greek, and from Greek to Latin, and in the first
+translation all this sweetness perished.</p>
+
+<p>IX. <b>1.</b> ... The Latin would not have served many; because,
+if we recall to mind what has already been said, scholars
+in other languages than the Italian could not have availed themselves
+of its service.<a name="FNanchor_607" id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> And of those of this speech (if we should
+care to observe who they are) we shall find that only to one in a
+thousand could it really have been of use; because they would
+not have received it, so prone are they to base desires, and thus
+deprived of that nobility of soul which above all desires this
+food. And to their shame I say that they are not worthy to be
+called scholars, because they do not pursue learning for its own
+sake, but for the money or the honors that they gain thereby;
+just as we should not call him a lute-player who kept a lute in the
+house to hire out, and not to play upon.</p>
+
+<p>X. <b>5.</b> Again, I am impelled to defend it [the vulgar tongue]
+from many of its accusers, who disparage it and commend others,
+above all the language of <i>Oco</i>,<a name="FNanchor_608" id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> saying that the latter is better and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">450</a></span>
+more beautiful than the former, wherein they depart from the
+truth. Wherefore by this commentary shall be seen the great
+excellence of the vulgar tongue of <i>Si</i>,<a name="FNanchor_609" id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> because
+<span class="sidebar">The Italian of
+more solid excellence
+than
+other tongues</span>
+(although the highest and most novel conceptions
+can be almost as fittingly, adequately, and
+beautifully expressed in it as in the Latin) its excellence in
+rhymed pieces, on account of the accidental adornments connected
+with them, such as rhyme and rhythm, or ordered numbers,
+cannot be perfectly shown; as it is with the beauty of a
+woman, when the splendor of her jewels and her garments draw
+more admiration than her person.<a name="FNanchor_610" id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a> Wherefore he who would
+judge a woman truly looks at her when, unaccompanied by any
+accidental adornment, her natural beauty alone remains to her;
+so shall it be with this commentary, wherein shall be seen the
+facility of its language, the propriety of its diction, and the sweet
+discourse it shall hold; which he who considers well shall see to
+be full of the sweetest and most exquisite beauty. But because
+it is most virtuous in its design to show the futility and malice
+of its accuser, I shall tell, for the confounding of those who attack
+the Italian language, the purpose which moves them to do this;
+and upon this I shall now write a special chapter, that their
+infamy may be the more notorious.</p>
+
+<p>XI. <b>1.</b> To the perpetual shame and abasement of those wicked
+men of Italy who praise the language of others and disparage
+<span class="sidebar">Why people of
+Italy affect to
+despise their
+native tongue</span>
+their own, I would say that their motive springs
+from five abominable causes. The first is intellectual
+blindness; the second, vicious excuses;
+the third, greed of vain-glory; the fourth, an argument based on
+envy; the fifth and last, littleness of soul, that is, pusillanimity.
+And each of these vices has so large a following, that few are
+they who are free from them....
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">451</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The second kind work against our language by vicious
+excuses. These are they who would rather be considered masters
+than be such; and, to avoid the reverse (that is, not to be
+considered masters), they always lay the blame upon the materials
+prepared for their art, or upon their tools; as the bad
+<span class="sidebar">The unskilful
+attribute their
+faults to the
+language</span>
+smith blames the iron given him, and the bad
+lute-player blames the lute, thinking thus to lay
+the fault of the bad knife or the bad playing
+upon the iron or the lute, and to excuse themselves. Such are
+they (and they are not few) who wish to be considered orators;
+and in order to excuse themselves for not speaking, or for speaking
+badly, blame and accuse their material, that is, their own
+language, and praise that of others in which they are not required
+to work. And whoever wishes to see wherein this tool
+[the vulgar tongue] deserves blame, let him look at the work
+that good workmen have done with it, and he will recognize the
+viciousness of those who, laying the blame upon it, think they
+excuse themselves. Against such does Tullius exclaim, in the
+beginning of one of his books called <i>De Finibus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_611" id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> because in his
+time they blamed the Latin language and commended the Greek,
+for the same reasons that these people consider the Italian vile
+and the Provençal precious.</p>
+
+<p>XII. <b>3.</b> That thing is nearest to a person which is, of all
+things of its kind, the most closely related to himself; thus of
+all men the son is nearest to the father, and of all arts medicine
+is nearest to the doctor, and music to the musician, because these
+are more closely related to them than any others; of all countries,
+<span class="sidebar">People should
+use their own
+language, as
+being most natural
+to them</span>
+the one a man lives in is nearest to him, because it
+is most closely related to him. And thus a man's
+own language is nearest to him, because most
+closely related, being that one which comes alone
+and before all others in his mind, and not only of itself is it thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">452</a></span>
+related, but by accident, inasmuch as it is connected with those
+nearest to him, such as his kinsmen, and his fellow-citizens, and
+his own people. And this is his own language, which is not only
+near, but the very nearest, to every one. Because if proximity
+be the seed of friendship, as has been stated above, it is plain
+that it has been one of the causes of the love I bear my own
+language, which is nearer to me than the others. The above-named
+reason (that is, that we are most nearly related to that
+which is first in our mind) gave rise to that custom of the people
+which makes the firstborn inherit everything, as the nearest of
+kin; and, because the nearest, therefore the most beloved.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> And again, its goodness makes me its friend. And here
+we must know that every good quality properly belonging to a
+thing is lovable in that thing; as men should have a fine beard,
+and women should have the whole face quite free from hair; as
+the foxhound should have a keen scent, and the greyhound
+great speed. And the more peculiar this good quality, the more
+lovable it is, whence, although all virtue is lovable in man, that
+is most so which is most peculiarly human.... And we
+<span class="sidebar">The Italian
+fulfils the highest
+requirement
+of a language</span>
+see that, of all things pertaining to language, the
+power of adequately expressing thought is the
+most loved and commended; therefore this is its
+peculiar virtue. And as this belongs to our own
+language, as has been proved above in another chapter, it is
+plain that this was one of the causes of my love for it; since,
+as we have said, goodness is one of the causes that engender
+love.</p>
+
+<h4>80. Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The best known prose work of Dante, the <i>De Monarchia</i>, is perhaps
+the most purely idealistic political treatise ever written. Its quality
+of idealism is so pronounced, in fact, that there is not even sufficient
+mention of contemporary men or events to assist in solving the wholly
+unsettled problem of the date of its composition. The <i>De Monarchia</i> is
+composed of three books, each of which is devoted to a fundamental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">453</a></span>
+question in relation to the balance of temporal and spiritual authority.
+The first question is whether the temporal monarchy is necessary for
+the well-being of the world. The answer is, that it is necessary for the
+preservation of justice, freedom, and unity and effectiveness of human
+effort. The second question is whether the Roman people took to itself
+this dignity of monarchy, or empire, by right. By a survey of Roman
+history from the days of Æneas to those of Cæsar it is made to appear
+that it was God's will that the Romans should rule the world. The
+third question is the most vital of all and its answer constitutes the pith
+of the treatise. In brief it is, does the authority of the Roman monarch,
+or emperor, who is thus by right the monarch of the world, depend immediately
+upon God, or upon some vicar of God, the successor of Peter?
+This question Dante answers first negatively by clearing away the familiar
+defenses of spiritual supremacy, and afterwards positively, by
+bringing forward specific arguments for the temporal superiority. The
+selection given below comprises the most suggestive portions of Dante's
+treatment of this aspect of his subject. The method, it will be observed,
+is quite thoroughly scholastic. Whenever the <i>De Monarchia</i> was composed,
+it remained all but unknown until after the author's death (1321);
+but with the renewal of conflict between papacy and imperial power the
+imperialists were not slow to make use of the treatise, and by the middle
+of the fourteenth century it had become known throughout Europe, being
+admired by one party as much as it was abhorred by the other. At
+various times copies of it were burned as heretical and in the sixteenth
+century it was placed by the Roman authorities upon the Index of Prohibited
+Books. Few literary productions of the later Middle Ages exercised
+greater influence upon contemporary thought and politics.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Dante Alighieri, <i>De Monarchia</i> ["Concerning Monarchy"], Bk. III.,
+Chaps. 1-16 <i>passim</i>. Translated by Aurelia Henry (Boston, 1904),
+pp. 137-206 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I. <b>2.</b> The question pending investigation, then, concerns two
+great luminaries, the Roman Pontiff [Pope] and the Roman
+Prince [Emperor]; and the point at issue is whether the authority
+<span class="sidebar">The problem to
+be considered</span>
+of the Roman monarch, who, as proved in the
+second book, is rightful monarch of the world,
+is derived from God directly, or from some vicar or minister of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">454</a></span>
+God, by whom I mean the successor of Peter, indisputable
+keeper of the keys of the kingdom of heaven.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <b>1.</b> Those men to whom the entire subsequent discussion
+is directed assert that the authority of the Empire depends on
+the authority of the Church, just as the inferior artisan depends
+on the architect. They are drawn to this by divers opposing
+arguments, some of which they take from Holy Scripture, and
+some from certain acts performed by the chief pontiff, and by
+the Emperor himself; and they endeavor to make their conviction
+reasonable.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> For, first, they maintain that, according to Genesis, God
+made two mighty luminaries, a greater and a lesser, the former
+to hold supremacy by day and the latter by night [Gen., i. 15, 16].
+These they interpret allegorically to be the two rulers&mdash;spiritual
+<span class="sidebar">The analogy
+of the sun
+and moon</span>
+and temporal.<a name="FNanchor_612" id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> Whence they argue that as the
+lesser luminary, the moon, has no light but that
+gained from the sun, so the temporal ruler has
+no authority but that gained from the spiritual ruler.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> I proceed to refute the above assumption that the two
+luminaries of the world typify its two ruling powers. The whole
+force of their argument lies in the interpretation; but this we
+can prove indefensible in two ways. First, since these ruling
+powers are, as it were, accidents necessitated by man himself,
+God would seem to have used a distorted order in creating first
+accidents, and then the subject necessitating them. It is absurd
+to speak thus of God, but it is evident from the Word that the
+two lights were created on the fourth day, and man on the sixth.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Secondly, the two ruling powers exist as the directors of
+men toward certain ends, as will be shown further on. But had
+man remained in the state of innocence in which God made him,
+he would have required no such direction. These ruling powers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">455</a></span>
+are therefore remedies against the infirmity of sin. Since on
+the fourth day man was not only not a sinner, but was not even
+<span class="sidebar">An abstruse
+bit of mediæval
+reasoning</span>
+existent, the creation of a remedy would have been
+purposeless, which is contrary to divine goodness.
+Foolish indeed would be the physician who
+should make ready a plaster for the abscess of a man not yet born.
+Therefore it cannot be asserted that God made the two ruling
+powers on the fourth day; and consequently the meaning of
+Moses cannot have been what it is supposed to be.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> Also, in order to be tolerant, we may refute this fallacy
+by distinction. Refutation by distinction deals more gently with
+an adversary, for it shows him to be not absolutely wrong, as
+does refutation by destruction. I say, then, that although the
+moon may have abundant light only as she receives it from the
+sun, it does not follow on that account that the moon herself
+owes her existence to the sun. It must be recognized that the
+essence of the moon, her strength, and her function, are not one
+and the same thing. Neither in her essence, her strength, nor
+her function taken absolutely, does the moon owe her existence
+to the sun, for her movement is impelled by her own force and
+her influence by her own rays. Besides, she has a certain light
+of her own, as is shown in eclipse. It is in order to fulfill her
+function better and more potently that she borrows from the
+sun abundance of light, and works thereby more effectively.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> In like manner, I say, the temporal power receives from
+the spiritual neither its existence, nor its strength, which is its
+authority, nor even its function, taken absolutely. But well
+<span class="sidebar">Why the argument
+from the
+sun and moon
+fails</span>
+for her does she receive therefrom, through the
+light of grace which the benediction of the chief
+pontiff sheds upon it in heaven and on earth,
+strength to fulfill her function more perfectly. So the argument
+was at fault in form, because the predicate of the conclusion
+is not a term of the major premise, as is evident. The
+syllogism runs thus: The moon receives light from the sun, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">456</a></span>
+is the spiritual power; the temporal ruling power is the moon;
+therefore the temporal receives authority from the spiritual.
+They introduce "light" as the term of the major, but "authority"
+as predicate of the conclusion, which two things we
+have seen to be diverse in subject and significance.</p>
+
+<p>VIII. <b>1.</b> From the same gospel they quote the saying of
+Christ to Peter, "Whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be
+loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19], and understand this saying
+to refer alike to all the Apostles, according to the text of Matthew
+and John [Matt., xviii. 18 and John, xx. 23]. They reason from
+<span class="sidebar">Argument
+from the prerogative
+of the
+keys committed
+to Peter</span>
+this that the successor of Peter has been granted
+of God power to bind and loose all things, and
+then infer that he has power to loose the laws
+and decrees of the Empire, and to bind the laws
+and decrees of the temporal kingdom. Were this true, their
+inference would be correct.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But we must reply to it by making a distinction against
+the major premise of the syllogism which they employ. Their
+syllogism is this: Peter had power to bind and loose all things;
+the successor of Peter has like power with him; therefore the
+successor of Peter has power to loose and bind all things. From
+this they infer that he has power to loose and bind the laws and
+decrees of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> I concede the minor premise, but the major only with distinction.
+Wherefore I say that "all," the symbol of the universal
+which is implied in "whatsoever," is never distributed
+beyond the scope of the distributed term. When I say, "All animals
+run," the distribution of "all" comprehends whatever
+comes under the genus "animal." But when I say, "All men
+run," the symbol of the universal refers only to whatever comes
+under the term "man." And when I say, "All grammarians
+run," the distribution is narrowed still further.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Therefore we must always determine what it is over which
+the symbol of the universal is distributed; then, from the recognized
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">457</a></span>
+nature and scope of the distributed term, will be easily
+apparent the extent of the distribution. Now, were "whatsoever"
+to be understood absolutely when it is said, "Whatsoever
+thou shalt bind," he would certainly have the power they
+claim; nay, he would have even greater power&mdash;he would be able
+to loose a wife from her husband, and, while the man still lived,
+bind her to another&mdash;a thing he can in nowise do. He would
+be able to absolve me, while impenitent&mdash;a thing which God
+Himself cannot do.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> So it is evident that the distribution of the term under
+discussion is to be taken, not absolutely, but relatively to something
+else. A consideration of the concession to which the distribution
+is subjoined will make manifest this related something.
+<span class="sidebar">Dante's interpretation
+of
+the Scripture
+in question</span>
+Christ said to Peter, "I will give unto
+thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven;" that
+is, I will make thee doorkeeper of the kingdom
+of heaven. Then He adds, "and whatsoever," that is, "everything
+which," and He means thereby, "Everything which pertains
+to that office thou shalt have power to bind and loose."
+And thus the symbol of the universal which is implied in "whatsoever"
+is limited in its distribution to the prerogative of the
+keys of the kingdom of heaven. Understood thus, the proposition
+is true, but understood absolutely, it is obviously not.
+Therefore I conclude that, although the successor of Peter has
+authority to bind and loose in accordance with the requirements
+of the prerogative granted to Peter, it does not follow, as they
+claim, that he has authority to bind and loose the decrees or
+statutes of empire, unless they prove that this also belongs to
+the office of the keys. But further on we shall demonstrate that
+the contrary is true.</p>
+
+<p>XIII. <b>1.</b> Now that we have stated and rejected the errors on
+which those chiefly rely who declare that the authority of the
+Roman Prince is dependent on the Roman Pontiff,<a name="FNanchor_613" id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> we must
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">458</a></span>
+return and demonstrate the truth of that question which we
+propounded for discussion at the beginning. The truth will be
+evident enough if it can be shown, under the principle of inquiry
+agreed upon, that imperial authority derives immediately from
+the summit of all being, which is God. And this will be shown,
+whether we prove that imperial authority does not derive from
+that of the Church (for the dispute concerns no other authority),
+or whether we prove simply that it derives immediately from
+God.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> That ecclesiastical authority is not the source of imperial
+authority is thus verified. A thing non-existent, or devoid of
+active force, cannot be the cause of active force in a thing possessing
+that quality in full measure. But before the Church existed,
+or while it lacked power to act, the Empire had active force in
+<span class="sidebar">The Church
+(or papacy) is
+not the source
+of imperial authority</span>
+full measure. Hence the Church is the source,
+neither of acting power nor of authority in the
+Empire, where power to act and authority are
+identical. Let A be the Church, B the Empire,
+and C the power or authority of the Empire. If, A being non-existent,
+C is in B, the cause of C's relation to B cannot be A,
+since it is impossible that an effect should exist prior to its
+cause. Moreover, if, A being inoperative, C is in B, the cause of
+C's relation to B cannot be A, since it is indispensable for the
+production of effect that the cause should be in operation previously,
+especially the efficient cause which we are considering
+here.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The major premise of this demonstration is intelligible
+from its terms; the minor is confirmed by Christ and the Church.
+Christ attests it, as we said before, in His birth and death. The
+Church attests it in Paul's declaration to Festus in the Acts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">459</a></span>
+the Apostles: "I stand at Cæsar's judgment seat, where I ought
+to be judged" [Acts, xxv. 10]; and in the admonition of God's
+<span class="sidebar">Early Christian
+recognition
+of the authority
+of the
+Emperor</span>
+angel to Paul a little later: "Fear not, Paul;
+thou must be brought before Cæsar" [Acts, xxvii.
+24]; and again, still later, in Paul's words to the
+Jews dwelling in Italy: "And when the Jews spake
+against it, I was constrained to appeal unto Cæsar; not that I
+had aught to accuse my nation of," but "that I might deliver
+my soul from death" [Acts, xxviii. 19]. If Cæsar had not
+already possessed the right to judge temporal matters, Christ
+would not have implied that he did, the angel would not have
+uttered such words, nor would he who said, "I desire to depart
+and be with Christ" [Phil., i. 23], have appealed to an unqualified
+judge.</p>
+
+<p>XIV. <b>1.</b> Besides, if the Church has power to confer authority
+on the Roman Prince, she would have it either from God, or
+from herself, or from some Emperor, or from the unanimous
+consent of mankind, or, at least, from the consent of the most
+influential. There is no other least crevice through which the
+power could have diffused itself into the Church. But from
+none of these has it come to her, and therefore the aforesaid
+power is not hers at all.</p>
+
+<p>XVI. <b>1.</b> Although by the method of reduction to absurdity
+it has been shown in the foregoing chapter that the authority of
+empire has not its source in the Chief Pontiff, yet it has not been
+fully proved, save by an inference, that its immediate source
+is God, seeing that if the authority does not depend on the vicar
+of God, we conclude that it depends on God Himself. For a
+perfect demonstration of the proposition we must prove directly
+that the Emperor, or Monarch, of the world has immediate
+relationship to the Prince of the universe, who is God.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> In order to realize this, it must be understood that man
+alone of all beings holds the middle place between corruptibility
+and incorruptibility, and is therefore rightly compared by philosophers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">460</a></span>
+to the horizon which lies between the two hemispheres.
+Man may be considered with regard to either of his essential
+<span class="sidebar">Positive argument
+that the
+authority of
+the emperor is
+derived directly
+from God</span>
+parts, body or soul. If considered in regard to
+the body alone, he is perishable; if in regard to
+the soul alone, he is imperishable. So the Philosopher<a name="FNanchor_614" id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a>
+spoke well of its incorruptibility when
+he said in the second book, <i>On the Soul</i>, "And this only can be
+separated as a thing eternal from that which perishes."</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> If man holds a middle place between the perishable and the
+imperishable, then, inasmuch as every man shares the nature of
+the extremes, man must share both natures. And inasmuch as
+every nature is ordained for a certain ultimate end, it follows
+that there exists for man a two-fold end, in order that as he alone
+of all beings partakes of the perishable and the imperishable, so
+he alone of all beings should be ordained for two ultimate ends.
+One end is for that in him which is perishable, the other for that
+which is imperishable.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Omniscient Providence has thus designed two ends to be
+contemplated by man: first, the happiness of this life, which consists
+<span class="sidebar">Double aspect
+of human life</span>
+in the activity of his natural powers, and is
+prefigured by the terrestrial Paradise; and then
+the blessedness of life everlasting, which consists in the enjoyment
+of the countenance of God, to which man's natural powers
+may not obtain unless aided by divine light, and which may be
+symbolized by the celestial Paradise.<a name="FNanchor_615" id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> To these states of blessedness, just as to diverse conclusions,
+man must come by diverse means. To the former we come by
+the teachings of philosophy, obeying them by acting in conformity
+with the moral and intellectual virtues; to the latter, through
+spiritual teachings which transcend human reason, and which
+we obey by acting in conformity with the theological virtues,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">461</a></span>
+faith, hope, and charity. Now the former end and means are
+made known to us by human reason, which the philosophers
+have wholly explained to us; and the latter by the Holy Spirit,
+which has revealed to us supernatural but essential truth through
+the prophets and sacred writers, through Jesus Christ, the coëternal
+Son of God, and through His disciples. Nevertheless, human
+passion would cast these behind, were not man, like horses
+astray in their brutishness, held to the road by bit and rein.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Wherefore a twofold directive agent was necessary to man,
+in accordance with the twofold end; the Supreme Pontiff to lead
+the human race to life eternal by means of revelation, and the
+Emperor to guide it to temporal well-being by means of philosophic
+instruction. And since none or few&mdash;and these with exceeding
+<span class="sidebar">The proper
+functions of
+Pope and Emperor</span>
+difficulty&mdash;could attain this port, were
+not the waves of seductive desire calmed, and
+mankind made free to rest in the tranquillity of
+peace, therefore this is the goal which he whom we call the
+guardian of the earth and Roman Prince should most urgently
+seek; then would it be possible for life on this mortal threshing-floor
+to pass in freedom and peace. The order of the world follows
+the order inherent in the revolution of the heavens. To
+attain this order it is necessary that instruction productive of
+liberality and peace should be applied by the guardian of the
+realm, in due place and time, as dispensed by Him who is the
+ever-present Watcher of the whole order of the heavens. And
+He alone foreordained this order, that by it, in His providence,
+He might link together all things, each in its own place.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> If this is so, and there is none higher than He, only God
+elects and only God confirms. Whence we may further conclude
+that neither those who are now, nor those who in any way
+whatsoever have been, called electors<a name="FNanchor_616" id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a> have the right to be so
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span>
+called; rather should they be entitled heralds of Divine Providence.
+Whence it is that those in whom is vested the dignity
+of proclamation suffer dissension among themselves at times,
+when, all or part of them being shadowed by the clouds of
+passion, they discern not the face of God's dispensation.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> It is established, then, that the authority of temporal
+monarchy descends without mediation from the fountain of
+universal authority. And this fountain, one in its purity of
+source, flows into multifarious channels out of the abundance
+of its excellence.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> I believe I have now approached sufficiently close to the goal
+I had set myself, for I have taken the kernels of truth from the
+husks of falsehood, in that question which asked whether the
+office of monarchy was essential to the welfare of the world, and
+in the next which made inquiry whether the Roman people
+rightfully appropriated the empire, and in the last which sought
+whether the authority of the monarch derived from God directly,
+or from some other. But the truth of this final question must
+not be restricted to mean that the Roman Prince shall not be
+<span class="sidebar">The ideal relation
+of the
+two powers</span>
+subject in some degree to the Roman Pontiff, for
+well-being that is mortal is ordered in a measure
+after well-being that is immortal. Wherefore let
+Cæsar honor Peter as a first-born son should honor his father,
+so that, brilliant with the light of paternal grace, he may illumine
+with greater radiance the earthly sphere over which he has been
+set by Him who alone is Ruler of all things spiritual and temporal.<a name="FNanchor_617" id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a></p>
+
+<h4>81. Petrarch's Love of the Classics</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>Francesco Petrarca was born at Arezzo in northern Italy in July,
+1304. His father was a Florentine notary who had been banished by
+the same decree with Dante in 1302, and who finally settled at Avignon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">463</a></span>
+in 1313 to practice his profession in the neighborhood of the papal court.
+Petrarch was destined by his father for the law and was sent to study
+that subject at Montpellier and subsequently at Bologna. But from the
+moment when he first got hold of the Latin classics, notably Cicero and
+Vergil, he found his interest in legal subjects absolutely at an end. He
+was charmed by the literary power of the ancients, as he certainly was
+not by the logic and learning of the jurists, and though his father endeavored
+to discourage what he regarded as a sheer waste of time by
+burning the young enthusiast's precious Latin books, the love of the
+classics, once aroused, was never crushed out and the literary instinct
+remained dominant. The beginnings of the Renaissance spirit, which
+are so discernible in Dante, become in Petrarch the full expression of
+the new age. In the words of Professor Adams, "In him we clearly
+find, as controlling personal traits, all those specific features of the Renaissance
+which give it its distinguishing character as an intellectual
+revolution, and from their strong beginning in him they have never
+ceased among men. In the first place, he felt as no other man had done
+since the ancient days the beauty of nature and the pleasure of mere
+life, its sufficiency for itself; and he had also a sense of ability and power,
+and a self-confidence which led him to plan great things, and to hope
+for an immortality of fame in this world. In the second place, he had
+a most keen sense of the unity of past history, of the living bond of connection
+between himself and men of like sort in the ancient world. That
+world was for him no dead antiquity, but he lived and felt in it and with
+its poets and thinkers, as if they were his neighbors. His love for it
+amounted almost, if we may call it so, to an ecstatic enthusiasm, hardly
+understood by his own time, but it kindled in many others a similar
+feeling which has come down to us. The result is easily recognized in
+him as a genuine culture, the first of modern men in whom this can be
+found.... Finally, Petrarch first put the modern spirit into conscious
+opposition to the mediæval. The Renaissance meant rebellion
+and revolution. It meant a long and bitter struggle against the whole
+scholastic system, and all the follies and superstitions which flourished
+under its protection. Petrarch opened the attack along the whole line.
+Physicians, lawyers, astrologers, scholastic philosophers, the universities&mdash;all
+were enemies of the new learning, and so his enemies. And these
+attacks were not in set and formal polemics alone, his letters and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">464</a></span>
+almost all his writings were filled with them. It was the business of
+his life."<a name="FNanchor_618" id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of his life Petrarch enjoyed the highest renown
+throughout Europe. The cities of Italy, especially, vied with one another
+in showering honors upon him. A decree of the Venetian senate affirmed
+that no Christian poet or philosopher could be compared with him.
+Arezzo, the town of his birth, awarded him a triumphal procession.
+Florence bought the estates once confiscated from his father and begged
+him to accept them as a meager gift to one "who for centuries had no
+equal and could scarcely find one in the ages to come." The climax
+came in 1341 when both the University of Paris and the Roman Senate
+invited him to present himself and receive the poet's crown, in revival
+of an old and all but forgotten ceremony of special honor. The invitation
+from Rome was accepted and the celebration attending the coronation
+was one of the most splendid of the age. In 1350 Petrarch became
+acquainted with Boccaccio and thenceforth there existed the warmest
+friendship between these two great exponents of Renaissance ideals and
+achievement. In 1369 he retired to Arquà, near Padua, where he died
+in 1374.</p>
+
+<p>Besides his poems Petrarch wrote a great number of letters, some in
+Latin and some in Italian. Letter-writing was indeed a veritable passion
+with him; and he not only wrote freely but was careful to preserve copies
+of what he wrote. His prose correspondence has been classified in four
+divisions. The largest one comprises three hundred forty-seven letters,
+written between the years 1332 and 1362, and given the general title of
+<i>De Rebus Familiaribus</i>, because in them only topics presumably of everyday
+interest were discussed and without particular attention to style.
+The second group, the so-called <i>Epistolæ Variæ</i>, numbers about seventy.
+The third, the <i>Epistolæ de Rebus Senilibus</i> ("Letters of Old Age"), includes
+one hundred twenty-four letters written during the last twelve
+years of the poet's life. The fourth, comprising about twenty letters,
+was made up of epistles containing such sharp criticism of the papal
+régime at Avignon that the author thought it best to suppress the names
+of those to whom they were addressed. Their general designation,
+therefore, is <i>Epistolæ sine Titulo</i>. The following passages are taken from
+a letter found in the <i>Epistolæ Variæ</i>. It was written to a literary friend,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">465</a></span>
+August 18, 1360, while Petrarch was at Milan, uncertain whither the political
+storms of the period would finally drive him. In the portion which
+precedes that given below the writer has been commenting on various
+invitations which had reached him from friends in Padua, Florence,
+and even beyond the Alps. This gives him occasion to lament the
+unsettled conditions of his times and to voice the longing of the scholar
+for peace and quiet. Thence he proceeds to speak of matters which
+reveal in an interesting way his passionate love for the beauties of classical
+literature and his sympathy with its dominant ideas. Cicero was his
+favorite Latin author; after him, Vergil and Ovid. Greek literature,
+unfortunately, it was impossible for him to know at first hand. In spite
+of a lifelong desire, and at least one determined effort (which is referred
+to in the letter below), he never acquired even a rudimentary reading
+knowledge of the Greek language. At best he could only read fragments
+of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle in extremely faulty Latin translations.<a name="FNanchor_619" id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Franciscus Petrarca, <i>Epistolæ de Rebus Familiaribus et Variæ</i>
+["Letters of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous Letters"],
+edited by J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol. III., pp. 364-371.
+Adapted from translation in Merrick Whitcomb, <i>Source Book of
+the Italian Renaissance</i> (Philadelphia, 1903), pp. 14-21 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If you should ask me, in the midst of these opinions of my
+friends, what I myself think of the matter, I can only reply that
+I long for a place where solitude, leisure, repose, and silence
+reign, however far from wealth and honors, power and favors.
+But I confess I know not where to find it. My own secluded
+nook, where I have hoped not only to live, but even to die, has
+lost all the advantages it once possessed, even that of safety.
+<span class="sidebar">Petrarch's
+longing for
+peace and
+seclusion</span>
+I call to witness thirty or more volumes, which
+I left there recently, thinking that no place
+could be more secure, and which, a little later,
+having escaped from the hands of robbers and returned, against
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">466</a></span>
+all hope, to their master, seem yet to blanch and tremble and
+show upon their foreheads the troubled condition of the place
+whence they have escaped. Therefore I have lost all hope of
+revisiting this charming retreat, this longed-for country spot.
+Still, if the opportunity were offered me, I should seize it with
+both hands and hold it fast. I do not know whether I still
+possess a glimmer of hope, or am feigning it for self-deception,
+and to feed my soul's desire with empty expectation.</p>
+
+<p>But I proceed, remembering that we had much conversation on
+this point last year, when we lived together in the same house, in
+this very city [Milan]; and that after having examined the matter
+most carefully, in so far as our light permitted, we came to the
+conclusion that while the affairs of Italy, and of Europe, remain
+in this condition, there is no place safer and better for my
+needs than Milan, nor any place that suits me so well. We
+made exception only of the city of Padua, whither I went
+<span class="sidebar">Drawbacks of
+even Milan
+and Padua</span>
+shortly after and whither I shall soon return;
+not that I may obliterate or diminish&mdash;that I
+should not wish&mdash;but that I may soften the
+regret which my absence causes the citizens of both places. I
+know not whether you have changed your opinion since that
+time; but for me I am convinced that to exchange the tumult
+of this great city and its annoyances for the annoyances of
+another city would bring me no advantage, perhaps some inconvenience,
+and beyond a doubt, much fatigue. Ah, if this
+tranquil solitude, which, in spite of all my seeking, I never
+find, as I have told you, should ever show itself on any side,
+you will hear, not that I have gone, but that I have flown, to
+it....</p>
+
+<p>In the succeeding paragraph of your letter you jest with much
+elegance, saying that I have been wounded by Cicero without
+having deserved it, on account of our too great intimacy.<a name="FNanchor_620" id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span>
+"Because," you say, "those who are nearest to us most often
+injure us, and it is extremely rare that an Indian does an injury
+<span class="sidebar">Common
+indifference
+to people and
+events near at
+hand</span>
+to a Spaniard." True it is. It is on this account
+that in reading of the wars of the Athenians
+and Lacedaemonians, and in contemplating the
+troubles of our own people with our neighbors,
+we are never struck with astonishment; still less so at the sight
+of the civil wars and domestic troubles which habit has made
+of so little account that concord itself would more easily cause
+surprise. But when we read that the king of Scythia has come
+to blows with the king of Egypt, and that Alexander of Macedonia
+has penetrated to the ends of India, we experience a sensation
+of astonishment which the reading of our histories, filled
+as they are with the deeds of Roman bravery in their distant
+expeditions, does not afford. You bring me consolation, in
+representing me as having been wounded by Cicero, to whom I
+am fondly attached, a thing that would probably never happen
+to me, at the hands of either Hippocrates<a name="FNanchor_621" id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a> or Albumazar....<a name="FNanchor_622" id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a></p>
+
+<p>You ask me to lend you the copy of Homer that was on sale at
+Padua, if, as you suppose, I have purchased it (since, you say, I
+have for a long time possessed another copy) so that our friend
+<span class="sidebar">A request
+for a copy
+of Homer</span>
+Leo<a name="FNanchor_623" id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a> may translate it from Greek into Latin
+for your benefit and for the benefit of our other
+studious compatriots. I saw this book, but
+neglected the opportunity of acquiring it, because it seemed
+inferior to my own. It can easily be had with the aid of the
+person to whom I owe my friendship with Leo; a letter from
+that source would be all-powerful in the matter, and I will myself
+write him.</p>
+
+<p>If by chance the book escape us, which seems to be very
+unlikely, I will let you have mine. I have been always fond of
+this particular translation and of Greek literature in general,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">468</a></span>
+and if fortune had not frowned upon my beginnings, in the sad
+death of my excellent master, I should be perhaps to-day something
+<span class="sidebar">Fondness
+for Greek
+literature</span>
+more than a Greek still at his alphabet. I
+approve with all my heart and strength your
+enterprise, for I regret and am indignant that an
+ancient translation, presumably the work of Cicero, the commencement
+of which Horace inserted in his <i>Ars Poetica</i>,<a name="FNanchor_624" id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a> should
+have been lost to the Latin world, together with many other
+works. It angers me to see so much solicitude for the bad and
+so much neglect of the good. But what is to be done? We
+must be resigned....</p>
+
+<p>I wish to take this opportunity of warning you of one thing,
+lest later on I should regret having passed it over in silence.
+If, as you say, the translation is to be made literally in prose,
+listen for a moment to the opinion of St. Jerome as expressed in
+his preface to the book, <i>De Temporibus</i>, by Eusebius of Cæsarea,
+which he translated into Latin.<a name="FNanchor_625" id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a> Here are the very words of this
+great man, well acquainted with these two languages, and indeed
+with many others, and of special fame for his art of translating:
+<span class="sidebar">Difficulty
+of translating
+works of literature</span>
+<i>If any one</i>, he says, <i>refuses to believe that translation
+lessens the peculiar charm of the original, let
+him render Homer into Latin, word for word; I
+will say further, let him translate it into prose in his own tongue,
+and he will see a ridiculous array and the most eloquent of poets
+transformed into a stammerer.</i> I tell you this for your own good,
+while it is yet time, in order that so important a work may not
+prove useless. As for me, I wish the work to be done, whether
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">469</a></span>
+well or ill. I am so famished for literature that just as he who is
+ravenously hungry is not inclined to quarrel with the cook's
+art, so I await with a lively impatience whatever dishes are to be
+set before my soul. And in truth, the morsel in which the same
+Leo, translating into Latin prose the beginning of Homer, has
+<span class="sidebar">Longing for
+the translation
+of Homer</span>
+given me a foretaste of the whole work, although
+it confirms the sentiment of St. Jerome, does not
+displease me. It possesses, in fact, a secret charm,
+as certain viands, which have failed to take a moulded shape,
+although they are lacking in form, preserve nevertheless their
+taste and odor. May he continue with the aid of Heaven, and
+may he give us Homer, who has been lost to us!</p>
+
+<p>In asking of me the volume of Plato which I have with me,
+and which escaped the fire at my transalpine country house,
+you give me proof of your ardor, and I shall hold this book at
+<span class="sidebar">A loan of a
+volume of
+Plato</span>
+your disposal, whenever the time shall come.
+I wish to aid with all my power such noble enterprises.
+But beware lest it should be unbecoming
+to unite in one bundle these two great princes of Greece, lest
+the weight of these two spirits should overwhelm mortal shoulders.
+Let your messenger undertake, with God's aid, one of the two,
+and first him who has written many centuries before the other.
+Farewell.</p>
+
+<h4>82. Petrarch's Letter to Posterity</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The following is a letter of Petrarch addressed, by a curious whim, to
+Posterity. It gives an excellent idea of the poet's opinion of himself and
+reveals the sort of things that interested the typical man of culture in
+the early Renaissance period. It is supposed to have been written in
+the year 1370, when Petrarch had completed the sixty-sixth year of
+his life. The letter betrays a longing for individual fame which was
+common in classical times and during the Renaissance, but not in the
+Middle Ages.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">470</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Franciscus Petrarca, <i>Epistolæ de Rebus Familiaribus et Variæ</i> ["Letters
+of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous Letters"], edited by
+J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol. I., pp. 1-11. Translated in
+James H. Robinson and Henry W. Rolfe, <i>Petrarch, the First Modern
+Scholar and Man of Letters</i> (New York, 1898), pp. 59-76 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Francis Petrarch, to Posterity, greeting</i>:</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that some word of me may have come to you,
+though even this is doubtful, since an insignificant and obscure
+name will scarcely penetrate far in either time or space. If,
+however, you should have heard of me, you may desire to know
+what manner of man I was, or what was the outcome of my
+labors, especially those of which some description or, at any
+rate, the bare titles may have reached you.</p>
+
+<p>To begin, then, with myself. The utterances of men concerning
+me will differ widely, since in passing judgment almost every
+one is influenced not so much by truth as by preference, and good
+and evil report alike know no bounds. I was, in truth, a poor
+<span class="sidebar">Petrarch's
+early life</span>
+mortal like yourself, neither very exalted in my
+origin, nor, on the other hand, of the most humble
+birth, but belonging, as Augustus Cæsar says of himself,
+to an ancient family. As to my disposition, I was not naturally
+perverse or wanting in modesty, however the contagion of evil
+associations may have corrupted me.</p>
+
+<p>My youth was gone before I realized it; I was carried away by
+the strength of manhood. But a riper age brought me to my
+senses and taught me by experience the truth I had long before
+read in books, that youth and pleasure are vanity&mdash;nay, that
+the Author of all ages and times permits us miserable mortals,
+puffed up with emptiness, thus to wander about, until finally,
+coming to a tardy consciousness of our sins, we shall learn to
+know ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>In my prime I was blessed with a quick and active body, although
+not exceptionally strong; and while I do
+<span class="sidebar">Physical
+appearance</span>
+not lay claim to remarkable personal beauty, I
+was comely enough in my best days. I was possessed of a clear
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">471</a></span>
+complexion, between light and dark, lively eyes, and for long
+years a keen vision, which, however, deserted me, contrary to
+my hopes, after I reached my sixtieth birthday, and forced
+me, to my great annoyance, to resort to glasses.<a name="FNanchor_626" id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a> Although I had
+previously enjoyed perfect health, old age brought with it the
+usual array of discomforts.</p>
+
+<p>My parents were honorable folk, Florentine in their origin, of
+medium fortune, or, I may as well admit it, in a condition verging
+upon poverty. They had been expelled from their native city,<a name="FNanchor_627" id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a>
+and consequently I was born in exile, at Arezzo, in the year 1304
+of this latter age, which begins with Christ's birth, July the 20th,
+on a Monday, at dawn. I have always possessed an extreme
+contempt for wealth; not that riches are not desirable in themselves,
+but because I hate the anxiety and care which are invariably
+associated with them. I certainly do not long to be
+able to give gorgeous banquets. I have, on the contrary, led a
+<span class="sidebar">Preference for
+plain and sensible
+living</span>
+happier existence with plain living and ordinary
+fare than all the followers of Apicius,<a name="FNanchor_628" id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a> with their
+elaborate dainties. So-called convivia, which
+are but vulgar bouts, sinning against sobriety and good manners,
+have always been repugnant to me. I have ever felt that it was
+irksome and profitless to invite others to such affairs, and not
+less so to be bidden to them myself. On the other hand, the
+pleasure of dining with one's friends is so great that nothing
+has ever given me more delight than their unexpected arrival,
+nor have I ever willingly sat down to table without a companion.
+Nothing displeases me more than display, for not only is it bad
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">472</a></span>
+in itself and opposed to humility, but it is troublesome and distracting.</p>
+
+<p>In my familiar associations with kings and princes, and in
+my friendship with noble personages, my good fortune has been
+such as to excite envy. But it is the cruel fate of those who
+<span class="sidebar">Intimacy with
+renowned men</span>
+are growing old that they can commonly only
+weep for friends who have passed away. The
+greatest kings of this age have loved and courted me. They
+may know why; I certainly do not. With some of them I was
+on such terms that they seemed in a certain sense my guests
+rather than I theirs; their lofty position in no way embarrassing
+me, but, on the contrary, bringing with it many advantages.
+I fled, however, from many of those to whom I was greatly attached;
+and such was my innate longing for liberty that I
+studiously avoided those whose very name seemed incompatible
+with the freedom that I loved.</p>
+
+<p>I possessed a well-balanced rather than a keen intellect&mdash;one
+prone to all kinds of good and wholesome study, but especially
+inclined to moral philosophy and the art of poetry.
+The latter, indeed, I neglected as time went on, and took delight
+in sacred literature. Finding in that a hidden sweetness
+which I had once esteemed but lightly, I came to regard the
+works of the poets as only amenities.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many subjects that interested me, I dwelt especially
+upon antiquity, for our own age has always repelled me,
+<span class="sidebar">Admiration
+for antiquity</span>
+so that, had it not been for the love of those
+dear to me, I should have preferred to have been
+born in any other period than our own. In order to forget my
+own time, I have constantly striven to place myself in spirit
+in other ages, and consequently I delighted in history. The
+conflicting statements troubled me, but when in doubt I accepted
+what appeared most probable, or yielded to the authority
+of the writer.</p>
+
+<p>My style, as many claimed, was clear and forcible; but to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">473</a></span>
+me it seemed weak and obscure. In ordinary conversation with
+friends, or with those about me, I never gave thought to my language,
+and I have always wondered that Augustus Cæsar should
+<span class="sidebar">Attitude toward
+literary
+style</span>
+have taken such pains in this respect. When,
+however, the subject itself, or the place or the
+listener, seemed to demand it, I gave some attention
+to style, with what success I cannot pretend to say;
+let them judge in whose presence I spoke. If only I have lived
+well, it matters little to me how I talked. Mere elegance of
+language can produce at best but an empty renown....</p>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">474</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXVII.<br />
+FORESHADOWINGS OF THE REFORMATION</h3>
+
+<h4>83. The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI. (1384)</h4>
+
+<div class="intro">
+<p>The fourteenth century was an era of religious decline in England,
+as indeed more or less generally throughout western Europe. The papacy
+was at its lowest ebb, unable to command either respect or obedience,
+except among the clergy and certain of the common people; bishops
+and abbots had grown wealthy and worldly and were often utterly neglectful
+of their religious obligations; and among the masses the services
+of worship had frequently become mere hollow formalities. There
+were still many good men in the Church, men who in an unpretentious
+way sought to do their duty faithfully; but of large numbers&mdash;possibly
+the majority&mdash;of both the higher and lower clergy this could not be said.
+The dissatisfaction of the people with industrial conditions which
+prompted the uprising of 1381 was accompanied by an almost equal
+discontent with the shortcomings of the selfish and avaricious clergy.
+It was harder, of course, to arouse men to an active hostility to the
+existing ecclesiastical system than to the industrial régime, because the
+Church still maintained a very close hold upon the sentiments and attachments
+of the average individual. Still, there were people here and
+there who were outspoken for reform, and chief among these was John
+Wyclif.</p>
+
+<p>Wyclif was born in Yorkshire about 1320 and was educated at Oxford,
+where in time he became a leading teacher. He was one of those who
+saw clearly the evils of the times and did not lack the courage to speak
+out plainly against them. As early as 1366 he had denounced the claims
+of the papacy, in a pamphlet, <i>De Dominio Divino</i>, declaring that the
+pope ought to have no authority whatsoever over states and governments.
+This position he never yielded and it became one of the cardinal
+features of his teaching. He attacked the clergy for their wealth, their
+self-seeking, and their subservience to the pope, and hurled denunciation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">475</a></span>
+at the whole body of friars and vendors of indulgences with whom England
+was thronged. He even assailed the doctrines of the Church,
+particularly as to transubstantiation, the efficacy of confession to priests,
+and the nature of the sacraments. His teachings were very acceptable to
+large numbers of people who were disgusted with existing conditions,
+and hence he soon came to have a considerable body of followers, known
+as the Lollards, who, though not regularly organized into a sect, carried
+on in later times the work which Wyclif and his "poor priests" had begun.</p>
+
+<p>In 1377 Pope Gregory XI. issued a bull in which he roundly condemned
+Wyclif and reproved the University of Oxford for not taking active steps
+to suppress the growing heresy; but it had little or no effect. In 1378
+Gregory died and two popes were elected to succeed him&mdash;Clement VII.
+at Avignon and Urban VI. at Rome [see <a href="#Page_389">p. 389</a>]. The Schism that
+resulted prevented further action for a time against Wyclif. In England,
+however, the uprising of 1381 aroused the government to the expediency
+of suppressing popular agitators, and in a church council at London,
+May 19, 1382, Wyclif's doctrines were formally condemned. In 1383
+Oxford was compelled to banish all the Lollards from her walls and by
+the time of Wyclif's death in 1384 the new belief seemed to be pretty
+thoroughly suppressed. In reality it lived on by the more or less secret
+attachment of thousands of people to it, and became one of the great
+preparatory forces for the English Reformation a century and a half
+later. The document given below is a modernized version of a letter
+written by Wyclif to Pope Urban VI. in 1384 in response to a summons
+to appear at Rome to be tried for heresy. The letter was written in
+Latin and the English translation (given below) prepared by the writer's
+followers for distribution among Englishmen represents somewhat of an
+enlargement of the original document. When Wyclif wrote the letter
+he was in the last year of his life and was so disabled by paralysis that
+a journey to Rome was quite impossible.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="source">Source&mdash;Text in Thomas Arnold, <i>Select English Works of John Wyclif</i>
+(Oxford, 1869), Vol. III., pp. 504-506. Adapted, with modernized
+spelling, in Guy Carleton Lee, <i>Source Book of English History</i> (New
+York, 1900), pp. 212-214.</p>
+
+<p>I have joyfully to tell what I hold, to all true men that believe,
+and especially to the pope; for I suppose that if my faith be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">476</a></span>
+rightful and given of God, the pope will gladly confirm it; and
+if my faith be error, the pope will wisely amend it.</p>
+
+<p>I suppose over this that the gospel of Christ be heart of the
+corps [body] of God's law; for I believe that Jesus Christ, that
+gave in His own person this gospel, is very God and very man,
+and by this heart passes all other laws.</p>
+
+<p>I suppose over this that the pope be most obliged to the
+keeping of the gospel among all men that live here; for the pope is
+<span class="sidebar">The pope's
+high obligation</span>
+highest vicar that Christ has here in earth. For
+moreness of Christ's vicar is not measured by
+worldly moreness, but by this, that this vicar
+follows more Christ by virtuous living; for thus teacheth the
+gospel, that this is the sentence of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>And of this gospel I take as believe, that Christ for time that
+He walked here, was most poor man of all, both in spirit and in
+having [possessions]; for Christ says that He had nought for to
+rest His head on. And Paul says that He was made needy for
+<span class="sidebar">Christ's earthly
+poverty</span>
+our love. And more poor might no man be,
+neither bodily nor in spirit. And thus Christ put
+from Him all manner of worldly lordship. For the gospel of John
+telleth that when they would have made Christ king, He fled
+and hid Him from them, for He would none such worldly highness.</p>
+
+<p>And over this I take it as believe, that no man should follow
+the pope, nor no saint that now is in heaven, but in as much as he
+[the pope] follows Christ. For John and James erred when they
+<span class="sidebar">How far men
+ought to follow
+the pope</span>
+coveted worldly highness; and Peter and Paul
+sinned also when they denied and blasphemed
+in Christ; but men should not follow them in
+this, for then they went from Jesus Christ. And this I take as
+wholesome counsel, that the pope leave his worldly lordship to
+<span class="sidebar">The pope exhorted
+to give
+up temporal
+authority</span>
+worldly lords, as Christ gave them,&mdash;and more
+speedily all his clerks [clergy] to do so. For
+thus did Christ, and taught thus His disciples,
+till the fiend [Satan] had blinded this world. And it seems
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">477</a></span>
+to some men that clerks that dwell lastingly in this error against
+God's law, and flee to follow Christ in this, been open heretics,
+and their fautors [supporters] been partners.</p>
+
+<p>And if I err in this sentence, I will meekly be amended [corrected],
+yea, by the death, if it be skilful [necessary], for that I
+hope were good to me. And if I might travel in mine own person,
+I would with good will go to the pope. But God has needed me
+to the contrary, and taught me more obedience to God than to
+men. And I suppose of our pope that he will not be Antichrist,
+and reverse Christ in this working, to the contrary of Christ's
+will; for if he summon against reason, by him or by any of his,
+<span class="sidebar">The pope
+should not demand
+what is
+contrary to the
+divine will</span>
+and pursue this unskilful summoning, he is an
+open Antichrist. And merciful intent excused
+not Peter, that Christ should not clepe [call] him
+Satan; so blind intent and wicked counsel excuses
+not the pope here; but if he ask of true priests that they
+travel more than they may, he is not excused by reason of God,
+that he should not be Antichrist. For our belief teaches us that
+our blessed God suffers us not to be tempted more than we may;
+how should a man ask such service? And therefore pray we to
+God for our Pope Urban the Sixth, that his old [early] holy intent
+be not quenched by his enemies. And Christ, that may not lie,
+says that the enemies of a man been especially his home family;
+and this is sooth of men and fiends.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">479</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p class="center">[Note&mdash;The numbers refer to pages.]</p>
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="none">
+<li class="idx"><a name="Aachen" id="Aachen"></a>Aachen, Charlemagne's capital, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>basilica at, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>assembly at, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+<li>capitulary for the <i>missi</i> promulgated from, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li>in territory assigned to Lothair, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Abbeville, English and French armies at, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abbo, account of siege of Paris, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abbot, character and duties of, defined in Benedictine Rule, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abelard, at Paris, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abu-Bekr, Mohammed's successor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>speech at Senlis, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li>urges election as true basis of Frankish kingship, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li>opposes candidacy of Charles of Lower Lorraine, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>speaks in behalf of Hugh Capet, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Adrianople, battle of, importance, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>described by Ammianus Marcellinus, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Ægidius, "king of the Romans," <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ælfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agincourt, English victory at, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agius, bishop of Orleans, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agriculture, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aids, nature of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>defined by Norman custom, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li>specified in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Ain Tulut, battle of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aix-la-Chapelle (see <a href="#Aachen">Aachen</a>).</li>
+
+<li>Alaf [Alavivus], a Visigothic chieftain, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alaric, king of the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Syagrius takes refuge with, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>delivers Syagrius to Clovis, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>interview with Clovis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated and slain by Clovis near Poitiers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Albar, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alcuin, brought to Charlemagne's court, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>in the Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Alemanni, defeated by Clovis at Strassburg, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alessandria, founded, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander II., approves William the Conqueror's project to invade England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander III., <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander V., elected pope, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexius Comnenus, appeals to Urban II., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alfonso XI., of Castile, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alfred the Great, biography by Asser, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>becomes king of the English, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li>fights the Danes at Wilton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li>constructs a navy, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li>defeats Danes at Swanwich, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li>in refuge at Athelney, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>meets English people at Egbert's stone, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>defeats Danes at Ethandune, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>peace of Guthrum and, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>negotiates treaty of Wedmore, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>interest in education, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>literary activity, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li>care for his children, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li>varied pursuits, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li>piety, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li>regret at lack of education, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li>search for learned men, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+<li>letter to Bishop Werfrith, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li>laws, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">480</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Alith, mother of St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alp Arslan, defeats Eastern emperor at Manzikert, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amalric, king of the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amboise, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ammianus Marcellinus, author of a Roman History, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>facts concerning life, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Amusements, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anagni, Boniface VIII. taken captive at, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Angelo, companion of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Angers, Northmen at, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Angilbert, a Carolingian poet, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Angoulême, captured by Clovis, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Annales Bertiniani</i>, scope, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Annales Laureshamensis</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Annales Laurissenses Minores</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Annales Xantenses</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Annals, origin and character of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Annates, defined, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antioch, crusaders arrive at, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>siege and capture of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Apicius, Marcus Gavius, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arabs, overrun Syria, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arezzo, Petrarch born at, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arianism, adopted by Germans, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>refuted by ordeal of hot water, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Aristotle, Dante cites, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arles, Council of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Armagnacs, in later Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Armenia, crusaders in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arnold Atton, forfeiture of fief, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arnold of Bonneval, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arpent, a land measure, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arras, treaty of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arteveld, James van, connection with Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Articles of the Barons, relation to the Great Charter, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asnapium, inventory of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Assam, conquered by the crusaders, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Assembly, the German, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>the Saxon, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Asser, biography of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Assisi, birth-place of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Athanaric, a Visigothic chieftain, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Athelney, Alfred in refuge at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Augustine, sent to Britain by Pope Gregory, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>constituted abbot, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li>lands at Thanet, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+<li>preaches to King Ethelbert, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li>life at Canterbury, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Augustus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aurelian, cedes Dacia to the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ausculta Fili</i>, issued by Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Auvillars, forfeited by Arnold Atton, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Avignon, popes resident at, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aylesford, Horsa slain in battle at, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Babylon (Cairo), St. Louis advances on, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Babylonian Captivity, begins, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ban, of the emperor, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Basel, Council of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Battle Abbey, founded by William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baugulf, Charlemagne's letter to, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bavaria, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bayeux, Odo, bishop of, imprisoned, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beatrice, Dante's love affair with, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">481</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Beauchamp, William de, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beaumont, birth of Froissart at, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bede, facts regarding life of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>"Ecclesiastical History of the English People," <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li>account of the Saxon invasion, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li>account of Augustine's mission to Britain, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Bedford, castle of, English barons at, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bellona, Roman goddess of war, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Benedict XIII., deposed from papacy, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Benedictine Rule, nature and purpose, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>character and duties of the abbot, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+<li>the monks to be called in council, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li>the Rule always to be obeyed, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li>monks to own no property individually, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+<li>daily manual labor, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+<li>reading during Lent, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+<li>hospitality, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Benefice, origin and development, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>relation to vassalage, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li>example of grant, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Beowulf, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bernardone, Pietro, father of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Bernardus Clarævallensis</i> (by William of St. Thierry), quoted, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berno, abbot of Cluny, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bertha, queen of Kent, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Biography, character of, in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blanche of Castile, mother of St. Louis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boccaccio, Petrarch's acquaintance with, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boëthius, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bohemia, king of, an elector of the Empire, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bohemians, Louis the German makes expedition against, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bohemond of Tarentum, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bologna, University of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boniface, anoints Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boniface VIII., conflict with Philip the Fair, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_384">384</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>issues bull <i>Clericis Laicos</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
+<li>issues bull <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+<li>death, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Boulogne, count of, uncle of St. Louis, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of, promulgated, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Bouvines, King John's defeat at, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brackley, English barons meet at, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bretigny, treaty of, negotiated, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>provisions of, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Britain, Saxon invasion of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>shores infested by Angle and Saxon seafarers, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li>Roman garrisons withdrawn from, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li>Saxons invited into, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>Saxon settlement in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li>Saxons conquer, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li>Christianity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li>Augustine sent to, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li>conversion of Saxon population begins, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Britons, menaced by Picts and Scots, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>decide to call in the Saxons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>conquered by the Saxons, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li>early Christianization of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Brittany, Northmen in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brussels, conference at, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buchonian Forest, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burchard, bishop of Chartres, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burgundians, faction in Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Cæsar, Julius, describes the Germans in his "Commentaries," <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>conquest of Gaul, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Calais, treaty of Bretigny revised at, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calixtus II., concessions made by, in Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">280</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">482</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Camargue, Northmen establish themselves at, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Campus Martius, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Merovingian kings at, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Cannæ, battle of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canossa, Henry IV. arrives at, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Henry IV.'s penance at, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+<li>oath taken by Henry IV. at, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Canterbury, capital of Kent, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>life of Augustine's band at, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li>Plegmund archbishop of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li>Christchurch monastery built at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Capellani</i>, functions of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Capitulare Missorum Generale</i>, promulgated by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>scope, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li>character and functions of the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>new oath to Charlemagne as emperor, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>administration of justice, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>obligations of the clergy, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>murder, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Capitulary, Charlemagne's concerning the Saxon territory, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>nature of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's concerning the royal domains, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's for the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li>nature of, in ninth century, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li>Carloman's concerning the preservation of order, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Capitulum Saxonicum</i>, issued by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cappadocia, crusaders in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cardinals, college of, instituted, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>and Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Carloman, capitulary concerning the preservation of order, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>functions of the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li>obligations of officials, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Carmina Burana</i>, source for mediæval students' songs, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carolingians, origin of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>age of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>disorders in reigns of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>menaced by Norse invasions, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+<li>efforts to preserve order, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li>growing inability to cope with conditions, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li>replaced by Capetian dynasty, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Carthusians, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Castellanerie</i>, defined, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Celestine III., <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cens</i>, payment of, in Lorris, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Census</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Centenarius</i>, functions of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chalcedon, Council of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Châlons-sur-Saône, immunity of monastery at, confirmed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Champagne, county of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Joinville's residence in, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charibert, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charlemagne, employs Einhard at court, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>biography of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li>personal appearance, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+<li>manner of dress, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+<li>fondness for St. Augustine's <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+<li>everyday life, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>education, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>interest in religion, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>charities, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>policy of Germanic consolidation, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li>conquers Lombardy, Bavaria, and the Spanish March, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li>war with the Saxons, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>transplants Saxons into Gaul, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>peace with Saxons, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>issues capitularies concerning the Saxon territory, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+<li>capitulary concerning the royal domains, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li>revenues, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li>interest in agriculture, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li>inventory of a royal estate, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li>appealed to by Pope Leo III., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li>goes to Rome, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li>crowned emperor by Leo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>significance of the coronation, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+<li>issues capitulary for the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>new oath to, as emperor, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>provisions for administration of justice, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>legislation for clergy, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li>letter to Abbot Fulrad, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li>builds up Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">483</a></span></li>
+<li>provides for elementary and intermediate education, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+<li>confirms immunity of monastery of Châlons-sur-Saône, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles Martel, victor at Tours, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Frankish mayor of the palace, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>makes office hereditary, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles the Fat, Emperor, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Odo's mission to, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>buys off the Northmen, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>deposition and death, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles, son of Charlemagne, anointed by Leo, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charles the Bald, of France, birth, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>combines with Louis against Lothair, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+<li>takes oath of Strassburg, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>lands received by treaty of Verdun, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li>buys off the Northmen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li>capitularies, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles the Simple, of France, yields Normandy to Rollo, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charles of Lower Lorraine, claimant to French throne, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>candidacy opposed by Adalbero, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles IV., Emperor, founds University of Prague, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>promulgates Golden Bull, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles IV. (the Fair), of France, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charles VI. of France, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>and the Great Schism, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles VII. of France, convenes council at Bourges, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>dauphin of France, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>-<a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Charles, count of Anjou, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charles, of Luxemburg, slain at Crécy, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charter, conditions of grant to towns, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>of Laon, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
+<li>of Lorris, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li>(See <i><a href="#Magna_Charta">Magna Charta</a></i>.)</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Châtillon, St. Bernard educated at, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>begins monastic career at, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Childebert, conquers Septimania, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Childeric I., father of Clovis, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Childeric III., last Merovingian king, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>deposed, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Chippenham, Danes winter at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>siege of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Chronica Majora</i> (by Roger of Wendover), scope of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Chronica Majora</i> (by Matthew Paris), value of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Chroniques</i> (by Froissart), character of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Church" id="Church"></a>Church, development of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>origin of papacy, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>Pope Leo's sermon on the Petrine supremacy, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of monasticism, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+<li>the Benedictine Rule, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>papacy of Gregory the Great, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>Gregory's description of the functions of the secular clergy, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's zeal for promotion of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's extension into Saxony, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>influence on development of annalistic writings, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+<li>education intrusted to, by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li>to aid in suppressing disorder, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li>illiteracy of English clergy in Alfred's day, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>influence on use of ordeals, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>use of <i>precarium</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li>favored by grants of immunity, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+<li>efforts to discourage private warfare, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>decrees the Peace of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>decrees the Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>reform through Cluniac movement, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+<li>conditions in St. Bernard's day, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li>Gregory VII.'s conception of the papal authority, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+<li>Gregory VII. avows purpose to correct abuses in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+<li>college of cardinals instituted, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li>issue of lay investiture, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+<li>liberties in England granted in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+<li>patronage of universities, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">484</a></span></li>
+<li>menaced by abuses, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of the mendicant orders, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+<li>St. Francis's attitude toward, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>use of excommunication and interdict, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li><i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
+<li>Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+<li>Council of Pisa, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li>
+<li>Council of Constance, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li>Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+<li>decline in England in fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
+<li>Wyclif's efforts to regenerate, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Cicero, Dante cites, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Petrarch's reading of, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Cimbri</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cistercians, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cîteaux, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>St. Bernard decides to join, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li>St. Bernard goes forth from, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Cities (see <a href="#Towns">Towns</a>), Frederick Barbarossa and Lombard, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>rights of guaranteed by Peace of Constance, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Clairvaux, St. Bernard founds monastery at, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_257">257</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>description of by William of St. Thierry, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+<li>marvelous works accomplished at, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
+<li>piety of monks at, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Claudius Claudianus, at the court of Honorius, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>description of the Huns, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Clement VII., elected pope, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>dies, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Clergy (see <a href="#Church">Church</a>), Charlemagne's general legislation for, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_140">140</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Pope Gregory I.'s exhortation to, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's provisions for, in Saxony, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>temporal importance in Charlemagne's empire, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>-<a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+<li>work of education committed to by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li>illiteracy in Alfred's day, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>grants of immunity to, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>protected by Peace of God, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+<li>worldliness of, in England before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Clericis Laicos</i>, issued by Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clermont, Council of, confirms Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Pope Urban's speech at, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li>first crusade proclaimed at, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Cloderic, receives deputation from Clovis, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>has his father slain, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li>himself slain, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Clotilde, wife of Clovis, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>labors for his conversion, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li>calls Remigius to the court, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Clovis, conversion of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>becomes king of the Salian Franks, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li>advances against Syagrius, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>defeats him at Soissons, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>requests King Alaric to surrender the refugee, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>has Syagrius put to death, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>episode of the broken vase, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li>decides to become a Christian, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li>wins battle of Strassburg, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li>baptized with his warriors, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li>interview with Alaric, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li>resolves to conquer southern Gaul, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li>campaign against Alaric, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li>victory at Vouillé, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li>takes possession of southern Gaul, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li>captures Angoulême, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li>sends deputation to Cloderic, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li>takes Cloderic's kingdom, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li>slays Ragnachar and Richar, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li>death at Paris, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Cluny, establishment of monastery at, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>growth and influence, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+<li>charter issued for, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+<li>land and other property yielded to, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li>Berno to be abbot, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li>relations with the papacy, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+<li>charitable activity, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Cologne, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>university founded at, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Comitatus</i>, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>a prototype of vassalage, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Commendation, defined, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Frankish formula for, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Commerce, freedom guaranteed by
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">485</a></span>
+Great Charter, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>-<a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
+<li>encouraged in charter of Lorris, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Commune (see <a href="#Towns">Towns</a>), <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Compiègne, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Compurgation, defined, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Conrad IV., <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constance, Council of, assembles, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>declarations of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Constance, Peace of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constantine, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constantine VI., deposed at Constantinople, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constantinople, threatened by Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corbei, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>French barons assemble at, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Corvée</i>, provision for in charter of Lorris, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Councils, Church, powers of declared at Pisa and Constance, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>provisions for in Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Count, duties, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>restrictions on by grants of immunity, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Count of the Palace, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crécy, English take position at, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_428">428</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>French advance to, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>-<a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
+<li>English prepare for battle, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li>
+<li>the French defeated at, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Crime, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>in Charlemagne's <i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>in Charlemagne's <i>Capitulare Missorum Generale</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li>Carloman's regulations for suppression of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li>in Alfred's legislation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li>penalties for in Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>protection of scholars against, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Crusade, Gregory VII.'s plan for, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Urban II.'s speech in behalf of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li>first crusade proclaimed, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li>motives for, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li>starting of the crusaders, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
+<li>letters of crusaders, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-<a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+<li>Stephen of Blois to his wife, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+<li>early achievements of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+<li>of St. Louis to Egypt, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Cyprus, St. Louis in, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>departs from, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Dacia, ceded to the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Danelaw, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Danes" id="Danes"></a>Danes (see <a href="#Northmen">Northmen</a>), earliest visits to England, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>defeat Alfred the Great at Wilton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li>winter at Exeter, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated by Alfred at Swanwich, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li>winter at Chippenham, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated by Alfred at Ethandune, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>treaties of peace with Alfred, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Dante, career of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>attachment to Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
+<li>relation to Renaissance, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
+<li>defends Italian as a literary language, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li>
+<li>conception of imperial power, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li>
+<li><i>De Monarchia</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Danube, Visigoths cross, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dauphiné, origin of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Bello Gallico</i> (by Julius Cæsar), character of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+<li>used by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Debt, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>collection of among students, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Décime</i>, defined, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Civitate Dei</i> (by St. Augustine), Charlemagne's regard for, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergæ reginæ</i> (by Hincmar), quoted, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Domino Divino</i> (by Wyclif), nature of, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Gestis Regum Anglorum</i> (by William of Malmesbury), scope, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Degrees, university, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Litteris Colendis</i>, addressed by Charlemagne to Abbot Baugulf, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>work of education committed to the clergy, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
+<li>education essential to interpretation of Scriptures, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">486</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Demesne, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Monarchia</i> (by Dante), nature of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_453">453</a>
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>De odio et âtia</i>, writ of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>-<a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>churches as places of refuge, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+<li>offenses against the Church, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+<li>penalties for persistence in paganism, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li>fugitive criminals, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>public assemblies, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>De Rebus Familiaribus</i> (by Petrarch), quoted, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Rebus Gestis Ælfredi Magni</i> (by Asser), quoted, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Temporibus</i> (by Eusebius), preface to, cited by Petrarch, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De Villis</i>, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li>reports to be made by the stewards, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li>equipment, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li>produce due the king, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>De Vulgari Eloquentia</i> (by Dante), <a href="#Page_447">447</a>-<a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deusdedit, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Dictatus Papæ</i>, authorship of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Diedenhofen, Louis, Lothair, and Charles meet at, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Divina Commedia</i> (by Dante), <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Domains, Charlemagne's capitulary concerning, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>specimen inventory of property, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Domesday Survey, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dominicans, founded, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dordrecht, burned by the Northmen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>again taken, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Dorset, Danes land in, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dorylæum, Turks defeated at, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Druids, among the Gauls, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Easter tables, origin of mediæval annals, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Eastern_Empire" id="Eastern_Empire"></a>Eastern Empire, menaced by Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ebolus, abbot of St. Germain des Près, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Edington (see <a href="#Ethandune">Ethandune</a>).</li>
+
+<li><a name="Education" id="Education"></a>Education, decline among the Franks, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Charlemagne's provisions for, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>the Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li>decline after Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+<li>entrusted by Charlemagne to the clergy, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li>Alfred's interest in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>of Alfred's children, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li>Alfred's labors in behalf of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+<li>Alfred laments decline of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>universities in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Edward the Confessor, death of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Edward III., claim to French throne, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>takes title of king of France, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+<li>wins battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
+<li>takes position at Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
+<li>prepares for battle, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
+<li>defeats French army, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li>new invasion of France, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+<li>concludes treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Edward, the Black Prince, wins his spurs at Crécy, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>-<a href="#Page_435">435</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>besieges and sacks Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Egbert's stone, Alfred meets English people at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Einhard, describes weakness of later Merovingians, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>career of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li>author of <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li>sketch of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>account of the Saxon war, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>statement regarding Charlemagne's coronation, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Elbe, German boundary in Charlemagne's day, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Electors, of Holy Roman Empire, provisions of Golden Bull regarding, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ely, bishop of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Empire (see <a href="#Eastern_Empire">Eastern Empire</a>; <a href="#Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, and the names of emperors).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">487</a></span></li>
+
+<li>England, ravaged by the Danes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Alfred the Great becomes king, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li>Alfred's wars with the Danes, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>navy founded by Alfred, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Wedmore, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>decadence of learning, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li>Alfred brings learned men to, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+<li>Alfred writes to Bishop Werfrith on state of learning in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li>William the Conqueror's claim to throne of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>Harold becomes king of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>William the Conqueror prepares to invade, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>battle of Hastings, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+<li>Saxons and Normans, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+<li>William the Conqueror's government of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
+<li>reign of King John, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>-<a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
+<li>the winning of the Great Charter, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li>provisions of the Charter, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
+<li>Edward III. claims French throne, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
+<li>naval battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
+<li>battle of Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li>the Black Prince sacks Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
+<li>religious decline in fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
+<li>Wyclif's career, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>-<a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Epistolæ de Rebus Senilibus</i> (by Petrarch), <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Epistolæ sine Titulo</i> (by Petrarch), <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Epistolæ Variæ</i> (by Petrarch), <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Erfurt, University of, founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Établissements de St. Louis</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Ethandune" id="Ethandune"></a>Ethandune, Alfred defeats Danes at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ethelbert, king of Kent, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>accepts Christianity, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li>power of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li>receives Augustine, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li>encourages missionary effort, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Ethelred I., king of the English, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ethelstan, of Mercia, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ethelwerd, son of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eugene IV., and Council of Basel, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eurie, king of the Northmen, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>defeated by Louis the German, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Eusebius, author of <i>De Temporibus</i>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Excommunication, nature of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>of Henry IV. by Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li>of Frederick II. by Gregory IX., <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Exeter, Danes winter at, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Fealty, ceremony of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>described in an English law book, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+<li>rendered to count of Flanders, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+<li>ordinance of St. Louis on, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Feudalism, importance of, in mediæval history, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>most perfectly developed in France, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>-<a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li>essential elements, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li>origins of vassalage, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li>formula for commendation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+<li>development of the benefice, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li>example of grant of a benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+<li>origins and nature of the immunity, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+<li>formula for grant of immunity, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li>an immunity confirmed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>nature of the fief, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>specimen grants of fiefs, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+<li>complexity of the system, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+<li>ceremonies of homage and fealty, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li>homage defined, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li>fealty described, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+<li>homage and fealty illustrated, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+<li>ordinance of St. Louis on homage and fealty, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+<li>obligations of lords and vassals, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+<li>rights of the lord, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+<li>aids, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li>military service involved, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li>wardship and marriage, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li>reliefs, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+<li>forfeiture, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+<li>militant character of feudal period, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_229">229</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">488</a></span></li>
+<li>efforts to reduce private war, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>the Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>provisions of Great Charter concerning, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Fief, relation to benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>nature, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>specimen grants, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Fitz-Walter, Robert, besieges castle of Northampton, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flanders, influence on Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>allied with Edward III., <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Flanders, William, count of, homage and fealty to, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Florence, Dante born at, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fontaines, St. Bernard born at, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fontenay, Charles and Louis defeat Lothair at, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forfeiture, nature, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_227">227</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>case of Arnold Atton, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Formula, for commendation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>for grant of a benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+<li>for grant of immunity to a bishop, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>France, Hugh Capet becomes king, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>geographical extent in 987, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>feudalism most perfectly developed in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>-<a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li>over-population of described by Pope Urban, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+<li>in times of Louis IX., <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Paris (1229), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of municipalities in, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-<a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
+<li>interdict laid on by Innocent III., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
+<li>Philip the Fair's contest with Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
+<li>States General meets, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+<li>responsibility for Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+<li>Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+<li>disputed succession in 1328, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>-<a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+<li>Edward III. takes title of king, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
+<li>naval battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
+<li>battle of Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li>siege and sack of Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Francia Occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Francia Orientalis</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Francia</i>, territorial extent, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Francis I., Concordat of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Franciscans, founded, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>life of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li>Rule of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
+<li>Will of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Frankfort, electors of Empire to assemble at, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Franks, conquer northern Gaul, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>become Christians, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li>character of conversion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li>close relations with papacy, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li>Clovis becomes king of the Salians, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li>defeat Syagrius at Soissons, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>defeat Alaric near Poitiers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li>Salic law, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li>decadence of Merovingians, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of Mayor of the Palace, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>early mayors, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>Pepin the Short becomes king, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>the age of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>the war with the Saxons, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's capitularies, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne crowned emperor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>decay of learning among, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li>Carolingian Renaissance, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>disorder among in ninth century, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>menaced by invasions of Northmen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>decline of monarchy in ninth century, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of feudalism among, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Freckenhorst, sacred relics brought to, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frederick, bishop of Hamburg, issues charter for a colony, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frederick Barbarossa, grants privileges to students and masters, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>and the Italian communes, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li>destroys Milan, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated at Legnano, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li>agrees to Peace of Constance, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>-<a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Frederick II., accession of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_403">403</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">489</a></span>
+character, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-<a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
+<li>suspected of heresy, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li>excommunicated, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Friars, conditions determining rise of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>unlike monks, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
+<li>relations with papacy and local clergy, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
+<li>system of organization, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
+<li>career of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>Rule of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
+<li>Will of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Fridigern, leader of branch of Visigoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Friesland (see <a href="#Frisia">Frisia</a>).</li>
+
+<li><a name="Frisia" id="Frisia"></a>Frisia, Northmen in, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Froissart, Sire de, "Chronicles" of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulbert of Chartres, letter to William of Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulcher of Chartres, version of Pope Urban's speech, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>account of starting of crusaders, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Fulda, Einhard educated at, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulrad, Charlemagne's letter to, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_144">144</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>summoned to assembly at Strassfurt, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+<li>troops and equipment to be brought, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+<li>gifts for the Emperor, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Gaiseric, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galicia, Northmen visit, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gâtinais, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Gau</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gaul, conquered by Julius Cæsar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>invaded by Cimbri and Teutons, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li>Syagrius's kingdom in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>the Franks take possession in the north, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>Clovis overthrows Visigothic power in south, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li>monasteries established in, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne transplants Saxons into, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>Northmen devastate, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li>survival of Roman immunity in, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Geoffrey of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Germania</i> (by Tacitus), nature and purpose, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>contents, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li>translation and editions, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Germans, described by Cæsar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>religion, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li>system of land tenure, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li>magistrates and war leaders, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+<li>hospitality, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+<li>described by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li>location in Cæsar's day, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+<li>physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li>use of iron, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li>weapons, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li>mode of fighting, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+<li>ideas of military honor, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+<li>kingship, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li>tribal assemblies, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li>investment with arms, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li>the <i>princeps</i> and <i>comitatus</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li>love of war, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li>agriculture, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li>life in times of peace, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li>absence of tax systems, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li>lack of cities and city life, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li>villages, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li>food and drink, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li>amusements, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li>slavery, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li>early contact with the Romans, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li>defeat Varus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li>put Romans on the defensive, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li>filter into the Empire, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li>invasions begin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li>generally Christianized before invasion of Empire, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li>character of their conversion, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li>ideas of law, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li>influenced by contact with Romans, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li>codification of law, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li>legal ideas and methods, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+<li>compurgation, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+<li>use of the ordeal, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Germany, Henry IV.'s position in, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Henry V.'s government of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>question of lay investiture in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+<li>colonization toward the east, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
+<li>colony chartered by bishop of Hamburg, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+<li>decline of imperial power, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>chaotic conditions, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of municipal leagues, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>the Rhine League, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of universities in, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+<li>in Frederick Barbarossa's period, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li>under Frederick II., <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
+<li>conditions after Frederick II., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_410">410</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">490</a></span></li>
+<li>Golden Bull of Charles IV., <a href="#Page_410">410</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Genghis Khan, empire of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ghent, Council at, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gildas, story of Saxon invasion of Britain, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gillencourt, granted to Jocelyn d'Avalon, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gisela, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gloucester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Golden Bull, promulgated by Charles IV., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>character of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Gozlin, bishop of Paris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Grâce expectative</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gratian, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Great Council, in William the Conqueror's time, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>provisions of Great Charter concerning, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+<li>composition, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Greek fire, nature of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>used by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>-<a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Gregory of Nazianzus, cited by Pope Gregory, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gregory of Tours, facts regarding career, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>author of <i>Ecclesiastical History of the Franks</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li>opportunities for knowledge, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li>account of Frankish affairs quoted, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li>account of ordeal by hot water quoted, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Gregory I. (the Great), plans conversion of Saxons, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>sends Augustine to Britain, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li>becomes pope, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>letter of encouragement to Augustine's band, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+<li>early career, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>qualifications, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>author of the <i>Pastoral Rule</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>describes the functions of the secular clergy, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li>attitude toward worldly learning, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li><i>Pastoral Rule</i> translated by Alfred, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Gregory IV., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gregory VI., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Gregory_VII" id="Gregory_VII"></a>Gregory VII., early career, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>becomes pope, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li>conceptions of papal authority, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+<li>breach with Henry IV., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+<li>letter to Henry IV., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li>claim to authority over temporal princes, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+<li>avows purpose to correct abuses in the Church, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+<li>disposed to treat Henry IV. fairly, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
+<li>letter to, from Henry IV., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li>charges against, by Henry IV., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li>deposes him, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+<li>meets Henry IV. at Canossa, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li>absolves him, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+<li>project for a crusade, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Gregory IX., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gregory XI., removes to Rome, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>bull concerning Lollards, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Gregory XII., abdicates papacy, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grimbald, brought from Gaul by Alfred, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guienne, English and French dispute possession of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guiscard, Roger, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guthrum, peace of Alfred and, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>becomes a Christian, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Hadrian, I., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamburg, pillaged by the Slavs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>bishop of, grants charter for a colony, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Hanseatic League, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harold Hardrada, defeated at Stamford Bridge, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harold, son of Godwin, chosen king of England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>position disputed by William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>defeats Harold Hardrada, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>takes station at Hastings, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>valor and death, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Hastings, English take position at, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>they prepare for battle, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li>the Normans prepare, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>William's strategem, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Heidelberg, University of, founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>charter of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+<li>modelled on University of Paris, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">491</a></span></li>
+<li>internal government, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>-<a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
+<li>jurisdiction of bishop of Worms, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
+<li>exemptions enjoyed by students, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+<li>rates for lodgings, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Hell, portrayed in the Koran, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hengist, legendary leader of Saxons, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>ancestry, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry of Champagne, grants fief to bishop of Beauvais, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry I. of England, charter of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry III. of England, concludes treaty of Paris with St. Louis, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry V. of England, in Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>marries daughter of Charles VI., <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li>
+<li>awarded French crown by treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry I. of Germany, movement against the Slavs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry III. of Germany, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry IV. of Germany, controversy opens with Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>wins battle on the Unstrutt, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li>letter of Gregory VII. to, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li>exhorted to confess and repent sins, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
+<li>reply to letter of Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li>rejects papal claim to temporal supremacy, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+<li>excommunicated by Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li>deposed by him, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+<li>penance at Canossa, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li>
+<li>oath of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry V. of Germany, succeeds Henry IV., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>his spirit of independence, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>invasion of Italy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>compact with Paschal II., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>party to Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry VI. of Germany, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry VII. of Germany, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hermaneric, king of the Ostrogoths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hide, a land measure, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hildebrand (see <a href="#Gregory_VII">Gregory VII</a>.).</li>
+
+<li>Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>description of ordeal by cold water, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Hippo, St. Augustine bishop of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i> (by the Venerable Bede), scope and character, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Historia Ecclesiastica Francorum</i> (by Gregory of Tours), scope and character, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem</i> (by Raimond of Agiles), quoted, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Historia Iherosolimitana</i> (by Robert the Monk), quoted, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Historia Iherosolimitana</i> (by Fulcher of Chartres), quoted, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> (by Nithardus), scope, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i> (by Richer), scope, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Histoire de Saint Louis</i> (by Joinville), character, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Hollanders, receive charter from bishop of Hamburg, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>fiscal obligations, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
+<li>judicial immunity, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Holy_Roman_Empire" id="Holy_Roman_Empire"></a>Holy Roman Empire, coronation of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>character and significance, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li>difficulty of holding together, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+<li>disordered condition in ninth century, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>Henry IV.'s position in, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li>question of lay investiture in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+<li>Henry V., emperor, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+<li>weakening of central authority, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>chaotic condition, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>rise of municipal leagues, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>the Rhine League, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+<li>in 12th, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>th, and 14th centuries, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li>Frederick Barbarossa at head of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
+<li>Peace of Constance, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
+<li>accession of Frederick II., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">492</a></span></li>
+<li>II., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+<li>Dante's attachment to, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
+<li>Dante's defense of in <i>De Monarchia</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Homage, ceremony of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>a Norman definition of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li>rendered to count of Flanders, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+<li>ordinance of St. Louis on, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Homer, Dante's knowledge of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Petrarch interested in, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Homicide, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Honorius III., St. Francis promises allegiance to, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horace, alluded to by Petrarch, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horsa, legendary leader of Saxons, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>death, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li>ancestry, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Hôte</i>, defined, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li>House of Commons, origin of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>House of Lords, origin of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hugh Capet, establishes Capetian dynasty, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Adalbero urges election as king, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>crowned at Noyon, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>extent of dominions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Humanism, rise of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Petrarch's love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Humber River, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hundred Years' War, causes, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>-<a href="#Page_419">419</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Edward III. and the Flemings, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+<li>naval battle of Sluys, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
+<li>battle of Crécy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li>siege and sack of Limoges, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Bretigny, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of Troyes, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Huns, threaten the Goths, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>characterized by Claudius Claudianus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+<li>described by Ammianus Marcellinus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li>physical appearance, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+<li>dress, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+<li>mode of fighting, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li>nomadic character, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li>greed and quarrelsomeness, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Iacinthus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Il Convito</i> (by Dante), character of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Immunity, in Roman law, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>feudal, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+<li>formula for grant to bishop, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li>grant to a monastery confirmed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>in an East German colony, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Incendiarism, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>in the Burgundian law, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Ingeborg, wife of Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ingelheim, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Inghen, Marsilius, rector of University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Inheritance, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Innocent III., King John's surrender to, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>confirms privileges of University of Paris, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li>approves work of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
+<li>lays interdict on France, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Innocent IV., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>In Rufinum</i> (by Claudius Claudianus), quoted, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Interdict, nature of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>laid on France, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Interregnum, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>end of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Investiture, lay, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Henry IV.'s disregard of Gregory VII.'s decrees concerning, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li>Paschal II.'s decree prohibiting, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>agreement of 1111 concerning, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>settlement of by Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Ireland, Christianity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Irene, deposes Constantine VI., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Irmensaule, destroyed by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Irnerius, teacher of law at Bologna, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Isabella, mother of Edward III., <a href="#Page_418">418</a>-<a href="#Page_419">419</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>excluded from French throne, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Islam (see <a href="#Koran">Koran</a>, <a href="#Mohammed">Mohammed</a>).</li>
+
+<li>Italian (language), Dante's defense of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Italy, Frederick Barbarossa and communes of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">493</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Jerusalem, captured by Arabs, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>by the Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Jeufosse, Northmen winter at, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jocelyn d'Avalon, receives fief from Thiebault of Troyes, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John, bishop of Ravenna, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John the Old Saxon, brought from Gaul by Alfred, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John, of England, character of reign, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>conference of magnates in opposition to, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
+<li>arranges truce with them, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+<li>takes the cross, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
+<li>scorns the demands of the barons, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
+<li>loses London, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
+<li>consents to terms of Great Charter, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>John XXIII., elected pope, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>deposed, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>John, king of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John II. of France, taken captive at Poitiers, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>later career, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Joinville, Sire de, sketch of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>biographer of St. Louis, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Judith of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Julian the Apostate, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jurats, in Laon, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jury, not provided for in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Justice, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>among the Franks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li>among the Saxons, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's provision for in capitulary for the <i>missi</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>compurgation, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+<li>ordeal, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>administration of in the universities, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Jutes, settle in Kent, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Karlmann, son of Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kent, Saxons and Jutes settle in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Ethelbert, king of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Kingship, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Knut VI., king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Koran" id="Koran"></a>Koran, origin of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>scope and character, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+<li>essential teachings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+<li>translation, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li>opening prayer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li>unity of God, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li>the resurrection, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li>the coming judgment, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li>reward of the righteous, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>fate of the wicked, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>pleasures of paradise, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+<li>torments of hell, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Kutuz, defeats Tartars, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">La Broyes, Philip VI. at castle of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li>La Ferté-sur-Aube, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>St. Bernard at, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Laon, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>charter of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Law, character of among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>codification under Roman influence, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li>the Salic code, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li>of Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li>revival of Roman, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li>study of at University of Bologna, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Learning, revival under Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>decline after Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+<li>Alfred on state of in England, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li>decadence in England before the Conquest, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+<li>revival in thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+<li>Petrarch's love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Legend of the Three Companions</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Legnano, Frederick Barbarossa defeated at, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leo I. (the Great), elected pope, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>sermon on the Petrine supremacy, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Leo III., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>driven from Rome, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li>appeals to Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li>crowns Charlemagne emperor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Leo IV., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leo IX., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leo, author of the <i>Mirror of Perfection</i>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">494</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Liberal Arts, place in Charlemagne's system of education, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Alfred laments his ignorance of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Liber Regulæ Pastoralis</i> (by Pope Gregory I.), nature and value, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li>qualities of the ideal pastor, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li>admonitions for various sorts of people, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li>translated by Alfred, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Libri Miraculorum</i> (by Gregory of Tours), quoted, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Liège, Henry IV. dies at, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Limoges, siege of by the Black Prince, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>-<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Limousin, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lindisfarne, plundered by Danes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Little Flowers of St. Francis</i>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Loire, Clovis and Alaric meet on, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Clovis's campaign beyond, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li>Northmen on, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Lollards, tenets of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lombard League, formation of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Frederick Barbarossa's war upon, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li>provisions of Peace of Constance regarding, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Lombards, conquered by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>London, sacked by Danes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>King John at, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+<li>army of the barons arrives at, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
+<li>surrendered to the barons, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+<li>Wyclif's doctrines condemned in council at, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Lorris, model of franchise towns, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>charter of, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Lorsch, monastery at, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li><i>Lesser Annals</i> of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Lothair, Charles and Louis combine against, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>defeated at Fontenay, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li>oaths of Strassburg directed against, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>makes overtures for peace, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>lands received by treaty of Verdun, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Lotharingia, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louis the Pious, capitulary on education, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>divides the Empire, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Louis the German, combines with Charles the Bald against Lothair, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>takes oath at Strassburg, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li>lands received by treaty of Verdun, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li>advances against the Wends, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li>expeditions against the Bohemians, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+<li>defeats the Northmen, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Louis the Stammerer, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louis V., last direct Carolingian, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louis VI. of France, ratifies charter of Laon, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louis VII. of France, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>grants charter to Lorris, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Louis_IX" id="Louis_IX"></a>Louis IX. of France, early career, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>character, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
+<li>difficulties at beginning of reign, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+<li>takes the cross, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>-<a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
+<li>emulated by prominent nobles, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
+<li>in Cyprus, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li>receives deputation from Khan of Tartary, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li>arrival in Egypt, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+<li>advances on Babylon (Cairo), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+<li>operations on the lower Nile, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
+<li>negotiates treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
+<li>personal traits, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
+<li>methods of dispensing justice, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Louis X. of France, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louis XI. of France, seeks to revoke Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louis IV., Emperor, allied with Edward III., <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Luidhard, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Luitbert, brings sacred relics to the Freckenhorst, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lyons, Council of, Frederick II. excommunicated at, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Mâcon, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Magdeburg, established, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Magna_Charta" id="Magna_Charta"></a><i>Magna Charta</i>, the winning of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>agreed to at Runnymede, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li>importance and character, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>-<a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">495</a></span></li>
+<li>translations, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
+<li>liberties of the English church, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+<li>rate of reliefs, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+<li>aids, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+<li>the Great Council, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+<li>writ <i>de odio et âtia</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>-<a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
+<li>personal liberties and prerogatives, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
+<li>freedom of commercial intercourse, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>-<a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
+<li>means of enforcement, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Magna Moralia</i>, written by Pope Gregory, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mainz, a capital of Rhine League, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>archbishop of, to summon electors of the Empire, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Mallus</i>, character, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>summonses to, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li>complaint to be made before, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Manichæus, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manzikert, Eastern emperor defeated at, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mapes, Walter, <i>Latin Poems</i> attributed to, a source for mediæval students' songs, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marcomanni, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marriage, of heiresses, right of lord to control, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marseilles, St. Louis's companions embark at, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marshall, William, surety for King John, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>-<a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martian, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martin V., elected pope, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>and Council of Siena, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Matilda, Countess, ally of Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Matthew Paris, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li><i>Greater Chronicle</i> of, quoted, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Maurice, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+<li>May-field, character of in Charlemagne's time, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mayor of the Palace, rise of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>office made hereditary, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>accession of Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>latter becomes king, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Merovingians, decadence of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>end with Childeric III., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Merovius, ancestor of Clovis, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metz, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>diet of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
+<li>electors of Empire to meet at, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Milan, Frederick Barbarossa destroys, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ministeriales</i>, functions of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Missaticæ</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Missi dominici</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Charlemagne's capitulary for, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>character and functions, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>employed by Charles Martel and Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li>to promulgate royal decrees, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li>abuses of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li>in ninth century, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>M&oelig;sia, Visigoths settle in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Mohammed" id="Mohammed"></a>Mohammed, sayings comprised in Koran, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>principal teachings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Monastery, formula for grant of <i>precarium</i> by, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>grant of immunity confirmed to, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Monasticism, rise of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>character of in the East and West, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>abbey of St. Martin established, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>Monte Cassino established by St. Benedict, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+<li>the Benedictine rule, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>character and functions of the abbot, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li>prohibition of individual property-holding, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li>manual labor, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+<li>reading and study, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+<li>hospitality, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+<li>decadence in eighth and ninth centuries, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+<li>the Cluniac reform, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+<li>St. Bernard's reformation of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li>founding of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Monotheism, set forth in the Koran, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monte Cassino, monastery founded at, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Karlmann withdraws to, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Montlhéri, St. Louis at, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>English army at, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Mortmain, prohibited by charter of Laon, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Murder, Charlemagne's legislation on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Nantes, pillaged by Northmen, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nazianzus, Gregory, bishop of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">496</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Nerva, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New Forest, of William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nicæa, Council of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Seljuk Turks established at, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li>crusaders converge at, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Nice, Visigoths advance toward, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nicholas II., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nile, St. Louis's operations on, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nithardus, author of <i>Historiarum Libri IV.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>career, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Nogaret, William of, captures Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Noménoé, conflicts with Charles the Bald, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Normans, rapid civilization of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>retain adventuresome disposition, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li>in battle of Hastings, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+<li>described by William of Malmesbury, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Normandy, ceded by Charles the Simple to Rollo, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>improvement under Norman régime, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+<li>William the Bastard becomes duke of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>English and French dispute possession of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Northampton, castle of, besieged by the English barons, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Northmen" id="Northmen"></a>Northmen, in Frisia and Gaul, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-<a href="#Page_160">160</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>in Frisia and Saxony, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li>burn church of St. Martin at Tours, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>motives of the Norse invasions, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>pillage, Nantes, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+<li>winter at Rhé, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+<li>ascend Garonne, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>in Spain, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>at Paris, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>in Frisia and Brittany, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>threaten Orleans, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>at Angers, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>pillage Orleans, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>plunder Pisa, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li>besiege Paris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>bought off by Charles the Fat, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>receive Normandy from Charles the Simple, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li>become Christians, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. (See <a href="#Danes">Danes</a>.)</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Notre Dame, cathedral school of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Noyon, Hugh Capet crowned at, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nuremberg, diet of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Odo, becomes king of France, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>defense of Paris, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li>mission to Charles the Fat, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned by William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oppenheim, convention of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ordeal, nature of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>use among Germanic peoples, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>various forms, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>an Arian presbyter tested by, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+<li>by cold water described, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+<li>Peter Bartholomew subjected to by fire, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Origen, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Orleans, threatened by the Northmen, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>pillaged by them, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Orosius, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ostrogoths, fall before the Huns, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otger, archbishop of Mainz, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otto I. of Germany, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otto II. of Germany, loses ground to the Slavs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otto III. of Germany, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otto IV. of Germany, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>crowned at Rome, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated at Bouvines, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Oxford, Wyclif educated at, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>banishes Lollards, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Paderborn, Frankish assembly at, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Pope Leo III. meets Charlemagne at, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Pagus</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paradise, portrayed in the Koran, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palace School, origin of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>enlargement by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Papacy, views on origin of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>reasons for growth, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>theory of Petrine supremacy, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>Pope Leo's sermon, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>Gregory becomes pope, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>his literary efforts, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>describes functions of secular clergy, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li>Pope Zacharias sanctions deposition of Merovingian line, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">497</a></span></li>
+<li>Pope Leo III. crowns Charlemagne emperor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>Cluny's relations with, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+<li>Gregory VII.'s conception of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+<li>Gregory VII.'s claim to authority over temporal princes, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+<li>Henry IV.'s rejection of claim of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+<li>Calixtus II. agrees to Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+<li>relations of friars with, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
+<li>St. Francis's attitude towards, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>and temporal powers in later Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+<li>contest of Innocent III. and Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
+<li>Boniface VIII.'s bull <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
+<li>Babylonian Captivity, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
+<li>Great Schism, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+<li>declarations of Councils of Pisa and Constance, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li>provisions of Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges regarding powers of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+<li>conflicts with Frederick II., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
+<li>Dante enumerates theories in defense of, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li>
+<li>defines true position of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</li>
+<li>Wyclif's ideas concerning, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Paris, Clovis's capital, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>his death at, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li>Northmen at, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>Northmen prepare to besiege, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li>attack upon, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>importance of siege, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of (1259), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
+<li>treaty of (1396), <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Paris, University of, origin, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>privileges granted to students by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+<li>Heidelberg modelled on, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li>case of Great Schism laid before, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+<li>proposals regarding Schism, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Paschal II., accession to papacy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>decree prohibiting lay investiture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li>relations with Henry V., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Patrocinium</i>, a prototype of vassalage, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paul the Deacon, in Charlemagne's Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paulinus of Aquileia, in Charlemagne's Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pavia, taken by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peace of God, decreed by Church councils, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>decree of Council of Toulouges, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Pelagius II., sends Gregory to Constantinople, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Penalties, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_65">65</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>in Charlemagne's <i>De Partibus Saxoniæ</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>in Alfred's legislation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li>for violation of an immunity, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>for violation of Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>mayor of the palace, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>sends deputation to Pope Zacharias, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>crowned by Pope Stephen III., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>advised to take title of king, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>anointed by Boniface at Soissons, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Pepin, grandson of Louis the Pious, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peter Bartholomew, subjected to ordeal by fire, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peter of Catana, minister-general of Franciscans, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peter of Pisa, brought to Charlemagne's court, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>in the Palace School, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Petrarch, career of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>-<a href="#Page_463">463</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>part in the Renaissance, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;</li>
+<li>writings, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</li>
+<li>love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
+<li>letter to Posterity, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>-<a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Petrine Supremacy, theory of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Pope Leo's sermon on, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>mediæval acceptance of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>theory of stated by Gregory VII., <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+<li>allusion to in <i>Unam Sanctam</i>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
+<li>Dante's conception of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>-<a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Pfahlburgers, provision of Rhine League concerning, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philip II. (Augustus) of France, privileges granted to students by, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>contest with Innocent III., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_383">383</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">498</a></span></li>
+<li>imposes Saladin tithe, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Philip IV. (the Fair) of France, contest with Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_385">385</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>convenes States General, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+<li>sons of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Philip V. of France, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philip VI. of France, acquires the Dauphiné, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>accession of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+<li>advances with army to Crécy, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>-<a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated at Crécy, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Philip of Hohenstaufen, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philippa, wife of Edward III., <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piacenza, Council of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Picts, menace the Britons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Saxons called in against, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+<li>Saxons ally with, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Pilgrimages, to Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pisa, Council of, convened, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>declarations of, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Plato, Petrarch loans a volume of, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pliny the Elder, probably used by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poitiers, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>battle of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Pontus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Posidonius of Rhodes, probably used by Tacitus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prague, University of founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Precarium</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>prototype of the benefice, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li>example of grant, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Principes</i>, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>conduct in battle, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Prudence, bishop of Troyes, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Quadi, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Quadrivium</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Ragnachar, kinsman of Clovis, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>slain, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Raymond of Agiles, account of ordeal by fire, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raymond, count of Toulouse, letter to Arnold Atton, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raymond of St. Gilles, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ravenna, Dante's death at, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reformation, foreshadowings of, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Regalia</i>, in Concordat of Worms, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">280</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>claimed by Frederick Barbarossa, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
+<li>grant of to Lombard cities, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Relief, defined, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>origin, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+<li>examples, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+<li>rate fixed by Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Religion, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>rise of Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li>the Koran quoted, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's zeal for, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Remigius, bishop of Rheims, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Renaissance (Carolingian), conditions preceding, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Charlemagne's part in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Renaissance (Italian), nature of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>-<a href="#Page_445">445</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>career of Dante, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
+<li>Dante's defense of Italian as literary language, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li>
+<li>Dante's conception of the imperial power, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</li>
+<li>career and writings of Petrarch, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>-<a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</li>
+<li>Petrarch's love of the classics, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
+<li>his letter to Posterity, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>-<a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt</i> (by Ammianus Marcellinus), quoted, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Reserve</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Resurrection, portrayed in the Koran, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhé, Northmen winter at, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhine, the Roman frontier, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>trade in vicinity of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Rhine League, conditions influencing formation, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>instituted at Worms, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+<li>restrictions imposed on members, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+<li>treatment of enemies of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
+<li>capitals, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li>governing body, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li>military preparations, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">499</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Richar, slain by Clovis, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Richer, author of <i>Four Books of Histories</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rivo Torto, St. Francis at, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robert I., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robert the Strong, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robert the Monk, version of Pope Urban's speech, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robert of Artois, connection with Hundred Years' War, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robertians, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>rivalry with Carolingians, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Roger de Hoveden, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roger of Wendover, account of the winning of the Great Charter, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roland, Song of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rollo, receives Normandy from Charles the Simple, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>baptized, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li>improvement of Normandy, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Romans, conquest of Gaul by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>travelers and traders in Germany, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li>defeat of Varus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li>put on the defensive, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li>early contact with the Germans, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li>alarmed by reports of Gothic restlessness, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+<li>mistreat the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated at Adrianople, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li>withdraw garrisons from Britain, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Roman Empire, filtration of Germans into, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>efforts to enlarge to the northward, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+<li>Visigoths desire to enter, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li>Visigoths settle in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li>relation of Charlemagne's empire to, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Romanus Diogenes, defeated at Manzikert, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rome, development of papacy at, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Pepin the Short sends deputation to, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's visits to, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne crowned at, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>plundered by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Romulus Augustulus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roncesvalles, Count Roland slain at, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rorik, leader of Northmen, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rouen, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned at, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rudolph I., of Hapsburg, elected emperor, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rufinus, companion of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rule, of St. Francis, drawn up, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_374">374</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Runnymede, Great Charter promulgated at, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rupert I., founds University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx"><i>Sacrosancta</i>, decree of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Albans, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Andrew, monastery of, established, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Augustine, author of <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Benedict, career of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>service to European monasticism, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+<li>Rule of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>St. Bernard, times of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>founds Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li>biography of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+<li>birth and parentage, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+<li>early traits, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
+<li>decides to become a monk, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+<li>at Châtillon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li>enters Cîteaux,254</li>
+<li>obtains ability to reap, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
+<li>piety and knowledge of Scriptures, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+<li>goes forth from Cîteaux, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+<li>founds monastery at Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>St. Bonaventura, author of official life of St. Francis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, treaty of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. David, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Dionysius, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Dominic, founder of Dominican order, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Edmund's, magnates of England assemble at, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Francis, early career, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>sources of information on, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">500</a></span></li>
+<li>youthful follies, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+<li>redeeming qualities, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+<li>change in manner of life, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
+<li>zeal in charity, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>-<a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li>begs alms at Rome, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li>overcomes aversion to lepers, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
+<li>refuses to dwell in an adorned cell, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
+<li>humiliates himself publicly, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>-<a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li>love for the larks, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
+<li>regard for all created things, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li>draws up his Rule, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li>the Rule quoted, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
+<li>the will of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>attitude toward the existing Church, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>enjoins poverty and labor, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>St. Germain des Prés, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Jerome, translation of Scriptures, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>cited by Petrarch, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>St. Louis (see <a href="#Louis_IX">Louis IX</a>.).</li>
+
+<li>St. Marcellus, Church of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Martin (of Tours), career of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>shrine of visited by pilgrims, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li>Clovis's respect for, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li>church at Canterbury dedicated to, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li>monastery at Tours dedicated to, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>church of burned by Northmen, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>St. Peter, Christ's commission to, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Peter, Church of, Charlemagne's gifts to, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Charlemagne crowned in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+<li>fortified, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>St. Quentin, Fulrad abbot of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Dudo, dean of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Savigny, granted as fief to bishop of Beauvais, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saisset, Bernard, offends Philip the Fair, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salerno, University of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salic law, cited, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>date, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li>character, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li>editions and translation, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li>monetary system in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li>summonses to meetings of the local courts, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li>theft, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li>robbery with assault, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li>incendiarism, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li>deeds of violence, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li>use of poison or witchcraft, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+<li>slander, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+<li>trespass, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li>homicide, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li>right of migration, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li>debt, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li>inheritance, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li>wergeld, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Saracens, plunder Rome, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Italian league against, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li>renew devastation, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+<li>in possession of the Holy Land, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li>combats with crusaders, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+<li>project to turn the Tartars against, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li>operations against St. Louis, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
+<li>Frederick II. accused of friendly relations with, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Saxon Chronicle, quoted, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saxons, conquer Britain while yet pagans, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>infest British coasts, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li>appear at Thanet, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>called in by Britons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>settlement in Britain, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li>ally with Picts, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li>conquest of Britain, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li>pagan character, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li>Christianization begun, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li>in Charlemagne's day, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>problem of conquest, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li>lack of natural frontier, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>faithlessness, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>transplanted in part to Gaul, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's peace with, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>massacre at Verden, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>formula for acceptance of Christianity, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>Charlemagne's capitularies concerning, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>provisions for establishment of Christianity among, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li>penalties for persistence in paganism, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li>fugitive criminals, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>public assemblies, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Scheldt River, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schism, Great, origin, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>plans of University of Paris to end, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>-<a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
+<li>Councils of Pisa and Constance, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li>stops proceedings against Wyclif, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Schools (see <a href="#Education">Education</a>).</li>
+
+<li>Scots, menace the Britons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Saxons called in against, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Scutage, increased by King John, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>method of raising specified in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">501</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Scythia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seine, Northmen on, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seligenstadt, Einhard at, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Selwood, Alfred at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Senlis, meeting of Frankish magnates at, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sens, given over to Northmen to plunder, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Septimania, conquered by Childebert, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Septuagint, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Serfs, fugitive, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sergius II., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Senlac (see Hastings).</li>
+
+<li>Siegfred, leads siege of Paris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Siena, Council of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sigibert the Lame, slain by son's agents, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sigismund, appealed to by John XXIII., <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Simony, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Henry IV.'s councilors condemned for, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Slander, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slavery, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slavs, location in Charlemagne's day, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>German encroachment upon, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Sluys, naval battle of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Soana, Hildebrand born at, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Soissons, capital of Syagrius's kingdom, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Clovis defeats Syagrius at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>episode of the broken vase, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li>Pepin the Short anointed at, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>council at, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Solidus</i>, value, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spain, invaded by Northmen, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spanish March, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Speculum Perfectionis</i> (by Brother Leo), quoted, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Speyer, Henry IV. flees from, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stamford, English barons meet at, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stamford Bridge, Harold Hardrada defeated at, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stephen, abbot of Cîteaux, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stephen III., crowns Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stephen IX., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stephen of Blois, sketch of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>letter to his wife, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+<li>recounts experiences of crusaders, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+<li>describes siege of Antioch, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strassburg, battle of won by Clovis, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>results, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li>oaths of Charles and Louis at, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>linguistic and historical significance, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Strassfurt, Frankish assembly at, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Students, privileges granted to by Frederick I., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+<li>itinerant character of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
+<li>songs of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Subasio, Mount, St. Francis seeks seclusion at, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Suetonius, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>as model for Einhard, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Suevi, described by Cæsar, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swanwich, Danes defeated at, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Syagrius, "king of the Romans," <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>defeated by Clovis at Soissons, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>takes refuge with Alaric, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li>surrendered and put to death, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Sylvester II. (Gerbert), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Syria, overrun by Arabs, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>partially recovered, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li>conquered by Seljuk Turks, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li>described by Pope Urban, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+<li>crusaders in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Tacitus, describes the Germans in his <i>Germania</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>sources of information, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+<li>object in writing, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Tartary, Khan of, sends deputation to St. Louis, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taxation, not developed among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Templars, in England, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li> Turks attack, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Tertullian, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">502</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Tescelin, father of St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Teutoberg Forest, Varus defeated at, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Teutones</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thames, Danes appear on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thanet, Saxons appear at, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>conceded to them by Vortigern, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li>population, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+<li>Augustine lands at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Theft, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Charlemagne's legislation on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes, grants fief to Jocelyn d'Avalon, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thrace, selected as a haven by the Visigoths, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>conceded to them by Valens, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Toulouges, Council of, decrees Peace and Truce of God, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toulouse, Visigothic capital, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Syagrius takes refuge at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Tours, Gregory, bishop of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>monastery and shrine of St. Martin at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li>Alaric and Clovis meet near, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li>monastery at dedicated to St. Martin, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>truce of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Towns" id="Towns"></a>Towns, lack of among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>prevalence in Græco-Roman world, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li>use of in France, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+<li>origins of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-<a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
+<li>classes of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>-<a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
+<li>charter of Laon, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
+<li>charter of Lorris, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Trajan, wars in the Rhine country, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trespass, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tribur, conference of German nobles at, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>-<a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Trivium</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Troyes, county of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Troyes, treaty of, negotiated, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>-<a href="#Page_441">441</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>provisions of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Truce of God, decreed by church councils, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>decree of Council of Toulouges, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>reissued by Council of Clermont, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Turks, Seljuk, invasions of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>ravages depicted by Pope Urban, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated by crusaders, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+<li>attack the Templars, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+<li>operations against St. Louis, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx"><i>Unam Sanctam</i>, issued by Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_385">385</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Universities, origins of in Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>patronage of by Church and temporal powers, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li>privileges granted to students by Frederick I., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
+<li>by Philip Augustus, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+<li>rise in Germany, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+<li>charter of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+<li>student songs, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Unstrutt, Henry IV.'s victory at, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Urban II., appealed to by Alexius Comnenus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>speech at Clermont, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li>appeal to the French, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+<li>enumerates reasons for a crusade, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+<li>results of speech, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Urban VI., approves foundation of University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>elected pope, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
+<li>Wyclif's letter to, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Valens, Visigoths send embassy to, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>flattered into acceding to their request, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+<li>seeks to quell Visigothic uprising, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li>rash resolve to attack, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li>defeat, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Valentinian I., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Valentinian III., <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Varus, defeated at the Teutoberg Forest, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vassalage, origins, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_205">205</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>relations with <i>patrocinium</i> and <i>comitatus</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li>commendation defined, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li>formula for commendation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+<li>relation to benefice, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li>obligations of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Vecta, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Venice, treaty of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Verden, massacre of Saxons at, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">503</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Verdun, treaty of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>territorial division by, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Vicarius</i>, functions, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Victgilsus, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vienna, University of, founded, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Villages, among the early Germans, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Villes franches</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>-<a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Villes libres</i>, nature of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Laon as an example, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Vincennes, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Viscount, functions, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Visigoths, invasion of the Roman Empire described by Ammianus Marcellinus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>receive Dacia from Aurelian, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li>threatened by the Huns, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li>select Thrace as a haven, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+<li>send embassy to Valens, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+<li>receive the desired permission, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+<li>cross the Danube, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li>terms of the settlement, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li>mistreated by the Romans, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li>rise in revolt, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li>Valens resolves to attack, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li>advance toward Nice, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li>defeat the Romans at Adrianople, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li>Alaric, king of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li>defeated by Clovis, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li>Amalaric, king of, retreats to Spain, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li>new capital at Toledo, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Vita Caroli Magni</i> (by Einhard), purpose, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>value, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li>translation of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li>quoted, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Vitæ Pontificorum Romanorum</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vortigern, king of the Britons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>invites Saxons into Britain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Vortimer, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vulcan, worshipped by the Germans, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vouillé, Clovis defeats Alaric at, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vulgate, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>origin of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li class="idx">Wager of battle, discouraged by the Church, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wales, Christianity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wardship, nature of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>conditions of prescribed by Norman custom, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li>conditions of defined in Great Charter, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Warfare, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>of the Huns, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li>prevalence in feudal times, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>efforts to restrict, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>decline of feudal, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Weapons, of the early Germans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>of the Huns, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Wedmore, treaty of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wends, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Werfrith, bishop of Worcester, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>Alfred's letter to, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Wergeld, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Werwulf, of Mercia, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Westminster, William the Conqueror wears crown at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Widukind, account of Saxon conquest, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>William of Aquitaine, letter of Fulbert of Chartres to, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>William the Conqueror, power as duke of Normandy, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>claims to throne of England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>prepares to invade England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>makes ready for battle, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>his strategem at Hastings, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+<li>his valor in battle, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+<li>his government described in the Saxon Chronicle, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
+<li>religious zeal, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+<li>extent of his authority, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+<li>forest laws, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>William, count of Flanders, homage and fealty to, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>William of Holland, claimant to imperial title, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+
+<li>William of Jumièges, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>William of Malmesbury, sketch of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>author of <i>Chronicle of the Kings of England</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>William the Pious, issues charter for monastery at Cluny, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>motives for benefaction, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li>land and other property ceded, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>William of St. Thierry, biographer of St. Bernard, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">504</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Wilton, Alfred fights the Danes at, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Winchester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>King John holds court at, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Witan, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Witchcraft, in the Salic law, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woden, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worcester, Werfrith, bishop of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worms, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>council at decrees that Gregory VII. should abdicate, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+<li>diet at, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
+<li>Concordat of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+<li>Rhine League formed at, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+<li>with Mainz, to be League's capital, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li>jurisdiction of bishop of over University of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Wyclif, career of, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>-<a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="idx">Zacharias, consulted by Pepin the Short, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+<ul class="none">
+<li>advises him to take title of king, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Zaid, collects sayings of Mohammed, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="widead p6">
+
+<p class="center b13">ESSENTIALS IN MEDIAEVAL<br />
+AND MODERN HISTORY</p>
+
+<p class="center">From Charlemagne to the Present Day</p>
+
+<p class="ad_hang">
+By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D., Professor
+of European History, Indiana University, in consultation
+with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.,
+Professor of History, Harvard University.</p>
+
+<p class="center">$1.50</p>
+
+<hr class="l_ad" />
+
+<p>Essentials in Mediaeval History<span class="flright">$1.00</span></p>
+
+<hr class="l_ad" />
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>he difficulties usually encountered in treating mediaeval
+and modern history are here overcome by an easy and
+satisfactory method. By this plan Italy, France, Germany,
+and England are taken up in turn as each becomes the
+central figure on the world's stage. The first part of the book
+is devoted to the period previous to the Reformation; the
+second to modern history from the Reformation to the French
+Revolution; and the remainder to the century and a quarter
+since the occurrence of that great event. This arrangement
+gives an opportunity to discuss the greatness of England, the
+unification of Italy and of Germany, and the present organization
+of Europe under control of the concert of powers, on
+the same plane as the Crusades, or the Thirty Years' War, or
+the age of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p>¶ The three most difficult problems in mediaeval history&mdash;the
+feudal state, the church, and the rivalry between the empire
+and the church&mdash;are here discussed with great clearness
+and brevity. The central idea of the book is the development
+of the principle of national independence in both politics and
+religion from the earlier condition of a world empire.</p>
+
+<p>¶ For the convenience of those wishing a text-book on
+Mediaeval History alone, the period from Charlemagne to the
+close of the fifteenth century is issued in separate form.</p>
+
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+<p class="center">By GEORGE PARK FISHER, LL.D., Emeritus Professor
+in Yale University</p>
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+
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+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>his is an entirely independent work, written, expressly
+to meet the demand for a compact and acceptable text-book
+on General History for secondary schools and lower
+classes in colleges. Some of the distinctive qualities which will
+commend this book to teachers and students are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>¶ It narrates in fresh, vigorous, and attractive style the most
+important facts of history in their due order and connection.
+It explains the nature of historical evidence, and records only
+well established judgments respecting persons and events. It
+delineates the progress of peoples and nations in civilization
+as well as the rise and succession of dynasties.</p>
+
+<p>¶ It connects, in a single chain of narration, events related
+to each other in the contemporary history of different nations
+and countries. It is written from the standpoint of the
+present, and incorporates the latest discoveries of historical
+explorers and writers.</p>
+
+<p>¶ It is illustrated by numerous colored maps, genealogical
+tables, and artistic reproductions of architecture, sculpture,
+painting, and portraits of celebrated men, representing every
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+Part II, Mediaeval History. Part III, Modern History.</p>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">A</span> new and revised edition of this standard work. Soon after the
+publication of the first edition of this history the author was
+honored by the University of Edinburgh with the degree of Doctor
+of Laws, in recognition of his services in the cause of historical research.
+In this edition the book is brought fully up to date in all particulars.</p>
+
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+
+<p class="center b13">ESSENTIALS IN ANCIENT<br />
+HISTORY</p>
+
+<p class="ad_hang">
+From the Earliest Records to Charlemagne. By ARTHUR
+MAYER WOLFSON, Ph.D., First Assistant in History,
+DeWitt Clinton High School, New York. In
+consultation with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART,
+LL.D., Professor of History, Harvard University</p>
+
+<p class="center">$1.50</p>
+
+<hr class="l_ad" />
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>his volume belongs to the Essentials in History Series,
+which follows the plan recommended by the Committee
+of Seven, and adopted by the College Entrance Examination
+Board, and by the New York State Education Department.
+The pedagogic apparatus is amply sufficient for any
+secondary school.</p>
+
+<p>¶ The essentials in ancient history are presented as a unit,
+beginning with the earliest civilization in the East, and ending
+with the establishment of the Western Empire by Charlemagne.
+More attention is paid to civilization than to mere
+constitutional development, the latter being brought out in the
+narrative, rather than as a series of separate episodes.</p>
+
+<p>¶ A departure has been made from the time-honored method
+of carrying the subject down to the end of Greek political life
+before beginning the story of Rome. The history of the two
+civilizations is not entirely distinct; hence, it has seemed wise,
+after completing the account of the life and work of Alexander,
+to tell the story of the beginnings of Rome. Afterwards
+the history of the East is resumed, and carried on to the point
+where it merges into that of Rome. Should any teacher,
+however, prefer the old method of treating the two nations,
+he has only to take up Chapters XXIV and XXV before
+Chapters XVIII to XXIII. The Roman Empire, a very
+important but much neglected period of history, is brought
+out in its just proportions, and with reference to the events
+which had the greatest influence.</p>
+
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+<p class="center b13">ESSENTIALS IN AMERICAN<br />
+HISTORY</p>
+
+<p class="ad_hang">
+From the Discovery to the Present Day. By ALBERT
+BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., Professor of History,
+Harvard University</p>
+
+<p class="center">$1.50</p>
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+
+<p><span class="dropcap">P</span>rofessor Hart was a member of the Committee
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+carry out the ideas of that Committee. The needs of secondary
+schools, and the entrance requirements to all colleges,
+are fully met by the Essentials in History Series.</p>
+
+<p>¶ This volume reflects in an impressive manner the writer's
+broad grasp of the subject, his intimate knowledge of the
+relative importance of events, his keen insight into the cause
+and effect of each noteworthy occurrence, and his thorough
+familiarity with the most helpful pedagogical features&mdash;all of
+which make the work unusually well suited to students.</p>
+
+<p>¶ The purpose of the book is to present an adequate description
+of all essential things in the upbuilding of the country,
+and to supplement this by good illustrations and maps.
+Political geography, being the background of all historical
+knowledge, is made a special topic, while the development of
+government, foreign relations, the diplomatic adjustment of
+controversies, and social and economic conditions have been
+duly emphasized.</p>
+
+<p>¶ All sections of the Union, North, East, South, West, and
+Far West, have received fair treatment. Much attention is
+paid to the causes and results of our various wars, but only the
+most significant battles and campaigns have been described.
+The book aims to make distinct the character and public
+services of some great Americans, brief accounts of whose lives
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+chapter sums up the services of America to mankind.</p>
+
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+<p class="center b13">ESSENTIALS IN ENGLISH<br />
+HISTORY</p>
+
+<p class="ad_hang">From the Earliest Records to the Present Day. By ALBERT
+PERRY WALKER, A.M., Master in History, English
+High School, Boston. In consultation with ALBERT
+BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., Professor of History,
+Harvard University</p>
+
+<p class="center">$1.50</p>
+
+<hr class="l_ad" />
+<p><span class="dropcap">L</span>ike the other volumes of the Essentials in History Series,
+this text-book is intended to form a year's work in
+secondary schools, following out the recommendation
+of the Committee of Seven, and meeting the requirements of
+the College Entrance Examination Board, and of the New
+York State Education Department. It contains the same
+general features, the same pedagogic apparatus, and the same
+topical method of treatment. The text is continuous, the
+sectional headings being placed in the margin. The maps
+and illustrations are worthy of special mention.</p>
+
+<p>¶ The book is a model of good historical exposition, unusually
+clear in expression, logical and coherent in arrangement,
+and accurate in statement. The essential facts in the
+development of the British Empire are vividly described, and
+the relation of cause and effect is clearly brought out.</p>
+
+<p>¶ The treatment begins with a brief survey of the whole
+course of English history, deducing therefrom three general
+movements: (1) the fusing of several races into the English
+people; (2) the solution by that people of two great
+problems: free and democratic home government, and practical,
+enlightened government of foreign dependencies; and
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+
+<p class="ad_hang">
+Edited with Introductions and Notes by THOMAS H.
+DICKINSON, Ph.D., and FREDERICK W. ROE,
+A.M., Assistant Professors of English, University of Wisconsin.</p>
+
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+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>his book for college classes presents a series of ten
+selected essays, which are intended to trace the development
+of English criticism in the nineteenth century.
+The choice of material has been influenced by something
+more than mere style. An underlying coherence in content,
+typical of the thought of the era in question, may be traced
+throughout. With but few exceptions the selections are given
+in their entirety.</p>
+
+<p>¶ The essays cover a definite period, and exhibit the individuality
+of each author's method of criticism. In each case
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+is an example of excellent, though varying, style.</p>
+
+<p>¶ They represent not only the authors who write, but the
+authors who are treated. The essays provide the best things
+that have been said by England's critics on Swift, on Scott,
+on Macaulay, and on Emerson.</p>
+
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+matter, suggestive points for the use of the teacher
+in stimulating discussion of the form or content of the essays,
+and such aids as will eliminate those matters of detail that
+might prove stumbling blocks to the student. Though the
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+Political Science, University of Illinois</p>
+
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+as by means of many additional references in the footnotes.</p>
+
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+nature and essential elements of the state; on the various
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+
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+discussion of the more important theories of the origin,
+nature, and functions of the state, and analyzes and criticises
+them in the light of the best scientific thought and practice.
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+<h2 class="p6">FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In chapters 11-20, immediately preceding the present passage, Cæsar
+gives a comparatively full and minute description of Gallic life and institutions.
+He knew more about the Gauls than about the Germans, and,
+besides, it was his experiences among them that he was writing about
+primarily.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The Druids were priests who formed a distinct and very influential
+class among the Gauls. They ascertained and revealed the will of the gods
+and were supreme in the government of the tribes. Druids existed also
+among the Britons.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> By Vulcan Cæsar means the German god of fire.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Of the Suevi, a German tribe living along the upper course of the Danube,
+Cæsar says: "They consider it their greatest glory as a nation that the lands
+about their territories lie unoccupied to a very great extent, for they think
+that by this it is shown that a great number of nations cannot withstand
+their power; and thus on one side of the Suevi the lands are said to lie
+desolate for about six hundred miles."&mdash;<i>Gallic War</i>, Bk. IV., Chap. 3.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This statement is an instance of Cæsar's vagueness, due possibly to haste
+in writing, but more likely to lack of definite information. How large these
+districts and cantons were, whether they had fixed boundaries, and how
+the chiefs rendered justice in them are things we should like to know but
+are not told.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> All dates from this point, unless otherwise indicated, are <span class="s07">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> In reality iron ore was abundant in the Germans' territory, but it was
+not until long after the time of Tacitus that much use began to be made of
+it. By the fifth century iron swords were common.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Coats of mail.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Defensive armor for the head and neck.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See Cæsar's description of this mode of fighting.&mdash;<i>Gallic War</i>, Bk. I.,
+Chap. 48.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The canton was known to the Romans as a <i>pagus</i> and to the Germans
+themselves as a <i>gau</i>. It was made up of a number of districts, or
+townships (Latin <i>vicus</i>, German <i>dorf</i>), and was itself a division of a tribe or
+nation.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> A later law of the Salian Franks imposed a fine of 120 <i>denarii</i> upon any
+man who should accuse another of throwing down his shield and running
+away, without being able to prove it [see <a href="#Page_64">p. 64</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Many of the western tribes at the time Tacitus wrote did not have kings,
+though in eastern Germany the institution of kingship seems to have been
+quite general. The office, where it existed, was elective, but the people
+rarely chose a king outside of a privileged family, assumed to be of divine
+origin.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Evidently these were not images of their gods, for in another place (Chap.
+9) Tacitus tells us that the Germans deemed it a dishonor to their deities to
+represent them in human form. The images were probably those of wild
+beasts, as the wolf of Woden (or Odin), or the ram of Tyr, and were national
+standards preserved with religious care in the sacred groves, whence they
+were brought forth when the tribe was on the point of going to war.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The German popular assembly was simply the periodical gathering of
+free men in arms for the discussion and decision of important points of tribal
+policy. It was not a legislative body in the modern sense. Law among the
+Germans was immemorial custom, which, like religion, could be changed
+only by a gradual shifting of popular belief and practice. It was not "made"
+by any process of deliberate and immediate choice. Nevertheless, the assembly
+constituted an important democratic element in the government, which
+operated in a measure to offset the aristocratic element represented by the
+<i>principes</i> and <i>comitatus</i> [see <a href="#Page_28">p. 28</a>]. Its principal functions were the declaring
+of war and peace, the election of the kings, and, apparently, the hearing
+and deciding of graver cases at law.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> This relation of <i>principes</i> (chiefs) and <i>comites</i> (companions) is mentioned
+by Cæsar [see <a href="#Page_22">p. 22</a>]. The name by which the Romans designated the band
+of companions, or followers, of a German chieftain was <i>comitatus</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Apparently the Germans did not now care much more for agriculture
+than in the time of Cæsar. The women, slaves, and old men sowed some
+seeds and gathered small harvests, but the warrior class held itself above
+such humble and unexciting employment. The raising of cattle afforded
+a principal means of subsistence, though hunting and fishing contributed
+considerably.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Compare the Germans and the North American Indians in this respect.
+The great contrast between these two peoples lay in the capacity of the one
+and the comparative incapacity of the other for development.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The Germans had no system of taxation on land or other property, such
+as the Romans had and such as we have to-day. It was not until well toward
+the close of the Middle Ages that the governments of kingdoms built
+up by Germanic peoples in western Europe came to be maintained by anything
+like what we would call taxes in the modern sense.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The lack of cities and city life among the Germans struck Tacitus with
+the greater force because of the complete dominance of city organization to
+which he, as a Roman, was accustomed. The Greek and Roman world was
+made up, in the last analysis, of an aggregation of <i>civitates</i>, or city states.
+Among the ancient Greeks these had usually been independent; among the
+Romans they were correlated under the greater or lesser control of a centralized
+government; but among the Germans of Tacitus's time, and long
+after, the mixed agricultural and nomadic character of the people effectually
+prevented the development of anything even approaching urban organization.
+Their life was that of the forest and the pasture, not that of forum,
+theatre, and circus.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> That is, on the Rhine, where traders from the south brought in wines and
+other Roman products. The drink which the Germans themselves manufactured
+was, of course, a kind of beer.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Valens was the Eastern emperor from 364 until his death in the battle
+of Adrianople in 378. His brother Valentinian was emperor in the West
+from 364 to 375. Gratian, son of Valentinian, was the real sovereign in the
+West when the Visigoths crossed the Danube.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> That is, upon the writer's people, the Romans.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The Marcomanni and Quadi occupied a broad stretch of territory along
+the upper Danube in what is now the northernmost part of Austria-Hungary.
+Pontus was a province in northern Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> M&oelig;ller (<i>Histoire du Moyen Age</i>, p. 58), estimates that the Goths who now
+entered Thrace numbered not fewer than 200,000 grown men, accompanied
+by their wives and children. The Italian Villari, in his <i>Barbarian Invasions
+of Italy</i>, Vol. I., p. 49, gives the same estimate. The tendency of contemporary
+chroniclers to exaggerate numbers has misled many older writers. Even
+M&oelig;ller's and Villari's estimate would mean a total of upwards of a million
+people. That there were so many may well be doubted. The Vandals
+played practically as important a part in the history of their times as did the
+Visigoths; yet it is known that when the Vandals passed through Spain, in
+the first half of the fifth century, they numbered not more than 20,000
+fighting men, with their wives and children.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Nice was about thirty miles east of Adrianople.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The Visigoths under Fridigern finally took their position near Adrianople
+and Valens led his army into that vicinity and pitched his camp, fortifying
+it with a rampart of palisades. From the Western emperor, Gratian, a
+messenger came asking that open conflict be postponed until the army from
+Rome could join that from Constantinople. But Valens, easily flattered by
+some of his over-confident generals, foolishly decided to bring on a battle
+at once. Apparently he did not dream that defeat was possible.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> After the battle here described, which occurred in the open plain, the
+victorious Goths proceeded to the siege of the city itself, in which, however,
+they were unsuccessful. The taking of fortified towns was an art in which
+the Germans were not skilled.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> When both armies were in position Fridigern, "being skilful in divining
+the future," says Ammianus, "and fearing a doubtful struggle," sent a
+herald to Valens with the promise that if the Romans would give hostages
+to the Goths the latter would cease their depredations and even aid the Romans
+in their wars. Richomeres, the Roman cavalry leader, was chosen
+by Valens to serve as a hostage; but as he was proceeding to the Gothic
+camp the soldiers who accompanied him made a rash attack upon a division
+of the enemy and precipitated a battle which soon spread to the whole
+army.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The goddess of war, regarded in Roman mythology as the sister of Mars.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Signs of the zodiac, sometimes employed by the Romans to give figurative
+expression to the time of day.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The number of Romans killed at Cannæ (216 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>) is variously estimated,
+but it can hardly have been under 50,000.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> A somewhat indefinite region north and east of the Caspian Sea.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The modern Don, flowing into the Sea of Azof.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> One of two constellations in the northern hemisphere, called respectively
+the Great Bear and the Lesser Bear, or <i>Ursa Major</i> and <i>Ursa Minor</i>. The
+Great Bear is commonly known as the Dipper.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> That is, agriculture. The Huns were even less settled in their mode of
+life than were the early Germans described by Tacitus.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> A strange creature of classical mythology, represented as half man and
+half horse.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The White Sea. It is hardly to be believed that the Huns dwelt so far
+north. This was, of course, a matter of sheer speculation with the Romans.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> St. Martin was born in Pannonia somewhat before the middle of the
+fourth century. For a time he followed his father's profession as a soldier in
+the service of the Roman emperor, but later he went to Gaul with the purpose
+of aiding in the establishment of the Christian Church in that quarter.
+In 372 he was elected bishop of Tours and shortly afterwards he founded the
+monastery with which his name was destined to be associated throughout
+the Middle Ages. This monastery, which was one of the earliest in western
+Europe, became a very important factor in the prolonged combat with Gallic
+paganism, and subsequently a leading center of ecclesiastical learning.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Childeric I., son of the more or less mythical Merovius, was king from 457
+to 481. Clovis became ruler of the Salian branch of the Franks in this latter
+year. The tomb of Childeric was discovered at Tournai in 1653.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Ægidius and his son Syagrius were the last official representatives of the
+Roman imperial power in Gaul; and since the fall of the Empire in the
+West even they had taken the title of "king of the Romans" and had been
+practically independent sovereigns in the territory between the Somme and
+the Loire, with their capital at Soissons, northeast of Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 485-507.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The battle of Soissons in 486, with the defeat and death of Syagrius,
+insured for the Franks undisputed possession southward to the Loire, which
+was the northern frontier of the Visigothic kingdom.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The Campus Martius was the "March-field," i.e., the assembling place
+of the Frankish army. It was not regularly in any one locality but wherever
+the king might call the soldiers together, as he did every spring for purposes
+of review. In the eighth century the month of May was substituted for
+March as the time for the meeting.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> In the words of Hodgkin (<i>Charles the Great</i>, p. 12), "the well-known
+story of the vase of Soissons illustrates at once the German memories of
+freedom and the Merovingian mode of establishing a despotism. As a battle
+comrade the Frankish warrior protests against Clovis receiving an ounce
+beyond his due share of the spoils. As a battle leader Clovis rebukes his
+henchman for the dirtiness of his accoutrements, and cleaves his skull to
+punish him for his independence."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The Alemanni were a German people occupying a vast region about the
+upper waters of the Rhine and Danube. They had been making repeated
+efforts to acquire territory west of the Rhine&mdash;an encroachment which
+Clovis resolved not to tolerate.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The battle was fought near Strassburg, in the upper Rhine valley.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> The ultimate result of the defeat of the Alemanni was that the Frankish
+kingdom was enlarged by the annexation of the great region known
+in the later Middle Ages as Suabia, comprising modern Alsace, Baden,
+Würtemberg, the western part of Bavaria, and the northern part of Switzerland.
+The Alemanni as a people disappeared speedily from history, being
+absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. Their only monument to-day
+is the name by which the French have always known the people of Germany&mdash;<i>Allemands</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> The Loire was the boundary between the dominions of the two kings.
+There have been many famous instances in history of two sovereigns coming
+together to confer at some point on the common border of the territories
+controlled by them, notably the interview of Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I.
+on the Niemen River in 1807. The Franks and the Visigoths had been
+enemies ever since by Clovis's defeat of Syagrius their dominions had been
+brought into contact (486), and the present jovial interview of the two kings
+did not long keep them at peace with each other.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> St. Hilary was bishop of Poitiers in the later fourth century. He was a
+contemporary of St. Martin of Tours and a co-worker with him in the organization
+of Gallic Christianity.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The plain of Vouillé was ten miles west of Poitiers.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> This amusing comment of Gregory was due largely to his prejudice in
+favor of the Franks and against the heretical Visigoths.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The Visigothic kingdom in Spain, with its capital at Toledo, endured
+until the Saracen conquest of that country in 711 and the years immediately
+following, but it did not give evidence of much strength. It stood so long
+only because the Pyrenees made a natural boundary against the Franks and
+because, after Clovis, for two hundred years the Franks produced no great
+conqueror who cared to crowd the Visigoths into still closer quarters.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Clovis, particularly after his conversion to Christianity in 496, was the
+hero of Gregory's history and apparently the enthusiastic old bishop did not
+lose an opportunity to glorify his career. At any rate it would certainly be
+difficult to relate anything more remarkable about him than this legend of
+the walls of Angoulême falling down before him at his mere approach.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> This notable campaign had advanced Frankish territory to the Pyrenees,
+except for the strip between these mountains and the Rhone, known as
+Septimania, which the Visigoths were able to retain by the aid of the Ostrogoths
+from Italy. No great number of Franks settled in this broad territory
+south of the Loire, and to this day the inhabitants of south France show a
+much larger measure of Roman descent than do those of the north. It may
+be added that Septimania was conquered by Clovis's son Childebert in 531,
+and thus the last bit of old Gaul&mdash;practically modern France&mdash;was brought
+under Frankish control.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> This was Cloderic, son of Sigibert the Lame, king of a tribe of Franks
+living along the middle Rhine. Sigibert was one of the numerous independent
+and rival princes whom Clovis used every expedient to put out of the
+way.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Along the Upper Weser, near the monastery of Fulda.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Ragnachar's kingdom was in the region about Cambrai.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The <i>mallus</i> was the local court held about every six weeks in each community
+or hundred. In early German law the state has small place and the
+principle of self-help by the individual is very prominent. To bring a suit
+one summons his opponent himself and gets him to appear at court if he can.
+Ordinarily the court merely determines the method by which the guilt or
+innocence of the accused may be tested. Execution of the sentence rests
+again with the plaintiff, or with his family or clan group.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> "The monetary system of the Salic law was taken from the Romans.
+The basis was the gold <i>solidus</i> of Constantine, 1/72 of a pound of gold. The small
+coin was the silver <i>denarius</i>, forty of which made a <i>solidus</i>. This system
+was adopted as a monetary reform by Clovis, and the statement of the sum
+in terms of both coins is probably due to the newness of the system at the time
+of the appearance of the law."&mdash;Thatcher and McNeal, <i>Source Book for
+Mediæval History</i>, p. 17. The gold <i>solidus</i> was worth somewhere from two
+and a half to three dollars, but its purchasing power was perhaps equal to
+that of twenty dollars to-day, because gold and silver were then so much
+scarcer and more valuable. Such estimates of purchasing power, however,
+involve so great uncertainty as to be practically worthless.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> The Burgundian law (Chap. 41) contained a provision that if a man
+made a fire on his own premises and it spread to fences or crops belonging
+to another person, and did damage, the man who made the fire should recompense
+his neighbor for his loss, provided it could be shown that there was no
+wind to drive the fire beyond control. If there was such a wind, no penalty
+was to be exacted.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> The law of the Lombards had a more elaborate system of fines for wounds
+than did the Salic code. For example, knocking out a man's front teeth was
+to be paid for at the rate of sixteen <i>solidi</i> per tooth; knocking out back
+teeth at the rate of eight <i>solidi</i> per tooth; fracturing an arm, sixteen <i>solidi</i>;
+cutting off a second finger, seventeen <i>solidi</i>; cutting off a great toe, six <i>solidi</i>;
+cutting off a little toe, two <i>solidi</i>; giving a blow with the fist, three <i>solidi</i>;
+with the palm of the hand, six <i>solidi</i>; and striking a person on the head so as
+to break bones, twelve <i>solidi</i> per bone. In the latter case the broken bones
+were to be counted "on this principle, that one bone shall be found large
+enough to make an audible sound when thrown against a shield at twelve
+feet distance on the road; the said feet to be measured from the foot of a man
+of moderate stature."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The man who had "thrown away his shield" was the coward who had
+fled from the field of battle. How the Germans universally regarded such a
+person appears in the <i>Germania</i> of Tacitus, Chap. 6 (see <a href="#Page_25">p. 25</a>). To impute
+this ignominy to a man was a serious matter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> This was the so-called "triple wergeld." That is, the lives of men in the
+service of the king were rated three times as high as those of ordinary free
+persons.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Here is an illustration of the personal character of Germanic law. There
+is one law for the Frank and another for the Roman, though both peoples
+were now living side by side in Gaul. The price put upon the life of the
+Frankish noble who was in the king's service was 600 <i>solidi</i> (<a href="#Sect3">§3</a>), but
+that on the life of the Roman noble in the same service was but half that
+amount. The same proportion held for the ordinary freemen, as will be
+seen by comparing <a href="#Sect1">§§1</a> and <a href="#Sect6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> A leet was such a person as we in modern times commonly designate as a
+serf&mdash;a man only partially free.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This has been alleged to be the basis of the misnamed "Salic Law"
+by virtue of which no woman, in the days of the French monarchy, was
+permitted to inherit the throne. As a matter of fact, however, the exclusion
+of women from the French throne was due, not to this or to any other
+early Frankish principle, but to later circumstances which called for stronger
+monarchs in France than women have ordinarily been expected to be. The
+history of the modern "Salic Law" does not go back of the resolution of
+the French nobles in 1317 against the general political expediency of female
+sovereigns [see <a href="#Page_420">p. 420</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> The wergeld was the value put by the law upon every man's life. Its
+amount varied according to the rank of the person in question. The present
+section specifies how the wergeld paid by a murderer should be divided
+among the relatives of the slain man.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> That is, to the king's treasury.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> James H. Ramsay, <i>The Foundations of England</i> (London, 1898), I., p. 121.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Bede has just been describing a plague which rendered the Britons at
+this time even more unable than usual to withstand the fierce invaders from
+the north; also lamenting the luxury and crime which a few years of relief
+from war had produced among his people.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> This date is evidently incorrect. Martian and Valentinian III. became
+joint rulers of the Empire in 450; hence this is the year that Bede probably
+meant.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> That is, Thanet, which practically no longer exists as an island. In
+Bede's day it was separated from the rest of Kent by nearly half a mile of
+water, but since then the coast line has changed so that the land is cut
+through by only a tiny rill. The intervening ground, however, is marshy
+and only partially reclaimed.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> This battle was fought between Hengist and Vortimer, the eldest son
+of Vortigern, at Aylesford, in Kent.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> It is by no means probable that the invasion of Britain by the Saxons was
+followed by such wholesale extermination of the natives as is here represented,
+though it is certain that everywhere, except in the far west (Wales) and
+north (Scotland), the native population was reduced to complete subjection.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> That is, the throne of the Eastern Empire at Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Gregory was a monk before he was elected pope. He held the papal
+office from 590 to 604 [see <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Augustine at the time (596) was prior of a monastery dedicated to St.
+Andrew in Rome.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> The missionaries had apparently gone as far as Arles in southern Provence
+when they reached this decision.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> An abbot was the head of a monastery. Should such an establishment
+be set up in Britain, Augustine was to be its presiding officer.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The Germanic peoples north of the Humber were more properly Angles,
+but of course they were in all essential respects like the Saxons. Ethelbert
+was not actually king in that region, but was recognized as "bretwalda,"
+or over-lord, by the other rulers.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> For later changes in this part of the coast line, see <a href="#Footnote_73">p. 70, note 1</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> This was possible because the Franks and Saxons, being both German,
+as yet spoke languages so much alike that either people could understand
+the other without much difficulty.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Bertha was a daughter of the Frankish king Charibert. The Franks
+had been nominally a Christian people since the conversion of Clovis in 496
+[see <a href="#Page_53">p. 53</a>]&mdash;just a hundred years before Augustine started on his mission
+to the Angles and Saxons.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Luidhard had been bishop of Senlis; a town not many miles northeast of
+Paris. Probably Augustine and his companions profited not a little by the
+influence which Luidhard had already exerted at the Kentish court.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> "The present church of St. Martin near Canterbury is not the old one
+spoken of by Bede, as it is generally thought to be, but is a structure of the
+thirteenth century, though it is probable that the materials of the original
+church were worked up in the masonry in its reconstruction, the walls being
+still composed in part of Roman bricks."&mdash;J. A. Giles, <i>Bede's Ecclesiastical
+History</i>, p. 39.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Thus was established the "primacy," or ecclesiastical leadership, of
+Canterbury, which has continued to this day.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> John Alzog. <i>Manual of Universal Church History</i> (trans, by F. J. Pabisch
+and T. S. Byrne), Cincinnati, 1899, Vol. I., p. 668.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> That is, the passage of Scripture read just before the sermon.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> "See" is a term employed to designate a bishop's jurisdiction. According
+to common belief Peter had been bishop of Rome; his see was
+therefore that which Leo now held.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> The anniversary of Leo's elevation to the papal office.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> That is, the body of monks residing in the monastery.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> The vow of poverty which must be taken by every Benedictine monk
+meant only that he must not acquire property individually. By gifts of land
+and by their own labor the monks became in many cases immensely rich,
+but their wealth was required to be held in common. No one man could
+rightfully call any part of it his own.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> The converse of this principle was often affirmed by Benedictines in the
+saying, "To work is to pray."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> The Bible and the writings of such Church fathers as Lactantius, Tertullian,
+Origen, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, Eusebius, and St. Jerome.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> The first day of the month.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Thus the ordinary daily programme during the spring and summer
+months would be: from six o'clock until ten, manual labor; from ten until
+twelve, reading; at twelve, the midday meal; after this meal until the
+second one about half past two, rest and reading; and from the second meal
+until evening, labor. Manual labor was principally agricultural.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Gregory's remarks and instructions in the <i>Pastoral Rule</i> were intended
+to apply primarily to the local priests&mdash;the humble pastors of whom we hear
+little, but upon whose piety and diligence ultimately depended the whole
+influence of the Church upon the masses of the people. The general principles
+laid down, however, were applicable to all the clergy, of whatever rank.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Gregory, bishop of Nazianzus (in Cappadocia), was a noted churchman
+of the fourth century.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> After enumerating quite a number of other contrasted groups in the
+foregoing fashion Gregory proceeds in a series of "admonitions" to take up
+each pair and tell how persons belonging to it should be dealt with by the
+pastor. One of these admonitions is here given as a specimen.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Gregory's attitude toward the "learning of the world," especially the
+classical languages and literatures, was that of the typical Christian ascetic.
+He had no use for it personally and regarded its influence as positively harmful.
+It must be said that there was little such learning in his day, for the old
+Latin and Greek culture had now reached a very low stage. Gregory took
+the ground that the churches should have learned bishops, but their learning
+was to consist exclusively in a knowledge of the Scriptures, the writings of
+the Church fathers, and the stories of the martyrs. As a matter of fact not
+only were the people generally quite unable to understand the Latin services
+of the Church, but great numbers of the clergy themselves stumbled blindly
+through the ritual without knowing what they were saying; and this condition
+of things prevailed for centuries after Gregory's day. [See Charlemagne's
+letter <i>De Litteris Colendis</i>, <a href="#Page_146">p. 146</a>.]</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> That is, more simple and less self-satisfied in their own knowledge.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> This prayer of the Mohammedans corresponds in a way to the Lord's
+Prayer of Christian peoples. It is recited several times in each of the five
+daily prayers, and on numerous other occasions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> The petition is for guidance in the "right way" of the Mohammedan,
+marked out in the Koran. By those with whom God is "wroth," and by the
+"erring," is meant primarily the Jews. Mohammed regarded the Jews and
+Christians as having corrupted the true religion.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> "This chapter is held in particular veneration by the Mohammedans and
+is declared, by a tradition of their prophet, to be equal in value to a third
+part of the whole Koran."&mdash;Sale, quoted in Lane, <i>Selections from the Kur-án</i>,
+p. 5.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> This passage, known as the "throne verse," is regarded by Mohammedans
+as one of the most precious in the Koran and is often recited at the end
+of the five daily prayers. It is sometimes engraved on a precious stone or an
+ornament of gold and worn as an amulet.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> These are all to be signs of the day of judgment.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> The record of his deeds during life on earth.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> The three classes are: (1) the "preceeders," (2) the people of the right
+hand, i.e., the good, and (3) the people of the left hand, i.e., the evil. The
+future state of each of the three is described in the lines that follow.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> "Either the first converts to Mohammedanism, or the prophets, who were
+the respective leaders of their people, or any persons who have been eminent
+examples of piety and virtue, may be here intended. The original words
+literally rendered are, <i>The Leaders, The Leaders</i>: which repetition, as some
+suppose, was designed to express the dignity of these persons and the certainty
+of their future glory and happiness."&mdash;Sale, quoted in Wherry, <i>Comprehensive
+Commentary on the Qur-án</i>, Vol. IV., pp. 109-110.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> The luxuries of paradise&mdash;the flowing rivers, the fragrant flowers, the
+delicious fruits&mdash;are sharply contrasted with the conditions of desert life
+most familiar to Mohammed's early converts. Such a description of the
+land of the blessed must have appealed strongly to the imaginative Arabs.
+It should be said that in the modern Mohammedan idea of heaven the
+spiritual element has a rather more prominent place.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Lofty beds.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> The "damsels of paradise."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> A scrubby bush bearing fruit like almonds, and extremely bitter. It was
+familiar to Arabs and hence was made to stand as a type of the tree whose
+fruit the wicked must eat in the lower world.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The date is almost certainly wrong. Pepin was first acknowledged king
+by the Frankish nobles assembled at Soissons in November, 751. It was
+probably in 751 (possibly 752) that Pope Zacharias was consulted. In 754
+Pepin was crowned king by Pope Stephen III., successor of Zacharias, who
+journeyed to France especially for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Zacharias was pope from 741 to 752.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Einhard, the secretary of Charlemagne [see <a href="#Page_108">p. 108</a>], in writing a biography
+of his master, described the condition of Merovingian kingship as
+follows: "All the resources and power of the kingdom had passed into the
+control of the prefects of the palace, who were called the 'mayors of the
+palace,' and who exercised the supreme authority. Nothing was left to
+the king. He had to content himself with his royal title, his flowing locks,
+and long beard. Seated in a chair of state, he was wont to display an appearance
+of power by receiving foreign ambassadors on their arrival, and,
+on their departure, giving them, as if on his own authority, those answers
+which he had been taught or commanded to give. Thus, except for his
+empty title, and an uncertain allowance for his sustenance, which the prefect
+of the palace used to furnish at his pleasure, there was nothing that the
+king could call his own, unless it were the income from a single farm, and that
+a very small one, where he made his home, and where such servants as were
+needful to wait on him constituted his scanty household. When he went
+anywhere he traveled in a wagon drawn by a yoke of oxen, with a rustic
+oxherd for charioteer. In this manner he proceeded to the palace, and to the
+public assemblies of the people held every year for the dispatch of the business
+of the kingdom, and he returned home again in the same sort of state.
+The administration of the kingdom, and every matter which had to be undertaken
+and carried through, both at home and abroad, was managed by
+the mayor of the palace."&mdash;Einhard, <i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, Chap. 1.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_44">p. 52, note 1</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Thomas Hodgkin, <i>Charles the Great</i> (London, 1903), p. 222.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> The German name for Aix-la-Chapelle was Aachen. From Roman times
+the place was noted throughout Europe for its warm sulphur springs and
+for centuries before Charlemagne's day it had been a favorite resort for
+health-seekers. It was about the middle of his reign that Charlemagne determined
+to have the small palace already existing rebuilt, together with its
+accompanying chapel. Marbles and mosaics were obtained at Rome and
+Ravenna, and architects and artisans were brought together for the work
+from all Christendom. The chapel was completed in 805 and was dedicated
+by Pope Leo III. Both palace and chapel were destroyed a short time
+before the Emperor's death, probably as the result of an earthquake. The
+present town-house of Aix-la-Chapelle has been constructed on the ruins
+of this palace. The chapel, rebuilt on the ancient octagonal plan in 983,
+contains the tomb of Charlemagne, marked by a stone bearing the inscription
+"Carolo Magno." Besides Aachen, Charlemagne had many other residences,
+as Compiègne, Worms, Attigny, Mainz, Paderborn, Ratisbon, Heristal, and
+Thionville.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> A loose, flowing outer garment, or cloak. It was a feature of ancient
+Greek dress.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Hadrian I., 772-775. Charlemagne's first visit to Rome was in 774.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Leo III., 795-816. The Roman dress was donned by Charlemagne
+during his visit in 800 [see <a href="#Page_130">p. 130</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> St. Augustine, the greatest of the Church fathers, was born in Numidia
+in 354. He spent a considerable part of his early life studying in Rome
+and other Italian cities. The <i>De Civitate Dei</i> ("City of God"), generally regarded
+as his most important work, was completed in 426, its purpose being
+to convince the Romans that even though the supposedly eternal city of
+Rome had recently been sacked by the barbarian Visigoths, the true "city
+of God" was in the hearts of men beyond the reach of desecrating invaders.
+When he wrote the book Augustine was bishop of Hippo, an important city
+of northern Africa. His death occurred in 430, during the siege of Hippo by
+Gaiseric and his horde of Vandals.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> The Count of the Palace was one of the coterie of officials by whose aid
+Charlemagne managed the affairs of the state. He was primarily an officer
+of justice, corresponding in a way to the old Mayor of the Palace, but with
+very much less power.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> When Charlemagne captured Pavia, the Lombard capital, in 774, he
+found Peter the Pisan teaching in that city. With characteristic zeal for
+the advancement of education among his own people he proceeded to transfer
+the learned deacon to the Frankish Palace School [see <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Alcuin was born at York in 735. He took up his residence at Charlemagne's
+court about 782, and died in the office of abbot of St. Martin of Tours
+in 804.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> During the Napoleonic period many of these columns were taken possession
+of by the French and transported to Paris. Only recently have they
+been replaced in the Aix-la-Chapelle cathedral. Most of them came originally
+from the palace of the Exarch of Ravenna.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> These statements of Einhard respecting the lavishness of Charlemagne's
+gifts must be taken with some allowance. They were doubtless considerable
+for the day, but Charlemagne's revenues were not such as to enable him to
+display wealth which in modern times would be regarded as befitting a monarch
+of so exalted rank.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> In 774, 781, 787, and 800.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Charlemagne became joint ruler of the Franks with his brother Karlmann
+in 768; hence when he died, in 814, he had reigned only forty-six years
+instead of forty-seven.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Ephraim Emerton, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages</i> (Boston,
+1903), p. 189.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> The war really lasted only thirty, or at the most thirty-one, years.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The only notable act of vengeance during the war was the beheading
+of 4,500 Saxons in a single day at Verden, on the Weser. It was occasioned
+by a great Saxon revolt in 782, led by the chieftain Widukind.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> The formula of renunciation and confession generally employed in the
+Christianizing of the Germans, and therefore in all probability in the conversion
+of the Saxons, was as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+Question. Forsakest thou the devil?</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Answer. I forsake the devil.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ques. And all the devil's service?</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ans. And I forsake all the devil's service.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ques. And all the devil's works?</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ans. And I forsake all the devil's works and words. Thor and Woden and
+Saxnot and all the evil spirits that are their companions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ques. Believest thou in God the Almighty Father?</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ans. I believe in God the Almighty Father.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ques. Believest thou in Christ the Son of God?</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ans. I believe in Christ the Son of God.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ques. Believest thou in the Holy Ghost?</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Ans. I believe in the Holy Ghost.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">"Accepting Christianity was to the German very much like changing of
+allegiance from one political sovereign to another. He gave up Thor and
+Woden (Odin) and Saxnot, and in their place took the Father, the Son, and
+the Holy Ghost."&mdash;Emerton, <i>Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages</i>,
+pp. 155-156. Text of these "Interrogationes et Responsiones Baptismales"
+is in the <i>Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Leges</i> (Boretius ed.), Vol. II.,
+No. 107.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> That is, the more important offenses, involving capital punishment,
+as contrasted with the later "lesser chapters" dealing with minor misdemeanors.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> The Saxons were to be won to the Church through the protection it afforded,
+but they were likewise to be made to stand in awe of the sanctity of
+its property.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> The apparent harshness of this whole body of regulations was considerably
+diminished in practice by the large discretion left to the priests, as in
+this case. They were exhorted to exercise care and to take circumstances
+into account in judging a man's guilt or innocence.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> From this point the capitulary deals with the "lesser chapters," i.e., non-capital
+offenses.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> For the value of the <i>solidus</i>, see <a href="#Page_61">p. 61</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Three classes of society are distinguished&mdash;nobles, freemen, and serfs.
+The ordinary freeman pays half as much as the noble, and the serf half as
+much as the freeman.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> A prominent characteristic of the early Teutonic religion was that its
+ceremonies were invariably conducted out of doors. Tacitus, in the <i>Germania</i>
+(Chap. 9), tells us that the Germans had no temples or other buildings
+for religious purposes, but worshipped in sacred groves. The "Irmensaule,"
+probably a giant tree-trunk, was the central shrine of the Saxon people,
+and Charlemagne's destruction of it in 772 was the most serious offense
+that could have been committed against them.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> The Germans reckoned by nights rather than by days, as explained by
+Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>, Chap. 11 [see <a href="#Page_27">p. 27</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> A sum assessed by the king, in this case against the illegal harboring
+of criminals.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> The counts, together with the bishops, were the local representatives or
+agents of the king. They presided over judicial assemblies, collected revenues,
+and preserved order. There were about three hundred of them in
+Charlemagne's empire when at its greatest extent.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> An officer sent out by the king to investigate the administration of the
+counts and render judgment in certain cases. As a rule two were sent together,
+a layman and an ecclesiastic [see <a href="#Page_134">p. 134</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Under ordinary circumstances the priests were thus charged with the
+responsibility of seeing that local government in their various communities
+was just and legal.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Bémont and Monod, <i>Mediæval Europe</i> (New York, 1902), p. 202.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Chapter 62 is here given out of order because it contains a comprehensive
+survey of the products and activities upon which the royal stewards
+were expected to report. The other chapters are more specific. It is likely
+that they have not come down to us in their original order.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_150" id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> The ordinary estate in this period, whether royal or not, consisted of two
+parts. One was the demesne, which the owner kept under his immediate
+control; the other was the remaining lands, which were divided among tenants
+who paid certain rentals for their use and also performed stated services
+on the lord's demesne. Charlemagne instructs his stewards to report
+upon both sorts of land.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_151" id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Probably payments for the right to keep pigs in the woods. The most
+common meat in the Middle Ages was pork and the use of the oak forests
+as hog pasture was a privilege of considerable value.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_152" id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Fines imposed upon offenders to free them from crime or to repair
+damages done.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_153" id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Panic was a kind of grass, the seeds of which were not infrequently used
+for food.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_154" id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> The serfs were a semi-free class of country people. They did not own
+the land on which they lived and were not allowed to move off it without
+the owner's consent. They cultivated the soil and paid rents of one kind or
+another to their masters&mdash;in the present case, to the agents of the king.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_155" id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> A variety of fermented liquor made of salt fish.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_156" id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> A blue coloring matter derived from the leaves of a plant of the same
+name.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_157" id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> A red coloring matter derived from a plant of the same name.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_158" id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Burrs of the teasel plant, stiff and prickly, with hooked bracts; used in
+primitive manufacturing for raising a nap on woolen cloth.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_159" id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> A kind of grain still widely cultivated for food in Germany and Switzerland;
+sometimes known as German wheat.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_160" id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> The unit of weight was the pound. Charlemagne replaced the old Gallic
+pound by the Roman, which was a tenth less.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_161" id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> The unit of measure was the <i>muid</i>. Charlemagne had a standard measure
+(<i>modius publicus</i>) constructed and in a number of his capitularies enjoined
+that it be taken as a model by all his subjects. It contained probably a
+little less than six pecks. A smaller measure was the <i>setier</i>, containing about
+five and two-thirds pints.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_162" id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Clergymen attached to the church on or near the estate.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_163" id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> "Attached to the royal villa, in the center of which stood the palace or
+manse, were numerous dependent and humbler dwellings, occupied by mechanics,
+artisans, and tradesmen, or rather manufacturers and craftsmen,
+in great numbers. The dairy, the bakery, the butchery, the brewery, the
+flour-mill were there.... The villa was a city in embryo, and in due
+course it grew into one, for as it supplied in many respects the wants of the
+surrounding country, so it attracted population and became a center of
+commerce."&mdash;Jacob I. Mombert, <i>Charles the Great</i> (New York, 1888), pp.
+401-402.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_164" id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> An ancient Gallic land measure, equivalent to about half a Roman <i>jugerum</i>
+(the <i>jugerum</i> was about two-thirds of an acre). The arpent in modern
+France has varied greatly in different localities. In Paris it is 4,088 square
+yards.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_165" id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> The same as "pachak." The fragrant roots of this plant are still exported
+from India to be used for burning as incense.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_166" id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> A kind of cabbage. The edible part is a large turnip-like swelling of the
+stem above the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_167" id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> A plant used both as a medicine and as a dye.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_168" id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> "All the cereals grown in the country were cultivated. The flower gardens
+were furnished with the choicest specimens for beauty and fragrance,
+the orchards and kitchen gardens produced the richest and best varieties
+of fruit and vegetables. Charles specified by name not less than seventy-four
+varieties of herbs which he commanded to be cultivated; all the vegetables
+still raised in Central Europe, together with many herbs now found
+in botanical gardens only, bloomed on his villas; his orchards yielded a rich
+harvest in cherries, apples, pears, prunes, peaches, figs, chestnuts, and
+mulberries. The hill-sides were vineyards laden with the finest varieties of
+grapes."&mdash;Mombert, <i>Charles the Great</i>, p. 400.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_169" id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed., New York, 1904),
+p. 50.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_170" id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Irene, the wife of Emperor Leo IV. After the death of her husband in
+780 she became regent during the minority of her son, Constantine VI., then
+only nine years of age. In 790 Constantine succeeded in taking the government
+out of her hands; but seven years afterwards she caused him to be
+blinded and shut up in a dungeon, where he soon died. The revolting crimes
+by which Irene established her supremacy at Constantinople were considered,
+even in her day, a disgrace to Christendom.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_171" id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> This expression has given rise to a view which will be found in some
+books that Pope Leo convened a general council of Frankish and Italian
+clergy to consider the advisability of giving the imperial title to Charlemagne.
+The whole matter is in doubt, but it does not seem likely that there
+was any such formal deliberation. Leo certainly ascertained that the leading
+lay and ecclesiastical magnates would approve the contemplated step, but
+that a definite election in council took place may be pretty confidently denied.
+The writer of the Annals of Lauresheim was interested in making the
+case of Charlemagne, and therefore of the later emperors, as strong as possible.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_172" id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Einhard, Charlemagne's biographer, says that the king at first had such
+aversion to the titles of Emperor and Augustus "that he declared he would
+not have set foot in the church the day that they were conferred, although
+it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope"
+(<i>Vita Caroli Magni</i>, Chap. 28). Despite this statement, however, we are not
+to regard the coronation as a genuine surprise to anybody concerned. In
+all probability there had previously been a more or less definite understanding
+between the king and the Pope that in due time the imperial title should
+be conferred. It is easy to believe, though, that Charlemagne had had no
+idea that the ceremony was to be performed on this particular occasion and
+it is likely enough that he had plans of his own as to the proper time and
+place for it, plans which Leo rather rudely interfered with, but which the
+manifest good-will of everybody constrained the king to allow to be sacrificed.
+It may well be that Charlemagne had decided simply to assume the
+imperial crown without a papal coronation at all, in order that the whole
+question of papal supremacy, which threatened to be a troublesome one,
+might be kept in the background.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_173" id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> The celebration of the Nativity was by far the greatest festival of the
+Church. At this season the basilica of St. Peter at Rome was the scene of
+gorgeous ceremonials, and to its sumptuous shrine thronged the devout of
+all Christendom. Its magnificence on the famous Christmas of 800 was
+greater than ever, for only recently Charlemagne had bestowed the most
+costly of all his gifts upon it&mdash;the spoils of the Avar wars.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_174" id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Charles, the eldest son, since 789 king of Maine. In reality, of course,
+he was but an under-king, since Maine was an integral part of Charlemagne's
+dominion. He was anointed by Pope Leo in 800 as heir-apparent to the new
+imperial dignity of his father.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_175" id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> The term "canonical" was applied more particularly to the clergy
+attached to a cathedral church, the clergy being known individually as
+"canons," collectively as a "chapter." In the present connection, however,
+it probably refers to the monks, who, living as they did by "canons" or
+rules, were in that sense "canonical clergy."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_176" id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> The secular clergy were the bishops, priests, deacons, and other church
+officers, who lived with the people in the <i>sæculum</i>, or world, as distinguished
+from the monks, ascetics, cenobites, anchorites, and others, who dwelt in
+monasteries or other places of seclusion.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_177" id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> This is really as splendid a guarantee of equality before the law as is to
+be found in Magna Charta or the Constitution of the United States. Unfortunately
+there was not adequate machinery in the Frankish government
+to enforce it, though we may suppose that while the <i>missi</i> continued efficient
+(which was not more than a hundred years) considerable progress was made
+in this direction.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_178" id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Serfs who worked on the fiscal lands, or, in other words, on the royal
+estates.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_179" id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Compare <a href="#c14">chapters 14</a> and <a href="#c27">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_180" id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> A benefice, as the term is here used, was land granted by the Emperor
+to a friend or dependent. The holder was to use such land on stated terms
+for his own and the Emperor's gain, but was in no case to claim ownership
+of it.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_181" id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> The word has at least three distinct meanings&mdash;a royal edict, a judicial
+fine, and a territorial jurisdiction. It is here used in the first of these senses.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_182" id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> There was little room under Charlemagne's system for professional
+lawyers or advocates.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_183" id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> In other words, when the oath of allegiance is taken, as it must be by
+every man and boy above the age of twelve, all the obligations mentioned
+from <a href="#c3">Chap. 3</a> to <a href="#c9">Chap. 9</a> are to be considered as assumed along with that
+of fidelity to the person and government of the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_184" id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> That is, the laws of the Church.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_185" id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> One of the greatest temptations of the mediæval clergy was to spend
+time in hunting, to the neglect of religious duties. Apparently this evil was
+pretty common in Charlemagne's day.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_186" id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> The <i>centenarii</i> were minor local officials, subordinate to the counts,
+and confined in authority to their particular district or "hundred."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_187" id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> In the Frankish kingdom, as commonly among Germanic peoples of
+the period, murder not only might be, but was expected to be, atoned for
+by a money payment to the slain man's relatives. The payment, known as
+the <i>wergeld</i>, would vary according to the rank of the man killed. If it were
+properly made, such "composition" was bound to be accepted as complete
+reparation for the injury. In this regulation we can discern a distinct advance
+over the old system of blood-feud under which a murder almost invariably
+led to family and clan wars. Plainly the Franks were becoming
+more civilized.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_188" id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> If a murderer refused to pay the required composition his property was
+to be taken possession of by the Emperor's officers and the case must be laid
+before the Emperor himself. If the latter chose, he might order the restoration
+of the property, but this he was not likely to do.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_189" id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> Beginning with the reign of Charlemagne there were really two assemblies
+each year&mdash;one in the spring, the other in the autumn; but the one in
+the spring, the so-called "May-field," was much the more important. All
+the nobles and higher clergy attended, and if a campaign was in prospect all
+who owed military service would be called upon to bring with them their
+portion of the war-host, with specified supplies. Charlemagne proposed all
+measures, the higher magnates discussed them with him, and the lower ones
+gave a perfunctory sanction to acts already determined upon. The meeting
+place was changed from year to year, being rotated irregularly among the
+royal residences, as Aix-la-Chapelle, Paderborn, Ingelheim, and Thionville;
+occasionally they were held, as in this instance, in places otherwise almost
+unknown.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_190" id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> Strassfurt was some distance south of Magdeburg.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_191" id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> The date of the festival of St. John the Baptist was June 22.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_192" id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> From earliest Germanic times we catch glimpses of this practice of
+requiring gifts from a king's subjects. By Charlemagne's day it had
+crystallized into an established custom and was a very important source of
+revenue, though other sources had been opened up which were quite unknown
+to the German sovereigns of three or four hundred years before. Ordinarily
+these gifts, in money, jewels, or provisions, were presented to the sovereign
+each year at the May assembly.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_193" id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> The title "Patricius of Rome" was conferred on Charlemagne by Pope
+Hadrian I., in 774. Its bestowal was a token of papal appreciation of the
+king's renewal of Pepin's grant of lands to the papacy. In practice the
+title had little or no meaning. It was dropped in 800 when Charlemagne
+was crowned emperor [see <a href="#Page_130">p. 130</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_194" id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> That is, the law of the Church; in case of the monasteries, more especially
+the regulations laid down for their order, e.g., the Benedictine Rule.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_195" id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> In the Middle Ages it was assumed that churchmen were educated;
+few other men had any claim to learning. Charlemagne here says that it
+is bad indeed when men who have been put in ecclesiastical positions because
+of their supposed education fall into errors which ought to be expected
+only from ordinary people.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_196" id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> In rhetoric a trope is ordinarily defined as the use of a word or expression
+in a different sense from that which properly belongs to it. The most common
+varieties are metaphor, metonomy, synechdoche, and irony.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_197" id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> After the battle of Fontenay, June 25, 841, Charles and Louis had
+separated and Lothair had formed the design of attacking and conquering
+first one and then the other. He made an expedition against Charles, but
+was unable to accomplish anything before his two enemies again drew together
+at Strassburg.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_198" id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> The name "Francia" was as yet confined to the country lying between
+the Loire and the Scheldt.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_199" id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> This Pepin was a son of Pepin, the brother of Charles, Louis, and Lothair.
+Upon the death of the elder Pepin in 838 his part of the empire&mdash;the great
+region between the Loire and the Pyrenees, known as Aquitaine&mdash;had been
+taken possession of by Charles, without regard for the two surviving sons.
+It was natural, therefore, that in the struggle which ensued between Charles
+and Louis on the one side and Lothair on the other, young Pepin should have
+given such aid as he could to the latter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_200" id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> On the upper Moselle.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_201" id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> This refers to the battle of Fontenay.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_202" id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> The translation of this oath is as follows: "For the love of God, and for
+the sake as well of our peoples as of ourselves, I promise that from this day
+forth, as God shall grant me wisdom and strength, I will treat this my
+brother as one's brother ought to be treated, provided that he shall do the
+same by me. And with Lothair I will not willingly enter into any dealings
+which may injure this my brother."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_203" id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> This oath, taken by the followers of the two kings, may be thus translated:
+"If Louis [or Charles] shall observe the oath which he has sworn to
+his brother Charles [or Louis], and Charles [or Louis], our lord, on his side,
+should be untrue to his oath, and we should be unable to hold him to it,
+neither we nor any whom we can deter, shall give him any support." The
+oath taken by the two armies was the same, with only the names of the
+kings interchanged.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_204" id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> This name in the course of time became simply "Francia," then
+"France." In the eastern kingdom, "Francia" gradually became restricted
+to the region about the Main, or "Franconia."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_205" id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> It was commonly known as "Lotharii regnum," later as "Lotharingia,"
+and eventually (a fragment of the kingdom only) as "Lorraine."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_206" id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Emerton, <i>Mediæval Europe</i> (Boston, 1903), p. 30.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_207" id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> This statement is only approximately true. In reality Friesland (Frisia)
+and a strip up the east bank of the Rhine almost to the mouth of the Moselle
+went to Lothair.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_208" id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_199">p. 152, note 2</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_209" id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> Gregory IV. (827-844) was succeeded in the papal office by Sergius II.
+(844-847).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_210" id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> By the treaty of Verdun in 843 Charles the Bald had been given Aquitaine,
+along with the other distinctively Frankish regions of western Europe.
+His nephew Pepin, however, who had never been reconciled to Charles's
+taking possession of Aquitaine in 838, called himself king of that country
+and made stubborn resistance to his uncle's claims of sovereignty [see p.
+<a href="#Page_156">156</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_211" id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> The Wends were a Slavonic people living in the lower valley of the Oder.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_212" id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> By "the heathen" are meant the Norse pirates from Denmark and the
+Scandinavian peninsula. On their invasions see <a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_213" id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> This Saracen attack upon Rome was made by some Arab pirates who
+in the Mediterranean were playing much the same rôle of destruction as
+were the Northmen on the Atlantic coasts. A league of Naples, Gaeta, and
+Amalfi defeated the pirates in 849, and delivered Rome from her oppressors
+long enough for new fortifications to be constructed. Walls were
+built at this time to include the quarter of St. Peter's&mdash;a district known to
+this day as the "Leonine City" in memory of Leo IV., who in 847 succeeded
+Sergius as pope [see above text under date 850].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_214" id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Fulda was an important monastery on one of the upper branches of
+the Weser, northeast of Mainz.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_215" id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> An octave, in the sense here meant, is the week (strictly eight days)
+following a church festival; in this case, the eight days following the anniversary
+of Christ's birth, or Christmas.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_216" id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> The isle of Rhé, near Rochelle, north of the mouth of the Garonne.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_217" id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Galicia was a province in the extreme northwest of the Spanish peninsula.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_218" id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Charles the Bald, who by the treaty of Verdun in 843, had obtained the
+western part of the empire built up by Charlemagne [see <a href="#Page_154">p. 154</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_219" id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Louis, a half-brother of Charles the Bald, who had received the eastern
+portion of Charlemagne's empire by the settlement of 843.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_220" id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> Frisia, or Friesland, was the northernmost part of the kingdom of Lothair.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_221" id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> That is, in Brittany.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_222" id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Noménoé was a native chief of the Britons. Charles the Bald made
+many efforts to reduce him to obedience, but with little success. In 848
+or 849 he took the title of king. During his brief reign (which ended in 851)
+he invaded Charles's dominions and wrought almost as much destruction
+as did the Northmen themselves.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_223" id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Tours, Blois, and Orleans were all situated within a range of a hundred
+miles along the lower Loire.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_224" id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> Chartres was some eighty miles northwest of Orleans.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_225" id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> About midway between Nantes and Tours.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_226" id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> Poitiers was about seventy miles southwest of Tours.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_227" id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> Valence was on the Rhone, nearly a hundred and fifty miles back from
+the Mediterranean coast.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_228" id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> The Northmen who ravaged France really had no kings, but only
+military chieftains.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_229" id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> Odo, or Eudes, was chosen king by the Frankish nobles and clergy in
+888, to succeed the deposed Charles the Fat. He was not of the Carolingian
+family but a Robertian (son of Robert the Strong), and hence a forerunner
+of the Capetian line of kings regularly established on the French throne in
+987 [see <a href="#Page_177">p. 177</a>]. His election to the kingship was due in a large measure
+to his heroic conduct during the siege of Paris by the Northmen.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_230" id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> The tower blocked access to the city by the so-called "Great Bridge,"
+which connected the right bank of the Seine with the island on which the
+city was built. The tower stood on the present site of the Châtelet.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_231" id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> In time Robert also became king. He reigned only from 922 to 923.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_232" id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Abbot Ebolus was head of the monastery of St. Germain des Prés.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_233" id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> The Northmen were finally compelled to abandon their efforts against
+the tower. They then retired to the bank of the Seine near the abbey of
+Saint-Denys and from that place as a center ravaged all the country lying
+about Paris. In a short time they renewed the attack upon the city itself.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_234" id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Charles the Fat, under whom during the years 885-887 the old empire
+of Charlemagne was for the last time united under a single sovereign. When
+Odo went to find him in 886 he was at Metz in Germany. German and
+Italian affairs interested him more than did those of the Franks.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_235" id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Sens was about a hundred miles southeast of Paris. Charles abandoned
+the region about Sens to the Northmen to plunder during the winter of
+886-887. His very lame excuse for doing this was that the people of the
+district did not properly recognize his authority and were deserving of such
+punishment.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_236" id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> The twelve month siege of Paris thus brought to an end had many noteworthy
+results. Chief among these was the increased prestige of Odo as a
+national leader and of Paris as a national stronghold. Prior to this time
+Paris had not been a place of importance, even though Clovis had made it
+his capital. In the period of Charlemagne it was distinctly a minor city
+and it gained little in prominence under Louis the Pious and Charles the
+Bald. The great Carolingian capitals were Laon and Compiègne. The
+siege of 885-886, however, made it apparent that Paris occupied a strategic
+position, commanding the valley of the Seine, and that the inland city was
+one of the true bulwarks of the kingdom. Thereafter the place grew rapidly
+in population and prestige, and when Odo became king (in 888) it was made
+his capital. As time went on it grew to be the heart of the French kingdom
+and came to guide the destinies of France as no other city of modern
+times has guided a nation.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_237" id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> He was deposed in 887, largely because of his utter failure to take any
+active measures to defend the Franks against their Danish enemies. From
+Paris he went to Germany where he died, January 13, 888, at a small town
+on the Danube.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_238" id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> After the famous siege of Paris in 885-886 the Northmen, or Normans
+as they may now be called, continued to ravage France just as they had
+done before that event. In 910 one of their greatest chieftains, Rollo, appeared
+before Paris and prepared to take the city. In this project he was
+unsuccessful, but his warriors caused so much devastation in the surrounding
+country that Charles the Simple, who was now king, decided to try negotiations.
+A meeting was held at Saint-Clair-sur-Epte where, in the presence
+of the Norman warriors and the Frankish magnates, Charles and Rollo
+entered into the first treaty looking toward a permanent settlement of Northmen
+on Frankish territory. Rollo promised to desist from his attacks upon
+Frankland and to become a Christian. Charles agreed to give over to the
+Normans a region which they in fact already held, with Rouen as its center,
+and extending from the Epte River on the east to the sea on the west. The
+arrangement was dictated by good sense and proved a fortunate one for
+all parties concerned.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_239" id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> Robert was Odo's brother. "Duke of the Franks" was a title, at first
+purely military, but fast developing to the point where it was to culminate
+in its bearer becoming the first Capetian king [see <a href="#Page_177">p. 177</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_240" id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_181">p. 138, note 4</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_241" id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> If the offender had a lord, this lord would be expected to produce his
+accused vassal at court.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_242" id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> That is, the old blood-feud of the Germans.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_243" id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> The office of <i>missus</i> had by this time fallen pretty much into decay.
+Many of the <i>missi</i> were at the same time counts&mdash;a combination of authority
+directly opposed to the earlier theory of the administrative system. The
+<i>missus</i> had been supposed to supervise the counts and restrain them from
+disloyalty to the king and from indulgence in arbitrary or oppressive measures
+of local government.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_244" id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> The viscount (<i>vicecomes</i>) was the count's deputy. By Carloman's time
+there were sometimes several of these in a county. They were at first
+appointed by the count, but toward the end of the ninth century they became
+hereditary.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_245" id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> The <i>vicarii</i> and <i>centenarii</i> were local assistants of the count in administrative
+and judicial affairs. In Merovingian times their precise duties are
+not clear, but under the Carolingians the two terms tended to become
+synonyms. The <i>centenarius</i>, or hundredman, was charged mainly with
+the administration of justice in the smallest local division, i.e., the hundred.
+In theory he was elected by the people of the hundred, but in practice he
+was usually appointed by the count.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_246" id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Hugh Capet, whose title prior to 987 was "Duke of the Franks."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_247" id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_248" id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> We are not to suppose that Richer here gives a literal reproduction of
+Adalbero's speech, but so far as we can tell the main points are carefully
+stated.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_249" id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> At the funeral of Louis.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_250" id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Charles of Lower Lorraine, uncle of Louis V.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_251" id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> The elective principle here asserted had prevailed in the choice of French
+and German kings for nearly a century. The kings chosen, however, usually
+came from one family, as the Carolingians in France.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_252" id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> Almost exactly a century earlier there had been such a case among the
+Franks, when Charles the Fat was deposed and Odo, the defender of Paris,
+elevated to the throne (888).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_253" id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> Charles had been made duke of Lower Lorraine by the German emperor.
+This passage in Adalbero's speech looks like something of an appeal to
+Frankish pride, or as we would say in these days, to national sentiment.
+Still it must be remembered that while a sense of common interest was undoubtedly
+beginning to develop among the peoples represented in the assembly
+at Senlis, these peoples were still far too diverse to be spoken of
+accurately as making up a unified nationality. Adalbero was indulging in
+a political harangue and piling up arguments for effect, without much regard
+for their real weight.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_254" id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> Noyon was a church center about fifty miles north of Paris. That the
+coronation really occurred at this place has been questioned by some, but
+there seems to be small reason for doubting Richer's statement in the matter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_255" id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> M. Pfister in Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, Vol. II., p. 412, asserts that the
+coronation occurred July 3, 987.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_256" id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> This method of describing the extent of the new king's dominion shows
+how far from consolidated the so-called Frankish kingdom really was. The
+royal domain proper, that is, the land over which the king had immediate
+control, was limited to a long fertile strip extending from the Somme to a
+point south of Orléans, including the important towns of Paris, Orléans,
+Étampes, Senlis, and Compiègne. Even this was not continuous, but was
+cut into here and there by the estates of practically independent feudal
+lords. By far the greater portion of modern France (the name in 987 was
+only beginning to be applied to the whole country) consisted of great counties
+and duchies, owing comparatively little allegiance to the king and usually
+rendering even less than they owed. Of these the most important was the
+county (later duchy) of Normandy, the county of Bretagne (Brittany),
+the county of Flanders, the county of Anjou, the county of Blois, the duchy
+of Burgundy, the duchy of Aquitaine, the county of Toulouse, the county of
+Gascony, and the county of Barcelona (south of the Pyrenees). The "Goths"
+referred to by Richer were the inhabitants of the "march," or border
+county, of Gothia along the Mediterranean coast between the lower Rhone
+and the Pyrenees (old Septimania).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_257" id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> That is, Ethelred I., whom Alfred succeeded.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_258" id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> Wiltshire, on the southern coast, west of the Isle of Wight.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_259" id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> The same as the modern city of the name.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_260" id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> Mercia was one of the seven old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It lay east of
+Wales.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_261" id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> This marked a radical departure in methods of fighting the invaders.
+On the continent, and hitherto in England, there had been no effort to prevent
+the enemy from getting into the country they proposed to plunder.
+Alfred's creation of a navy was one of his wisest acts. Although the English
+had by this time grown comparatively unaccustomed to seafaring life
+they contrived to win their first naval encounter with the enemy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_262" id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> In Dorsetshire.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_263" id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> Athelney was in Somersetshire, northeast of Exeter, in the marshes at
+the junction of the Tone and the Parret.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_264" id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> The modern Brixton Deverill, in Wiltshire, near Warminster.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_265" id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> In Wiltshire, a little east of Westbury. In January the Danes had
+removed from Exeter to Chippenham. Edington (or Ethandune) was eight
+miles from the camp at the latter place. The Danes were first defeated in
+an open battle at Edington, and then forced to surrender after a fourteen
+days' siege at Chippenham.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_266" id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> This so-called "Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" in 878 provided only for
+the acceptance of Christianity by the Danish leader. It is sometimes
+known as the treaty of Chippenham and is not to be confused with the treaty
+of Wedmore, of a few weeks later, by which Alfred and Guthrum divided
+the English country between them. The text of this second treaty will be
+found in Lee's <i>Source-Book of English History</i> (pp. 98-99), though the introductory
+statement there given is somewhat misleading. This assignment
+of the Danelaw to Guthrum's people may well be compared with the yielding
+of Normandy to Rollo by Charles the Simple in 911 [see <a href="#Page_172">p. 172</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_267" id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> Ethelwerd was Alfred's fifth living child.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_268" id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> This was, of course, not a school in the modern sense of the word. All
+that is meant is simply that young Ethelwerd, along with sons of nobles
+and non-nobles, received instruction from the learned men at the court.
+It had been customary before Alfred's day for the young princes and sons
+of nobles to receive training at the court, but not in letters.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_269" id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> This was Edward the Elder who succeeded Alfred as king and reigned
+from 901 to 925. He was Alfred's eldest son.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_270" id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> Ælfthryth was Alfred's fourth child. She became the wife of Baldwin II.
+of Flanders.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_271" id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> Among other labors in behalf of learning, Alfred made a collection of
+the ancient epics and lyrics of the Saxon people. Unfortunately, except
+in the case of the epic Beowulf, only fragments of these have survived.
+Beowulf was, so far as we know, the earliest of the Saxon poems, having
+originated before the migration to Britain, though it was probably put in
+its present form by a Christian monk of the eighth century.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_272" id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> Armorica was the name applied in Alfred's time to the region southward
+from the mouth of the Seine to Brittany.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_273" id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> There is a good deal of independent evidence that Alfred was peculiarly
+hospitable to foreigners. He delighted in learning from them about their
+peoples and experiences.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_274" id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> The word in the original is <i>ministeriales</i>. It is not Saxon but Franco-Latin
+and is an instance of the Frankish element in Asser's vocabulary.
+Here, as among the Franks, the <i>ministeriales</i> were the officials of second-rate
+importance surrounding the king, the highest being known as the
+<i>ministri</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_275" id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> This comparison of the gathering of learning to the operations of a
+bee in collecting honey is very common among classical writers and also
+among those of the Carolingian renaissance. It occurs in Lucretius, Seneca,
+Macrobius, Alcuin, and the poet Candidus.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_276" id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> Plegmund became archbishop of Canterbury in 890, but it is probable
+that he was with Alfred some time before his election to the primacy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_277" id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> This Ethelstan was probably the person of that name who was consecrated
+bishop of Ramsbury in 909.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_278" id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> From another document it appears that Werwulf was a friend of Bishop
+Werfrith in Mercia before either took up residence at Alfred's court.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_279" id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> In Chap. 104 of Asser's biography the <i>capellani</i> are described as supplying
+the king with candles, by whose burning he measured time. The word
+<i>capellanus</i> is of pure Frankish origin and was originally applied to the clerks
+(<i>clerici capellani</i>) who were charged with the custody of the cope (<i>cappa</i>)
+of St. Martin, which was kept in the <i>capella</i>. From this the term <i>capella</i>
+came to mean a room especially devoted to religious uses, that is, a chapel.
+It was used in this sense as early as 829 in Frankland. Whether by <i>capellanus</i>
+Asser meant mere clerks, or veritable "chaplains" in the later sense, cannot
+be known, though his usage was probably the latter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_280" id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> Chapter 87 of Asser informs us that Alfred mastered the art of reading
+in the year 887.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_281" id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Grimbald came from the Flemish monastery of St. Bertin at St. Omer.
+He was recommended to Alfred by Fulco, archbishop of Rheims, who had
+once been abbot of St. Bertin. We do not know in what year Grimbald
+went to England, though there is some evidence that it was not far from
+887.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_282" id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> John the Old Saxon is mentioned by Alfred as his mass-priest. It is
+probable that he came from the abbey of Corbei on the upper Weser. Not
+much is known about the man, but if he was as learned as Asser says he was,
+he must have been a welcome addition to Alfred's group of scholars particularly
+as the language which he used was very similar to that of the West
+Saxons in England.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_283" id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> That is, south of the Humber.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_284" id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> The service of the Church.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_285" id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> They were written, of course, in Latin.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_286" id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> By the middle of the third century <span class="s07">A.D.</span> as many as three different
+translations of the Old Testament into Greek had been made&mdash;those of
+Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmochus. These eventually took fixed shape
+in the so-called Septuagint version of the Old Testament.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_287" id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> About the year 385 St. Jerome revised the older Latin translation of
+the New Testament and translated the Old Testament directly from the
+Hebrew. This complete version gradually superseded all others for the
+whole Latin-reading Church, being known as the "Vulgate," that is, the
+version commonly accepted. It was in the form of the Vulgate that the
+Scriptures were known to the Saxons and all other peoples of western Europe.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_288" id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> In other words, sufficient relief from the Danish incursions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_289" id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> The <i>mancus</i> was a Saxon money value equivalent to a mark.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_290" id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> A minster was a church attached to a monastery.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_291" id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> The witan was the gathering of "wisemen"&mdash;members of the royal
+family, high officials in the Church, and leading nobles&mdash;about the Anglo-Saxon
+king to assist in making ordinances and supervising the affairs of state.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_292" id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> Compensation rendered to an injured person.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_293" id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> The principal difference between Arian and orthodox Christians arose out
+of the much discussed problem as to whether Jesus was of the same substance
+as God and co-eternal with Him. The Arians maintained that while
+Jesus was truly the Son of God, He must necessarily have been inferior to
+the Father, else there would be two gods. Arianism was formally condemned
+by the Council of Nicaea in 325, but it continued to be the prevalent
+belief in many parts of the Roman Empire; and when the Germans became
+Christians, it was Christianity of the Arian type (except in the case of the
+Franks) that they adopted&mdash;because it happened to be this creed that the
+missionaries carried to them. The Franks became orthodox Christians,
+which in part explains their close relations with the papacy in the earlier
+Middle Ages [see <a href="#Page_50">p. 50</a>]. Of course Gregory of Tours, who relates the story
+of the Arian presbyter, as a Frank, was a hater of Arianism, and therefore we
+need not be surprised at the expressions of contempt which he employs in
+referring to "the heretic."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_294" id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> The story as told by Raimond of Agiles was that Peter Bartholomew had
+been visited by Andrew the Apostle, who had revealed to him the spot where
+the lance lay buried beneath the Church of St. Peter in Antioch.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_295" id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> Albar, or Albara, was a town southeast of Antioch, beyond the Orontes.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_296" id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> Owing to Peter's early death after undergoing the ordeal, a serious controversy
+arose as to whether he had really passed through it without injury
+from the fire. His friends ascribed his death to the wounds he had received
+from the enthusiastic crowd, but his enemies declared that he died from
+burns.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_297" id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> Charles Seignobos, <i>The Feudal Régime</i> (translated in "Historical Miscellany"
+series), New York, 1904, p. 1.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_298" id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> A man was not supposed in any way to sacrifice his freedom by becoming
+a vassal and the lord's right to his service would be forfeited if this principle
+were violated.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_299" id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> The relation of lord and vassal was, at this early time, limited to the
+lifetime of the two parties. When one died, the other was liberated from
+his contract. But in the ninth and tenth centuries vassalage became generally
+hereditary.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_300" id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> Casting lots for the property of a deceased father was not uncommon
+among the Franks. All sons shared in the inheritance, but particular parts
+of the property were often assigned by lot.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_301" id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> The grant of immunity was thus brought to the attention of the count
+in whose jurisdiction the exempted lands lay.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_302" id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Châlons-sur-Saône was about eighty miles north of the junction of the
+Saône with the Rhone. It should not be confused with Châlons-sur-Marne
+where the battle was fought with Attila's Huns in 451.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_303" id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> There is some doubt at this point as to the correct translation. That
+given seems best warranted.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_304" id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> <i>Dominus</i> was a common name for a lord.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_305" id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> A member of the king's official household.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_306" id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> A subordinate officer under the count [see <a href="#Footnote_245">p. 176, note 3</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_307" id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_60">p. 61. note 2</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_308" id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> Louis VII., king of France, 1137-1180.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_309" id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> The county of Champagne lay to the east of Paris. It was established
+by Charlemagne and, while at first insignificant, grew until by the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries it was one of the most important in France.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_310" id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> Beauvais was about sixty miles northwest of Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_311" id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> That is, the bishop of Beauvais was bound to furnish his lord, the
+count of Champagne, the service of one knight for his army, besides ordinary
+feudal obligations.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_312" id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> The county of Troyes centered about the city of that name on the
+upper Seine. It was eventually absorbed by Champagne.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_313" id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> As a fief.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_314" id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> A manor, in the general sense, was a feudal estate.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_315" id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> A castellanerie was a feudal holding centering about a castle.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_316" id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> That is, Count Thiebault promises Jocelyn not to deprive him of the
+services of men who rightfully belong on the manor which is being granted.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_317" id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> Here is an illustration of the complexity of the feudal system. Count
+Thiebault is Jocelyn's <i>fourth</i> lord, and loyalty and service are owed to all
+of the four at the same time. Accordingly, Thiebault must be content with
+only such allegiance of his new vassal as will not involve a breach of the
+contracts which Jocelyn has already entered into with his other lords.
+For example, Thiebault could not expect Jocelyn to aid him in war against
+the duke of Burgundy, for Jocelyn is pledged to fidelity to that duke. In
+general, when a man had only one lord he owed him full and unconditional
+allegiance (<i>liege homage</i>), but when he became vassal to other lords he could
+promise them allegiance only so far as would not conflict with contracts
+already entered into. It was by no means unusual for a man to have
+several lords, and it often happened that A was B's vassal for a certain
+piece of land while at the same time B was A's vassal for another piece.
+Not infrequently the king himself was thus a vassal of one or more of his
+own vassals.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_318" id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> The Bible. Sometimes only the Gospels were used.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_319" id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> Charles, count of Flanders, had just died and had been succeeded by his
+son William. All persons who had received fiefs from the deceased count
+were now brought together to renew their homage and fealty to the new
+count.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_320" id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Such a case as this would be most apt to arise when a lord died and a
+vassal failed to renew his homage to the successor; or when a vassal died
+and his heir failed to do homage as was required.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_321" id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> This law would apply also to a case where a man who is already a vassal
+of a lord should acquire from another vassal of the same lord some additional
+land and so become indebted to the lord for a new measure of fealty.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_322" id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> Reversion to the original proprietor because of failure of heirs.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_323" id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Such land might be acquired for temporary use only i.e., for guardianship,
+during the absence or disability of its proprietor.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_324" id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> Chartres was somewhat less than twenty miles southwest of Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_325" id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> The terms used in the original are <i>incolume</i>, <i>tutum</i>, <i>honestum</i>, <i>utile</i>, <i>facile</i>,
+<i>et possibile</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_326" id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> In the English customary law of the twelfth century we read that, "it
+is allowable to any one, without punishment, to support his lord if any one
+assails him, and to obey him in all legitimate ways, except in theft, murder,
+and in all such things as are not conceded to any one to do and are reckoned
+infamous by the laws;" also that, "the lord ought to do likewise equally
+with counsel and aid, and he may come to his man's assistance in his vicissitudes
+in all ways."&mdash;Thorpe, <i>Ancient Laws and Institutes</i>, Vol. I., p. 590.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_327" id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> The duke of Normandy. Outside of Normandy, of course, other feudal
+princes would be substituted.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_328" id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> It was the feudal system that first gave the eldest son in France a real
+superiority over his brothers. This may be seen most clearly in the change
+wrought by feudalism whereby the old Frankish custom of allowing all the
+sons to inherit their father's property equally was replaced by the mediæval
+rule of primogeniture (established by the eleventh century) under which the
+younger sons were entirely, or almost entirely, excluded from the inheritance.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_329" id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> Relief is the term used to designate the payment made to the lord by
+the son of the deceased vassal before taking up the inheritance [see <a href="#Page_225">p. 225</a>].
+The "custom" says that sometimes the amount paid as an aid to the lord
+was equal to half that paid as relief and sometimes it was only a third.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_330" id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> The number of men brought by a vassal to the royal army depended
+on the value of his fief and the character of his feudal contract. Greater
+vassals often appeared with hundreds of followers.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_331" id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> This provision rendered the ordinary feudal army much more inefficient
+than an army made up of paid soldiers. Under ordinary circumstances,
+when their forty days of service had expired, the feudal troops were free to
+go home, even though their doing so might force the king to abandon a
+siege or give up a costly campaign only partially completed. By the thirteenth
+century it had become customary for the king to accept extra money
+payments instead of military service from his vassals. With the revenues
+thus obtained, soldiers could be hired who made war their profession and
+who were willing to serve indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_332" id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Every fief-holder was supposed to render some measure of military
+service. As neither a minor nor a woman could do this personally, it was
+natural that the lord should make up for the deficiency by appropriating
+the produce of the estate during the period of wardship.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_333" id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> Tenants <i>in capite</i> in England were those who held their land by direct
+royal grant.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_334" id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> Apparently the king's court had been assembled several times to consider
+the charges against Viscount Atton, but had been prevented from
+taking action because of the latter's failure to appear. At last the court
+decided that it was useless to delay longer and proceeded to condemn the
+guilty noble and send him a statement of what had been done. He was not
+only to lose his château of Auvillars but also to reimburse the king for the
+expenses which the court had incurred on his account.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_335" id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> The chapter was the body of clergy attached to a cathedral church.
+Its members were known as canons.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_336" id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> That is, the penalty for using violence against peaceful churchmen, or
+despoiling their property was to be twice that demanded by the law in case
+of similar offenses committed against laymen.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_337" id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> The ordeal of cold water was designed to test a man's guilt or innocence.
+The accused person was thrown into a pond and if he sank he was
+considered innocent; if he floated, guilty, on the supposition that the pure
+water would refuse to receive a person tainted with crime [see <a href="#Page_200">p. 200</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_338" id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> Friday night, October 13.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_339" id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> A long coat of mail made of interwoven metal rings.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_340" id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Roland, count of Brittany, was slain at the pass of Roncesvalles in the
+famous attack of the Gascons upon Charlemagne's retreating army in 778.
+One of the chronicles says simply, "In this battle Roland, count of Brittany,
+was slain," and we have absolutely no other historical knowledge of the
+man. His career was taken up by the singers of the Middle Ages, however,
+and employed to typify all that was brave and daring and romantic. It
+was some one of the many "songs of Roland" that William used at Hastings
+to stimulate his men.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_341" id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> In a battle so closely contested this was a dangerous stratagem and its
+employment seems to indicate that William despaired of defeating the
+English by direct attack. His main object, in which he was altogether successful,
+was to entice the English into abandoning their advantageous position
+on the hilltop.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_342" id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> After the Norman victory was practically assured, William sought to
+bring the battle to an end by having his archers shoot into the air, that their
+arrows might fall upon the group of soldiers, including the king, who were
+holding out in defense of the English standard. It was in this way that
+Harold was mortally wounded; he died immediately from the blows inflicted
+by Norman knights at close hand.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_343" id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> The victory at Hastings did not at once make William king, but it
+revealed to both himself and the English people that the crown was easily
+within his grasp. After the battle he advanced past London into the interior
+of the country. Opposition melted before him and on Christmas
+day, 1066, the Norman duke, having already been regularly elected by the
+witan, was crowned at London by the archbishop of York. In the early
+years of his reign he succeeded in making his power recognized in the more
+turbulent north.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_344" id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> The work of Alfred had not been consistently followed up during the
+century and a half since his death [see <a href="#Page_185">p. 185</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_345" id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> The conquest of England by the Normans was really far from an enslavement.
+Norman rule was strict, but hardly more so than conditions
+warranted.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_346" id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> It seems to be true, as William of Malmesbury says, that the century
+preceding the Norman Conquest had been an era of religious as well as
+literary decline among the English. After 1066 the native clergy, ignorant
+and often grossly immoral, were gradually replaced by Normans, who on
+the whole were better men. By 1088 there remained only one bishop of
+English birth in the entire kingdom. One should be careful, however, not
+to exaggerate the moral differences between the two peoples.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_347" id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> The story goes that just before entering the battle of Hastings in 1066
+William made a vow that if successful he would establish a monastery on
+the site where Harold's standard stood. The vow was fulfilled by the
+founding of the Abbey of St. Martin, or Battle Abbey, in the years 1070-1076.
+The monastery was not ready for consecration until 1094.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_348" id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Christchurch. This cathedral monastery had been organized before the
+Conqueror's day, but it was much increased in size and in importance by
+Lanfranc, William's archbishop of Canterbury; and the great building
+which it occupied in the later Middle Ages was constructed at this time.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_349" id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> In Hampshire, in the southern part of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_350" id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> In Middlesex, near London.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_351" id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> On the Severn, in the modern county of Gloucester.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_352" id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> A thane (or thegn) was originally a young warrior; then one who became
+a noble by serving the king in arms; then the possessor of five hides of land.
+A hide was a measure of arable ground varying in extent at the time of
+William the Conqueror, but by Henry II.'s reign (1154-1189) fixed at about
+100 acres. The thane before the Conquest occupied nearly the same position
+socially as the knight after it.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_353" id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> This assembly of dignitaries, summoned by the king three times a year,
+was the so-called Great Council, which in Norman times superseded the
+old Saxon witan. Its duties were mainly judicial. It acted also as an advisory
+body, but the king was not obliged to consult it or to carry out its
+recommendations [see p. <a href="#Footnote_432">307, note 2]</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_354" id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> The <i>see</i> of a bishop is his ecclesiastical office; the area over which his
+authority extends is more properly known as his diocese.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_355" id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> On the Orne River, near the English Channel.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_356" id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> Odo, though a churchman, was a man of brutal instincts and evil character.
+Through his high-handed course, both as a leading ecclesiastical
+dignitary in Normandy and as earl of Kent and vicegerent in England, he
+gave William no small amount of trouble. The king finally grew tired of
+his brother's conduct and had him imprisoned in the town of Rouen where
+he was left for four years, or until the end of the reign (1087).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_357" id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> This was the famous Domesday Survey, begun in 1085.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_358" id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> In the Irish Sea.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_359" id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> Maine lay directly to the south of Normandy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_360" id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> This statement is doubtful, though it is true that Lanfranc made a beginning
+by consecrating a number of bishops in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_361" id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> All of the early Norman kings were greedy for money and apt to bear
+heavily upon the people in their efforts to get it. Englishmen were not
+accustomed to general taxation and felt the new régime to be a serious
+burden. There was consequently much complaint, but, as our historian
+says, William was strong enough to be able to ignore it.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_362" id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Most of William's harsh measures can be justified on the ground that
+they were designed to promote the ultimate welfare of his people. This
+is not true, however, of his elaborate forest laws, which undertook to deprive
+Englishmen of their accustomed freedom of hunting when and where
+they pleased. William's love of the chase amounted to a passion and he
+was not satisfied with merely enacting such stringent measures as that the
+slayer of a hart or a hind in his forests should be blinded, but also set apart
+a great stretch of additional country, the so-called New Forest, as his own
+exclusive hunting grounds.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_363" id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> In other words, it is Duke William's hope that, though not himself
+willing to be restricted to the life of a monk, he may secure substantially
+an equivalent reward by patronizing men who <i>are</i> thus willing.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_364" id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> Mâcon, the seat of the diocese in which Cluny was situated, was on the
+Saône, a short distance to the southeast.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_365" id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> Berno served as abbot of Cluny from 910 until 927.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_366" id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> That the charitable side of the monastery's work was well attended
+to is indicated by the fact that in a single year, late in the eleventh century,
+seventeen thousand poor were given assistance by the monks.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_367" id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> The remainder of the charter consists of a series of imprecations of
+disaster and punishment upon all who at any time and in any way should
+undertake to interfere with the vested rights just granted. These imprecations
+were strictly typical of the mediæval spirit-so much so that
+many of them came to be mere formulæ, employed to give documents due
+solemnity, but without any especially direful designs on the part of the writer
+who used them.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_368" id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> Emerton, <i>Mediæval Europe</i>, p. 458.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_369" id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> Bernard was the third son.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_370" id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> About sixty miles southeast of Troyes.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_371" id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> Cîteaux (established by Odo, duke of Burgundy, in 1098) was near
+Dijon in Burgundy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_372" id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> Stephen Harding, an Englishman, succeeded Alberic as abbot of Cîteaux
+in 1113.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_373" id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> Châtillon was about twelve miles south of La Ferté. The latter was
+fifty miles southeast of Troyes and only half as far from Chaumont, despite
+the author's statement that, it lay midway between the two places. The
+Aube is an important tributary of the upper Seine.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_374" id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> The famous founder of the monastery of Monte Cassino and the compiler
+of the Benedictine Rule [see <a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_375" id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> The incumbent of the papal office was at the same time bishop of Rome,
+temporal sovereign of the papal lands, and head of the church universal.
+In earlier times there was always danger that the third of these functions
+be lost and that the papacy revert to a purely local institution, but by
+Gregory VII.'s day the universal headship was clearly recognized throughout
+the West as inherent in the office. It was only when there arose the
+question as to how far this headship justified the Pope in attempting to
+control the affairs of the world that serious disagreement manifested itself.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_376" id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> That is, without giving them a hearing at a later date.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_377" id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> On the basis of the forged Donation of Constantine the Pope claimed
+the right here mentioned. There was no proper warrant for it.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_378" id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> "This is the first distinct assertion of the exclusive right of the bishop
+of Rome to the title of pope, once applied to all bishops." Robinson,
+<i>Readings in European History</i>, Vol. I., p. 274. The word pope is derived from
+<i>papa</i> (father). It is still used as the common title of all priests in the
+Greek Church.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_379" id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> This, with the letter given on <a href="#Page_265">page 265,</a> sets forth succinctly the papacy's
+absolute claim of authority as against the highest temporal power in Europe.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_380" id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> That is, pronounced by the canons of the Church to be divinely inspired.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_381" id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> This is, of course, not a claim of <i>papal</i> infallibility. The assertion is
+merely that in the domain of faith and morals the Roman church, judged
+by Scriptural principles, has never pursued a course either improper or unwarranted.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_382" id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> It did not occur until 1084. Henry had inherited the office at the death
+of his father, Henry III., in 1056.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_383" id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> The sin of simony comprised the employment of any corrupt means to
+obtain appointment or election to an ecclesiastical office. For the origin
+of the term see the incident recorded in Acts, viii. 18-24. The five councilors
+had been condemned by a synod at Rome in February, 1075.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_384" id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> The five condemned councillors.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_385" id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> This portion of the letter comprises a clear assertion of the "Petrine
+Supremacy," i.e., the theory that Peter, as the first bishop of Rome, transmitted
+his superiority over all other bishops to his successors in the Roman
+see, who in due time came to constitute the line of popes [see <a href="#Page_78">p. 78</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_386" id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> This refers to a decree of a Roman synod in 1074 against simony and
+the marriage of the clergy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_387" id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> In the battle on the Unstrutt, June 8, 1075.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_388" id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> Julian succeeded Constantine's son Constantius as head of the Roman
+Empire in 361. He was known as "the Apostate" because of his efforts to
+displace the Christian religion and to restore the old pagan worship. He
+died in battle with the Persians in 363.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_389" id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> Henry III., emperor from 1039 to 1056.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_390" id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> The castle of Canossa stood on one of the northern spurs of the Apennines,
+about ten miles southwest of Reggio. Some remains of it may yet
+be seen.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_391" id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> The German princes who were hostile to Henry had kept in close touch
+with the Pope. In the Council of Tribur a legate of Gregory took the most
+prominent part, and the members of that body had invited the Pope to
+come to Augsburg and aid in the settling of Henry's crown upon a successor.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_392" id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> Revoked the ban of excommunication. The anathema was a solemn
+curse by an ecclesiastical authority.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_393" id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> That is, the Emperor was to be allowed to invest the new bishop or abbot
+with the fiefs and secular powers by a touch of the scepter, but his old claim
+to the right of investment with the spiritual emblems of ring and crozier
+was denied.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_394" id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> This means that the ecclesiastical prince&mdash;the bishop or abbot&mdash;in the
+capacity of a landholder was to render the ordinary feudal obligations to
+the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_395" id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> Burgundy and Italy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_396" id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> The term Turks is here used loosely and inaccurately for Asiatic pagan
+invaders in general. The French had never destroyed any "kingdoms of the
+Turks" in the proper sense of the word, though from time to time they had
+made successful resistance to Saracens, Avars and Hungarians.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_397" id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> Among the acts of the Council of Clermont had been a solemn confirmation
+of the Truce of God, with the purpose of restraining feudal warfare [see
+<a href="#Page_228">p. 228</a>]. In the version of Urban's speech given by Fulcher of Chartres, the
+Pope is reported as saying that in some parts of France "hardly any one can
+venture to travel upon the highways, by night or day, without danger of
+attack by thieves or robbers; and no one is sure that his property at home
+or abroad will not be taken from him by the violence or craft of the wicked."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_398" id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> Pope Urban's appeal at the Council of Clermont.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_399" id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> The <i>penates</i> of the Romans were household gods. William of Malmesbury
+here uses the term half-humorously to designate the various sorts of
+household articles which the crusaders thought they could not do without
+on the expedition, and hence undertook to carry with them.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_400" id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> This was in the summer of 1097. The whole body of crusaders, including
+monks, women, children, and hangers-on, may then have numbered three or
+four hundred thousand, but the effective fighting force was not likely over
+one hundred thousand men.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_401" id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> The crusaders reached Nicæa May 6, 1097. After a long siege the city
+surrendered, although to the Emperor Alexius rather than to the French.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_402" id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> This battle&mdash;the first pitched contest between the crusader and the
+Turk&mdash;was fought at Dorylæum, southeast of Nicæa.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_403" id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> Romania (or the sultanate of Roum) and Cappadocia were regions in
+northern Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_404" id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> The country immediately southeast of the Black Sea.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_405" id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> Antioch was one of the largest and most important cities of the East.
+It had been girdled with enormous walls by Justinian and was a strategic
+position of the greatest value to any power which would possess Syria and
+Palestine. The siege of the city by the crusaders began October 21, 1097.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_406" id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> Bohemond of Tarentum was the son of Robert Guiscard and the leader
+of the Norman contingent from Italy. Raymond of St. Gilles, count of
+Toulouse, was leader of the men from Languedoc in south France.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_407" id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> The modern Orontes.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_408" id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> The barons attended the meeting under the pretense of making a religious
+pilgrimage.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_409" id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> This charter, granted at the coronation of Henry I. in 1100, contained
+a renunciation of the evil practices which had marked the government of
+William the Conqueror and William Rufus. It was from this document
+mainly that the barons in 1215 drew their constitutional programme.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_410" id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> The Knights Templars, having purchased all that part of the banks of
+the Thames lying between Whitefriars and Essex Street, erected on it a
+magnificent structure which was known as the New Temple, in distinction
+from the Old Temple on the south side of Holborn. Meetings of Parliament
+and of the king's council were frequently held in the New Temple; here also
+were kept the crown jewels. Ultimately, after the suppression of the Templars
+by Edward II., the Temple became one of England's most celebrated
+schools of law.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_411" id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> This refers to the king's absolution at the hands of Stephen Langton,
+archbishop of Canterbury, July 20, 1213, after his submission to the papacy.
+At that time John took an oath on the Bible to the effect that he would restore
+the good laws of his forefathers and render to all men their rights.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_412" id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> The exact day upon which John took the crusader's vow is uncertain.
+It was probably Ash Wednesday (March 4), 1215. The king's object was in
+part to get the personal protection which the sanctity of the vow carried with
+it and in part to enlist the sympathies of the Pope and make it appear that
+the barons were guilty of interfering with a crusade.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_413" id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> On the southern border of Lincolnshire.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_414" id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> On the Thames in Oxfordshire. This statement of the chronicler is incorrect.
+John was yet in London.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_415" id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> Octave means the period of eight days following a religious festival.
+This Monday was April 27.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_416" id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> Brackley is about twenty-two miles north of Oxford.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_417" id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> Henry I.'s charter, 1100.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_418" id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> Edward the Confessor, king from 1042 to 1066.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_419" id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> In the county of Northampton, in central England.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_420" id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> Engines for hurling stones.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_421" id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> About twenty miles southeast of Northampton.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_422" id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> The commander of Bedford Castle.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_423" id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> The loss of London by the king was a turning point in the contest.
+Thereafter the barons' party gained rapidly and its complete success was
+only a question of time.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_424" id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> Runnymede, on the Thames.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_425" id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> The charter referred to, in which the liberties of the Church were confirmed,
+was granted in November, 1214, and renewed in January, 1215.
+It was in the nature of a bribe offered the clergy by the king in the hope of
+winning their support in his struggle with the barons. The liberty granted
+was particularly that of "canonical election," i.e., the privilege of the cathedral
+chapters to elect bishops without being dominated in their choice by
+the king. Henry I.'s charter (1100) contained a similar provision, but it
+had not been observed in practice.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_426" id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> Tenants <i>in capite</i>, i.e., men holding land directly from the king on condition
+of military service.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_427" id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> The object of this chapter is, in general, to prevent the exaction of excessive
+reliefs. The provision of Henry I.'s charter that reliefs should be just
+and reasonable had become a dead letter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_428" id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> During the heir's minority the king received the profits of the estate;
+in consequence of this the payment of relief by such an heir was to be
+remitted.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_429" id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> Scutage (from <i>scutum</i>, shield) was payment made to the king by persons
+who owed military service but preferred to give money instead. Scutage
+levied by John had been excessively heavy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_430" id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> The General, or Great, Council was a feudal body made up of the king's
+tenants-in-chief, both greater and lesser lords. This chapter puts a definite,
+even though not very far-reaching, limitation upon the royal power of taxation,
+and so looks forward in a way to the later regime of taxation by
+Parliament.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_431" id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> London had helped the barons secure the charter and was rewarded by
+being specifically included in its provisions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_432" id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> Here we have a definite statement as to the composition of the Great
+Council. The distinction between greater and lesser barons is mentioned
+as early as the times of Henry I. (1100-1135). In a general way it may be
+said that the greater barons (together with the greater clergy) developed into
+the House of Lords and the lesser ones, along with the ordinary free-holders,
+became the "knights of the shire," who so long made up the backbone
+of the Commons. In the thirteenth century comparatively few of the lesser
+barons attended the meetings of the Council. Attendance was expensive
+and they were not greatly interested in the body's proceedings. It should
+be noted that the Great Council was in no sense a legislative assembly.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_433" id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> It is significant that the provisions of the charter which prohibit feudal
+exactions were made by the barons to apply to themselves as well as to the
+king.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_434" id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> This is an important legal enactment whose purpose is to prevent prolonged
+imprisonment, without trial, of persons accused of serious crime.
+A person accused of murder, for example, could not be set at liberty under
+bail, but he could apply for a writ <i>de odio et âtia</i> ("concerning hatred and
+malice") which directed the sheriff to make inquest by jury as to whether
+the accusation had been brought by reason of hatred and malice. If the jury
+decided that the accusation had been so brought, the accused person could
+be admitted to bail until the time for his regular trial. This will occur to one
+as being very similar to the principle of <i>habeas corpus</i>. John had been
+charging heavy fees for these writs <i>de odio et âtia</i>, or "writs of inquisition of
+life and limb," as they are called in the charter; henceforth they were to be
+issued freely.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_435" id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> To disseise a person is to dispossess him of his freehold rights.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_436" id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> Henceforth a person could be outlawed, i.e., declared out of the protection
+of the law, only by the regular courts.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_437" id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> That is, use force upon him, as John had frequently done.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_438" id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> The term "peers," as here used, means simply equals in rank. The
+present clause does not yet imply trial by jury in the modern sense. It
+comprises simply a narrow, feudal demand of the nobles to be judged by
+other nobles, rather than by lawyers or clerks. Jury trial was increasingly
+common in the thirteenth century, but it was not guaranteed in the
+Great Charter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_439" id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> This chapter is commonly regarded as the most important in the charter.
+It undertakes to prevent arbitrary imprisonment and to protect private
+property by laying down a fundamental principle of government which John
+had been constantly violating and which very clearly marked the line of
+distinction between a limited and an absolute monarchy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_440" id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> The principle is here asserted that justice in the courts should be open to
+all, and without the payment of money to get judgment hastened or delayed.
+Extortions of this character did not cease in 1215, but they became less exorbitant
+and arbitrary.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_441" id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> The object of this chapter is to encourage commerce by guaranteeing
+foreign merchants the same treatment that English merchants received in
+foreign countries. The tolls imposed on traders by the cities, however,
+were not affected and they continued a serious obstacle for some centuries.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_442" id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> This chapter provides that, except under the special circumstances of war,
+any law-abiding Englishman might go abroad freely, provided only he should
+remain loyal to the English crown. The rule thus established continued in
+effect until 1382, when it was enacted that such privileges should belong
+only to lords, merchants, and soldiers.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_443" id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> During the struggle with the barons, John had brought in a number of
+foreign mercenary soldiers or "stipendiaries." All classes of Englishmen
+resented this policy and the barons improved the opportunity offered by
+the charter to get a promise from the king to dispense with his continental
+mercenaries as quickly as possible.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_444" id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> This chapter provides that the charter's regulation of feudal customs
+should apply to the barons just as to the king. The barons' tenants were to
+be protected from oppression precisely as were the barons themselves.
+These tenants had helped in the winning of the charter and were thus rewarded
+for their services.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_445" id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a> The chapter goes on at considerable length to specify the manner in
+which, if the king should violate the terms of the charter, the commission of
+twenty-five barons should proceed to bring him to account. Even the right
+of making war was given them, in case it should become necessary to resort
+to such an extreme measure.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_446" id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a> April 25, 1215.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_447" id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a> Louis started on his first crusade in August, 1248. After a series of disasters
+in Egypt he managed to reach the Holy Land, where he spent nearly
+four years fortifying the great seaports. He returned to France in July, 1254.
+Sixteen years later, in July, 1270, he started on his second crusade. He had
+but reached Carthage when he was suddenly taken ill and compelled to halt
+the expedition. He died there August 25, 1270. Louis was as typical a
+crusader as ever lived, but in his day men of his kind were few; the great era
+of crusading enterprise was past.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_448" id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a> This was Philip, son of Philip Augustus. The lands of the count of Boulogne
+lay on the coast of the English Channel north of the Somme.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_449" id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> An important church center about seventy miles north of Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_450" id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> A town a few miles south of Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_451" id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> In the early years of the thirteenth century, an Asiatic chieftain by the
+name of Genghis Khan built up a vast empire of Mongol or Tartar peoples,
+which for a time stretched all the way from China to eastern Germany.
+The rise and westward expansion of this barbarian power spread alarm
+throughout Christendom, and with good reason, for it was with great difficulty
+that the Tartar sovereigns were prevented from extending their dominion
+over Germany and perhaps over all western Europe. After the first
+feeling of terror had passed, however, it began to be considered that possibly
+the Asiatic conquerors might yet be made to serve the interests of Christendom.
+They were not Mohammedans, and Christian leaders saw an opportunity
+to turn them against the Saracen master of the coveted Holy Land.
+Louis IX.'s reception of an embassy from Ilchikadai, one of the Tartar khans,
+or sovereigns, was only one of several incidents which illustrate the efforts
+made in this direction. After this episode the Tartars advanced rapidly into
+Syria, taking the important cities of Damascus and Aleppo; but a great defeat,
+September 3, 1260, by the sultan Kutuz at Ain Talut stemmed the tide
+of invasion and compelled the Tartars to retire to their northern dominions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_452" id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> May 21, 1249.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_453" id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a> Joinville here gives an account of the first important undertaking of the
+crusaders&mdash;the capture of Damietta. After this achievement the king
+resolved to await the arrival of his brother, the count of Poitiers, with additional
+troops. The delay thus occasioned was nearly half a year in length,
+i.e., until October.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_454" id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> This was a common designation of Cairo, the Saracen capital of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_455" id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> December 6.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_456" id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> The order of the Templars was founded in 1119 to afford protection to
+pilgrims in Palestine. The name was taken from the temple of Solomon, in
+Jerusalem, near which the organization's headquarters were at first established.
+The Templars, in their early history, were a military order and
+they had a prominent part in most of the crusading movements after their
+foundation.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_457" id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> At this point Joinville gives an extended description of the Nile and its
+numerous mouths. King Louis found himself on the bank of one of the
+streams composing the delta, with the sultan's army drawn up on the other
+side to prevent the Christians from crossing. Louis determined to construct
+an embankment across the stream, so that his troops might cross and engage
+in battle with the enemy. To protect the men engaged in building the embankment,
+two towers, called cat castles (because they were in front of
+two cats, or covered galleries) were erected. Under cover of these, the work
+of constructing a passageway went on, though the Saracens did not cease to
+shower missiles upon the laborers.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_458" id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> An instrument intended primarily for the hurling of stones.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_459" id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> Greek fire was made in various ways, but its main ingredients were sulphur,
+Persian gum, pitch, petroleum, and oil. It was a highly inflammable
+substance and when once ignited could be extinguished only by the use of
+vinegar or sand. It was used quite extensively by the Saracens in their
+battles with the crusaders, being usually projected in the form of fire-balls
+from hollow tubes.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_460" id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> An acid liquor made from sour apples or grapes.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_461" id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> Charles, count of Anjou&mdash;a brother of Saint Louis.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_462" id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> Joinville's story of the remainder of the campaign in Egypt is a long one.
+Enough has been given to show something of the character of the conflicts
+between Saracen and crusader. In the end Louis was compelled to withdraw
+his shattered army. He then made his way to the Holy Land in the
+hope of better success, but the four years he spent there were likewise a
+period of disappointment.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_463" id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> The treaty here referred to is that of Paris, negotiated by Louis IX. and
+Henry III. in 1259. By it the English king renounced his claim to Normandy,
+Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou, while Louis IX. ceded to Henry the
+Limousin, Périgord, and part of Saintonge, besides the reversion of Agenais
+and Quercy. The territories thus abandoned by the French were to be annexed
+to the duchy of Guienne, for which Henry III. was to render homage
+to the French king, just as had been rendered by the English sovereigns
+before the conquests of Philip Augustus. Manifestly Louis IX.'s chief motive
+in yielding possession of lands he regarded as properly his was to secure peace
+with England and to get the homage of the English king for Guienne. For
+upwards of half a century the relations of England and France had been
+strained by reason of the refusal of Henry III. to recognize the conquests of
+Philip Augustus and to render the accustomed homage. The treaty of Paris
+was important because it regulated the relations of France and England to
+the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War. It undertook to perpetuate the
+old division of French soil between the English and French monarchs&mdash;an
+arrangement always fruitful of discord and destined, more than anything else,
+to bring on the great struggle of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries between
+the two nations [see <a href="#Page_417">p. 417</a> ff.].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_464" id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a> A fur much esteemed in the Middle Ages. It is not known whether it
+was the fur of a single animal or of several kinds combined.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_465" id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a> A woven fabric made of camel's hair.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_466" id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a> After his retirement from the royal service in 1254 Joinville frequently
+made social visits at Louis's court.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_467" id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> On the Franciscans and Dominicans [see <a href="#Page_360">p. 360</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_468" id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a> To the east from Paris&mdash;now a suburb of that city. The chateau of
+Vincennes was one of the favorite royal residences.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_469" id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> That is, a case in law.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_470" id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> Such guarantees of personal liberty were not peculiar to the charters of
+communes; they are often found in those of franchise towns.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_471" id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a> The chief magistrate of Laon was a mayor, elected by the citizens. In
+judicial matters he was assisted by twelve "jurats."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_472" id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> This is intended to preserve the judicial privileges of lords of manors.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_473" id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> The citizens of the town were to have freedom to dispose of their property
+as they chose.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_474" id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> This provision was intended to put an end to arbitrary taxation by the
+bishop. In the earlier twelfth century serfs were subject to the arbitrary
+levy of the taille (tallage) and this indeed constituted one of their most
+grievous burdens. Arbitrary tallage was almost invariably abolished by
+the town charters.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_475" id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> By "men of the peace" is meant the citizens of the commune. The term
+"commune" is scrupulously avoided in the charter because of its odious
+character in the eyes of the bishop. Suits were to be tried at home in the
+burgesses' own courts, to save time and expense and insure better justice.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_476" id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a> This trifling payment of sixpence a year was made in recognition of the
+lordship of the king, the grantor of the charter. Aside from it, the burgher
+had full rights over his land.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_477" id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a> The burghers, who were often engaged in agriculture as well as commerce,
+are to be exempt from tolls on commodities bought for their own sustenance
+and from the ordinary fees due the lord for each measure of grain harvested.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_478" id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a> The object of this provision is to restrict the amount of military service
+due the king. The burghers of small places like Lorris were farmers and
+traders who made poor soldiers and who were ordinarily exempted from
+service by their lords. The provision for Lorris practically amounted to an
+exemption, for such service as was permissible under chapter 3 of the
+charter was not worth much.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_479" id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a> The Gâtinais was the region in which Lorris was situated. Étampes,
+Milly, and Melun all lay to the north of Lorris, in the direction of Paris. Orleans
+lay to the west. The king's object in granting the burghers the right to
+carry goods to the towns specified without payment of tolls was to encourage
+commercial intercourse.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_480" id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a> This protects the landed property of the burghers against the crown and
+crown officials. With two exceptions, fine or imprisonment, not confiscation
+of land, is to be the penalty for crime. <i>Hôtes</i> denotes persons receiving land
+from the king and under his direct protection.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_481" id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a> This provision is intended to attract merchants to Lorris by placing them
+under the king's protection and assuring them that they would not be molested
+on account of old offenses.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_482" id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a> This chapter safeguards the personal property of the burghers, as chapter
+5 safeguards their land. Arbitrary imposts are forbidden and any of the
+inhabitants who as serfs had been paying arbitrary tallage are relieved of
+the burden. The nominal <i>cens</i> (Chap. 1) was to be the only regular payment
+due the king.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_483" id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a> An agreement outside of court was allowable in all cases except when
+there was a serious breach of the public peace. The provost was the chief
+officer of the town. He was appointed the crown and was charged
+chiefly with the administration of justice and the collection of revenues.
+All suits of the burghers were tried in his court. They had no active part in
+their own government, as was generally true of the franchise towns.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_484" id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> Another part of the charter specifies that only those burghers who owned
+horses and carts were expected to render the king even this service.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_485" id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a> This clause, which is very common in the town charters of the twelfth
+century (especially in the case of towns on the royal domain) is intended to
+attract serfs from other regions and so to build up population. As a
+rule the towns were places of refuge from seigniorial oppression and the present
+charter undertakes to limit the time within which the lord might recover
+his serf who had fled to Lorris to a year and a day&mdash;except in cases
+where the serf should refuse to recognize the jurisdiction of the provost's
+court in the matter of the lord's claim.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_486" id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> The sergeants were deputies of the provost, somewhat on the order of
+town constables.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_487" id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a> These "Hollanders" inhabited substantially the portion of Europe now
+designated by their name.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_488" id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a> This was the diocese from which the colonists proposed to remove.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_489" id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a> That is, judges representing any outside authority.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_490" id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a> In other words, if the bishop should go from his seat at Hamburg to the
+colony.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_491" id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a> In each parish of the colony, therefore, the priest would be supported
+by the income of the hide of land set apart for his use and by the tenth of
+the regular church tithes which the bishop conceded for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_492" id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a> All that this means is that the members of the Rhine League recognized
+William of Holland as emperor. Most of the Empire did not so recognize
+him. He died in 1256, two years after the league was formed.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_493" id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a> These "pfahlburgers" were subjects of ecclesiastical or secular princes
+who, in order to escape the burdens of this relation, contrived to get themselves
+enrolled as citizens of neighboring cities. While continuing to dwell
+in regions subject to the jurisdiction of their lords, they claimed to enjoy
+immunity from that jurisdiction, because of their citizenship in those outside
+cities. The pfahlburgers were a constant source of friction between the
+towns and the territorial princes. The Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV.
+(1356) decreed that pfahlburgers should not enjoy the rights and privileges
+of the cities unless they became actual residents of them and discharged their
+full obligations as citizens.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_494" id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a> That is, the <i>trivium</i> (Latin grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the <i>quadrivium</i>
+(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_495" id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> The earliest degrees granted at Bologna, Paris, etc., were those of master
+of arts and doctor of philosophy. "Master" and "Doctor" were practically
+equivalent terms and both signified simply that the bearer, after suitable
+examinations, had been recognized as sufficiently proficient to be admitted
+to the guild of teachers. The bachelor's degree grew up more obscurely.
+It might be taken somewhere on the road to the master's degree, but was
+merely an incidental stamp of proficiency up to a certain stage of advancement.
+Throughout mediæval times the master's, or doctor's, degree, which
+carried the right to become a teacher, was the normal goal and few stopped
+short of its attainment.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_496" id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> Hastings Rashdall, <i>The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages</i> (Oxford,
+1895), Vol. I., p. 146.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_497" id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a> Evidently, from other passages, including students of law as well as teachers.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_498" id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a> Greedy creditors sometimes compelled students to pay debts owed by
+the fellow-countrymen of the latter&mdash;a very thinly disguised form of robbery.
+This abuse was now to be abolished.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_499" id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> That is, in any legal proceedings against a scholar the defendant was to
+choose whether he would be tried before his own master or before the bishop.
+In later times this right of choice passed generally to the plaintiff.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_500" id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> The students of the French universities were regarded as, for all practical
+purposes, members of the clergy (<i>clerici</i>) and thus to be distinguished from
+laymen. They were not clergy in the full sense, but were subject to a special
+sort of jurisdiction closely akin to that applying to the clergy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_501" id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a> The law on this point was exceptionally severe. The privilege of establishing
+innocence by combat or the ordeal by water was denied, though even
+the provost and his subordinates who had played false in the riot of 1200
+had been given the opportunity of clearing themselves by such means if
+they chose and could do so.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_502" id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a> A further recognition of the clerical character of the students.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_503" id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a> The property, as the persons, of the scholars was protected from seizure
+except by the church authorities.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_504" id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a> In this capacity the provost of Paris came to be known as the "Conservator
+of the Royal Privileges of the University."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_505" id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> For an explanation of the phrase "elector of the Holy Empire" see <a href="#Page_409">p. 409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_506" id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a> Rupert had sent sums of money to Rome to induce Pope Urban VI. to
+approve the foundation of the university. The papal bull of 1385, which was
+the reward of his effort, specifically enjoined that the university be modeled
+closely after that of Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_507" id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> The mediæval "three philosophies" were introduced by the rediscovery
+of some of Aristotle's writings in the twelfth century. Primal philosophy
+was what we now know as metaphysics; natural philosophy meant the
+sciences of physics, botany, etc.; and moral philosophy denoted ethics and
+politics.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_508" id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a> At Paris the students were divided into four groups, named from the
+nationality which predominated in each of them at the time of its formation&mdash;the
+French, the Normans, the Picards, and the English.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_509" id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a> The rector at Paris was head of the faculty of arts.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_510" id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a> Equivalent to bedel. All mediæval universities had their bedels, who
+bore the mace of authority before the rectors on public occasions, made
+announcements of lectures, book sales, etc., and exercised many of the
+functions of the modern bedel of European universities.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_511" id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a> John Addington Symonds, <i>Wine, Women and Song: Mediæval Latin
+Students' Songs</i> (London, 1884), pp. 1-3.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_512" id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a> Symonds, <i>Wine, Women, and Song</i>, pp. 5-20 <i>passim</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_513" id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a> This is the only indication of the name of the place where the suppliant
+student was supposed to be making his petition.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_514" id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a> St. Martin was the founder of the monastery at Tours [see <a href="#Page_48">p. 48</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_515" id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a> "Honest folk are jeeringly bidden to beware of the <i>quadrivium</i> [see p.
+<a href="#Page_339">339</a>], which is apt to form a fourfold rogue instead of a scholar in four
+branches of knowledge."&mdash;Symonds, <i>Wine, Women, and Song</i>, p. 57.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_516" id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> That is, as a sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_517" id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> The father's name was Pietro Bernardone. As a cloth-merchant he was
+probably accustomed to make frequent journeys to northern France, particularly
+Champagne, which was the principal seat of commercial exchange
+between northern and southern Europe.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_518" id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a> Aspiring to become a knight and to win distinction on the field of battle,
+Francis had gone to Spoleto with the intention of joining an expedition about
+to set out for Apulia. While there he was stricken with fever and compelled
+to abandon his purpose. Returning to Assisi, he redoubled his works of
+charity and sought to keep aloof from the people of the town. His old
+companions, however, flocked around him, expecting still to profit by his
+prodigality, and for a time, being himself uncertain as to the course he would
+take, he acceded to their desires.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_519" id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_376">p. 376</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_520" id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a> Brief portions of this testament, or will, are given on <a href="#Page_376">p. 376</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_521" id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a> This was in the latter part of 1210 and the early part of 1211. Rivo-Torto
+was an abandoned cottage in the plain of Assisi, an hour's walk from
+the town and near the highway between Perugia and Rome. The building
+had once served as a leper hospital. Francis and his companions selected
+it as a temporary place of abode, probably because of its proximity to the
+<i>carceri</i>, or natural grottoes, of Mount Subasio to which the friars resorted
+for solitude, and because it was at the same time sufficiently near the Umbrian
+towns to permit of frequent trips thither for preaching and charity.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_522" id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a> Practically, St. Francis's successor in the headship of the order. With
+the idea of realizing entire humility in his own life, St. Francis had resigned
+his position of authority into the hands of Brother Peter and had pledged
+the implicit obedience of himself and the others to the new prelate.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_523" id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a> That is, the sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_524" id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a> The passage (Luke ix. 1-6) is as follows: "Jesus, having called to Him
+the Twelve, gave them power and authority over all devils and to cure
+diseases. And He sent them to preach the Kingdom of God and to heal the
+sick. And He said unto them, Take nothing for your journey, neither staves,
+nor scrip, neither bread, neither money; neither have two coats apiece. And
+whatsoever house ye enter into, there abide, and thence depart. And whosoever
+will not receive you, when ye go out of that city shake off the very
+dust from your feet for a testimony against them. And they departed and
+went through the towns, preaching the gospel and healing everywhere."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_525" id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a> Honorius III., 1216-1227.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_526" id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> That is, abandoned the worldly manner of living.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_527" id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> Despite the willingness of St. Francis here expressed to get on peaceably
+with the secular clergy, i.e., the bishops and priests, the history of the
+mendicant orders is filled with the records of strife between the seculars and
+friars. This was inevitable, since such friars as had taken priestly orders
+were accustomed to hear confessions, preside at masses, preach in parish
+churchyards, bury the dead, and collect alms&mdash;all the proper functions of
+the parish priests but permitted to the friars by special papal dispensations.
+The priests very naturally regarded the friars as usurpers.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_528" id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a> That is, in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_529" id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a> The Rule of 1210, approved by Innocent III., is here meant [see <a href="#Page_374">p. 374</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_530" id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a> The consecrated wafer, believed to be the body of Christ, which in the
+Mass is offered as a sacrifice; also the bread before consecration.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_531" id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a> Certain periods of the day, set apart by the laws of the Church, for the
+duties of prayer and devotion; also certain portions of the Breviary to be used
+at stated hours. The seven canonical hours are matins and lauds, the first,
+third, sixth, and ninth hours, vespers, and compline.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_532" id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a> That is, infant baptism and the <i>viaticum</i> (the Lord's Supper when administered
+to persons in immediate danger of death).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_533" id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> Extreme unction is the sacrament of anointing in the last hours,&mdash;the
+application of consecrated oil by a priest to all the senses, i.e., to eyes, ears,
+nostrils, etc., of a person when in immediate danger of death. The sacrament
+is performed for the remission of sins.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_534" id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> St. Dionysius was bishop of Alexandria about the middle of the third
+century. He was a pupil of the great theologian Origen and himself a writer
+of no small ability on the doctrinal questions which vexed the early Church.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_535" id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> Manichæus was a learned Persian who, in the third century, worked out
+a system of doctrine which sought to combine the principles of Christianity
+with others taken over from the Persian and kindred Oriental religions.
+The most prominent feature of the resulting creed was the conception of an
+absolute dualism running throughout the universe&mdash;light and darkness,
+good and evil, soul and body&mdash;which existed from the beginning and should
+exist forever. The Manichæan sect spread from Persia into Asia Minor
+North Africa, Sicily, and Italy. Though persecuted by Diocletian, and afterwards
+by some of the Christian emperors, it had many adherents as late as the
+sixth century, and certain of its ideas appeared under new names at still later
+times, notably among the Albigenses in southern France in the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_536" id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a> Annates were payments made to the pope by newly elected or appointed
+ecclesiastical officials of the higher sort. They were supposed to comprise
+the first year's income from the bishop's or abbot's benefice.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_537" id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> The <i>décime</i> was an extraordinary royal revenue derived from the payment
+by the clergy of a tenth of the annual income from their benefices. Its
+prototype was the Saladin tithe, imposed by Philip Augustus (1180-1223)
+for the financing of his crusade. In the latter half of the thirteenth century,
+and throughout the fourteenth, the <i>décime</i> was called for by the kings with
+considerable frequency, often ostensibly for crusading purposes, and it was
+generally obtained by a more or less compulsory vote of the clergy, or without
+their consent at all.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_538" id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> Pragmatic, in the general sense, means any sort of decree of public
+importance; in its more special usage it denotes an ordinance of the crown
+regulating the relations of the national clergy with the papacy. The modern
+equivalent is "concordat."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_539" id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a> When the Council of Constance came to an end, in April, 1418, it was
+agreed between this body and Pope Martin V. that a similar council should
+be convened at Pavia in 1423. When the time arrived, conditions were far
+from favorable, but the University of Paris pressed the Pope to observe his
+pledge in the matter and the council was duly convened. Very few members
+appeared at Pavia, and, the plague soon breaking out there, the meeting
+was transferred to Siena. Even there only five German prelates were present,
+six French, and not one Spanish. Small though it was, the council entered
+upon a course so independent and self-assertive that in the following year
+the Pope was glad to take advantage of its paucity of numbers to declare
+it dissolved.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_540" id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a> The Dauphiné was a region on the east side of the Rhone which, in 1349,
+was purchased of Humbert, Dauphin of Vienne, by Philip VI., and ceded by
+the latter to his grandson Charles, the later Charles V. (1364-1380). Charles
+assumed the title of "the Dauphin," which became the established designation
+of the heir-apparent to the French throne.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_541" id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a> Under the <i>grâce expectative</i> the pope conferred upon a prelate a benefice
+which at the time was filled, to be assumed as soon as it should fall vacant.
+Benefices of larger importance, such as the offices of bishop and abbot,
+were often subject to the <i>réserve</i>; that is, the pope regularly reserved to himself
+the right of filling them, sometimes before, sometimes after, the vacancy
+occurred. These acts constituted clear assumptions by the popes of power
+which under the law of the Church was not theirs, and, though the framers
+of the Pragmatic Sanction had motives which were more or less selfish for
+combatting the <i>réserve</i> and the <i>grâce expectative</i>, there can be no question
+that the abuses aimed at were as real as they were represented to be.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_542" id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a> Those who presented and installed men in benefices.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_543" id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a> These first two chapters reproduce without change the decrees of the
+Council of Basel. The second reiterates, in substance, the declaration of the
+Council of Constance [see <a href="#Page_393">p. 393</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_544" id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a> That is, the "canonical" system of election of bishops by the chapters
+and of abbots by the monks. The Pragmatic differs in this clause from the
+decree of the Council of Basel in allowing temporal princes to recommend
+persons for election.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_545" id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a> This means that the pope is not to add to the number of canons in any
+cathedral chapter as a means of influencing the composition and deliberations
+of that body.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_546" id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a> Annates were ordinarily the first year's revenues of a benefice which,
+under the prevailing system, were supposed to be paid by the incumbent to
+the pope. The Pragmatic goes on to provide that during the lifetime of
+Pope Eugene one-fifth of the accustomed annates should continue to be
+paid.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_547" id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547"><span class="label">[547]</span></a> Henry VI. succeeded his father as emperor, reigning from 1190 to 1197.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_548" id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a> The term (meaning literally "fodder") designates the obligation to
+furnish provisions for the royal army. The right of demanding such provisions
+was now given up by the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_549" id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a> The consuls&mdash;often twelve in number&mdash;were the chief magistrates of
+the typical Italian commune.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_550" id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a> Otto III., emperor 983-1002. Otto is noted chiefly for his visionary
+project of renewing the imperial splendor of Rome and making her again
+the capital of a world-wide empire.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_551" id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a> James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed., New York, 1904),
+pp. 207-208. For the reference to Dante see the <i>Inferno</i>, Canto X.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_552" id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a> James H. Robinson, <i>Readings in European History</i> (Boston, 1904), Vol.
+I., p. 244.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_553" id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a> Gregory IX., (1227-1241).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_554" id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a> Frederick was excommunicated and anathematized on sixteen different
+charges, which the Pope carefully enumerated. All who were bound to him
+by oath of fealty were declared to be absolved from their allegiance.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_555" id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a> At the Council of Lyons, in 1245, the Emperor was again excommunicated.
+The ensuing paragraph comprises a portion of Pope Innocent IV.'s denunciation
+of him upon that occasion.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_556" id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a> Charles IV. was himself king of Bohemia, so that for the present the
+Emperor was also one of the seven imperial electors.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_557" id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a> James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed., New York, 1904), p. 234.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_558" id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a> Frankfort lay on the river Main, a short distance east of Mainz. "It
+was fixed as the place of election, as a tradition dating from East Frankish
+days preserved the feeling that both election and coronation ought to take
+place on Frankish soil."&mdash;James Bryce, <i>The Holy Roman Empire</i> (new ed.,
+New York, 1904), p. 243.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_559" id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a> The preceding section specifies that Mass should be celebrated the day
+following the arrival of the electors at Frankfort, and that the archbishop
+of Mainz should administer to his six colleagues the oath which he himself
+has taken, as specified in section 2.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_560" id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a> The three archbishops were "archchancellors" of the Empire for Germany,
+Gaul and Burgundy, and Italy respectively. The king of Bohemia
+was designated as cupbearer, the margrave of Brandenburg as chamberlain,
+the count palatine as seneschal, and the duke of Saxony as marshal.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_561" id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a> The diet was the Empire's nearest approach to a national assembly. It
+was made up of three orders&mdash;the electors, the princes, and the representatives
+of the cities.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_562" id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a> An official representative of a king or overlord in a city.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_563" id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a> Nürnberg (or Nuremberg) is situated in Bavaria, in south central Germany.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_564" id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a> Metz lay on the Moselle, above Trier. Apparently this clause providing
+for a regular annual meeting of the electors was inserted by Charles in the
+hope that he might be able to make use of the body as an advisory council in
+the affairs of the Empire. The provision remained a dead letter, for the reason
+that the electors were indifferent to the Emperor's purposes in the matter.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_565" id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a> This is the title employed by Thomas Johnes in his translation of the
+work a hundred years ago. Froissart himself called his book, in the French
+of his day, <i>Chroniques de France, d'Engleterre, d'Escoce, de Bretaigne, d'Espaigne,
+d'Italie, de Flandres et d'Alemaigne</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_566" id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a> Philip IV., king of France, 1285-1314.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_567" id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a> Isabella was the wife of Edward II., who reigned in England from 1307
+until his deposition in 1327.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_568" id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a> Louis X. (the Quarrelsome) reigned 1314-1316; Philip V. (the Long),
+1316-1322; and Charles IV. (the Fair), 1322-1328. Louis and Charles were
+very weak kings, though Philip was vigorous and able.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_569" id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a> The French Court of Twelve Peers did not constitute a distinct organization,
+but was merely a high rank of baronage. In the earlier Middle Ages,
+the number of peers was generally twelve, including the most powerful lay
+vassals of the king and certain influential prelates. In later times the number
+was frequently increased by the creation of peers by the crown.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_570" id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a> In 1317, after the accession of Philip IV., an assembly of French magnates
+(such as that which disposed of the crown in 1328) laid down the
+general rule that no woman should succeed to the throne of France. This
+rule has come to be known as the Salic Law of France, though it has no
+historical connection with the law of the Salian Franks against female inheritance
+of property, with which older writers have generally confused it
+[see p. <a href="#Footnote_66">67, note 1]</a>. The rule of 1317 was based purely on grounds of political
+expediency. It was announced at this particular time because the death of
+Louis X. had left France without a male heir to the throne for the first time
+since Hugh Capet's day and the barons thought it not best for the realm that
+a woman reign over it. Between 1316 and 1328 daughters of kings were
+excluded from the succession three times, and though in 1328, when Charles
+IV. died, there had been no farther legislation on the subject, the principle of
+the misnamed Salic Law had become firmly established in practice. In
+1328, however, when the barons selected Philip of Valois to be regent first
+and then king, they went a step farther and declared not only that no
+woman should be allowed to inherit the throne of France but that the inheritance
+could not pass through a woman to her son; in other words, she
+could not transmit to her descendants a right which she did not herself
+possess. This was intended to cover any future case such as that of Edward
+III.'s claim to inherit through his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV.
+The action of the barons was supported by public opinion in practically all
+France&mdash;especially since it appeared that only through this expedient could
+the realm be saved from the domination of an alien sovereign.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_571" id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a> Philip of Valois was a son of Charles of Valois, who was a brother of
+Philip IV. The line of direct Capetian descent was now replaced by the
+branch line of the Valois. The latter occupied the French throne until the
+death of Henry III. in 1589.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_572" id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a> James van Arteveld, a brewer of Ghent, was the leader of the popular
+party in Flanders&mdash;the party which hated French influence, which had
+expelled the count of Flanders on account of his services to Philip VI., and
+which was the most valuable English ally on the continent. Arteveld was
+murdered in 1345 during the civil discord which prevailed in Flanders
+throughout the earlier part of the Hundred Years' War.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_573" id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a> These were towns situated near the Franco-Flemish frontier. They had
+been lost by Flanders to France and assistance in their recovery was rightly
+considered by the German advisers of Edward as likely to be more tempting
+to the Flemish than any other offer he could make them.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_574" id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a> That is, the papal court.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_575" id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a> Robert of Artois was a prince who had not a little to do with the outbreak
+of the Hundred Years' War. After having lost a suit for the inheritance of
+the county of Artois (the region about the Somme River) and having been
+proved guilty of fabricating documents to support his claims, he had fled
+to England and there as an exile had employed every resource to influence
+Edward to claim the French throne and to go to war to secure it.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_576" id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576"><span class="label">[576]</span></a> In northeastern Flanders.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_577" id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577"><span class="label">[577]</span></a> That is, June 23. The English fleet was composed of two hundred and
+fifty vessels, carrying 11,000 archers and 4,000 men-at-arms.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_578" id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a> Edward III.'s queen was Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_579" id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579"><span class="label">[579]</span></a> In reality, until five o'clock in the evening, or about nine hours in all.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_580" id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a> The tide of battle was finally turned in favor of the English by the arrival
+of reinforcements in the shape of a squadron of Flemish vessels. The contest
+was not so one-sided or the French defeat so complete as Froissart
+represents, yet it was decisive enough, as is indicated by the fact that only
+thirty of the French ships survived and 20,000 French and Genoese were
+slain or taken prisoners, as against an English loss of about 10,000.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_581" id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a> June 24, 1340.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_582" id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a> As appears from Froissart's account (see <a href="#Page_431">p. 431</a>), the king, on the advice
+of some of his knights, decided at one time to postpone the attack until
+the following day; but, the army falling into hopeless confusion and coming
+up unintentionally within sight of the English, he recklessly gave the order
+to advance to immediate combat. Perhaps, however, it is only fair to place
+the blame upon the system which made the army so unmanageable, rather
+than upon the king personally.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_583" id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583"><span class="label">[583]</span></a> That is, the plain east of the village of Crécy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_584" id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a> The king's eldest son, Edward, generally known as the Black Prince.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_585" id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a> Abbeville was on the Somme about fifteen miles south of Crécy.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_586" id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a> This incident very well illustrates the confusion and lack of discipline
+prevailing in a typical feudal army.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_587" id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a> Edward, the Black Prince, eldest son of the English king.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_588" id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a> The Emperor Henry VII., 1308-1314.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_589" id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a> Sir Thomas Norwich.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_590" id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a> Limoges, besieged by the duke of Berry and the great French general,
+Bertrand du Guesclin, had just been forced to surrender. It was a very
+important town and its capture was the occasion of much elation among
+the French. Treaties were entered into between the duke of Berry on the
+one hand and the bishop and citizens of Limoges on the other, whereby the
+inhabitants recognized the sovereignty of the French king. It was the news
+of this surrender that so angered the Black Prince.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_591" id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a> A force of 3,200 men was led by the Black Prince from the town of Cognac
+to undertake the siege of Limoges. Froissart here enumerates a large
+number of notable knights who went with the expedition.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_592" id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a> The Limousin was a district in south central France, southeast of
+Poitou.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_593" id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a> Limoges was now in the hands of three commanders representing the
+French king. Their names were John de Villemur, Hugh de la Roche, and
+Roger de Beaufort.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_594" id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a> Here follows a minute enumeration of the districts, towns, and castles
+conceded to the English. The most important were Poitou, Limousin,
+Rouergne, and Saintonge in the south, and Calais, Guines, and Ponthieu in
+the north.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_595" id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a> That is, King John II. and the regent Charles.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_596" id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a> The enormous ransom thus specified for King John was never paid.
+The three million gold crowns would have a purchasing power of perhaps
+forty or forty-five million dollars to-day. On the strength of the treaty
+provision John was immediately released from captivity. With curious
+disregard of the bad conditions prevailing in France as the result of foreign
+and civil war he began preparations for a crusade, which, however, he was
+soon forced to abandon. In 1364, attracted by the gayety of English life as
+contrasted with the wretchedness and gloom of his impoverished subjects,
+he went voluntarily to England, where he died before the festivities in honor
+of his coming were completed.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_597" id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a> Throughout the Hundred Years' War the English had maintained close
+relations with the Flemish enemies of France, just as France, in defiance of
+English opposition, had kept up her traditional friendship with Scotland.
+The treaty of Bretigny provided for a mutual reshaping of foreign policy,
+to the end that these obstacles to peace might be removed.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_598" id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a> That is, the death of King Charles VI.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_599" id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a> France was not to be dealt with as conquered territory. This article
+comprises the only important provision in the treaty for safeguarding the
+interests of the French people.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_600" id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a> Charles VI., Henry V., and Philip the Good bind themselves not to come
+to any sort of terms with the Dauphin, which compact reveals the irreconcilable
+attitude characteristic of the factional and dynastic struggles of the
+period. Chapter 6 of the treaty disinherits the Dauphin; chapter 29 proclaims
+him an enemy of France.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_601" id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a> Dante represents the commentaries composing the <i>Convito</i> as in the
+nature of a banquet, the "meats" of which were to be set forth in fourteen
+courses, corresponding to the fourteen <i>canzoni</i>, or lyric poems, which were
+to be commented upon. As a matter of fact, for some unknown reason, the
+"banquet" was broken off at the end of the third course. "At the beginning
+of every well-ordered banquet" observes the author in an earlier passage
+(Bk. II., Chap. 1) "the servants are wont to take the bread given out for
+it, and cleanse it from every speck." Dante has just cleansed his viands from
+the faults of egotism and obscurity,&mdash;the "accidental impurities"; he now
+proceeds to clear them of a less superficial difficulty, i.e., the fact that in
+serving them use is made of the Italian rather than the Latin language.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_602" id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a> The date of the composition of the <i>De Vulgari Eloquentia</i> is unknown,
+but there are reasons for assigning the work to the same period in the author's
+life as the <i>Convito</i>. Like the <i>Convito</i>, it was left incomplete; four books
+were planned, but only the first and a portion of the second were written.
+In it an effort was made to establish the dominance of a perfect and imperial
+Italian language over all the dialects. The work itself was written in Latin,
+probably to command the attention of scholars whom Dante hoped to convert
+to the use of the vernacular.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_603" id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603"><span class="label">[603]</span></a> The author conceives of the <i>canzoni</i> as masters and the commentaries
+as servants.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_604" id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a> That is, any poetical composition.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_605" id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a> Some students of Dante hold that this phrase about Homer should be
+rendered "does not admit of being turned"; but others take it in the absolute
+sense and base on it an argument against Dante's knowledge of Greek literature.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_606" id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a> The Book of Psalms.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_607" id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607"><span class="label">[607]</span></a> The <i>canzoni</i> were in Italian and a Latin commentary would have been
+useless to scholars of other nations, because they could not have understood
+the <i>canzoni</i> to which it referred.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_608" id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608"><span class="label">[608]</span></a> The Provençal language&mdash;the peculiar speech of southeastern France,
+whence comes the name Languedoc. <i>Oc</i> is the affirmative particle "yes."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_609" id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609"><span class="label">[609]</span></a> <i>Si</i> is the Italian affirmative particle. In the <i>Inferno</i> Dante refers to
+Italy as "that lovely country where the <i>si</i> is sounded" (XXX., 80).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_610" id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a> That is, prose shows the true beauty of a language more effectively than
+poetry, in which the attention is distracted by the ornaments of verse.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_611" id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a> The author refers to Cicero's philosophical treatise <i>De Finibus Bonorum
+et Malorum</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_612" id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a> For example, Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254) declared: "Two lights,
+the sun and the moon, illumine the globe; two powers, the papal and the
+royal, govern it; but as the moon receives her light from the more brilliant
+star, so kings reign by the chief of the Church, who comes from God."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_613" id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a> The arguments disposed of by the author, in addition to those treated
+in the passages here presented, are: the precedence of Levi over Judah
+(Gen., xxix. 34, 35), the election and deposition of Saul by Samuel (1 Sam.,
+x. 1; xv. 23; xv. 28), the oblation of the Magi (Matt., ii. 11), the two
+swords referred to by Peter (Luke, xxii. 38), the donation of Constantine,
+the summoning of Charlemagne by Pope Hadrian, and finally the argument
+from pure reason.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_614" id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614"><span class="label">[614]</span></a> This was the common mediæval designation of Aristotle.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_615" id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615"><span class="label">[615]</span></a> For Dante's conception of the terrestrial and the celestial paradise see
+the <i>Paradiso</i> in the <i>Divina Commedia</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_616" id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a> These were the lay and ecclesiastical princes in whom was vested the
+right of choosing the Emperor. The electoral college was first clearly defined
+in the Golden Bull issued by Charles IV. in 1356 [see <a href="#Page_409">p. 409</a>]. Its composition
+in Dante's time is uncertain.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_617" id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617"><span class="label">[617]</span></a> Dante's ideal solution was the harmonious rule of the two powers by
+the acknowledgment of filial relationship between pope and emperor, on
+the basis of a recognition of the different and essentially irreconcilable
+character of their functions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_618" id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a> George B. Adams, <i>Mediæval Civilization</i> (New York, 1904), pp. 375-377.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_619" id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619"><span class="label">[619]</span></a> "There was no apparatus for the study of Greek at that time. Oral
+instruction from Greek or Byzantine scholars was the only possible means
+of access to the great writers of the past. Such instruction was difficult to
+secure, as Petrarch's efforts and failure prove."&mdash;Robinson and Rolfe,
+<i>Petrarch</i>, p. 237.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_620" id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620"><span class="label">[620]</span></a> This is a humorous allusion to the fact that Petrarch had recently received
+an injury from the fall of a heavy volume of Cicero's <i>Letters</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_621" id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621"><span class="label">[621]</span></a> A renowned Greek physician of the fifth century <span class="s07">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_622" id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622"><span class="label">[622]</span></a> A famous Arabian astronomer of the ninth century <span class="s07">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_623" id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623"><span class="label">[623]</span></a> Leo Pilatus, a translator.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_624" id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624"><span class="label">[624]</span></a> Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 <span class="s07">B.C.</span>), one of the literary lights of the
+Augustan Age, was a younger contemporary of Cicero. His <i>Ars Poetica</i> was
+a didactic poem setting forth the correct principles of poetry as an art.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_625" id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625"><span class="label">[625]</span></a> Eusebius, bishop of Cæsarea in Palestine, is noted chiefly as the author
+of an Ecclesiastical History which is in many ways our most important source
+of information on the early Christian Church. He lived about 250-339. St.
+Jerome was a great Church father of the later fourth century. His name is
+most commonly associated with the translation of the Bible from the original
+Hebrew and Greek into the Latin language. The resulting form of the
+Scriptures was the <i>Editio Vulgata</i> (the Edition Commonly Received),
+whence our English term "Vulgate."</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_626" id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626"><span class="label">[626]</span></a> Eyeglasses were but beginning to come into use in Petrarch's day.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_627" id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627"><span class="label">[627]</span></a> Petrarch's father and Dante were banished from Florence upon the same
+day, January 27, 1302 [see <a href="#Page_446">p. 446</a>].</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_628" id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628"><span class="label">[628]</span></a> Marcus Gavius Apicius was a celebrated epicure of the time of Augustus
+and Tiberius. He was the author of a famous cook-book intended for the
+gratification of high-livers. Though worth a fortune, he was haunted by a
+fear of starving to death and eventually poisoned himself to escape such a
+fate. There was another Apicius in the third century who compiled a
+well-known collection of recipes for cooking, in ten books, entitled <i>De Re
+Coquinaria</i>. It is not quite clear which Apicius Petrarch had in mind.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIæVAL HISTORY***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Source Book of Mediæval History, Edited by
+Frederic Austin Ogg
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Source Book of Mediæval History
+       Documents Illustrative of European Life and Institutions from the German Invasions to the Renaissance
+
+
+Editor: Frederic Austin Ogg
+
+Release Date: March 21, 2012  [eBook #39227]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIæVAL
+HISTORY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Melissa McDaniel and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/sourcebookofmedi00oggfuoft
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original
+      document have been preserved. Obvious typographical errors
+      have been corrected.
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+
+A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
+
+Documents Illustrative of European Life and Institutions
+from the German Invasions to the Renaissance
+
+Edited by
+
+FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG, A.M.
+
+Assistant in History in Harvard University
+and Instructor in Simmons College
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+New York .:. Cincinnati .:. Chicago
+American Book Company
+
+Copyright, 1907, by
+Frederic Austin Ogg
+
+Entered at Stationers' Hall, London
+W. P. 4
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book has been prepared in consequence of a conviction, derived
+from some years of teaching experience, (1) that sources, of proper
+kind and in carefully regulated amount, can profitably be made use of
+by teachers and students of history in elementary college classes, in
+academies and preparatory schools, and in the more advanced years of
+the average high school, and (2) that for mediaeval history there
+exists no published collection which is clearly adapted to practical
+conditions of work in such classes and schools.
+
+It has seemed to me that a source book designed to meet the
+requirements of teachers and classes in the better grade of secondary
+schools, and perhaps in the freshman year of college work, ought to
+comprise certain distinctive features, first, with respect to the
+character of the selections presented, and, secondly, in regard to
+general arrangement and accompanying explanatory matter. In the
+choice of extracts I have sought to be guided by the following
+considerations: (1) that in all cases the materials presented should
+be of real value, either for the historical information contained in
+them or for the more or less indirect light they throw upon mediaeval
+life or conditions; (2) that, for the sake of younger students, a
+relatively large proportion of narrative (annals, chronicles, and
+biography) be introduced and the purely documentary material be
+slightly subordinated; (3) that, despite this principle, documents of
+vital importance, such as _Magna Charta_ and _Unam Sanctam_, which
+cannot be ignored in even the most hasty or elementary study, be
+presented with some fulness; and (4) that, in general, the rule should
+be to give longer passages from fewer sources, rather than more
+fragmentary ones from a wider range.
+
+With respect to the manner of presenting the selections, I have
+sought: (1) to offer careful translations--some made afresh from the
+printed originals, others adapted from good translations already
+available--but with as much simplification and modernization of
+language as close adherence to the sense will permit. Literal, or
+nearly literal, translations are obviously desirable for maturer
+students, but, because of the involved character of mediaeval writings,
+are rarely readable, and are as a rule positively repellent to the
+young mind; (2) to provide each selection, or group of selections,
+with an introductory explanation, containing the historical setting of
+the extract, with perhaps some comment on its general significance,
+and also a brief sketch of the writer, particularly when he is an
+authority of exceptional importance, as Einhard, Joinville, or
+Froissart; and (3) to supply, in foot-notes, somewhat detailed aid to
+the understanding of obscure allusions, omitted passages, and
+especially place names and technical terms.
+
+For permission to reprint various translations, occasionally verbatim
+but usually in adapted form, I am under obligation to the following:
+Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin and Co., publishers of Miss Henry's
+translation of Dante's _De Monarchia_; Messrs. Henry Holt and Co.,
+publishers of Lee's _Source Book of English History_; Messrs. Ginn and
+Co., publishers of Robinson's _Readings in European History_; Messrs.
+Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers of Thatcher and McNeal's _Source
+Book for Mediaeval History_; Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons, publishers of
+Robinson and Rolfe's _Petrarch_; and Professor W. E. Lingelbach, of
+the University of Pennsylvania, representing the University of
+Pennsylvania _Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of
+European History_.
+
+In the preparation of the book I have received invaluable assistance
+from numerous persons, among whom the following, at least, should be
+named: Professor Samuel B. Harding, of the University of Indiana, who
+read the entire work in manuscript and has followed its progress from
+the first with discerning criticism; Professor Charles H. Haskins, of
+Harvard University, who has read most of the proof-sheets, and whose
+scholarship and intimate acquaintance with the problems of history
+teaching have contributed a larger proportion of whatever merits the
+book possesses than I dare attempt to reckon up; and Professors
+Charles Gross and Ephraim Emerton, likewise of Harvard, whose
+instruction and counsel have helped me over many hard places.
+
+The final word must be reserved for my wife, who, as careful
+amanuensis, has shared the burden of a not altogether easy task.
+
+     FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG.
+     CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+THE NATURE AND USE OF HISTORICAL SOURCES
+
+
+     [Sidenote: The question of authority in a book of history]
+
+If one proposes to write a history of the times of Abraham Lincoln,
+how shall one begin, and how proceed? Obviously, the first thing
+needed is information, and as much of it as can be had. But how shall
+information, accurate and trustworthy, be obtained? Of course there
+are plenty of books on Lincoln, and histories enough covering the
+period of his career to fill shelf upon shelf. It would be quite
+possible to spread some dozens of these before one's self and, drawing
+simply from them, work out a history that would read well and perhaps
+have a wide sale. And such a book might conceivably be worth while.
+But if you were reading it, and were a bit disposed to query into the
+accuracy of the statements made, you would probably find yourself
+wondering before long just where the writer got his authority for this
+or that assertion; and if, in foot-note or appendix, he should seem to
+satisfy your curiosity by citing some other biography or history, you
+would be quite justified in feeling that, after all, your inquiry
+remained unanswered,--for whence did this second writer get _his_
+authority? If you were thus persistent you would probably get hold of
+the volume referred to and verify, as we say, the statements of fact
+or opinion attributed to it. When you came upon them you might find it
+there stated that the point in question is clearly established from
+certain of Lincoln's own letters or speeches, which are thereupon
+cited, and perhaps quoted in part. At last you would be satisfied that
+the thing must very probably be true, for there you would have the
+words of Lincoln himself upon it; or, on the other hand, you might
+discover that your first writer had merely adopted an opinion of
+somebody else which did not have behind it the warrant of any
+first-hand authority. In either case you might well wonder why,
+instead of using and referring only to books of other later authors
+like himself, he did not go directly to Lincoln's own works, get his
+facts from them, and give authority for his statements at first hand.
+And if you pushed the matter farther it would very soon occur to you
+that there are some books on Lincoln and his period which are not
+carefully written, and therefore not trustworthy, and that your author
+may very well have used some of these, falling blindly into their
+errors and at times wholly escaping the correct interpretation of
+things which could be had, in incontrovertible form, from Lincoln's
+own pen, or from the testimony of his contemporaries. In other words,
+you would begin to distrust him because he had failed to go to the
+"sources" for his materials, or at least for a verification of them.
+
+     [Sidenote: The superiority of direct sources of knowledge]
+
+How, then, shall one proceed in the writing of history in order to
+make sure of the indispensable quality of accuracy? Clearly, the first
+thing to be borne in mind is the necessity of getting information
+through channels which are as direct and immediate as possible. Just
+as in ascertaining the facts regarding an event of to-day it would be
+desirable to get the testimony of an eye-witness rather than an
+account after it had passed from one person to another, suffering more
+or less distortion at every step, so, in seeking a trustworthy
+description of the battle of Salamis or of the personal habits of
+Charlemagne, the proper course would be to lay hold first of all of
+whatever evidence concerning these things has come down from Xerxes's
+or Charlemagne's day to our own, and to put larger trust in this than
+in more recent accounts which have been played upon by the imagination
+of their authors and perhaps rendered wholly misleading by errors
+consciously or unconsciously injected into them. The writer of history
+must completely divest himself of the notion that a thing is true
+simply because he finds it in print. He may, and should, read and
+consider well what others like himself have written upon his subject,
+but he should be wary of accepting what he finds in such books without
+himself going to the materials to which these writers have resorted
+and ascertaining whether they have been used with patience and
+discrimination. If his subject is Lincoln, he should, for example,
+make sure above everything else, of reading exhaustively the letters,
+speeches, and state papers which have been preserved, in print or in
+manuscript, from Lincoln's pen. Similarly, he should examine with care
+all letters and communications of every kind transmitted to Lincoln.
+Then he should familiarize himself with the writings of the leading
+men of Lincoln's day, whether in the form of letters, diaries,
+newspaper and magazine articles, or books. The files, indeed, of all
+the principal periodicals of the time should be gone through in quest
+of information or suggestions not to be found in other places. And, of
+course, the vast mass of public and official records would be
+invaluable--the journals of the two houses of Congress, the
+dispatches, orders, and accounts of the great executive departments,
+the arguments before the courts, with the resulting decisions, and the
+all but numberless other papers which throw light upon the practical
+conditions and achievements of the governing powers, national, state,
+and local. However much one may be able to acquire from the reading of
+later biographies and histories, he ought not to set about the writing
+of a new book of the sort unless he is willing to toil patiently
+through all these first-hand, contemporary materials and get some
+warrant from them, as being nearest the events themselves, for
+everything of importance that he proposes to say. This rule is equally
+applicable and urgent whatever the subject in hand--whether the age of
+Pericles, the Roman Empire, the Norman conquest of England, the French
+Revolution, or the administrations of George Washington--though,
+obviously, the character and amount of the contemporary materials of
+which one can avail himself varies enormously from people to people
+and from period to period.
+
+     [Sidenote: Indirect character of all historical knowledge]
+
+History is unlike many other subjects of study in that our knowledge
+of it, at best, must come to us almost wholly through indirect means.
+That is to say, all our information regarding the past, and most of it
+regarding our own day, has to be obtained, in one form or another,
+through other people, or the remains that they have left behind them.
+No one of us can know much about even so recent an event as the
+Spanish-American War, except by reading newspapers, magazines and
+books, talking with men who had part in it, or listening to public
+addresses concerning it--all indirect means. And, of course, when we
+go back of the memory of men now living, say to the American
+Revolution, nobody can lay claim to an iota of knowledge which he has
+not acquired through indirect channels. In physics or chemistry, if a
+student desires, he can reproduce in the laboratory practically any
+phenomenon which he finds described in his books; he need not accept
+the mere word of his text or of his teacher, but can actually behold
+the thing with his own eyes. Such experimentation, however, has no
+place in the study of history, for by no sort of art can a Roman
+legion or a German comitatus or the battle of Hastings be reproduced
+before mortal eye.
+
+     [Sidenote: An "historical source" defined]
+
+     [Sidenote: Written sources]
+
+For our knowledge of history we are therefore obliged to rely
+absolutely upon human testimony, in one form or another, the value of
+such testimony depending principally upon the directness with which it
+comes to us from the men and the times under consideration. If it
+reaches us with reasonable directness, and represents a well
+authenticated means of studying the period in question from the
+writings or other traces left by that period, it is properly to be
+included in the great body of materials which we have come to call
+historical sources. An historical source may be defined as any product
+of human activity or existence that can be used as direct evidence in
+the study of man's past life and institutions. A moment's thought will
+suggest that there are "sources" of numerous and widely differing
+kinds. Roughly speaking, at least, they fall into two great groups:
+(1) those in writing and (2) those in some form other than writing.
+The first group is by far the larger and more important. Foremost in
+it stand annals, chronicles, and histories, written from time to time
+all along the line of human history, on the cuneiform tablets of the
+Assyrians or the parchment rolls of the mediaeval monks, in the
+polished Latin of a Livy or the sprightly French of a Froissart. Works
+of pure literature also--epics, lyrics, dramas, essays--because of the
+light that they often throw upon the times in which they were written,
+possess a large value of the same general character. Of nearly equal
+importance is the great class of materials which may be called
+documentary--laws, charters, formulae, accounts, treaties, and official
+orders or instructions. These last are obviously of largest value in
+the study of social customs, land tenures, systems of government, the
+workings of courts, ecclesiastical organizations, and political
+agencies--in other words, of _institutions_--just as chronicles and
+histories are of greatest service in unraveling the _narrative_ side
+of human affairs.
+
+     [Sidenote: Sources other than in writing]
+
+Of sources which are not in the form of writing, the most important
+are: (1) implements of warfare, agriculture, household economy, and
+the chase, large quantities of which have been brought to light in
+various parts of the world, and which bear witness to the manner of
+life prevailing among the peoples who produced and used them; (2)
+coins, hoarded up in treasuries or buried in tombs or ruins of one
+sort or another, frequently preserving likenesses of important
+sovereigns, with dates and other materials of use especially in fixing
+chronology; (3) works of art, surviving intact or with losses or
+changes inflicted by the ravages of weather and human abuse--the tombs
+of the Egyptians, the sculpture of the Greeks, the architecture of the
+Middle Ages, or the paintings of the Renaissance; (4) other
+constructions of a more practical character, particularly
+dwelling-houses, roads, bridges, aqueducts, walls, gates, fortresses,
+and ships,--some well preserved and surviving as they were first
+fashioned, others in ruins, and still others built over and more or
+less obscured by modern improvement or adaptation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Various ways of using sources]
+
+These are some of the things to which the writer of history must go
+for his facts and for his inspiration, and it is to these that the
+student, whose business is to learn and not to write, ought
+occasionally to resort to enliven and supplement what he finds in the
+books. As there are many kinds of sources, so there are many ways in
+which such materials may be utilized. If, for example, you are
+studying the life of the Greeks and in that connection pay a visit to
+a museum of fine arts and scrutinize Greek statuary, Greek vases, and
+Greek coins, you are very clearly using sources. If your subject is
+the church life of the later Middle Ages and you journey to Rheims or
+Amiens or Paris to contemplate the splendid cathedrals in these
+cities, with their spires and arches and ornamentation, you are, in
+every proper sense, using sources. You are doing the same thing if you
+make an observation trip to the Egyptian pyramids, or to the excavated
+Roman forum, or if you traverse the line of old Watling Street--nay,
+if you but visit Faneuil Hall, or tramp over the battlefield of
+Gettysburg. Many of these more purely "material" sources can be made
+use of only after long and sometimes arduous journeys, or through the
+valuable, but somewhat less satisfactory, medium of pictures and
+descriptions. Happily, however, the art of printing and the practice
+of accumulating enormous libraries have made possible the indefinite
+duplication of _written_ sources, and consequently the use of them at
+almost any time and in almost any place. There is but one Sphinx, one
+Parthenon, one Sistine Chapel; there are not many Roman roads, feudal
+castles, or Gothic cathedrals; but scarcely a library in any civilized
+country is without a considerable number of the monumental _documents_
+of human history--the funeral oration of Pericles, the laws of
+Tiberius Gracchus, Magna Charta, the theses of Luther, the Bill of
+Rights, the Constitution of the United States--not to mention the all
+but limitless masses of histories, biographies, poems, letters,
+essays, memoirs, legal codes, and official records of every variety
+which are available for any one who seriously desires to make use of
+them.
+
+     [Sidenote: The value of sources to the student]
+
+But why should the younger student trouble himself, or be troubled,
+with any of these things? Might he not get all the history he can be
+expected to know from books written by scholars who have given their
+lives to exploring, organizing, and sifting just such sources? There
+can be no question that schools and colleges to-day have the use of
+better text-books in history than have ever before been available, and
+that truer notions of the subject in its various relations can be had
+from even the most narrow devotion to these texts than could be had
+from the study of their predecessors a generation ago. If the object
+of studying history were solely to acquire facts, it would, generally
+speaking, be a waste of time for high school or younger college
+students to wander far from text-books. But, assuming that history is
+studied not alone for the mastery of facts but also for the broadening
+of culture, and for certain kinds of mental training, the properly
+regulated use of sources by the student himself is to be justified on
+at least three grounds: (1) Sources help to an understanding of the
+point of view of the men, and the spirit of the age under
+consideration. The ability to dissociate one's self from his own
+surroundings and habits of thinking and to put himself in the company
+of Caesar, of Frederick Barbarossa, or of Innocent III., as the
+occasion may require, is the hardest, but perhaps the most valuable,
+thing that the student of history can hope to get. (2) Sources add
+appreciably to the vividness and reality of history. However
+well-written the modern description of Charlemagne, for example, the
+student ought to find a somewhat different flavor in the account by
+the great Emperor's own friend and secretary, Einhard; and, similarly,
+Matthew Paris's picture of the raving and fuming of Frederick II. at
+his excommunication by Pope Gregory ought to bring the reader into a
+somewhat more intimate appreciation of the character of the proud
+German-Sicilian emperor. (3) The use of sources, in connection with
+the reading of secondary works, may be expected to train the student,
+to some extent at least, in methods of testing the accuracy of modern
+writers, especially when the subject in hand is one that lends itself
+to a variety of interpretations. In the sources the makers of history,
+or those who stood close to them, are allowed to speak for themselves,
+or for their times, and the study of such materials not only helps
+plant in the student's mind the conception of fairness and
+impartiality in judging historical characters, but also cultivates the
+habit of tracing things back to their origins and verifying what
+others have asserted about them. So far as practicable the student of
+history, from the age of fourteen and onwards, should be encouraged to
+develop the critical or judicial temperament along with the purely
+acquisitive.
+
+     [Sidenote: Simplicity of many mediaeval sources]
+
+In preparing a source book, such as the present one, the purpose is to
+further the study of the most profitable sources by removing some of
+the greater difficulties, particularly those of accessibility and
+language. Clearly impracticable as anything like historical "research"
+undoubtedly is for younger students, it is none the less believed that
+there are abundant first-hand materials in the range of history which
+such students will not only find profitable but actually enjoy, and
+that any acquaintance with these things that may be acquired in
+earlier studies will be of inestimable advantage subsequently. It is
+furthermore believed, contrary to the assertions that one sometimes
+hears, that the history of the Middle Ages lends itself to this sort
+of treatment with scarcely, if any, less facility than that of other
+periods. Certainly Gregory's Clovis, Asser's Alfred, Einhard's
+Charlemagne, and Joinville's St. Louis are living personalities, no
+less vividly portrayed than the heroes of a boy's storybook. Tacitus's
+description of the early Germans, Ammianus's account of the crossing
+of the Danube by the Visigoths and his pictures of the Huns, Bede's
+narrative of the Saxon invasion of Britain, the affectionate letter
+Stephen of Blois to his wife and children, the portrayal of the
+sweet-spirited St. Francis by the Three Companions, and Froissart's
+free and easy sketch of the battle of Crecy are all interesting,
+easily comprehended, and even adapted to whet the appetite for a
+larger acquaintance with these various people and events. Even solid
+documents, like the Salic law, the Benedictine Rule, the Peace of
+Constance, and the Golden Bull, if not in themselves exactly
+attractive, may be made to have a certain interest for the younger
+student when he realizes that to know mediaeval history at all he is
+under the imperative necessity of getting much of the framework of
+things either from such materials or from text-books which essentially
+reproduce them. It is hoped that at least a reasonable proportion of
+the selections herewith presented may serve in some measure to
+overcome for the student the remote and intangible character which the
+Middle Ages have much too commonly, though perhaps not unnaturally,
+been felt to possess.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+   SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+     CHAPTER I.--THE EARLY GERMANS
+
+   1. A Sketch by Caesar                                             19
+
+   2. A Description by Tacitus                                      23
+
+
+     CHAPTER II.--THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION
+
+   3. The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)                          32
+
+   4. The Battle of Adrianople (378)                                37
+
+
+     CHAPTER III.--THE HUNS
+
+   5. Description by a Graeco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian       42
+
+
+     CHAPTER IV.--THE EARLY FRANKS
+
+   6. The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours            47
+
+   7. The Law of the Salian Franks                                  59
+
+
+     CHAPTER V.--THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN
+
+   8. The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)                                 68
+
+   9. The Mission of Augustine (597)                                72
+
+
+     CHAPTER VI.--THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
+
+   10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy                   78
+
+   11. The Rule of St. Benedict                                     83
+
+   12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor                  90
+
+
+     CHAPTER VII.--THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM
+
+   13. Selections from the Koran                                    97
+
+
+     CHAPTER VIII.--THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF
+     FRANKISH KINGS
+
+   14. Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)               105
+
+
+     CHAPTER IX.--THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE
+
+   15. Charlemagne the Man                                         108
+
+   16. The War with the Saxons (772-803)                           114
+
+   17. The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)    118
+
+   18. The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)      124
+
+   19. An Inventory of one of Charlemagne's Estates                127
+
+   20. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)                           130
+
+   21. The General Capitulary for the _Missi_ (802)                134
+
+   22. A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad                     141
+
+   23. The Carolingian Revival of Learning                         144
+
+
+     CHAPTER X.--THE ERA OF THE LATER CAROLINGIANS
+
+   24. The Oaths of Strassburg (842)                               149
+
+   25. The Treaty of Verdun (843)                                  154
+
+   26. A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century    157
+
+   27. The Northmen in the Country of the Franks                   163
+
+   28. Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order                 173
+
+   29. The Election of Hugh Capet (987)                            177
+
+
+     CHAPTER XI.--ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND IN PEACE
+
+   30. The Danes in England                                        181
+
+   31. Alfred's Interest in Education                              185
+
+   32. Alfred's Laws                                               194
+
+
+     CHAPTER XII.--THE ORDEAL
+
+   33. Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire                    196
+
+
+     CHAPTER XIII.--THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+   34. Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism          203
+
+   35. The Granting of Fiefs                                       214
+
+   36. The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty                         216
+
+   37. The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals                 220
+
+   38. Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord               221
+
+   39. The Peace and the Truce of God                              228
+
+
+     CHAPTER XIV.--THE NORMAN CONQUEST
+
+   40. The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans         233
+
+   41. William the Conqueror as Man and as King                    241
+
+
+     CHAPTER XV.--THE MONASTIC REFORMATION OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH,
+     AND TWELFTH CENTURIES
+
+   42. The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)      245
+
+   43. The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of
+       Clairvaux                                                   250
+
+   44. A Description of Clairvaux                                  258
+
+
+     CHAPTER XVI.--THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE
+
+   45. Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority            261
+
+   46. Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (1075)                  264
+
+   47. Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (1076)                269
+
+   48. Henry IV. Deposed by Gregory (1076)                         272
+
+   49. The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)                  273
+
+   50. The Concordat of Worms (1122)                               278
+
+
+     CHAPTER XVII.--THE CRUSADES
+
+   51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont
+       (1095)                                                      282
+
+   52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)                        288
+
+   53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife                        291
+
+
+     CHAPTER XVIII.--THE GREAT CHARTER
+
+   54. The Winning of the Great Charter                            297
+
+   55. Extracts from the Charter                                   303
+
+
+     CHAPTER XIX.--THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS
+
+   56. The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by
+       Joinville                                                   311
+
+
+     CHAPTER XX.--MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITY
+
+   57. Some Twelfth Century Town Charters                          325
+
+   58. The Colonization of Eastern Germany                         330
+
+   59. The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)                         334
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXI.--UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT LIFE
+
+   60. Privileges Granted to Students and Masters                  340
+
+   61. The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)       345
+
+   62. Mediaeval Students' Songs                                    351
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXII.--THE FRIARS
+
+   63. The Life of St. Francis                                     362
+
+   64. The Rule of St. Francis                                     373
+
+   65. The Will of St. Francis                                     376
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXIII.--THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL POWERS IN THE
+     LATER MIDDLE AGES
+
+   66. The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)        380
+
+   67. The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)            383
+
+   68. The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance     389
+
+   69. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)                    393
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXIV.--THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH, AND
+       FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+   70. The Peace of Constance (1183)                               398
+
+   71. Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of
+       Frederick II.                                               402
+
+   72. The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)                       409
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXV.--THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
+
+   73. An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France  418
+
+   74. Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of
+       France                                                      421
+
+   75. The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)                            424
+
+   76. The Battle of Crecy (1346)                                  427
+
+   77. The Sack of Limoges (1370)                                  436
+
+   78. The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)           439
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXVI.--THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
+
+   79. Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language           445
+
+   80. Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power                    452
+
+   81. Petrarch's Love of the Classics                             462
+
+   82. Petrarch's Letter to Posterity                              469
+
+
+     CHAPTER XXVII.--FORESHADOWINGS OF THE REFORMATION
+
+   83. The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI.
+       (1384)                                                      474
+
+
+
+
+A SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EARLY GERMANS
+
+
+1. A Sketch by Caesar
+
+One of the most important steps in the expansion of the Roman Republic
+was the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar just before the middle of the
+first century B.C. Through this conquest Rome entered deliberately
+upon the policy of extending her dominion northward from the
+Mediterranean and the Alps into the regions of western and central
+Europe known to us to-day as France and Germany. By their wars in this
+direction the Romans were brought into contact with peoples concerning
+whose manner of life they had hitherto known very little. There were
+two great groups of these peoples--the Gauls and the Germans--each
+divided and subdivided into numerous tribes and clans. In general it
+may be said that the Gauls occupied what we now call France and the
+Germans what we know as Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Germany, and
+Austria. The Rhine marked a pretty clear boundary between them.
+
+During the years 58-50 B.C., Julius Caesar, who had risen to the
+proconsulship through a long series of offices and honors at Rome,
+served the state as leader of five distinct military expeditions in
+this country of the northern barbarians. The primary object of these
+campaigns was to establish order among the turbulent tribes of Gauls
+and to prepare the way for the extension of Roman rule over them. This
+great task was performed very successfully, but in accomplishing it
+Caesar found it necessary to go somewhat farther than had at first been
+intended. In the years 55 and 54 B.C., he made two expeditions to
+Britain to punish the natives for giving aid to their Celtic kinsfolk
+in Gaul, and in 55 and 53 he crossed the Rhine to compel the Germans
+to remain on their own side of the river and to cease troubling the
+Gauls by raids and invasions, as they had recently been doing. When
+(about 51 B.C.) he came to write his _Commentaries on the Gallic War_,
+it is very natural that he should have taken care to give a brief
+sketch of the leading peoples whom he had been fighting, that is, the
+Gauls, the Britons, and the Germans. There are two places in the
+_Commentaries_ where the Germans are described at some length. At the
+beginning of Book IV. there is an account of the particular tribe
+known as the Suevi, and in the middle of Book VI. there is a longer
+sketch of the Germans in general. This latter is the passage
+translated below. Of course we are not to suppose that Caesar's
+knowledge of the Germans was in any sense thorough. At no time did he
+get far into their country, and the people whose manners and customs
+he had an opportunity to observe were only those who were pressing
+down upon, and occasionally across, the Rhine boundary--a mere fringe
+of the great race stretching back to the Baltic and, at that time, far
+eastward into modern Russia. We may be sure that many of the more
+remote German tribes lived after a fashion quite different from that
+which Caesar and his legions had an opportunity to observe on the
+Rhine-Danube frontier. Still, Caesar's account, vague and brief as it
+is, has an importance that can hardly be exaggerated. These early
+Germans had no written literature and but for the descriptions of them
+left by a few Roman writers, such as Caesar, we should know almost
+nothing about them. If we bear in mind that the account in the
+_Commentaries_ was based upon very keen, though limited, observation,
+we can get out of it a good deal of interesting information concerning
+the early ancestors of the great Teutonic peoples of the world to-day.
+
+     Source--Julius Caesar, _De Bello Gallico_ ["The Gallic War"],
+     Bk. VI., Chaps. 21-23.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their religion]
+
+   =21.= The customs of the Germans differ widely from those of the
+   Gauls;[1] for neither have they Druids to preside over religious
+   services,[2] nor do they give much attention to sacrifices. They
+   count in the number of their gods those only whom they can see, and
+   by whose favors they are clearly aided; that is to say, the Sun,
+   Vulcan,[3] and the Moon. Of other deities they have never even
+   heard. Their whole life is spent in hunting and in war. From
+   childhood they are trained in labor and hardship....
+
+     [Sidenote: Their system of land tenure]
+
+   =22.= They are not devoted to agriculture, and the greater portion
+   of their food consists of milk, cheese, and flesh. No one owns a
+   particular piece of land, with fixed limits, but each year the
+   magistrates and the chiefs assign to the clans and the bands of
+   kinsmen who have assembled together as much land as they think
+   proper, and in whatever place they desire, and the next year compel
+   them to move to some other place. They give many reasons for this
+   custom--that the people may not lose their zeal for war through
+   habits established by prolonged attention to the cultivation of the
+   soil; that they may not be eager to acquire large possessions, and
+   that the stronger may not drive the weaker from their property;
+   that they may not build too carefully, in order to avoid cold and
+   heat; that the love of money may not spring up, from which arise
+   quarrels and dissensions; and, finally, that the common people may
+   live in contentment, since each person sees that his wealth is kept
+   equal to that of the most powerful.
+
+     [Sidenote: Leaders and officers in war and peace]
+
+   =23.= It is a matter of the greatest glory to the tribes to lay
+   waste, as widely as possible, the lands bordering their territory,
+   thus making them uninhabitable.[4] They regard it as the best
+   proof of their valor that their neighbors are forced to withdraw
+   from those lands and hardly any one dares set foot there; at the
+   same time they think that they will thus be more secure, since the
+   fear of a sudden invasion is removed. When a tribe is either
+   repelling an invasion or attacking an outside people, magistrates
+   are chosen to lead in the war, and these are given the power of
+   life and death. In times of peace there is no general magistrate,
+   but the chiefs of the districts and cantons render justice among
+   their own people and settle disputes.[5] Robbery, if committed
+   beyond the borders of the tribe, is not regarded as disgraceful,
+   and they say that it is practised for the sake of training the
+   youth and preventing idleness. When any one of the chiefs has
+   declared in an assembly that he is going to be the leader of an
+   expedition, and that those who wish to follow him should give in
+   their names, they who approve of the undertaking, and of the man,
+   stand up and promise their assistance, and are applauded by the
+   people. Such of these as do not then follow him are looked upon as
+   deserters and traitors, and from that day no one has any faith in
+   them.
+
+     [Sidenote: German hospitality]
+
+   To mistreat a guest they consider to be a crime. They protect from
+   injury those who have come among them for any purpose whatever, and
+   regard them as sacred. To them the houses of all are open and food
+   is freely supplied.
+
+
+2. A Description by Tacitus
+
+Tacitus (54-119),[6] who is sometimes credited with being the greatest
+of Roman historians, published his treatise on the _Origin, Location,
+Manners, and Inhabitants of Germany_ in the year 98. This was about a
+century and a half after Caesar wrote his _Commentaries_. During this
+long interval we have almost no information as to how the Germans were
+living or what they were doing. There is much uncertainty as to the
+means by which Tacitus got his knowledge of them. We may be reasonably
+sure that he did not travel extensively through the country north of
+the Rhine; there is, in fact, not a shred of evidence that he ever
+visited it at all. He tells us that he made use of Caesar's account,
+but this was very meager and could not have been of much service. We
+are left to surmise that he drew most of his information from books
+then existing but since lost, such as the writings of Posidonius of
+Rhodes (136-51 B.C.) and Pliny the Elder (23-79). These sources were
+doubtless supplemented by the stories of officials and traders who had
+been among the Germans and were afterwards interviewed by the
+historian. Tacitus's essay, therefore, while written with a desire to
+tell the truth, was apparently not based on first-hand information.
+The author nowhere says that he had _seen_ this or that feature of
+German life. We may suppose that what he really did was to gather up
+all the stories and reports regarding the German barbarians which were
+already known to Roman traders, travelers, and soldiers, sift the true
+from the false as well as he could, and write out in first class Latin
+the little book which we know as the _Germania_. The theory that the
+work was intended as a satire, or sermon in morals, for the benefit of
+a corrupt Roman people has been quite generally abandoned, and this
+for the very good reason that there is nothing in either the
+treatise's contents or style to warrant such a belief. Tacitus wrote
+the book because of his general interest in historical and
+geographical subjects, and also, perhaps, because it afforded him an
+excellent opportunity to display a literary skill in which he took no
+small degree of pride. That it was published separately instead of in
+one of his larger histories may have been due to public interest in
+the subject during Trajan's wars in the Rhine country in the years 98
+and 99. The first twenty-seven chapters, from which the selections
+below are taken, treat of the Germans in general--their origin,
+religion, family life, occupations, military tactics, amusements, land
+system, government, and social classes; the last nineteen deal with
+individual tribes and are not so accurate or so valuable. It will be
+found interesting to compare what Tacitus says with what Caesar says
+when both touch upon the same topic. In doing so it should be borne in
+mind that there was a difference in time of a century and a half
+between the two writers, and also that while Tacitus probably did not
+write from experience among the Germans, as Caesar did, he nevertheless
+had given the subject a larger amount of deliberate study.
+
+     Source--C. Cornelius Tacitus, _De Origine, Situ, Moribus, ac
+     Populis Germanorum_ [known commonly as the "Germania"], Chaps.
+     4-24, _passim_. Adapted from translation by Alfred J. Church
+     and William J. Brodribb (London, 1868), pp. 1-16. Text in
+     numerous editions, as that of William F. Allen (Boston, 1882)
+     and that of Henry Furneau (Oxford, 1894).
+
+     [Sidenote: Physical characteristics]
+
+   =4.= For my own part, I agree with those who think that the tribes
+   of Germany are free from all trace of intermarriage with foreign
+   nations, and that they appear as a distinct, unmixed race, like
+   none but themselves. Hence it is that the same physical features
+   are to be observed throughout so vast a population. All have fierce
+   blue eyes, reddish hair, and huge bodies fit only for sudden
+   exertion. They are not very able to endure labor that is
+   exhausting. Heat and thirst they cannot withstand at all, though to
+   cold and hunger their climate and soil have hardened them.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their weapons and mode of fighting]
+
+   =6.= Iron is not plentiful among them, as may be inferred from the
+   nature of their weapons.[7] Only a few make use of swords or long
+   lances. Ordinarily they carry a spear (which they call a _framea_),
+   with a short and narrow head, but so sharp and easy to handle that
+   the same weapon serves, according to circumstances, for close or
+   distant conflict. As for the horse-soldier, he is satisfied with a
+   shield and a spear. The foot-soldiers also scatter showers of
+   missiles, each man having several and hurling them to an immense
+   distance, and being naked or lightly clad with a little cloak. They
+   make no display in their equipment. Their shields alone are marked
+   with fancy colors. Only a few have corselets,[8] and just one or
+   two here and there a metal or leather helmet.[9] Their horses are
+   neither beautiful nor swift; nor are they taught various wheeling
+   movements after the Roman fashion, but are driven straight forward
+   so as to make one turn to the right in such a compact body that
+   none may be left behind another. On the whole, one would say that
+   the Germans' chief strength is in their infantry. It fights along
+   with the cavalry, and admirably adapted to the movements of the
+   latter is the swiftness of certain foot-soldiers, who are picked
+   from the entire youth of their country and placed in front of the
+   battle line.[10] The number of these is fixed, being a hundred from
+   each _pagus_,[11] and from this they take their name among their
+   countrymen, so that what was at the outset a mere number has now
+   become a title of honor. Their line of battle is drawn up in the
+   shape of a wedge. To yield ground, provided they return to the
+   attack, is regarded as prudence rather than cowardice. The bodies
+   of their slain they carry off, even when the battle has been
+   indecisive. To abandon one's shield is the basest of crimes. A man
+   thus disgraced is not allowed to be present at the religious
+   ceremonies, or to enter the council. Many, indeed, after making a
+   cowardly escape from battle put an end to their infamy by hanging
+   themselves.[12]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Germans in battle]
+
+   =7.= They choose their kings[13] by reason of their birth, but
+   their generals on the ground of merit. The kings do not enjoy
+   unlimited or despotic power, and even the generals command more by
+   example than by authority. If they are energetic, if they take a
+   prominent part, if they fight in the front, they lead because they
+   are admired. But to rebuke, to imprison, even to flog, is allowed
+   to the priests alone, and this not as a punishment, or at the
+   general's bidding, but by the command of the god whom they believe
+   to inspire the warrior. They also carry with them into battle
+   certain figures and images taken from their sacred groves.[14] The
+   thing that most strengthens their courage is the fact that their
+   troops are not made up of bodies of men chosen by mere chance, but
+   are arranged by families and kindreds. Close by them, too, are
+   those dearest to them, so that in the midst of the fight they can
+   hear the shrieks of women and the cries of children. These loved
+   ones are to every man the most valued witnesses of his valor, and
+   at the same time his most generous applauders. The soldier brings
+   his wounds to mother or wife, who shrinks not from counting them,
+   or even demanding to see them, and who provides food for the
+   warriors and gives them encouragement.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their popular assemblies]
+
+   =11.= About matters of small importance the chiefs alone take
+   counsel, but the larger questions are considered by the entire
+   tribe. Yet even when the final decision rests with the people the
+   affair is always thoroughly discussed by the chiefs. Except in the
+   case of a sudden emergency, the people hold their assemblies on
+   certain fixed days, either at the new or the full moon; for these
+   they consider the most suitable times for the transaction of
+   business. Instead of counting by days, as we do, they count by
+   nights, and in this way designate both their ordinary and their
+   legal engagements. They regard the night as bringing on the day.
+   Their freedom has one disadvantage, in that they do not all come
+   together at the same time, or as they are commanded, but two or
+   three days are wasted in the delay of assembling. When the people
+   present think proper, they sit down armed. Silence is proclaimed by
+   the priests who, on these occasions, are charged with the duty of
+   keeping order. The king or the leader speaks first, and then others
+   in order, as age, or rank, or reputation in war, or eloquence, give
+   them right. The speakers are heard more because of their ability to
+   persuade than because of their power to command. If the speeches
+   are displeasing to the people, they reject them with murmurs; if
+   they are pleasing, they applaud by clashing their weapons together,
+   which is the kind of applause most highly esteemed.[15]
+
+     [Sidenote: The chiefs and their companions]
+
+   =13.= They transact no public or private business without being
+   armed, but it is not allowable for any one to bear arms until he
+   has satisfied the tribe that he is fit to do so. Then, in the
+   presence of the assembly, one of the chiefs, or the young man's
+   father, or some kinsman, equips him with a shield and a spear.
+   These arms are what the toga is with the Romans, the first honor
+   with which a youth is invested. Up to this time he is regarded as
+   merely a member of a household, but afterwards as a member of the
+   state. Very noble birth, or important service rendered by the
+   father, secures for a youth the rank of chief, and such lads attach
+   themselves to men of mature strength and of fully tested valor. It
+   is no shame to be numbered among a chief's companions.[16] The
+   companions have different ranks in the band, according to the will
+   of the chief; and there is great rivalry among the companions for
+   first place in the chief's favor, as there is among the chiefs for
+   the possession of the largest and bravest throng of followers. It
+   is an honor, as well as a source of strength, to be thus always
+   surrounded by a large body of picked youths, who uphold the rank of
+   the chief in peace and defend him in war. The fame of such a chief
+   and his band is not confined to their own tribe, but is spread
+   among foreign peoples; they are sought out and honored with gifts
+   in order to secure their alliance, for the reputation of such a
+   band may decide a whole war.
+
+     [Sidenote: The German love of war]
+
+   =14.= In battle it is considered shameful for the chief to allow
+   any of his followers to excel him in valor, and for the followers
+   not to equal their chief in deeds of bravery. To survive the chief
+   and return from the field is a disgrace and a reproach for life. To
+   defend and protect him, and to add to his renown by courageous
+   fighting is the height of loyalty. The chief fights for victory;
+   the companions must fight for the chief. If their native state
+   sinks into the sloth of peace and quiet, many noble youths
+   voluntarily seek those tribes which are waging some war, both
+   because inaction is disliked by their race and because it is in war
+   that they win renown most readily; besides, a chief can maintain a
+   band only by war, for the men expect to receive their war-horse and
+   their arms from their leader. Feasts and entertainments, though not
+   elegant, are plentifully provided and constitute their only pay.
+   The means of such liberality are best obtained from the booty of
+   war. Nor are they as easily persuaded to plow the earth and to wait
+   for the year's produce as to challenge an enemy and earn the glory
+   of wounds. Indeed, they actually think it tame and stupid to
+   acquire by the sweat of toil what they may win by their blood.[17]
+
+     [Sidenote: Life in times of peace]
+
+   =15.= When not engaged in war they pass much of their time in the
+   chase, and still more in idleness, giving themselves up to sleep
+   and feasting. The bravest and most warlike do no work; they give
+   over the management of the household, of the home, and of the land
+   to the women, the old men, and the weaker members of the family,
+   while they themselves remain in the most sluggish inactivity. It is
+   strange that the same men should be so fond of idleness and yet so
+   averse to peace.[18] It is the custom of the tribes to make their
+   chiefs presents of cattle and grain, and thus to give them the
+   means of support.[19] The chiefs are especially pleased with gifts
+   from neighboring tribes, which are sent not only by individuals,
+   but also by the state, such as choice steeds, heavy armor,
+   trappings, and neck-chains. The Romans have now taught them to
+   accept money also.
+
+     [Sidenote: Lack of cities and towns]
+
+   =16.= It is a well-known fact that the peoples of Germany have no
+   cities, and that they do not even allow buildings to be erected
+   close together.[20] They live scattered about, wherever a spring,
+   or a meadow, or a wood has attracted them. Their villages are not
+   arranged in the Roman fashion, with the buildings connected and
+   joined together, but every person surrounds his dwelling with an
+   open space, either as a precaution against the disasters of fire,
+   or because they do not know how to build. They make no use of stone
+   or brick, but employ wood for all purposes. Their buildings are
+   mere rude masses, without ornament or attractiveness, although
+   occasionally they are stained in part with a kind of clay which is
+   so clear and bright that it resembles painting, or a colored
+   design....
+
+     [Sidenote: Their food and drink]
+
+   =23.= A liquor for drinking is made out of barley, or other grain,
+   and fermented so as to be somewhat like wine. The dwellers along
+   the river-bank[21] also buy wine from traders. Their food is of a
+   simple variety, consisting of wild fruit, fresh game, and curdled
+   milk. They satisfy their hunger without making much preparation of
+   cooked dishes, and without the use of any delicacies at all. In
+   quenching their thirst they are not so moderate. If they are
+   supplied with as much as they desire to drink, they will be
+   overcome by their own vices as easily as by the arms of an enemy.
+
+     [Sidenote: German amusements]
+
+   =24.= At all their gatherings there is one and the same kind of
+   amusement. This is the dancing of naked youths amid swords and
+   lances that all the time endanger their lives. Experience gives
+   them skill, and skill in turn gives grace. They scorn to receive
+   profit or pay, for, however reckless their pastime, its reward is
+   only the pleasure of the spectators. Strangely enough, they make
+   games of chance a serious employment, even when sober, and so
+   venturesome are they about winning or losing that, when every other
+   resource has failed, on the final throw of the dice they will stake
+   even their own freedom. He who loses goes into voluntary slavery
+   and, though the younger and stronger of the players, allows himself
+   to be bound and sold. Such is their stubborn persistency in a bad
+   practice, though they themselves call it honor. Slaves thus
+   acquired the owners trade off as speedily as possible to rid
+   themselves of the scandal of such a victory.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] In chapters 11-20, immediately preceding the present passage,
+Caesar gives a comparatively full and minute description of Gallic life
+and institutions. He knew more about the Gauls than about the Germans,
+and, besides, it was his experiences among them that he was writing
+about primarily.
+
+[2] The Druids were priests who formed a distinct and very influential
+class among the Gauls. They ascertained and revealed the will of the
+gods and were supreme in the government of the tribes. Druids existed
+also among the Britons.
+
+[3] By Vulcan Caesar means the German god of fire.
+
+[4] Of the Suevi, a German tribe living along the upper course of the
+Danube, Caesar says: "They consider it their greatest glory as a nation
+that the lands about their territories lie unoccupied to a very great
+extent, for they think that by this it is shown that a great number of
+nations cannot withstand their power; and thus on one side of the
+Suevi the lands are said to lie desolate for about six hundred
+miles."--_Gallic War_, Bk. IV., Chap. 3.
+
+[5] This statement is an instance of Caesar's vagueness, due possibly
+to haste in writing, but more likely to lack of definite information.
+How large these districts and cantons were, whether they had fixed
+boundaries, and how the chiefs rendered justice in them are things we
+should like to know but are not told.
+
+[6] All dates from this point, unless otherwise indicated, are A.D.
+
+[7] In reality iron ore was abundant in the Germans' territory, but it
+was not until long after the time of Tacitus that much use began to be
+made of it. By the fifth century iron swords were common.
+
+[8] Coats of mail.
+
+[9] Defensive armor for the head and neck.
+
+[10] See Caesar's description of this mode of fighting.--_Gallic War_,
+Bk. I., Chap. 48.
+
+[11] The canton was known to the Romans as a _pagus_ and to the
+Germans themselves as a _gau_. It was made up of a number of
+districts, or townships (Latin _vicus_, German _dorf_), and was itself
+a division of a tribe or nation.
+
+[12] A later law of the Salian Franks imposed a fine of 120 _denarii_
+upon any man who should accuse another of throwing down his shield and
+running away, without being able to prove it [see p. 64].
+
+[13] Many of the western tribes at the time Tacitus wrote did not have
+kings, though in eastern Germany the institution of kingship seems to
+have been quite general. The office, where it existed, was elective,
+but the people rarely chose a king outside of a privileged family,
+assumed to be of divine origin.
+
+[14] Evidently these were not images of their gods, for in another
+place (Chap. 9) Tacitus tells us that the Germans deemed it a dishonor
+to their deities to represent them in human form. The images were
+probably those of wild beasts, as the wolf of Woden (or Odin), or the
+ram of Tyr, and were national standards preserved with religious care
+in the sacred groves, whence they were brought forth when the tribe
+was on the point of going to war.
+
+[15] The German popular assembly was simply the periodical gathering
+of free men in arms for the discussion and decision of important
+points of tribal policy. It was not a legislative body in the modern
+sense. Law among the Germans was immemorial custom, which, like
+religion, could be changed only by a gradual shifting of popular
+belief and practice. It was not "made" by any process of deliberate
+and immediate choice. Nevertheless, the assembly constituted an
+important democratic element in the government, which operated in a
+measure to offset the aristocratic element represented by the
+_principes_ and _comitatus_ [see p. 28]. Its principal functions were
+the declaring of war and peace, the election of the kings, and,
+apparently, the hearing and deciding of graver cases at law.
+
+[16] This relation of _principes_ (chiefs) and _comites_ (companions)
+is mentioned by Caesar [see p. 22]. The name by which the Romans
+designated the band of companions, or followers, of a German chieftain
+was _comitatus_.
+
+[17] Apparently the Germans did not now care much more for agriculture
+than in the time of Caesar. The women, slaves, and old men sowed some
+seeds and gathered small harvests, but the warrior class held itself
+above such humble and unexciting employment. The raising of cattle
+afforded a principal means of subsistence, though hunting and fishing
+contributed considerably.
+
+[18] Compare the Germans and the North American Indians in this
+respect. The great contrast between these two peoples lay in the
+capacity of the one and the comparative incapacity of the other for
+development.
+
+[19] The Germans had no system of taxation on land or other property,
+such as the Romans had and such as we have to-day. It was not until
+well toward the close of the Middle Ages that the governments of
+kingdoms built up by Germanic peoples in western Europe came to be
+maintained by anything like what we would call taxes in the modern
+sense.
+
+[20] The lack of cities and city life among the Germans struck Tacitus
+with the greater force because of the complete dominance of city
+organization to which he, as a Roman, was accustomed. The Greek and
+Roman world was made up, in the last analysis, of an aggregation of
+_civitates_, or city states. Among the ancient Greeks these had
+usually been independent; among the Romans they were correlated under
+the greater or lesser control of a centralized government; but among
+the Germans of Tacitus's time, and long after, the mixed agricultural
+and nomadic character of the people effectually prevented the
+development of anything even approaching urban organization. Their
+life was that of the forest and the pasture, not that of forum,
+theatre, and circus.
+
+[21] That is, on the Rhine, where traders from the south brought in
+wines and other Roman products. The drink which the Germans themselves
+manufactured was, of course, a kind of beer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE VISIGOTHIC INVASION
+
+
+3. The Visigoths Cross the Danube (376)
+
+The earliest invasion of the Roman Empire which resulted in the
+permanent settlement of a large and united body of Germans on Roman
+soil was that of the Visigoths in the year 376. This invasion was very
+far, however, from marking the first important contact of the German
+and Roman peoples. As early as the end of the second century B.C. the
+incursions of the Cimbri and Teutones (113-101) into southern Gaul and
+northern Italy had given Rome a suggestion of the danger which
+threatened from the northern barbarians. Half a century later, the
+Gallic campaigns of Caesar brought the two peoples into conflict for
+the first time in the region of the later Rhine boundary, and had the
+very important effect of preventing the impending Germanization of
+Gaul and substituting the extension of Roman power and civilization in
+that quarter. Roman imperial plans on the north then developed along
+ambitious lines until the year 9 A.D., when the legions of the Emperor
+Augustus, led by Varus, were defeated, and in large part annihilated,
+in the great battle of the Teutoberg Forest and the balance was turned
+forever against the Romanization of the Germanic countries. Thereafter
+for a long time a state of equilibrium was preserved along the
+Rhine-Danube frontier, though after the Marcomannic wars in the latter
+half of the second century the scale began to incline more and more
+against the Romans, who were gradually forced into the attitude of
+defense against a growing disposition of the restless Germans to push
+the boundary farther south.
+
+During the more than three and a half centuries intervening between
+the battle of the Teutoberg and the crossing of the Danube by the
+Visigoths, the intermingling of the two peoples steadily increased. On
+the one hand were numerous Roman travelers and traders who visited
+the Germans living along the frontier and learned what sort of people
+they were. The soldiers of the legions stationed on the Rhine and
+Danube also added materially to Roman knowledge in this direction. But
+much more important was the influx of Germans into the Empire to serve
+as soldiers or to settle on lands allotted to them by the government.
+Owing to a general decline of population, and especially to the lack
+of a sturdy middle class, Rome found it necessary to fill up her army
+with foreigners and to reward them with lands lying mainly near the
+frontiers, but often in the very heart of the Empire. The
+over-population of Germany furnished a large class of excellent
+soldiers who were ready enough to accept the pay of the Roman emperor
+for service in the legions, even if rendered, as it often was, against
+their kinsmen who were menacing the weakened frontier. From this
+source the Empire had long been receiving a large infusion of German
+blood before any considerable tribe came within its bounds to settle
+in a body. Indeed, if there had occurred no sudden and startling
+overflows of population from the Germanic countries, such as the
+Visigothic invasion, it is quite possible that the Roman Empire might
+yet have fallen completely into the hands of the Germans by the quiet
+and gradual processes just indicated. As it was, the pressure from
+advancing Asiatic peoples on the east was too great to be withstood,
+and there resulted, between the fourth and sixth centuries, a series
+of notable invasions which left almost the entire Western Empire
+parceled out among new Germanic kingdoms established by force on the
+ruins of the once invincible Roman power. The breaking of the frontier
+by the West Goths (to whom the Emperor Aurelian, in 270, had abandoned
+the rich province of Dacia), during the reign of Gratian in the West
+and of Valens in the East, was the first conspicuous step in this
+great transforming movement.
+
+The ferocious people to whose incursions Ammianus refers as the cause
+of the Visigothic invasion were the Huns [see p. 42], who had but
+lately made their first appearance in Europe. Already by 376 the
+Ostrogothic kingdom of Hermaneric, to the north of the Black Sea, had
+fallen before their onslaught, and the wave of conquest was spreading
+rapidly westward toward Dacia and the neighboring lands inhabited by
+the Visigoths. The latter people were even less able to make effectual
+resistance than their eastern brethren had been. Part of them had
+become Christians and were recognizing Fridigern as their leader,
+while the remaining pagan element acknowledged the sway of Athanaric.
+On the arrival of the Huns, Athanaric led his portion of the people
+into the Carpathian Mountains and began to prepare for resistance,
+while the Christians, led by Fridigern and Alaf (or Alavivus),
+gathered on the Danube and begged permission to take refuge across the
+river in Roman territory. Athanaric and his division of the Visigoths,
+having become Christians, entered the Empire a few years later and
+settled in Moesia.
+
+Ammianus Marcellinus, author of the account of the Visigothic invasion
+given below, was a native of Antioch, a soldier of Greek ancestry and
+apparently of noble birth, and a member of the Eastern emperor's
+bodyguard. Beyond these facts, gleaned from his _Roman History_, we
+have almost no knowledge of the man. The date of his birth is unknown,
+likewise that of his death, though from his writings it appears that
+he lived well toward the close of the fourth century. His _History_
+began with the accession of Nerva, 96 A.D., approximately where the
+accounts by Tacitus and Suetonius end, and continued to the death of
+his master Valens in the battle of Adrianople in 378. It was divided
+into thirty-one books; but of these thirteen have been lost, and some
+of those which survive are imperfect. Although the narrative is broken
+into rather provokingly here and there by digressions on earthquakes
+and eclipses and speculations on such utterly foreign topics as the
+theory of the destruction of lions by mosquitoes, it nevertheless
+constitutes an invaluable source of information on the men and events
+of the era which it covers. Its value is greatest, naturally, on the
+period of the Visigothic invasion, for in dealing with these years the
+author could describe events about which he had direct and personal
+knowledge. Ammianus is to be thought of as the last of the old Roman
+school of historians.
+
+     Source--Ammianus Marcellinus, _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui
+     Supersunt_, Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 3-4. Translated by Charles D.
+     Yonge under the title of _Roman History during the Reigns of
+     the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and
+     Valens_ (London, 1862), pp. 584-586. Text in edition of Victor
+     Gardthausen (Leipzig, 1875), Vol. II., pp. 239-240.
+
+     [Sidenote: Visigoths ask permission to settle within the Empire]
+
+   In the meantime a report spread extensively through the other
+   nations of the Goths [i.e., the Visigoths], that a race of men,
+   hitherto unknown, had suddenly descended like a whirlwind from the
+   lofty mountains, as if they had risen from some secret recess of
+   the earth, and were ravaging and destroying everything that came in
+   their way. Then the greater part of the population (which, because
+   of their lack of necessities, had deserted Athanaric), resolved to
+   flee and to seek a home remote from all knowledge of the
+   barbarians; and after a long deliberation as to where to fix their
+   abode, they resolved that a retreat into Thrace was the most
+   suitable, for these two reasons: first of all, because it is a
+   district most abundant in grass; and in the second place, because,
+   by the great breadth of the Danube, it is wholly separated from the
+   barbarians [i.e., the Goths], who were already exposed to the
+   thunderbolts of foreign warfare. And the whole population of the
+   tribe adopted this resolution unanimously. Accordingly, under the
+   command of their leader Alavivus, they occupied the banks of the
+   Danube; and having sent ambassadors to Valens,[22] they humbly
+   entreated that they might be received by him as his subjects,
+   promising to live peaceably and to furnish a body of auxiliary
+   troops, if any necessity for such a force should arise.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rumors of Gothic movements reach Rome]
+
+   While these events were passing in foreign countries, a terrible
+   rumor arose that the tribes of the north were planning new and
+   unprecedented attacks upon us,[23] and that over the whole region
+   which extends from the country of the Marcomanni and Quadi to
+   Pontus,[24] a barbarian host composed of various distant nations
+   which had suddenly been driven by force from their own country, was
+   now, with all their families, wandering about in different
+   directions on the banks of the river Danube.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their coming represented as a blessing to the Empire]
+
+   At first this intelligence was treated lightly by our people,
+   because they were not in the habit of hearing of any wars in those
+   remote regions until after they had been terminated either by
+   victory or by treaty. But presently the belief in these occurrences
+   grew stronger, being confirmed, moreover, by the arrival of the
+   foreign ambassadors who, with prayers and earnest entreaties,
+   begged that the people thus driven from their homes and now
+   encamped on the other side of the river might be kindly received by
+   us. The affair seemed a cause of joy rather than of fear, according
+   to the skilful flatterers who were always extolling and
+   exaggerating the good fortune of the Emperor; congratulating him
+   that an embassy had come from the farthest corners of the earth
+   unexpectedly, offering him a large body of recruits, and that, by
+   combining the strength of his own nation with these foreign forces,
+   he would have an army absolutely invincible; observing farther
+   that, by the payment for military reinforcements which came in
+   every year from the provinces, a vast treasure of gold might be
+   accumulated in his coffers.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crossing of the Danube]
+
+   Full of this hope, he sent several officers to bring this ferocious
+   people and their wagons into our territory. And such great pains
+   were taken to gratify this nation, which was destined to overthrow
+   the empire of Rome, that not one was left behind, not even of those
+   who were stricken with mortal disease. Moreover, having obtained
+   permission of the Emperor to cross the Danube and to cultivate some
+   districts in Thrace, they crossed the stream day and night, without
+   ceasing, embarking in troops on board ships and rafts, and canoes
+   made of the hollow trunks of trees. In this enterprise, since the
+   Danube is the most difficult of all rivers to navigate, and was at
+   that time swollen with continual rains, a great many were drowned,
+   who, because they were too numerous for the vessels, tried to swim
+   across, and in spite of all their exertions were swept away by the
+   stream.
+
+     [Sidenote: Number of the invaders]
+
+   In this way, through the turbulent zeal of violent people, the
+   ruin of the Roman Empire was brought on. This, at all events, is
+   neither obscure nor uncertain, that the unhappy officers who were
+   intrusted with the charge of conducting the multitude of the
+   barbarians across the river, though they repeatedly endeavored to
+   calculate their numbers, at last abandoned the attempt as useless;
+   and the man who would wish to ascertain the number might as well
+   attempt to count the waves in the African sea, or the grains of
+   sand tossed about by the zephyr.[25]
+
+
+4. The Battle of Adrianople (378)
+
+Before crossing the Danube the Visigoths had been required by the
+Romans to give up their arms, and also a number of their children to
+be held as hostages. In return it was understood that the Romans would
+equip them afresh with arms sufficient for their defense and with food
+supplies to maintain them until they should become settled in their
+new homes. So far as our information goes, it appears that the Goths
+fulfilled their part of the contract, or at least were willing to do
+so. But the Roman officers in Thrace saw an opportunity to enrich
+themselves by selling food to the famished barbarians at extortionate
+prices, and a few months of such practices sufficed to arouse all the
+rage and resentment of which the untamed Teuton was capable. In the
+summer of 378 the Goths broke out in open revolt and began to avenge
+themselves by laying waste the Roman lands along the lower Danube
+frontier. The Eastern emperor, Valens, hastened to the scene of
+insurrection, but only to lose the great battle of Adrianople, August
+9, 378, and to meet his own death. "The battle of Adrianople," says
+Professor Emerton, "was one of the decisive battles of the world. It
+taught the Germans that they could beat the legions in open fight and
+that henceforth it was for them to name the price of peace. It broke
+once for all the Rhine-Danube frontier." Many times thereafter German
+armies, and whole tribes, were to play the role of allies of Rome; but
+neither German nor Roman could be blinded to the fact that the
+decadent empire of the south lay at the mercy of the stalwart sons of
+the northern wilderness.
+
+     Source--Ammianus Marcellinus, _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui
+     Supersunt_, Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 12-14. Translated by Charles D.
+     Yonge [see p. 34], pp. 608-615 _passim_. Text in edition of
+     Victor Gardthausen (Leipzig, 1875), Vol. II., pp. 261-269.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Goths approach the Roman army]
+
+   He [Valens] was at the head of a numerous force, neither unwarlike
+   nor contemptible, and had united with them many veteran bands,
+   among whom were several officers of high rank--especially Trajan,
+   who a little while before had been commander of the forces. And as,
+   by means of spies and observation, it was ascertained that the
+   enemy was intending to blockade with strong divisions the different
+   roads by which the necessary supplies must come, he sent a
+   sufficient force to prevent this, dispatching a body of the archers
+   of the infantry and a squadron of cavalry with all speed to occupy
+   the narrow passes in the neighborhood. Three days afterwards, when
+   the barbarians, who were advancing slowly because they feared an
+   attack in the unfavorable ground which they were traversing,
+   arrived within fifteen miles from the station of Nice[26] (which
+   was the aim of their march), the Emperor, with wanton impetuosity,
+   resolved on attacking them instantly, because those who had been
+   sent forward to reconnoitre (what led to such a mistake is unknown)
+   affirmed that the entire body of the Goths did not exceed ten
+   thousand men....[27]
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle begins]
+
+   When the day broke which the annals mark as the fifth of the Ides
+   of August [Aug. 9] the Roman standards were advanced with haste.
+   The baggage had been placed close to the walls of Adrianople, under
+   a sufficient guard of soldiers of the legions. The treasures and
+   the chief insignia of the Emperor's rank were within the walls,
+   with the prefect and the principal members of the council.[28]
+   Then, having traversed the broken ground which divided the two
+   armies, as the burning day was progressing towards noon, at last,
+   after marching eight miles, our men came in sight of the wagons of
+   the enemy, which had been reported by the scouts to be all arranged
+   in a circle. According to their custom, the barbarian host raised a
+   fierce and hideous yell, while the Roman generals marshalled their
+   line of battle. The right wing of the cavalry was placed in front;
+   the chief portion of the infantry was kept in reserve....[29]
+
+   And while arms and missiles of all kinds were meeting in fierce
+   conflict, and Bellona,[30] blowing her mournful trumpet, was raging
+   more fiercely than usual, to inflict disaster on the Romans, our
+   men began to retreat; but presently, aroused by the reproaches of
+   their officers, they made a fresh stand, and the battle increased
+   like a conflagration, terrifying our soldiers, numbers of whom were
+   pierced by strokes of the javelins hurled at them, and by arrows.
+
+     [Sidenote: The fury of the conflict]
+
+   Then the two lines of battle dashed against each other, like the
+   beaks of ships and, thrusting with all their might, were tossed to
+   and fro like the waves of the sea. Our left wing had advanced
+   actually up to the wagons, with the intent to push on still farther
+   if properly supported; but they were deserted by the rest of the
+   cavalry, and so pressed upon by the superior numbers of the enemy
+   that they were overwhelmed and beaten down like the ruin of a vast
+   rampart. Presently our infantry also was left unsupported, while
+   the various companies became so huddled together that a soldier
+   could hardly draw his sword, or withdraw his hand after he had once
+   stretched it out. And by this time such clouds of dust arose that
+   it was scarcely possible to see the sky, which resounded with
+   horrible cries; and in consequence the darts, which were bearing
+   death on every side, reached their mark and fell with deadly
+   effect, because no one could see them beforehand so as to guard
+   against them. The barbarians, rushing on with their enormous host,
+   beat down our horses and men and left no spot to which our ranks
+   could fall back to operate. They were so closely packed that it was
+   impossible to escape by forcing a way through them, and our men at
+   last began to despise death and again taking to their swords, slew
+   all they encountered, while with mutual blows of battle-axes,
+   helmets and breastplates were dashed in pieces.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Romans put to flight]
+
+   Then you might see the barbarian, towering in his fierceness,
+   hissing or shouting, fall with his legs pierced through, or his
+   right hand cut off, sword and all, or his side transfixed, and
+   still, in the last gasp of life, casting around him defiant
+   glances. The plain was covered with corpses, showing the mutual
+   ruin of the combatants; while the groans of the dying, or of men
+   fearfully wounded, were intense and caused much dismay on all
+   sides. Amid all this great tumult and confusion our infantry were
+   exhausted by toil and danger, until at last they had neither
+   strength left to fight nor spirits to plan anything. Their spears
+   were broken by the frequent collisions, so that they were forced
+   to content themselves with their drawn swords, which they thrust
+   into the dense battalions of the enemy, disregarding their own
+   safety, and seeing that every possibility of escape was cut off
+   from them.... The sun, now high in the heavens (having traversed
+   the sign of Leo and reached the abode of the heavenly Virgo[31])
+   scorched the Romans, who were emaciated by hunger, worn out with
+   toil, and scarcely able to support even the weight of their armor.
+   At last our columns were entirely beaten back by the overpowering
+   weight of the barbarians, and so they took to disorderly flight,
+   which is the only resource in extremity, each man trying to save
+   himself as best he could....
+
+   Scarcely one third of the whole army escaped. Nor, except the
+   battle of Cannae, is so destructive a slaughter recorded in our
+   annals;[32] though, even in the times of their prosperity, the
+   Romans have more than once been called upon to deplore the
+   uncertainty of war, and have for a time succumbed to evil Fortune.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] Valens was the Eastern emperor from 364 until his death in the
+battle of Adrianople in 378. His brother Valentinian was emperor in
+the West from 364 to 375. Gratian, son of Valentinian, was the real
+sovereign in the West when the Visigoths crossed the Danube.
+
+[23] That is, upon the writer's people, the Romans.
+
+[24] The Marcomanni and Quadi occupied a broad stretch of territory
+along the upper Danube in what is now the northernmost part of
+Austria-Hungary. Pontus was a province in northern Asia Minor.
+
+[25] Moeller (_Histoire du Moyen Age_, p. 58), estimates that the
+Goths who now entered Thrace numbered not fewer than 200,000 grown
+men, accompanied by their wives and children. The Italian Villari, in
+his _Barbarian Invasions of Italy_, Vol. I., p. 49, gives the same
+estimate. The tendency of contemporary chroniclers to exaggerate
+numbers has misled many older writers. Even Moeller's and Villari's
+estimate would mean a total of upwards of a million people. That there
+were so many may well be doubted. The Vandals played practically as
+important a part in the history of their times as did the Visigoths;
+yet it is known that when the Vandals passed through Spain, in the
+first half of the fifth century, they numbered not more than 20,000
+fighting men, with their wives and children.
+
+[26] Nice was about thirty miles east of Adrianople.
+
+[27] The Visigoths under Fridigern finally took their position near
+Adrianople and Valens led his army into that vicinity and pitched his
+camp, fortifying it with a rampart of palisades. From the Western
+emperor, Gratian, a messenger came asking that open conflict be
+postponed until the army from Rome could join that from
+Constantinople. But Valens, easily flattered by some of his
+over-confident generals, foolishly decided to bring on a battle at
+once. Apparently he did not dream that defeat was possible.
+
+[28] After the battle here described, which occurred in the open
+plain, the victorious Goths proceeded to the siege of the city itself,
+in which, however, they were unsuccessful. The taking of fortified
+towns was an art in which the Germans were not skilled.
+
+[29] When both armies were in position Fridigern, "being skilful in
+divining the future," says Ammianus, "and fearing a doubtful
+struggle," sent a herald to Valens with the promise that if the Romans
+would give hostages to the Goths the latter would cease their
+depredations and even aid the Romans in their wars. Richomeres, the
+Roman cavalry leader, was chosen by Valens to serve as a hostage; but
+as he was proceeding to the Gothic camp the soldiers who accompanied
+him made a rash attack upon a division of the enemy and precipitated a
+battle which soon spread to the whole army.
+
+[30] The goddess of war, regarded in Roman mythology as the sister of
+Mars.
+
+[31] Signs of the zodiac, sometimes employed by the Romans to give
+figurative expression to the time of day.
+
+[32] The number of Romans killed at Cannae (216 B.C.) is variously
+estimated, but it can hardly have been under 50,000.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE HUNS
+
+
+5. Descriptions by a Graeco-Roman Poet and a Roman Historian
+
+The Huns, a people of Turanian stock, were closely related to the
+ancestors of the Magyars, or the modern Hungarians. Their original
+home was in central Asia, beyond the great wall of China, and they
+were in every sense a people of the plains rather than of the forest
+or of the sea. From the region of modern Siberia they swept westward
+in successive waves, beginning about the middle of the fourth century,
+traversed the "gateway of the nations" between the Caspian Sea and the
+Ural Mountains, and fell with fury upon the German tribes (mainly the
+Goths) settled in eastern and southern Europe. The descriptions of
+them given by Claudius Claudianus and Ammianus Marcellinus set forth
+their characteristics as understood by the Romans a half-century or
+more before the invasion of the Empire by Attila. There is no reason
+to suppose that either of these authors had ever seen a Hun, or had
+his information at first hand. When both wrote the Huns were yet far
+outside the Empire's bounds. Tales of soldiers and travelers, which
+doubtless grew as they were told, must have supplied both the poet and
+the historian with all that they knew regarding the strange Turanian
+invaders. This being the case, we are not to accept all that they say
+as the literal truth. Nevertheless the general impressions which one
+gets from their pictures cannot be far wrong.
+
+Claudius Claudianus, commonly regarded as the last of the Latin
+classic poets, was a native of Alexandria who settled at Rome about
+395. For ten years after that date he occupied a position at the court
+of the Emperor Honorius somewhat akin to that of poet-laureate. Much
+of his writing was of a very poor quality, but his descriptions were
+sometimes striking, as in the stanza given below. On Ammianus
+Marcellinus see p. 34.
+
+     Sources--(a) Claudius Claudianus, _In Rufinum_ ["Against
+     Rufinus"], Bk. I., 323-331. Text in _Monumenta Germaniae
+     Historica, Auctores Antiquissimi_, Vol. X., pp. 30-31.
+     Translated in Thomas Hodgkin, _Italy and Her Invaders_
+     (Oxford, 1880), Vol. II., p. 2.
+
+     (b) Ammianus Marcellinus, _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui
+     Supersunt_, Bk. XXXI., Chaps. 2-4 [see p. 34]. Translated in
+     Hodgkin, _ibid._, pp. 34-38.
+
+   (a)
+
+     There is a race on Scythia's[33] verge extreme
+     Eastward, beyond the Tanais'[34] chilly stream.
+     The Northern Bear[35] looks on no uglier crew:
+     Base is their garb, their bodies foul to view;
+     Their souls are ne'er subdued to sturdy toil
+     Or Ceres' arts:[36] their sustenance is spoil.
+     With horrid wounds they gash their brutal brows,
+     And o'er their murdered parents bind their vows.
+     Not e'en the Centaur-offspring of the Cloud[37]
+     Were horsed more firmly than this savage crowd.
+     Brisk, lithe, in loose array they first come on,
+     Fly, turn, attack the foe who deems them gone.
+
+     [Sidenote: Physical appearance of the Huns]
+
+   (b)
+
+   The nation of the Huns, little known to ancient records, but
+   spreading from the marshes of Azof to the Icy Sea,[38] surpasses
+   all other barbarians in wildness of life. In the first days of
+   infancy, deep incisions are made in the cheeks of their boys, in
+   order that when the time comes for whiskers to grow there, the
+   sprouting hairs may be kept back by the furrowed scars; and hence
+   they grow to maturity and to old age beardless. They all, however,
+   have strong, well-knit limbs and fine necks. Yet they are of
+   portentous ugliness and so crook-backed that you would take them
+   for some sort of two-footed beasts, or for the roughly-chipped
+   stakes which are used for the railings of a bridge. And though they
+   do just bear the likeness of men (of a very ugly type), they are so
+   little advanced in civilization that they make no use of fire, nor
+   of any kind of relish, in the preparation of their food, but feed
+   upon the roots which they find in the fields, and the half-raw
+   flesh of any sort of animal. I say half-raw, because they give it a
+   kind of cooking by placing it between their own thighs and the
+   backs of their horses. They never seek the shelter of houses, which
+   they look upon as little better than tombs, and will enter only
+   upon the direst necessity; nor would one be able to find among them
+   even a cottage of wattled rushes; but, wandering at large over
+   mountain and through forest, they are trained to endure from
+   infancy all the extremes of cold, of hunger, and of thirst.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their dress]
+
+   They are clad in linen raiment, or in the skins of field-mice sewed
+   together, and the same suit serves them for use in-doors and out.
+   However dingy the color of it may become, the tunic which has once
+   been hung around their necks is never laid aside nor changed until
+   through long decay the rags of it will no longer hold together.
+   Their heads are covered with bent caps, their hairy legs with the
+   skins of goats; their shoes, never having been fashioned on a last,
+   are so clumsy that they cannot walk comfortably. On this account
+   they are not well adapted to encounters on foot; but on the other
+   hand they are almost welded to their horses, which are hardy,
+   though of ugly shape, and on which they sometimes ride woman's
+   fashion. On horseback every man of that nation lives night and day;
+   on horseback he buys and sells; on horseback he takes his meat and
+   drink, and when night comes on he leans forward upon the narrow
+   neck of his horse and there falls into a deep sleep, or wanders
+   into the varied fantasies of dreams.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their mode of fighting]
+
+   When a discussion arises upon any matter of importance they come on
+   horseback to the place of meeting. No kingly sternness overawes
+   their deliberations, but being, on the whole, well-contented with
+   the disorderly guidance of their chiefs, they do not scruple to
+   interrupt the debates with anything that comes into their heads.
+   When attacked, they will sometimes engage in regular battle. Then,
+   going into the fight in order of columns, they fill the air with
+   varied and discordant cries. More often, however, they fight in no
+   regular order of battle, but being extremely swift and sudden in
+   their movements, they disperse, and then rapidly come together
+   again in loose array, spread havoc over vast plains and, flying
+   over the rampart, pillage the camp of their enemy almost before he
+   has become aware of their approach. It must be granted that they
+   are the nimblest of warriors. The missile weapons which they use at
+   a distance are pointed with sharpened bones admirably fastened to
+   the shaft. When in close combat they fight without regard to their
+   own safety, and while the enemy is intent upon parrying the thrusts
+   of their swords they throw a net over him and so entangle his limbs
+   that he loses all power of walking or riding.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their nomadic character]
+
+   Not one among them cultivates the ground, or ever touches a
+   plow-handle. All wander abroad without fixed abodes, without home,
+   or law, or settled customs, like perpetual fugitives, with their
+   wagons for their only habitations. If you ask them, not one can
+   tell you what is his place of origin. They are ruthless
+   truce-breakers, fickle, always ready to be swayed by the first
+   breath of a new desire, abandoning themselves without restraint to
+   the most ungovernable rage.
+
+   Finally, like animals devoid of reason, they are utterly ignorant
+   of what is proper and what is not. They are tricksters with words
+   and full of dark sayings. They are never moved by either religious
+   or superstitious awe. They burn with unquenchable thirst for gold,
+   and they are so changeable and so easily moved to wrath that many
+   times in the day they will quarrel with their comrades on no
+   provocation, and be reconciled, having received no satisfaction.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] A somewhat indefinite region north and east of the Caspian Sea.
+
+[34] The modern Don, flowing into the Sea of Azof.
+
+[35] One of two constellations in the northern hemisphere, called
+respectively the Great Bear and the Lesser Bear, or _Ursa Major_ and
+_Ursa Minor_. The Great Bear is commonly known as the Dipper.
+
+[36] That is, agriculture. The Huns were even less settled in their
+mode of life than were the early Germans described by Tacitus.
+
+[37] A strange creature of classical mythology, represented as half
+man and half horse.
+
+[38] The White Sea. It is hardly to be believed that the Huns dwelt so
+far north. This was, of course, a matter of sheer speculation with the
+Romans.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE EARLY FRANKS
+
+
+6. The Deeds of Clovis as Related by Gregory of Tours
+
+The most important historical writer among the early Franks was a
+bishop whose full name was Georgius Florentius Gregorius, but who has
+commonly been known ever since his day as Gregory of Tours. The date
+of his birth is uncertain, but it was probably either 539 or 540. He
+was not a Frank, but a man of mixed Roman and Gallic descent, his
+parentage being such as to rank him among the nobility of his native
+district, Auvergne. At the age of thirty-four he was elected bishop of
+Tours, and this important office he held until his death in 594.
+During this long period of service he won distinction as an able
+church official, as an alert man of affairs, and as a prolific writer
+on ecclesiastical subjects. Among his writings, some of which have
+been lost, were a book on the Christian martyrs, biographies of
+several holy men of the Church, a commentary on the Psalms, and a
+treatise on the officers of the Church and their duties.
+
+But by far his largest and most important work was his _Ecclesiastical
+History of the Franks_, in ten books, written well toward the end of
+his life. It is indeed to be regarded as one of the most interesting
+pieces of literature produced in any country during the Middle Ages.
+For his starting point Gregory went back to the Garden of Eden, and
+what he gives us in his first book is only an amusing but practically
+worthless account of the history of the world from Adam to St. Martin
+of Tours, who died probably in 397. In the second book, however, he
+comes more within the range of reasonable tradition, if not of actual
+information, and brings the story down to the death of Clovis in 511.
+In the succeeding eight books he reaches the year 591, though it is
+thought by some that the last four were put together after the
+author's death by some of his associates. However that may be, we may
+rest assured that the history grows in accuracy as it approaches the
+period in which it was written. Naturally it is at its best in the
+later books, where events are described that happened within the
+writer's lifetime, and with many of which he had a close connection.
+Gregory was a man of unusual activity and of wide acquaintance among
+the influential people of his day. He served as a counselor of several
+Frankish kings and was a prominent figure at their courts. The shrine
+of St. Martin of Tours[39] was visited by pilgrims from all parts of
+the Christian world and by conversation with them Gregory had an
+excellent opportunity to keep informed as to what was going on among
+the Franks, and among more distant peoples as well. He was thus
+fortunately situated for one who proposed to write the history of his
+times. As a bishop of the orthodox Church he had small regard for
+Arians and other heretics, and so was in some ways less broad-minded
+than we could wish; and of course he shared the superstition and
+ignorance of his age, as will appear in some of the selections below.
+Still, without his extensive history we should know far less than we
+now do concerning the Frankish people before the seventh century. He
+mixes legend with fact in a most confusing manner, but with no
+intention whatever to deceive. The men of the earlier Middle Ages knew
+no other way of writing history and their readers were not critical as
+we are to-day. The passages quoted below from Gregory's history give
+some interesting information concerning the Frankish conquerors of
+Gaul, and at the same time show something of the spirit of Gregory
+himself and of the people of his times.
+
+Particularly interesting is the account of the conversion of Clovis
+and of the Franks to Christianity. When the Visigoths, Ostrogoths,
+Vandals, Lombards, and Burgundians crossed the Roman frontiers and
+settled within the bounds of the old Empire they were all Christians
+in name, however much their conduct might be at variance with their
+profession. The Franks, on the other hand, established themselves in
+northern Gaul, as did the Saxons in Britain, while they were yet
+pagans, worshipping Woden and Thor and the other strange deities of
+the Germans. It was about the middle of the reign of King Clovis, or,
+more definitely, in the year 496, that the change came. In his
+_Ecclesiastical History_ Gregory tells us how up to this time all the
+influence of the Christian queen, Clotilde, had been exerted in vain
+to bring her husband to the point of renouncing his old gods. In his
+wars and conquests the king had been very successful and apparently he
+was pretty well satisfied with the favors these old gods had showered
+upon him and was unwilling to turn his back upon such generous
+patrons. But there came a time, in 496, in the course of the war with
+the Alemanni, when the tide of fortune seemed to be turning against
+the Frankish king. In the great battle of Strassburg the Franks were
+on the point of being beaten by their foe, and Clovis in desperation
+made a vow, as the story goes, that if Clotilde's God would grant him
+a victory he would immediately become a Christian. Whatever may have
+been the reason, the victory was won and the king, with characteristic
+German fidelity to his word, proceeded to fulfill his pledge. Amid
+great ceremony he was baptized, and with him three thousand of his
+soldiers the same day. The great majority of Franks lost little time
+in following the royal example.
+
+Two important facts should be emphasized in connection with this
+famous incident. The first is the peculiar character of the so-called
+"conversion" of Clovis and his Franks. We to-day look upon religious
+conversion as an inner experience of the individual, apt to be brought
+about by personal contact between a Christian and the person who is
+converted. It was in no such sense as this, however, that the
+Franks--or any of the early Germans, for that matter--were made
+Christian. They looked upon Christianity as a mere portion of Roman
+civilization to be adopted or let alone as seemed best; but if it were
+adopted, it must be by the whole tribe or nation, not by individuals
+here and there. In general, the German peoples took up Christianity,
+not because they became convinced that their old religions were false,
+but simply because they were led to believe that the Christian faith
+was in some ways better than their own and so might profitably be
+taken advantage of by them. Clovis believed he had won the battle of
+Strassburg with the aid of the Christian God when Woden and Thor were
+about to fail him; therefore he reasoned that it would be a good thing
+in the future to make sure that the God of Clotilde should always be
+on his side, and obviously the way to do this was to become himself a
+Christian. He did not wholly abandon the old gods, but merely
+considered that he had found a new one of superior power. Hence he
+enjoined on all his people that they become Christians; and for the
+most part they did so, though of course we are not to suppose that
+there was any very noticeable change in their actual conduct and mode
+of life, at least for several generations.
+
+The second important point to observe is that, whereas all of the
+other Germanic peoples on the continent had become Christians of the
+Arian type, the Franks accepted Christianity in its orthodox form such
+as was adhered to by the papacy. This was sheer accident. The Franks
+took the orthodox rather than the heretical religion simply because it
+was the kind that was carried to them by the missionaries, not at all
+because they were able, or had the desire, to weigh the two creeds and
+choose the one they liked the better. But though they became orthodox
+Christians by accident, the fact that they became such is of the
+utmost importance in mediaeval history, for by being what the papacy
+regarded as true Christians rather than heretics they began from the
+start to be looked to by the popes for support. Their kings in time
+became the greatest secular champions of papal interests, though
+relations were sometimes far from harmonious. This virtual alliance of
+the popes and the Frankish kings is a subject which will repay careful
+study.
+
+     Source--Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, _Historia
+     Ecclesiastica Francorum_ [Gregory of Tours, "Ecclesiastical
+     History of the Franks"], Bk. II., Chaps. 27-43 _passim_. Text
+     in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Rerum
+     Merovingicarum_, Vol. I., Part 1, pp. 88-89, 90-95, 98-100,
+     158-159.
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle of Soissons (486)]
+
+   =27.= After all these things Childeric[40] died and his son Clovis
+   ruled in his stead. In the fifth year of the new reign Syagrius,
+   son of Aegidius, was governing as king of the Romans in the town of
+   Soissons, where his father had held sway before him.[41] Clovis now
+   advanced against him with his kinsman Ragnachar, who also held a
+   kingdom, and gave him an opportunity to select a field of battle.
+   Syagrius did not hesitate, for he was not at all afraid to risk an
+   encounter. In the conflict which followed, however, the Roman soon
+   saw that his army was doomed to destruction; so, turning and
+   fleeing from the field, he made all haste to take refuge with King
+   Alaric at Toulouse.[42] Clovis then sent word to Alaric that he
+   must hand over the defeated king at once if he did not wish to
+   bring on war against himself. Fearing the anger of the Franks,
+   therefore, as the Goths continually do, Alaric bound Syagrius with
+   chains and delivered him to the messengers of King Clovis. As soon
+   as the latter had the prisoner in his possession he put him under
+   safe guard and, after seizing his kingdom, had him secretly
+   slain.[43]
+
+     [Sidenote: The story of the broken vase]
+
+   At this time the army of Clovis plundered many churches, for the
+   king was still sunk in the errors of idolatry. Upon one occasion
+   the soldiers carried away from a church, along with other ornaments
+   of the sacred place, a remarkably large and beautiful vase. The
+   bishop of that church sent messengers to the king to ask that, even
+   if none of the other holy vessels might be restored, this precious
+   vase at least might be sent back. To the messengers Clovis could
+   only reply: "Come with us to Soissons, for there all the booty is
+   to be divided. If when we cast lots the vase shall fall to me, I
+   will return it as the bishop desires."
+
+   When they had reached Soissons and all the booty had been brought
+   together in the midst of the army the king called attention to the
+   vase and said, "I ask you, most valiant warriors, to allow me to
+   have the vase in addition to my rightful share." Then even those of
+   his men who were most self-willed answered: "O glorious king, all
+   things before us are thine, and we ourselves are subject to thy
+   control. Do, therefore, what pleases thee best, for no one is able
+   to resist thee." But when they had thus spoken, one of the
+   warriors, an impetuous, jealous, and vain man, raised his battle-ax
+   aloft and broke the vase in pieces, crying as he did so, "Thou
+   shalt receive no part of this booty unless it fall to you by a fair
+   lot." And at such a rash act they were all astounded.
+
+     [Sidenote: Clovis's revenge]
+
+   The king pretended not to be angry and seemed to take no notice of
+   the incident, and when it happened that the broken vase fell to him
+   by lot he gave the fragments to the bishop's messengers;
+   nevertheless he cherished a secret indignation in his heart. A year
+   later he summoned all his soldiers to come fully armed to the
+   Campus Martius, so that he might make an inspection of his
+   troops.[44] After he had reviewed the whole army he finally came
+   across the very man who had broken the vase at Soissons. "No one,"
+   cried out the king to him, "carries his arms so awkwardly as thou;
+   for neither thy spear nor thy sword nor thy ax is ready for use,"
+   and he struck the ax out of the soldier's hands so that it fell to
+   the ground. Then when the man bent forward to pick it up the king
+   raised his own ax and struck him on the head, saying, "Thus thou
+   didst to the vase at Soissons." Having slain him, he dismissed the
+   others, filled with great fear....[45]
+
+     [Sidenote: Clovis decides to become a Christian (496)]
+
+   =30.= The queen did not cease urging the king to acknowledge the
+   true God and forsake idols, but all her efforts failed until at
+   length a war broke out with the Alemanni.[46] Then of necessity he
+   was compelled to confess what hitherto he had wilfully denied. It
+   happened that the two armies were in battle and there was great
+   slaughter.[47] The army of Clovis seemed about to be cut in pieces.
+   Then the king raised his hands fervently toward the heavens and,
+   breaking into tears, cried: "Jesus Christ, who Clotilde declares to
+   be the son of the living God, who it is said givest help to the
+   oppressed and victory to those who put their trust in thee, I
+   invoke thy marvellous help. If thou wilt give me victory over my
+   enemies and I prove that power which thy followers say they have
+   proved concerning thee, I will believe in thee and will be baptized
+   in thy name; for I have called upon my own gods and it is clear
+   that they have neglected to give me aid. Therefore I am convinced
+   that they have no power, for they do not help those who serve them.
+   I now call upon thee, and I wish to believe in thee, especially
+   that I may escape from my enemies." When he had offered this prayer
+   the Alemanni turned their backs and began to flee. And when they
+   learned that their king had been slain, they submitted at once to
+   Clovis, saying, "Let no more of our people perish, for we now
+   belong to you." When he had stopped the battle and praised his
+   soldiers for their good work, Clovis returned in peace to his
+   kingdom and told the queen how he had won the victory by calling on
+   the name of Christ. These events took place in the fifteenth year
+   of his reign.[48]
+
+   =31.= Then the queen sent secretly to the blessed Remigius, bishop
+   of Rheims, and asked him to bring to the king the gospel of
+   salvation. The bishop came to the court where, little by little, he
+   led Clovis to believe in the true God, maker of heaven and earth,
+   and to forsake the idols which could help neither him nor any one
+   else. "Willingly will I hear thee, O holy father," declared the
+   king at last, "but the people who are under my authority are not
+   ready to give up their gods. I will go and consult them about the
+   religion concerning which you speak." When he had come among them,
+   and before he had spoken a word, all the people, through the
+   influence of the divine power, cried out with one voice: "O
+   righteous king, we cast off our mortal gods and we are ready to
+   serve the God who Remigius tells us is immortal."
+
+     [Sidenote: The baptism of Clovis and his warriors]
+
+   When this was reported to the bishop he was beside himself with
+   joy, and he at once ordered the baptismal font to be prepared. The
+   streets were shaded with embroidered hangings; the churches were
+   adorned with white tapestries, exhaling sweet odors; perfumed
+   tapers gleamed; and all the temple of the baptistry was filled with
+   a heavenly odor, so that the people might well have believed that
+   God in His graciousness showered upon them the perfumes of
+   Paradise. Then Clovis, having confessed that the God of the Trinity
+   was all-powerful, was baptized in the name of the Father, and of
+   the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and was anointed with the holy oil
+   with the sign of the cross. More than three thousand of his
+   soldiers were baptized with him....
+
+   =35.= Now when Alaric, king of the Goths, saw that Clovis was
+   conquering many nations, he sent messengers to him, saying, "If it
+   please my brother, let us, with the favor of God, enter into an
+   alliance." Clovis at once declared his willingness to do as Alaric
+   suggested and the two kings met on an island in the Loire, near the
+   town of Amboise in the vicinity of Tours.[49] There they talked,
+   ate, and drank together, and after making mutual promises of
+   friendship they departed in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: Clovis resolves to take the Visigoths' lands in Gaul]
+
+   =37.= But Clovis said to his soldiers: "It is with regret that I
+   see the Arian heretics in possession of any part of Gaul. Let us,
+   with the help of God, march against them and, after having
+   conquered them, bring their country under our own control." This
+   proposal was received with favor by all the warriors and the army
+   started on the campaign, going towards Poitiers, where Alaric was
+   then staying. As a portion of the troops passed through the
+   territory about Tours, Clovis, out of respect for the holy St.
+   Martin, forbade his soldiers to take anything from the country
+   except grass for the horses. One soldier, having come across some
+   hay which belonged to a poor man said, "Has, then, the king given
+   us permission to take only grass? O well! hay is grass. To take it
+   would not be to violate the command." And by force he took the hay
+   away from the poor man. When, however, the matter was brought to
+   the king's attention he struck the offender with his sword and
+   killed him, saying, "How, indeed, may we hope for victory if we
+   give offense to St. Martin?" This was enough thereafter to prevent
+   the army from plundering in that country.
+
+     [Sidenote: Miraculous incidents of the campaign]
+
+   When Clovis arrived with his forces at the banks of the Vienne he
+   was at a loss to know where to cross, because the heavy rains had
+   swollen the stream. During the night he prayed that the Lord would
+   reveal to him a passage. The following morning, under the guidance
+   of God, a doe of wondrous size entered the river in plain sight of
+   the army and crossed by a ford, thus pointing out the way for the
+   soldiers to get over. When they were in the neighborhood of
+   Poitiers the king saw at some distance from his tent a ball of
+   fire, which proceeded from the steeple of the church of St.
+   Hilary[50] and seemed to him to advance in his direction, as if to
+   show that by the aid of the light of the holy St. Hilary he would
+   triumph the more easily over the heretics against whom the pious
+   priest had himself often fought for the faith. Clovis then forbade
+   his army to molest any one or to pillage any property in that part
+   of the country.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Visigoths defeated by Clovis (507)]
+
+   Clovis at length engaged in battle with Alaric, king of the Goths,
+   in the plain of Vouille at the tenth mile-stone from Poitiers.[51]
+   The Goths fought with javelins, but the Franks charged upon them
+   with lances. Then the Goths took to flight, as is their custom,[52]
+   and the victory, with the aid of God, fell to Clovis. He had put
+   the Goths to flight and killed their king, Alaric, when all at once
+   two soldiers bore down upon him and struck him with lances on both
+   sides at once; but, owing to the strength of his armor and the
+   swiftness of his horse, he escaped death. After the battle
+   Amalaric, son of Alaric, took refuge in Spain and ruled wisely over
+   the kingdom of his father.[53] Alaric had reigned twenty-two years.
+   Clovis, after spending the winter at Bordeaux and carrying from
+   Toulouse all the treasure of the king, advanced on Angouleme. There
+   the Lord showed him such favor that at his very approach the walls
+   of the city fell down of their own accord.[54] After driving out
+   the Goths he brought the place under his own authority. Thus,
+   crowned with victory, he returned to Tours and bestowed a great
+   number of presents upon the holy church of the blessed Martin.[55]
+
+     [Sidenote: Other means by which Clovis extended his power]
+
+   =40.= Now while Clovis was living at Paris he sent secretly to the
+   son of Sigibert,[56] saying: "Behold now your father is old and
+   lame. If he should die his kingdom would come to you and my
+   friendship with it." So the son of Sigibert, impelled by his
+   ambition, planned to slay his father. And when Sigibert set out
+   from Cologne and crossed the Rhine to go through the Buchonian
+   forest,[57] his son had him slain by assassins while he was
+   sleeping in his tent, in order that he might gain the kingdom for
+   himself. But by the judgment of God he fell into the pit which he
+   had digged for his father. He sent messengers to Clovis to announce
+   the death of his father and to say: "My father is dead and I have
+   his treasures, and likewise the kingdom. Now send trusted men to
+   me, that I may give them for you whatever you would like out of his
+   treasury." Clovis replied: "I thank you for your kindness and will
+   ask you merely to show my messengers all your treasures, after
+   which you may keep them yourself." And when the messengers of
+   Clovis came, the son of Sigibert showed them the treasures which
+   his father had collected. And while they were looking at various
+   things, he said: "My father used to keep his gold coins in this
+   little chest." And they said, "Put your hand down to the bottom,
+   that you may show us everything." But when he stooped to do this,
+   one of the messengers struck him on the head with his battle-ax,
+   and thus he met the fate which he had visited upon his father.
+
+   Now when Clovis heard that both Sigibert and his son were dead, he
+   came to that place and called the people together and said to them:
+   "Hear what has happened. While I was sailing on the Scheldt River,
+   Cloderic, son of Sigibert, my relative, attacked his father,
+   pretending that I had wished him to slay him. And so when his
+   father fled through the Buchonian forest, the assassins of Cloderic
+   set upon him and slew him. But while Cloderic was opening his
+   father's treasure chest, some man unknown to me struck him down. I
+   am in no way guilty of these things, for I could not shed the blood
+   of my relatives, which is very wicked. But since these things have
+   happened, if it seems best to you, I advise you to unite with me
+   and come under my protection." And those who heard him applauded
+   his speech, and, raising him on a shield, acknowledged him as their
+   king. Thus Clovis gained the kingdom of Sigibert and his treasures,
+   and won over his subjects to his own rule. For God daily confounded
+   his enemies and increased his kingdom, because he walked uprightly
+   before Him and did that which was pleasing in His sight.
+
+     [Sidenote: The removal of remaining rivals]
+
+   =42.= Then Clovis made war on his relative Ragnachar.[58] And when
+   the latter saw that his army was defeated, he attempted to flee;
+   but his own men seized him and his brother Richar and brought them
+   bound before Clovis. Then Clovis said: "Why have you disgraced our
+   family by allowing yourself to be taken prisoner? It would have
+   been better for you had you been slain." And, raising his
+   battle-ax, he slew him. Then, turning to Richar, he said, "If you
+   had aided your brother he would not have been taken;" and he slew
+   him with the ax also. Thus by their death Clovis took their kingdom
+   and treasures. And many other kings and relatives of his, who he
+   feared might take his kingdom from him, were slain, and his
+   dominion was extended over all Gaul.
+
+     [Sidenote: The death of Clovis (511)]
+
+   =43.= And after these things he died at Paris and was buried in the
+   basilica of the holy saints which he and his queen, Clotilde, had
+   built. He passed away in the fifth year after the battle of
+   Vouille, and all the days of his reign were thirty years.
+
+
+7. The Law of the Salian Franks
+
+When the Visigoths, Lombards, and other Germanic peoples settled
+within the bounds of the Roman Empire they had no such thing as
+written law. They had laws, and a goodly number of them, but these
+laws were handed down from generation to generation orally, having
+never been enacted by a legislative body or decreed by a monarch in
+the way that laws are generally made among the civilized peoples of
+to-day. In other words, early Germanic law consisted simply of an
+accumulation of the immemorial custom of the tribe. When, for example,
+a certain penalty had been paid on several occasions by persons who
+had committed a particular crime, men came naturally to regard that
+penalty as the one regularly to be paid by _any one_ proved guilty of
+the same offense; so that what was at first only habit gradually
+became hardened into law--unwritten indeed, but none the less binding.
+The law thus made up, moreover, was personal rather than territorial
+like that of the Romans and like ours to-day. That is, the same laws
+did not apply to all the people throughout any particular country or
+region. If a man were born a Visigoth he would be subject to
+Visigothic law throughout life, no matter where he might go to live.
+So the Burgundian would always have the right to be judged by
+Burgundian law, and the Lombard by the Lombard law. Obviously, in
+regions where several peoples dwelt side by side, as in large portions
+of Gaul, Spain, and northern Italy, there was no small amount of
+confusion and the courts had to be conducted in a good many different
+ways.
+
+After the Germans had been for some time in contact with the Romans
+they began to be considerably influenced by the customs and ways of
+doing things which they found among the more civilized people. They
+tried to master the Latin language, though, on the whole, they
+succeeded only so well as to create the new "Romance" tongues which we
+know as French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. They adopted the
+Roman religion, i.e., Christianity. And, among the most important
+things of all, they took up the Roman idea of having their law written
+out rather than in the uncertain shape of mere tradition. In this work
+of putting the old customary law in written form the way was led by
+the Salian branch of the Franks. Just when the Salic code was drawn up
+is not known, but the work was certainly done at some time during the
+reign of Clovis, probably about the year 496. The portions of this
+code which are given below will serve to show the general character of
+all the early Germanic systems of law--Visigothic, Lombard,
+Burgundian, and Frisian, as well as Frankish; for among them all there
+was much uniformity in principles, though considerable variation in
+matters of detail. Like the rest, the Salic law was fragmentary. The
+codes were not intended to embrace the entire law of the tribe, but
+simply to bring together in convenient form those portions which were
+most difficult to remember and which were most useful for ready
+reference. In the Salic code, for instance, we find a large amount of
+criminal law and of the law of procedure, but only a few touches of
+the law of property, or indeed of civil law of any sort. There is
+practically nothing in the way of public or administrative law. Many
+things are not mentioned which we should expect to find treated and,
+on the other hand, some things are there which we should not look for
+ordinarily in a code of law. The greater portion is taken up with an
+enumeration of penalties for various crimes and wrongful acts. These
+are often detailed so minutely as to be rather amusing from our modern
+point of view. Yet every one of the sixty-five chapters of the code
+has its significance and from the whole law can be gleaned an immense
+amount of information concerning the manner of life which prevailed in
+early Frankish Gaul. For the Merovingian period in general the Salic
+law is our most valuable documentary source of knowledge, just as for
+the same epoch the _Ecclesiastical History_ of Gregory of Tours is our
+most important narrative source.
+
+     Source--Text in Heinrich Geffcken, _Lex Salica_ ["The Salic
+     Law"], Leipzig, 1898; also Heinrich Gottfried Gengler,
+     _Germanische Rechtsdenkmaeler_ ["Monuments of German Law"],
+     Erlangen, 1875, pp. 267-303. Adapted from translation in
+     Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical Documents of the
+     Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 176-189.
+
+   I.
+
+   =1.= If any one be summoned before the _mallus_[59] by the king's
+   law, and do not come, he shall be sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which
+   make 15 _solidi_.[60]
+
+     [Sidenote: Summonses to the meetings of the local courts]
+
+   =2.= But he who summons another, and does not come himself, if a
+   lawful impediment have not delayed him, shall be sentenced to 15
+   _solidi_, to be paid to him whom he summoned.
+
+   =3.= And he who summons another shall go with witnesses to the home
+   of that man, and, if he be not at home, shall enjoin the wife, or
+   any one of the family, to make known to him that he has been
+   summoned to court.
+
+   =4.= But if he be occupied in the king's service he cannot summon
+   him.
+
+   =5.= And if he shall be inside the hundred attending to his own
+   affairs, he can summon him in the manner just explained.
+
+   XI.
+
+   =1.= If any freeman steal, outside of a house, something worth 2
+   _denarii_, he shall be sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which make 15
+   _solidi_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Theft by a slave]
+
+   =2.= But if he steal, outside of a house, something worth 40
+   _denarii_, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced, besides
+   the amount and the fines for delay, to 1,400 _denarii_, which make
+   35 _solidi_.
+
+   =3.= If a freeman break into a house and steal something worth 2
+   _denarii_, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 15
+   _solidi_.
+
+   =4.= But if he shall have stolen something worth more than 5
+   _denarii_, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced, besides
+   the value of the object and the fines for delay, to 1,400
+   _denarii_, which make 35 _solidi_.
+
+   =5.= But if he shall have broken, or tampered with, the lock, and
+   thus have entered the house and stolen anything from it, he shall
+   be sentenced, besides the value of the object and the fines for
+   delay, to 1,800 _denarii_, which make 45 _solidi_.
+
+   =6.= And if he shall have taken nothing, or have escaped by flight,
+   he shall, for the housebreaking alone, be sentenced to 1,200
+   _denarii_, which make 30 _solidi_.
+
+   XII.
+
+     [Sidenote: Theft by a freeman]
+
+   =1.= If a slave steal, outside of a house, something worth 2
+   _denarii_, besides paying the value of the object and the fines for
+   delay, he shall be stretched out and receive 120 blows.
+
+   =2.= But if he steal something worth 40 _denarii_, he shall pay 6
+   _solidi_. The lord of the slave who committed the theft shall
+   restore to the plaintiff the value of the object and the fines for
+   delay.
+
+   XIV.
+
+     [Sidenote: Robbery with assault]
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have assaulted and robbed a freeman, and it
+   be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which
+   make 63 _solidi_.
+
+   =2.= If a Roman shall have robbed a Salian Frank, the above law
+   shall be observed.
+
+   =3.= But if a Frank shall have robbed a Roman, he shall be
+   sentenced to 35 _solidi_.
+
+   XV.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crime of incendiarism]
+
+   =1.= If any one shall set fire to a house in which people were
+   sleeping, as many freemen as were in it can make complaint before
+   the _mallus_; and if any one shall have been burned in it, the
+   incendiary shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which make 63
+   _solidi_.[61]
+
+   XVII.
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have sought to kill another person, and the
+   blow shall have missed, he on whom it was proved shall be sentenced
+   to 2,500 _denarii_, which make 63 _solidi_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Various deeds of violence]
+
+   =2.= If any person shall have sought to shoot another with a
+   poisoned arrow, and the arrow has glanced aside, and it shall be
+   proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which make
+   63 _solidi_.
+
+   5. If any one shall have struck a man so that blood falls to the
+   floor, and it be proved on him, he shall be sentenced to 600
+   _denarii_, which make 15 _solidi_.
+
+   =6.= But if a freeman strike a freeman with his fist so that blood
+   does not flow, he shall be sentenced for each blow--up to 3
+   blows--to 120 _denarii_, which make 3 _solidi_.[62]
+
+   XIX.
+
+     [Sidenote: Use of poison or witchcraft]
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have given herbs to another, so that he die,
+   he shall be sentenced to 200 _solidi_, or shall surely be given
+   over to fire.
+
+   =2.= If any person shall have bewitched another, and he who was
+   thus treated shall escape, the author of the crime, having been
+   proved guilty of it, shall be sentenced to 2,500 _denarii_, which
+   make 63 _solidi_.
+
+   XXX.
+
+     [Sidenote: Punishment for slander]
+
+   =6.= If any man shall have brought it up against another that he
+   has thrown away his shield, and shall not have been able to prove
+   it, he shall be sentenced to 120 _denarii_, which make 3
+   _solidi_.[63]
+
+   =7.= If any man shall have called another "gossip" or "perjurer,"
+   and shall not have been able to prove it, he shall be sentenced to
+   600 _denarii_, which make 15 _solidi_.
+
+   XXXIV.
+
+   =1.= If any man shall have cut 3 staves by which a fence is bound
+   or held together, or shall have stolen or cut the heads of 3
+   stakes, he shall be sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which make 15
+   _solidi_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The offense of trespass]
+
+   =2.= If any one shall have drawn a harrow through another's field
+   of grain after the seed has sprouted, or shall have gone through it
+   with a wagon where there was no road, he shall be sentenced to 120
+   _denarii_, which make 3 _solidi_.
+
+   =3.= If any one shall have gone, where there is no road or path,
+   through another's field after the grain has grown tall, he shall be
+   sentenced to 600 _denarii_, which make 15 _solidi_.
+
+   XLI.
+
+   =1.= If any one shall have killed a free Frank, or a barbarian
+   living under the Salic law, and it shall have been proved on him,
+   he shall be sentenced to 8,000 _denarii_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Punishments for homicide]
+
+   =2.= But if he shall have thrown him into a well or into the water,
+   or shall have covered him with branches or anything else, to
+   conceal him, he shall be sentenced to 24,000 _denarii_, which make
+   600 _solidi_.
+
+   =3.= If any one shall have slain a man who is in the service of the
+   king, he shall be sentenced to 24,000 _denarii_, which make 600
+   _solidi_.[64]
+
+   =4.= But if he shall have put him in the water, or in a well, and
+   covered him with anything to conceal him, he shall be sentenced to
+   72,000 _denarii_, which make 1,000 _solidi_.
+
+   =5.= If any one shall have slain a Roman who eats in the king's
+   palace, and it shall have been proved on him, he shall be sentenced
+   to 12,000 _denarii_, which make 300 _solidi_.[65]
+
+   =6.= But if the Roman shall not have been a landed proprietor and
+   table companion of the king, he who killed him shall be sentenced
+   to 4,000 _denarii_, which make 100 _solidi_.
+
+   =7.= If he shall have killed a Roman who was obliged to pay
+   tribute, he shall be sentenced to 63 _solidi_.
+
+   =9.= If any one shall have thrown a freeman into a well, and he has
+   escaped alive, he [the criminal] shall be sentenced to 4,000
+   _denarii_, which make 100 _solidi_.
+
+   XLV.
+
+     [Sidenote: Right of migration]
+
+   =1.= If any one desires to migrate to another village, and if one
+   or more who live in that village do not wish to receive him--even
+   if there be only one who objects--he shall not have the right to
+   move there.
+
+   =3.= But if any one shall have moved there, and within 12 months no
+   one has given him warning, he shall remain as secure as the other
+   neighbors.
+
+   L.
+
+     [Sidenote: Enforcement of debt]
+
+   1. If any freeman or leet[66] shall have made to another a promise
+   to pay, then he to whom the promise was made shall, within 40 days,
+   or within such time as was agreed upon when he made the promise, go
+   to the house of that man with witnesses, or with appraisers. And if
+   he [the debtor] be unwilling to make the promised payment, he shall
+   be sentenced to 15 _solidi_ above the debt which he had promised.
+
+   LIX.
+
+   =1.= If any man die and leave no sons, the father and mother shall
+   inherit, if they survive.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rights of inheritance]
+
+   =2.= If the father and mother do not survive, and he leave brothers
+   or sisters, they shall inherit.
+
+   =3.= But if there are none, the sisters of the father shall
+   inherit.
+
+   =4.= But if there are no sisters of the father, the sisters of the
+   mother shall claim the inheritance.
+
+   =5.= If there are none of these, the nearest relatives on the
+   father's side shall succeed to the inheritance.
+
+   =6.= Of Salic land no portion of the inheritance shall go to a
+   woman; but the whole inheritance of the land shall belong to the
+   male sex.[67]
+
+   LXII.
+
+     [Sidenote: Payment of wergeld]
+
+   =1.= If any one's father shall have been slain, the sons shall have
+   half the compounding money [wergeld]; and the other half, the
+   nearest relatives, as well on the mother's as on the father's side,
+   shall divide among themselves.[68]
+
+   =2.= But if there are no relatives, paternal or maternal, that
+   portion shall go to the fisc.[69]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39] St. Martin was born in Pannonia somewhat before the middle of the
+fourth century. For a time he followed his father's profession as a
+soldier in the service of the Roman emperor, but later he went to Gaul
+with the purpose of aiding in the establishment of the Christian
+Church in that quarter. In 372 he was elected bishop of Tours and
+shortly afterwards he founded the monastery with which his name was
+destined to be associated throughout the Middle Ages. This monastery,
+which was one of the earliest in western Europe, became a very
+important factor in the prolonged combat with Gallic paganism, and
+subsequently a leading center of ecclesiastical learning.
+
+[40] Childeric I., son of the more or less mythical Merovius, was king
+from 457 to 481. Clovis became ruler of the Salian branch of the
+Franks in this latter year. The tomb of Childeric was discovered at
+Tournai in 1653.
+
+[41] Aegidius and his son Syagrius were the last official
+representatives of the Roman imperial power in Gaul; and since the
+fall of the Empire in the West even they had taken the title of "king
+of the Romans" and had been practically independent sovereigns in the
+territory between the Somme and the Loire, with their capital at
+Soissons, northeast of Paris.
+
+[42] Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 485-507.
+
+[43] The battle of Soissons in 486, with the defeat and death of
+Syagrius, insured for the Franks undisputed possession southward to
+the Loire, which was the northern frontier of the Visigothic kingdom.
+
+[44] The Campus Martius was the "March-field," i.e., the assembling
+place of the Frankish army. It was not regularly in any one locality
+but wherever the king might call the soldiers together, as he did
+every spring for purposes of review. In the eighth century the month
+of May was substituted for March as the time for the meeting.
+
+[45] In the words of Hodgkin (_Charles the Great_, p. 12), "the
+well-known story of the vase of Soissons illustrates at once the
+German memories of freedom and the Merovingian mode of establishing a
+despotism. As a battle comrade the Frankish warrior protests against
+Clovis receiving an ounce beyond his due share of the spoils. As a
+battle leader Clovis rebukes his henchman for the dirtiness of his
+accoutrements, and cleaves his skull to punish him for his
+independence."
+
+[46] The Alemanni were a German people occupying a vast region about
+the upper waters of the Rhine and Danube. They had been making
+repeated efforts to acquire territory west of the Rhine--an
+encroachment which Clovis resolved not to tolerate.
+
+[47] The battle was fought near Strassburg, in the upper Rhine valley.
+
+[48] The ultimate result of the defeat of the Alemanni was that the
+Frankish kingdom was enlarged by the annexation of the great region
+known in the later Middle Ages as Suabia, comprising modern Alsace,
+Baden, Wuertemberg, the western part of Bavaria, and the northern part
+of Switzerland. The Alemanni as a people disappeared speedily from
+history, being absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. Their only
+monument to-day is the name by which the French have always known the
+people of Germany--_Allemands_.
+
+[49] The Loire was the boundary between the dominions of the two
+kings. There have been many famous instances in history of two
+sovereigns coming together to confer at some point on the common
+border of the territories controlled by them, notably the interview of
+Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I. on the Niemen River in 1807. The Franks
+and the Visigoths had been enemies ever since by Clovis's defeat of
+Syagrius their dominions had been brought into contact (486), and the
+present jovial interview of the two kings did not long keep them at
+peace with each other.
+
+[50] St. Hilary was bishop of Poitiers in the later fourth century. He
+was a contemporary of St. Martin of Tours and a co-worker with him in
+the organization of Gallic Christianity.
+
+[51] The plain of Vouille was ten miles west of Poitiers.
+
+[52] This amusing comment of Gregory was due largely to his prejudice
+in favor of the Franks and against the heretical Visigoths.
+
+[53] The Visigothic kingdom in Spain, with its capital at Toledo,
+endured until the Saracen conquest of that country in 711 and the
+years immediately following, but it did not give evidence of much
+strength. It stood so long only because the Pyrenees made a natural
+boundary against the Franks and because, after Clovis, for two hundred
+years the Franks produced no great conqueror who cared to crowd the
+Visigoths into still closer quarters.
+
+[54] Clovis, particularly after his conversion to Christianity in 496,
+was the hero of Gregory's history and apparently the enthusiastic old
+bishop did not lose an opportunity to glorify his career. At any rate
+it would certainly be difficult to relate anything more remarkable
+about him than this legend of the walls of Angouleme falling down
+before him at his mere approach.
+
+[55] This notable campaign had advanced Frankish territory to the
+Pyrenees, except for the strip between these mountains and the Rhone,
+known as Septimania, which the Visigoths were able to retain by the
+aid of the Ostrogoths from Italy. No great number of Franks settled in
+this broad territory south of the Loire, and to this day the
+inhabitants of south France show a much larger measure of Roman
+descent than do those of the north. It may be added that Septimania
+was conquered by Clovis's son Childebert in 531, and thus the last bit
+of old Gaul--practically modern France--was brought under Frankish
+control.
+
+[56] This was Cloderic, son of Sigibert the Lame, king of a tribe of
+Franks living along the middle Rhine. Sigibert was one of the numerous
+independent and rival princes whom Clovis used every expedient to put
+out of the way.
+
+[57] Along the Upper Weser, near the monastery of Fulda.
+
+[58] Ragnachar's kingdom was in the region about Cambrai.
+
+[59] The _mallus_ was the local court held about every six weeks in
+each community or hundred. In early German law the state has small
+place and the principle of self-help by the individual is very
+prominent. To bring a suit one summons his opponent himself and gets
+him to appear at court if he can. Ordinarily the court merely
+determines the method by which the guilt or innocence of the accused
+may be tested. Execution of the sentence rests again with the
+plaintiff, or with his family or clan group.
+
+[60] "The monetary system of the Salic law was taken from the Romans.
+The basis was the gold _solidus_ of Constantine, 1/72 of a pound of
+gold. The small coin was the silver _denarius_, forty of which made a
+_solidus_. This system was adopted as a monetary reform by Clovis, and
+the statement of the sum in terms of both coins is probably due to the
+newness of the system at the time of the appearance of the
+law."--Thatcher and McNeal, _Source Book for Mediaeval History_, p. 17.
+The gold _solidus_ was worth somewhere from two and a half to three
+dollars, but its purchasing power was perhaps equal to that of twenty
+dollars to-day, because gold and silver were then so much scarcer and
+more valuable. Such estimates of purchasing power, however, involve so
+great uncertainty as to be practically worthless.
+
+[61] The Burgundian law (Chap. 41) contained a provision that if a man
+made a fire on his own premises and it spread to fences or crops
+belonging to another person, and did damage, the man who made the fire
+should recompense his neighbor for his loss, provided it could be
+shown that there was no wind to drive the fire beyond control. If
+there was such a wind, no penalty was to be exacted.
+
+[62] The law of the Lombards had a more elaborate system of fines for
+wounds than did the Salic code. For example, knocking out a man's
+front teeth was to be paid for at the rate of sixteen _solidi_ per
+tooth; knocking out back teeth at the rate of eight _solidi_ per
+tooth; fracturing an arm, sixteen _solidi_; cutting off a second
+finger, seventeen _solidi_; cutting off a great toe, six _solidi_;
+cutting off a little toe, two _solidi_; giving a blow with the fist,
+three _solidi_; with the palm of the hand, six _solidi_; and striking
+a person on the head so as to break bones, twelve _solidi_ per bone.
+In the latter case the broken bones were to be counted "on this
+principle, that one bone shall be found large enough to make an
+audible sound when thrown against a shield at twelve feet distance on
+the road; the said feet to be measured from the foot of a man of
+moderate stature."
+
+[63] The man who had "thrown away his shield" was the coward who had
+fled from the field of battle. How the Germans universally regarded
+such a person appears in the _Germania_ of Tacitus, Chap. 6 (see p.
+25). To impute this ignominy to a man was a serious matter.
+
+[64] This was the so-called "triple wergeld." That is, the lives of
+men in the service of the king were rated three times as high as those
+of ordinary free persons.
+
+[65] Here is an illustration of the personal character of Germanic
+law. There is one law for the Frank and another for the Roman, though
+both peoples were now living side by side in Gaul. The price put upon
+the life of the Frankish noble who was in the king's service was 600
+_solidi_ (Sec. 3), but that on the life of the Roman noble in the same
+service was but half that amount. The same proportion held for the
+ordinary freemen, as will be seen by comparing Secs. 1 and 6.
+
+[66] A leet was such a person as we in modern times commonly designate
+as a serf--a man only partially free.
+
+[67] This has been alleged to be the basis of the misnamed "Salic Law"
+by virtue of which no woman, in the days of the French monarchy, was
+permitted to inherit the throne. As a matter of fact, however, the
+exclusion of women from the French throne was due, not to this or to
+any other early Frankish principle, but to later circumstances which
+called for stronger monarchs in France than women have ordinarily been
+expected to be. The history of the modern "Salic Law" does not go back
+of the resolution of the French nobles in 1317 against the general
+political expediency of female sovereigns [see p. 420].
+
+[68] The wergeld was the value put by the law upon every man's life.
+Its amount varied according to the rank of the person in question. The
+present section specifies how the wergeld paid by a murderer should be
+divided among the relatives of the slain man.
+
+[69] That is, to the king's treasury.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN
+
+
+8. The Saxon Invasion (cir. 449)
+
+The Venerable Bede, the author of the passage given below, was born
+about 673 in Northumberland and spent most of his life in the
+Benedictine abbey of Jarrow on the Tyne, where he died in 735. He was
+a man of broad learning and untiring industry, famous in all parts of
+Christendom by reason of the numerous scholarly books that he wrote.
+The chief of these was his _Ecclesiastical History of the English
+People_, covering the period from the first invasion of Britain by
+Caesar (B.C. 55) to the year 731. In this work Bede dealt with many
+matters lying properly outside the sphere of church history, so that
+it is exceedingly valuable for the light which it throws on both the
+military and political affairs of the early Anglo-Saxons in Britain.
+As an historian Bede was fair-minded and as accurate as his means of
+information permitted.
+
+The Angle and Saxon seafarers from the region we now know as Denmark
+and Hanover had infested the shores of Britain for two centuries or
+more before the coming of Hengist and Horsa which Bede here describes.
+The withdrawal of the Roman garrisons about the year 410 left the
+Britons at the mercy of the wilder Picts and Scots of the north and
+west, and as a last resort King Vortigern decided to call in the
+Saxons to aid in his campaign of defense. Such, at least, is the story
+related by Gildas, a Romanized British chronicler who wrote about the
+year 560, and this was the view adopted by Bede. Recent writers, as
+Mr. James H. Ramsay in his _Foundations of England_, are inclined to
+cast serious doubts upon the story because it seems hardly probable
+that any king would have taken so foolish a step as that attributed to
+Vortigern.[70] At any rate, whether by invitation or for pure love of
+seafaring adventure, certain it is that the Saxons and Angles made
+their appearance at the little island of Thanet, on the coast of Kent,
+and found the country so much to their liking that they chose to
+remain rather than return to the over-populated shores of the Baltic.
+There are many reasons for believing that people of Germanic stock had
+been settled more or less permanently in Britain long before the
+traditional invasion of Hengist and Horsa. Yet we are justified in
+thinking of this interesting expedition as, for all practical
+purposes, the beginning of the long and stubborn struggle of Germans
+to possess the fruitful British isle. While Visigoths and Ostrogoths,
+Vandals and Lombards were breaking across the Rhine-Danube frontier
+and finding new homes in the territories of the Roman Empire, the
+Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from the farther north were led by their
+seafaring instincts to make their great movement, not by land, but by
+water, and into a country which the Romans had a good while before
+been obliged to abandon. There they were free to develop their own
+peculiar Germanic life and institutions, for the most part without
+undergoing the changes which settlement among the Romans produced in
+the case of the tribes whose migrations were towards the
+Mediterranean.
+
+     Source--Baeda, _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ [Bede,
+     "Ecclesiastical History of the English People"], Bk. I.,
+     Chaps. 14-15. Translated by J. A. Giles (London, 1847), pp.
+     23-25.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Britons decide to call in the Saxons]
+
+   They consulted what was to be done,[71] and where they should seek
+   assistance to prevent or repel the cruel and frequent incursions of
+   the northern nations. And they all agreed with their king,
+   Vortigern, to call over to their aid, from the parts beyond the
+   sea, the Saxon nation; which, as the outcome still more plainly
+   showed, appears to have been done by the inspiration of our Lord
+   Himself, that evil might fall upon them for their wicked deeds.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Saxons settle in the island]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 449,[72] Martian, being made emperor with
+   Valentinian, the forty-sixth from Augustus, ruled the Empire seven
+   years. Then the nation of the Angles, or Saxons, being invited by
+   the aforesaid king, arrived in Britain with three long ships, and
+   had a place assigned them to reside in by the same king, in the
+   eastern part of the island,[73] that they might thus appear to be
+   fighting for their country, while their real intentions were to
+   enslave it. Accordingly they engaged with the enemy, who were come
+   from the north to give battle, and obtained the victory; which,
+   being known at home in their own country, as also the fertility of
+   the islands and the cowardice of the Britons, a larger fleet was
+   quickly sent over, bringing a still greater number of men, who,
+   being added to the former, made up an invincible army. The
+   newcomers received from the Britons a place to dwell, upon
+   condition that they should wage war against their enemies for the
+   peace and security of the country, while the Britons agreed to
+   furnish them with pay.
+
+   Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations of
+   Germany--Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are descended
+   the people of Kent and of the Isle of Wight, and those also in the
+   province of the West Saxons who are to this day called Jutes,
+   seated opposite to the Isle of Wight. From the Saxons, that is, the
+   country which is now called Old Saxony, came the East Saxons, the
+   South Saxons, and the West Saxons. From the Angles, that is, the
+   country which is called Anglia, and which is said, from that time,
+   to remain desert to this day, between the provinces of the Jutes
+   and the Saxons, are descended the East Angles, the Midland Angles,
+   Mercians, all the race of the Northumbrians, that is, of those
+   nations that dwell on the north side of the River Humber, and the
+   other nations of the English.
+
+     [Sidenote: Hengist and Horsa]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Saxons turn against the Britons]
+
+   The first two commanders are said to have been Hengist and Horsa.
+   Horsa, being afterwards slain in battle by the Britons,[74] was
+   buried in the eastern part of Kent, where a monument bearing his
+   name is still in existence. They were the sons of Victgilsus, whose
+   father was Vecta, son of Woden; from whose stock the royal races of
+   many provinces trace their descent. In a short time swarms of the
+   aforesaid nations came over into the island, and they began to
+   increase so much that they became a terror to the natives
+   themselves who had invited them. Then, having on a sudden entered
+   into a league with the Picts, whom they had by this time repelled
+   by the force of their arms, they began to turn their weapons
+   against their confederates. At first they obliged them to furnish a
+   greater quantity of provisions; and, seeking an occasion to
+   quarrel, protested that unless more plentiful supplies were brought
+   them they would break the confederacy and ravage all the island;
+   nor were they backward in putting their threats in execution.
+
+     [Sidenote: Their devastation of the country]
+
+   They plundered all the neighboring cities and country, spread the
+   conflagration from the eastern to the western sea without any
+   opposition, and covered almost every part of the island. Public as
+   well as private structures were overturned; the priests were
+   everywhere slain before the altars; the prelates and the people,
+   without any respect of persons, were destroyed with fire and sword;
+   nor were there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly
+   slaughtered. Some of the miserable remainder, being taken in the
+   mountains, were butchered in heaps. Others, driven by hunger, came
+   forth and submitted themselves to the enemy for food, being
+   destined to undergo perpetual servitude, if they were not killed
+   upon the spot. Some, with sorrowful hearts, fled beyond the seas.
+   Others, continuing in their own country, led a miserable life among
+   the woods, rocks, and mountains, with scarcely enough food to
+   support life, and expecting every moment to be their last.[75]
+
+
+9. The Mission of Augustine (597)
+
+How or when the Christian religion was first introduced into Britain
+cannot now be ascertained. As early as the beginning of the third
+century the African church father Tertullian referred to the Britons
+as a Christian people, and in 314 the British church was recognized by
+the Council of Arles as an integral part of the church universal.
+Throughout the period of Roman control in the island Christianity
+continued to be the dominant religion. When, however, in the fifth
+century and after, the Saxons and Angles invaded the country and the
+native population was largely killed off or driven westward (though
+not so completely as some books tell us), Christianity came to be
+pretty much confined to the Celtic peoples of Ireland and Wales. The
+invaders were still pagans worshiping the old Teutonic deities Woden,
+Thor, Freya, and the rest, and though an attempt at their conversion
+was made by a succession of Irish monks, their pride as conquerors
+seems to have kept them from being greatly influenced. At any rate,
+the conversion of the Angles and Saxons was a task which called for a
+special evangelistic movement from no less a source than the head of
+the Church. This movement was set in operation by Pope Gregory I.
+(Gregory the Great) near the close of the sixth century. It is
+reasonable to suppose that the impulse came originally from Bertha,
+the Frankish queen of King Ethelbert of Kent, who was an ardent
+Christian and very desirous of bringing about the conversion of her
+adopted people. In 596 Augustine (not to be confused with the
+celebrated bishop of Hippo in the fifth century) was sent by Pope
+Gregory at the head of a band of monks to proclaim the religion of the
+cross to King Ethelbert, and afterwards to all the Angles and Saxons
+and Jutes in the island. On Whitsunday, June 2, 597, Ethelbert
+renounced his old gods and was baptized into the Christian communion.
+The majority of his people soon followed his example and four years
+later Augustine was appointed "Bishop of the English." After this
+encouraging beginning the Christianizing of the East, West, and South
+Saxons went steadily forward.
+
+     Source--Baeda, _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_, Bk.
+     I., Chaps. 23, 25-26. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles
+     (London, 1847), pp. 34-40 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Pope Gregory I. sends missionaries to Britain]
+
+     [Sidenote: They become frightened at the outlook]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 582, Maurice, the fifty-fourth from
+   Augustus, ascended the throne,[76] and reigned twenty-one years. In
+   the tenth year of his reign, Gregory, a man renowned for learning
+   and piety, was elected to the apostolical see of Rome, and presided
+   over it thirteen years, six months and ten days.[77] He, being
+   moved by divine inspiration, in the fourteenth year of the same
+   emperor, and about the one hundred and fiftieth after the coming of
+   the English into Britain, sent the servant of God, Augustine,[78]
+   and with him several other monks who feared the Lord, to preach the
+   word of God to the English nation. They, in obedience to the Pope's
+   commands, having undertaken that work, were on their journey seized
+   with a sudden fear and began to think of returning home, rather
+   than of proceeding to a barbarous, fierce, and unbelieving nation,
+   to whose very language they were strangers; and this they
+   unanimously agreed was the safest course.[79] In short, they sent
+   back Augustine, who had been appointed to be consecrated bishop in
+   case they were received by the English, that he might, by humble
+   entreaty, obtain consent of the holy Gregory, that they should not
+   be compelled to undertake so dangerous, toilsome, and uncertain a
+   journey. The Pope, in reply, sent them an encouraging letter,
+   persuading them to proceed in the work of the divine word, and rely
+   on the assistance of the Almighty. The substance of this letter was
+   as follows:
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory's letter of encouragement]
+
+   "Gregory, the servant of the servants of God, to the servants of
+   our Lord. Forasmuch as it had been better not to begin a good work
+   than to think of abandoning that which has been begun, it behooves
+   you, my beloved sons, to fulfill the good work which, by the help
+   of our Lord, you have undertaken. Let not, therefore, the toil of
+   the journey nor the tongues of evil-speaking men deter you. With
+   all possible earnestness and zeal perform that which, by God's
+   direction, you have undertaken; being assured that much labor is
+   followed by an eternal reward. When Augustine, your chief, returns,
+   whom we also constitute your abbot,[80] humbly obey him in all
+   things; knowing that whatsoever you shall do by his direction will,
+   in all respects, be helpful to your souls. Almighty God protect you
+   with his grace, and grant that I, in the heavenly country, may see
+   the fruits of your labor; inasmuch as, though I cannot labor with
+   you, I shall partake in the joy of the reward, because I am willing
+   to labor. God keep you in safety, my most beloved sons. Dated the
+   23rd of July, in the fourteenth year of the reign of our pious and
+   most august lord, Mauritius Tiberius, the thirteenth year after the
+   consulship of our said lord."
+
+     [Sidenote: Augustine and his companions arrive in Kent]
+
+   Augustine, thus strengthened by the confirmation of the blessed
+   Father Gregory, returned to the work of the word of God, with the
+   servants of Christ, and arrived in Britain. The powerful Ethelbert
+   was at that time king of Kent. He had extended his dominions as far
+   as the great River Humber, by which the Southern Saxons are
+   divided from the Northern.[81] On the east of Kent is the large
+   isle of Thanet containing according to the English reckoning 600
+   families, divided from the other land by the River Wantsum, which
+   is about three furlongs over and fordable only in two places, for
+   both ends of it run into the sea.[82] In this island landed the
+   servant of our Lord, Augustine, and his companions, being, as is
+   reported, nearly forty men. By order of the blessed Pope Gregory,
+   they had taken interpreters of the nation of the Franks,[83] and
+   sending to Ethelbert, signified that they were come from Rome and
+   brought a joyful message, which most undoubtedly assured to all
+   that took advantage of it everlasting joys in heaven and a kingdom
+   that would never end, with the living and true God. The king,
+   having heard this, ordered that they stay in that island where they
+   had landed, and that they be furnished with all necessaries, until
+   he should consider what to do with them. For he had before heard of
+   the Christian religion, having a Christian wife of the royal family
+   of the Franks, called Bertha;[84] whom he had received from her
+   parents upon condition that she should be permitted to practice her
+   religion with the Bishop Luidhard, who was sent with her to
+   preserve her faith.[85]
+
+     [Sidenote: Augustine preaches to King Ethelbert]
+
+   Some days after, the king came to the island, and sitting in the
+   open air, ordered Augustine and his companions to be brought into
+   his presence. For he had taken precaution that they should not come
+   to him in any house, lest, according to an ancient superstition, if
+   they practised any magical arts, they might impose upon him, and so
+   get the better of him. But they came furnished with divine, not
+   with magic virtue, bearing a silver cross for their banner, and the
+   image of our Lord and Savior painted on a board; and singing the
+   litany, they offered up their prayers to the Lord for the eternal
+   salvation both of themselves and of those to whom they were come.
+   When Augustine had sat down, according to the king's commands, and
+   preached to him and his attendants there present the word of life,
+   the king answered thus: "Your words and promises are very fair, but
+   as they are new to us, and of uncertain import, I cannot approve of
+   them so far as to forsake that which I have so long followed with
+   the whole English nation. But because you are come from afar into
+   my kingdom, and, as I conceive, are desirous to impart to us those
+   things which you believe to be true and most beneficial, we will
+   not molest you, but give you favorable entertainment and take care
+   to supply you with necessary sustenance; nor do we forbid you to
+   preach and win as many as you can to your religion." Accordingly he
+   permitted them to reside in the city of Canterbury, which was the
+   metropolis of all his dominions, and, according to his promise,
+   besides allowing them sustenance, did not refuse them liberty to
+   preach. It is reported that, as they drew near to the city, after
+   their manner, with the holy cross and the image of our sovereign
+   Lord and King, Jesus Christ, they sang this litany together: "We
+   beseech thee, O Lord, in all Thy mercy, that Thy anger and wrath be
+   turned away from this city, and from Thy holy house, because we
+   have sinned. Hallelujah."
+
+     [Sidenote: The life of the missionaries at Canterbury]
+
+   As soon as they entered the dwelling-place assigned them, they
+   began to imitate the course of life practised in the primitive
+   Church; applying themselves to frequent prayer, watching, and
+   fasting; preaching the word of life to as many as they could;
+   despising all worldly things as not belonging to them; receiving
+   only their necessary food from those they taught; living themselves
+   in all respects in conformity with what they prescribed for others,
+   and being always disposed to suffer any adversity, and even to die
+   for that truth which they preached. In short, several believed and
+   were baptized, admiring the simplicity of their innocent life, and
+   the sweetness of their heavenly doctrine. There was, on the east
+   side of the city, a church dedicated to the honor of St. Martin,
+   built whilst the Romans were still in the island, wherein the
+   queen, who, as has been said before, was a Christian, used to
+   pray.[86] In this they first began to meet, to sing, to pray, to
+   say mass, to preach, and to baptize, until the king, being
+   converted to the faith, allowed them to preach openly, and build or
+   repair churches in all places.
+
+     [Sidenote: Ethelbert converted]
+
+   When he, among the rest, induced by the unspotted life of these
+   holy men, and their pleasing promises, which by many miracles they
+   proved to be most certain, believed and was baptized, greater
+   numbers began daily to flock together to hear the word, and
+   forsaking their heathen rites, to associate themselves, by
+   believing, to the unity of the church of Christ. Their conversion
+   the king encouraged in so far that he compelled none to embrace
+   Christianity, but only showed more affection to the believers, as
+   to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly kingdom. For he had learned
+   from his instructors and guides to salvation that the service of
+   Christ ought to be voluntary, not by compulsion. Nor was it long
+   before he gave his teachers a settled residence in his metropolis
+   of Canterbury, with such possessions of different kinds as were
+   necessary for their subsistence.[87]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[70] James H. Ramsay, _The Foundations of England_ (London, 1898), I.,
+p. 121.
+
+[71] Bede has just been describing a plague which rendered the Britons
+at this time even more unable than usual to withstand the fierce
+invaders from the north; also lamenting the luxury and crime which a
+few years of relief from war had produced among his people.
+
+[72] This date is evidently incorrect. Martian and Valentinian III.
+became joint rulers of the Empire in 450; hence this is the year that
+Bede probably meant.
+
+[73] That is, Thanet, which practically no longer exists as an island.
+In Bede's day it was separated from the rest of Kent by nearly half a
+mile of water, but since then the coast line has changed so that the
+land is cut through by only a tiny rill. The intervening ground,
+however, is marshy and only partially reclaimed.
+
+[74] This battle was fought between Hengist and Vortimer, the eldest
+son of Vortigern, at Aylesford, in Kent.
+
+[75] It is by no means probable that the invasion of Britain by the
+Saxons was followed by such wholesale extermination of the natives as
+is here represented, though it is certain that everywhere, except in
+the far west (Wales) and north (Scotland), the native population was
+reduced to complete subjection.
+
+[76] That is, the throne of the Eastern Empire at Constantinople.
+
+[77] Gregory was a monk before he was elected pope. He held the papal
+office from 590 to 604 [see p. 90].
+
+[78] Augustine at the time (596) was prior of a monastery dedicated to
+St. Andrew in Rome.
+
+[79] The missionaries had apparently gone as far as Arles in southern
+Provence when they reached this decision.
+
+[80] An abbot was the head of a monastery. Should such an
+establishment be set up in Britain, Augustine was to be its presiding
+officer.
+
+[81] The Germanic peoples north of the Humber were more properly
+Angles, but of course they were in all essential respects like the
+Saxons. Ethelbert was not actually king in that region, but was
+recognized as "bretwalda," or over-lord, by the other rulers.
+
+[82] For later changes in this part of the coast line, see p. 70,
+note 1.
+
+[83] This was possible because the Franks and Saxons, being both
+German, as yet spoke languages so much alike that either people could
+understand the other without much difficulty.
+
+[84] Bertha was a daughter of the Frankish king Charibert. The Franks
+had been nominally a Christian people since the conversion of Clovis
+in 496 [see p. 53]--just a hundred years before Augustine started on
+his mission to the Angles and Saxons.
+
+[85] Luidhard had been bishop of Senlis; a town not many miles
+northeast of Paris. Probably Augustine and his companions profited not
+a little by the influence which Luidhard had already exerted at the
+Kentish court.
+
+[86] "The present church of St. Martin near Canterbury is not the old
+one spoken of by Bede, as it is generally thought to be, but is a
+structure of the thirteenth century, though it is probable that the
+materials of the original church were worked up in the masonry in its
+reconstruction, the walls being still composed in part of Roman
+bricks."--J. A. Giles, _Bede's Ecclesiastical History_, p. 39.
+
+[87] Thus was established the "primacy," or ecclesiastical leadership,
+of Canterbury, which has continued to this day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
+
+
+10. Pope Leo's Sermon on the Petrine Supremacy
+
+In tracing the history of the great ecclesiastical institution known
+as the papacy, the first figure that stands out with considerable
+clearness is that of Leo I., or Leo the Great, who was elected bishop
+of Rome in the year 440. Leo is perhaps the first man who, all things
+considered, can be called "pope" in the modern sense of the term,
+although certain of his predecessors in the bishop's seat at the
+imperial capital had long claimed and exercised a peculiar measure of
+authority over their fellow bishops throughout the Empire. Almost from
+the earliest days of Christianity the word _papa_ (pope) seems to have
+been in common use as an affectionate mode of addressing any bishop,
+but after the fourth century it came to be applied in a peculiar
+manner to the bishop of Rome, and in time this was the only usage, so
+far as western Europe was concerned, which survived. The causes of the
+special development of the Roman bishopric into the powerful papal
+office were numerous. Rome's importance as a city, and particularly as
+the political head of the Mediterranean world, made it natural that
+her bishop should have something of a special dignity and influence.
+Throughout western Europe the Roman church was regarded as a model and
+its bishop was frequently called upon for counsel and advice. Then,
+when the seat of the imperial government was removed to the East by
+Constantine, the Roman bishop naturally took up much of the leadership
+in the West which had been exercised by the emperor, and this added
+not a little in the way of prestige. On the whole the Roman bishops
+were moderate, liberal, and sensible in their attitude toward church
+questions, thereby commending themselves to the practical peoples of
+the West in a way that other bishops did not always do. The growth of
+temporal possessions, especially in the way of land, also made the
+Roman bishops more independent and able to hold their own. And the
+activity of such men as Leo the Great in warding off the attacks of
+the German barbarians, and in providing popular leadership in the
+absence of such leadership on the part of the imperial authorities,
+was a not unimportant item.
+
+After all, however, these are matters which have always been regarded
+by the popes themselves as circumstances of a more or less transitory
+and accidental character. It is not upon any or all of them that the
+papacy from first to last has sought to base its high claims to
+authority. The fundamental explanation, from the papal standpoint, for
+the peculiar development of the papal power in the person of the
+bishops of Rome is contained in the so-called theory of the "Petrine
+Supremacy," which will be found set forth in Pope Leo's sermon
+reproduced in part below. The essential points in this theory are: (1)
+that to the apostle Peter, Christ committed the keys of the kingdom of
+heaven and the supremacy over all other apostles on earth; (2) that
+Peter, in the course of time, became the first bishop of Rome; and (3)
+that the superior authority given to Peter was transmitted to all his
+successors in the Roman bishopric. It was fundamentally on _these_
+grounds that the pope, to quote an able Catholic historian, was
+believed to be "the visible representative of ecclesiastical unity,
+the supreme teacher and custodian of the faith, the supreme
+legislator, the guardian and interpreter of the canons, the legitimate
+superior of all bishops, the final judge of councils--an office which
+he possessed in his own right, and which he actually exercised by
+presiding over all ecumenical synods, through his legates, and by
+confirming the acts of the councils as the Supreme Head of the
+Universal Catholic Church."[88] Modern Protestants discard certain of
+the tenets which go to make up the Petrine theory, but it is essential
+that the student of history bear in mind that the people of the Middle
+Ages never doubted its complete and literal authenticity, nor
+questioned that the authority of the papal office rested at bottom
+upon something far more fundamental than a mere fortunate combination
+of historical circumstances. Whatever one's personal opinions on the
+issues involved, the point to be insisted upon is that in studying
+mediaeval church life and organization the universal acceptance of
+these beliefs and conclusions be never lost to view.
+
+Leo was pope from 440 to 461 and it has been well maintained that he
+was the first occupant of the office to comprehend the wide
+possibilities of the papal dignity in the future. In his sermons and
+letters he vigorously asserted the sovereign authority of his
+position, and in his influence on the events of his time, as for
+example the Council of Chalcedon in 451, he sought with no little
+success to bring men to a general acknowledgment of this authority.
+
+     Source--Text in Jacques Paul Migne, _Patroligiae Cursus
+     Completus_ ["Complete Collection of Patristic Literature"],
+     First Series, Vol. LIV., cols. 144-148. Translated in Philip
+     Schaff and Henry Wace, _Select Library of Nicene and
+     Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church_ (New York, 1895),
+     Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 117-118.
+
+     [Sidenote: The apostle Peter still with his Church]
+
+   Although, therefore, dearly beloved, we be found both weak and
+   slothful in fulfilling the duties of our office, because, whatever
+   devoted and vigorous action we desire to undertake, we are hindered
+   in by the frailty of our nature, yet having the unceasing
+   propitiation of the Almighty and perpetual Priest [Christ], who
+   being like us and yet equal with the Father, brought down His
+   Godhead even to things human, and raised His Manhood even to things
+   Divine, we worthily and piously rejoice over His dispensation,
+   whereby, though He has delegated the care of His sheep to many
+   shepherds, yet He has not Himself abandoned the guardianship of His
+   beloved flock. And from His overruling and eternal protection we
+   have received the support of the Apostle's aid also, which
+   assuredly does not cease from its operation; and the strength of
+   the foundation, on which the whole superstructure of the Church is
+   reared, is not weakened by the weight of the temple that rests upon
+   it. For the solidity of that faith which was praised in the chief
+   of the Apostles is perpetual; and as that remains which Peter
+   believed in Christ, so that remains which Christ instituted in
+   Peter.
+
+     [Sidenote: Christ's commission to Peter]
+
+   For when, as has been read in the Gospel lesson,[89] the Lord had
+   asked the disciples whom they believed Him to be amid the various
+   opinions that were held, and the blessed Peter had replied, saying,
+   "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God," the Lord said,
+   "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona, because flesh and blood hath not
+   revealed it to thee, but My Father, which is in heaven. And I say
+   to thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build My
+   church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against it. And I
+   will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And
+   whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth, shall be bound in heaven; and
+   whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, shall be loosed also in
+   heaven." [Matt. xvi. 16-19.]
+
+     [Sidenote: Peter properly rules the Church through his successors
+   at Rome]
+
+   The dispensation of Truth therefore abides, and the blessed Peter
+   persevering in the strength of the Rock, which he has received, has
+   not abandoned the helm of the Church, which he undertook. For he
+   was ordained before the rest in such a way that from his being
+   called the Rock, from his being pronounced the Foundation, from his
+   being constituted the Doorkeeper of the kingdom of heaven, from his
+   being set as the Umpire to bind and to loose, whose judgments shall
+   retain their validity in heaven--from all these mystical titles we
+   might know the nature of his association with Christ. And still
+   to-day he more fully and effectually performs what is intrusted to
+   him, and carries out every part of his duty and charge in Him and
+   with Him, through whom he has been glorified. And so if anything is
+   rightly done and rightly decreed by us, if anything is won from the
+   mercy of God by our daily supplications, it is of his work and
+   merits whose power lives and whose authority prevails in his
+   see....[90]
+
+     [Sidenote: Leo claims to be only Peter's representative]
+
+   And so, dearly beloved, with becoming obedience we celebrate
+   to-day's festival[91] by such methods, that in my humble person he
+   may be recognized and honored, in whom abides the care of all the
+   shepherds, together with the charge of the sheep commended to him,
+   and whose dignity is not belittled even in so unworthy an heir. And
+   hence the presence of my venerable brothers and fellow-priests, so
+   much desired and valued by me, will be the more sacred and
+   precious, if they will transfer the chief honor of this service in
+   which they have deigned to take part to him whom they know to be
+   not only the patron of this see, but also the primate of all
+   bishops. When therefore we utter our exhortations in your ears,
+   holy brethren, believe that he is speaking whose representative we
+   are. Because it is his warning that we give, and nothing else but
+   his teaching that we preach, beseeching you to "gird up the loins
+   of your mind," and lead a chaste and sober life in the fear of God,
+   and not to let your mind forget his supremacy and consent to the
+   lusts of the flesh.
+
+     [Sidenote: An exhortation to Christian constancy]
+
+     [Sidenote: The peculiar privilege of the church at Rome]
+
+   Short and fleeting are the joys of this world's pleasures which
+   endeavor to turn aside from the path of life those who are called
+   to eternity. The faithful and religious spirit, therefore, must
+   desire the things which are heavenly and, being eager for the
+   divine promises, lift itself to the love of the incorruptible Good
+   and the hope of the true Light. But be assured, dearly-beloved,
+   that your labor, whereby you resist vices and fight against carnal
+   desires, is pleasing and precious in God's sight, and in God's
+   mercy will profit not only yourselves but me also, because the
+   zealous pastor makes his boast of the progress of the Lord's flock.
+   "For ye are my crown and joy," as the Apostle says, if your faith,
+   which from the beginning of the Gospel has been preached in all the
+   world, has continued in love and holiness. For though the whole
+   Church, which is in all the world, ought to abound in all virtues,
+   yet you especially, above all people, it becomes to excel in deeds
+   of piety, because, founded as you are on the very citadel of the
+   Apostolic Rock, not only has our Lord Jesus Christ redeemed you in
+   common with all men, but the blessed Apostle Peter has instructed
+   you far beyond all men.
+
+
+11. The Rule of St. Benedict
+
+A very important feature of the church life of the early Middle Ages
+was the tendency of devout men to withdraw from the active affairs of
+the world and give themselves up to careers of self-sacrificing piety.
+Sometimes such men went out to live alone in forests or other obscure
+places and for this reason were called anchorites or hermits; but more
+often they settled in groups and formed what came to be known as
+monasteries. The idea that seclusion is helpful to the religious life
+was not peculiar to Christianity, for from very early times Brahmins
+and Buddhists and other peoples of the Orient had cherished the same
+view; and in many cases they do so still. Monasticism among Christians
+began naturally in the East and at first took the form almost wholly
+of hermitage, just as it had done among the adherents of other
+Oriental religions, though by the fourth century the Christian monks
+of Syria and Egypt and Asia Minor had come in many cases to dwell in
+established communities. In general the Eastern monks were prone to
+extremes in the way of penance and self-torture which the more
+practical peoples of the West were not greatly disposed to imitate.
+Monasticism spread into the West, but not until comparatively
+late--beginning in the second half of the fourth century--and the
+character which it there assumed was quite unlike that prevailing in
+the East. The Eastern ideal was the life of meditation with as little
+activity as possible, except perhaps such as was necessary in order to
+impose hardships upon one's self. The Western ideal, on the other
+hand, while involving a good deal of meditation and prayer, put much
+emphasis on labor and did not call for so complete an abstention of
+the monk from the pursuits and pleasures of other men.
+
+In the later fifth century, and earlier sixth, several monasteries of
+whose history we know little were established in southern Gaul,
+especially in the pleasant valley of the Rhone. Earliest of all,
+apparently, and destined to become the most influential was the abbey
+of St. Martin at Tours, founded soon after St. Martin was made bishop
+of Tours in 372. But the development of Western monasticism is
+associated most of all with the work of St. Benedict of Nursia, who
+died in 543. Benedict was the founder of several monasteries in the
+vicinity of Rome, the most important being that of Monte Cassino, on
+the road from Rome to Naples, which exists to this day. One should
+guard, however, against the mistake of looking upon St. Benedict as
+the introducer of monasticism in the West, of even as the founder of a
+new monastic _order_ in the strict sense of the word. The great
+service which he rendered to European monasticism consisted in his
+working out for his monasteries in Italy an elaborate system of
+government which was found so successful in practice that, in the form
+of the Benedictine Rule (_regula_), it came to be the constitution
+under which for many centuries practically all the monks of Western
+countries lived. That it was so widely adopted was due mainly to its
+definite, practical, common-sense character. Its chief injunctions
+upon the monks were poverty, chastity, obedience, piety, and labor.
+All these were to be attained by methods which, although they may seem
+strange to us to-day, were at least natural and wholesome when judged
+by the ideas and standards prevailing in early mediaeval times. Granted
+the ascetic principle upon which the monastic system rested, the Rule
+of St. Benedict must be regarded as eminently moderate and sensible.
+It sprang from an acute perception of human nature and human needs no
+less than from a lofty ideal of religious perfection. The following
+extracts will serve to show its character.
+
+     Source--Text in Jacques Paul Migne, _Patrologiae Cursus
+     Completus_, First Series, Vol. LXVI., cols. 245-932 _passim_.
+     Adapted from translation in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select
+     Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp.
+     274-314.
+
+   _Prologue...._ We are about to found, therefore, a school for the
+   Lord's service, in the organization of which we trust that we shall
+   ordain nothing severe and nothing burdensome. But even if, the
+   demands of justice dictating it, something a trifle irksome shall
+   be the result, for the purpose of amending vices or preserving
+   charity, thou shalt not therefore, struck by fear, flee the way of
+   salvation, which cannot be entered upon except through a narrow
+   entrance.
+
+     [Sidenote: Responsibility of the abbot for the character and deeds
+   of the monks]
+
+     [Sidenote: He must teach by example as well as by precept]
+
+   =2.= _What the abbot should be like._ An abbot who is worthy to
+   preside over a monastery ought always to remember what he is
+   called, and carry out with his deeds the name of a Superior. For he
+   is believed to be Christ's representative, since he is called by
+   His name, the apostle saying: "Ye have received the spirit of
+   adoption of sons, whereby we call Abba, Father" [Romans viii. 15].
+   And so the abbot should not (grant that he may not) teach, or
+   decree, or order, anything apart from the precept of the Lord; but
+   his order or teaching should be characterized by the marks of
+   divine justice in the minds of his disciples. Let the abbot always
+   be mindful that, at the terrible judgment of God, both things will
+   be weighed in the balance, his teaching and the obedience of his
+   disciples. And let the abbot know that whatever of uselessness the
+   father of the family finds among the sheep is laid to the fault of
+   the shepherd. Only in a case where the whole diligence of their
+   pastor shall have been bestowed on an unruly and disobedient flock,
+   and his whole care given to their wrongful actions, shall that
+   pastor, absolved in the judgment of the Lord, be free to say to the
+   Lord with the prophet: "I have not hid Thy righteousness within my
+   heart; I have declared Thy faithfulness and Thy salvation, but
+   they, despising, have scorned me" [Psalms xl. 10]. And then let the
+   punishment for the disobedient sheep under his care be that death
+   itself shall prevail against them. Therefore, when any one receives
+   the name of abbot, he ought to rule over his disciples with a
+   double teaching; that is, let him show forth all good and holy
+   things by deeds more than by words. So that to ready disciples he
+   may set forth the commands of God in words; but to the hard-hearted
+   and the more simple-minded, he may show forth the divine precepts
+   by his deeds.
+
+     [Sidenote: His duty to encourage, to admonish, and to punish]
+
+   He shall make no distinction of persons in the monastery. One shall
+   not be more cherished than another, unless it be the one whom he
+   finds excelling in good works or in obedience. A free-born man
+   shall not be preferred to one coming from servitude, unless there
+   be some other reasonable cause. But if, by the demand of justice,
+   it seems good to the abbot, he shall do this, no matter what the
+   rank shall be. But otherwise they shall keep their own places. For
+   whether we be bond or free, we are all one in Christ; and, under
+   one God, we perform an equal service of subjection. For God is no
+   respecter of persons. Only in this way is a distinction made by Him
+   concerning us, if we are found humble and surpassing others in good
+   works. Therefore let him [the abbot] have equal charity for all.
+   Let the same discipline be administered in all cases according to
+   merit.... He should, that is, rebuke more severely the unruly and
+   the turbulent. The obedient, moreover, and the gentle and the
+   patient, he should exhort, that they may progress to higher things.
+   But the negligent and scorners, we warn him to admonish and
+   reprove. Nor let him conceal the sins of the erring; but, in order
+   that he may prevail, let him pluck them out by the roots as soon as
+   they begin to spring up.
+
+   And let him know what a difficult and arduous thing he has
+   undertaken--to rule the souls and uplift the morals of many. And in
+   one case indeed with blandishments, in another with rebukes, in
+   another with persuasion--according to the quality or intelligence
+   of each one--he shall so conform and adapt himself to all that not
+   only shall he not allow injury to come to the flock committed to
+   him, but he shall rejoice in the increase of a good flock. Above
+   all things, let him not, deceiving himself or undervaluing the
+   safety of the souls committed to him, give more heed to temporary
+   and earthly and passing things; but let him always reflect that he
+   has undertaken to rule souls for which he is to render account.
+
+     [Sidenote: The monks to be consulted by the abbot]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Rule to be followed by every one as a guide]
+
+   =3.= _About calling in the brethren to take counsel._ Whenever
+   anything of importance is to be done in the monastery, the abbot
+   shall call together the whole congregation,[92] and shall himself
+   explain the matter in question. And, having heard the advice of the
+   brethren, he shall think it over by himself, and shall do what he
+   considers most advantageous. And for this reason, moreover, we have
+   said that all ought to be called to take counsel, because often it
+   is to a younger person that God reveals what is best. The brethren,
+   moreover, with all subjection of humility, ought so to give their
+   advice that they do not presume boldly to defend what seems good to
+   them; but it should rather depend on the judgment of the abbot, so
+   that, whatever he decides to be best, they should all agree to it.
+   But even as it behooves the disciples to obey the master, so it is
+   fitting that he should arrange all matters with care and justice.
+   In all things, indeed, let every one follow the Rule as his guide;
+   and let no one rashly deviate from it. Let no one in the monastery
+   follow the inclination of his own heart. And let no one boldly
+   presume to dispute with his abbot, within or without the monastery.
+   But, if he should so presume, let him be subject to the discipline
+   of the Rule.
+
+     [Sidenote: No property to be owned by the monks individually]
+
+   =33.= _Whether the monks should have anything of their own._ More
+   than anything else is this special vice to be cut off root and
+   branch from the monastery, that one should presume to give or
+   receive anything without the order of the abbot, or should have
+   anything of his own. He should have absolutely not anything,
+   neither a book, nor tablets, nor a pen--nothing at all. For indeed
+   it is not allowed to the monks to have their own bodies or wills in
+   their own power. But all things necessary they must expect from the
+   Father of the monastery; nor is it allowable to have anything which
+   the abbot has not given or permitted. All things shall be held in
+   common; as it is written, "Let not any man presume to call anything
+   his own." But if any one shall have been discovered delighting in
+   this most evil vice, being warned once and again, if he do not
+   amend, let him be subjected to punishment.[93]
+
+     [Sidenote: Daily schedule for the summer season]
+
+   =48.= _Concerning the daily manual labor._ Idleness is the enemy of
+   the soul.[94] And therefore, at fixed times, the brothers ought to
+   be occupied in manual labor; and again, at fixed times, in sacred
+   reading.[95] Therefore we believe that both seasons ought to be
+   arranged after this manner,--so that, from Easter until the Calends
+   of October,[96] going out early, from the first until the fourth
+   hour they shall do what labor may be necessary. From the fourth
+   hour until about the sixth, they shall be free for reading. After
+   the meal of the sixth hour, rising from the table, they shall rest
+   in their beds with all silence; or, perchance, he that wishes to
+   read may read to himself in such a way as not to disturb another.
+   And the _nona_ [the second meal] shall be gone through with more
+   moderately about the middle of the eighth hour; and again they
+   shall work at what is to be done until Vespers.[97] But, if the
+   emergency or poverty of the place demands that they be occupied in
+   picking fruits, they shall not be grieved; for they are truly monks
+   if they live by the labors of their hands, as did also our fathers
+   and the apostles. Let all things be done with moderation, however,
+   on account of the faint-hearted.
+
+     [Sidenote: Reading during Lent]
+
+   In days of Lent they shall all receive separate books from the
+   library, which they shall read entirely through in order. These
+   books are to be given out on the first day of Lent. Above all there
+   shall be appointed without fail one or two elders, who shall go
+   round the monastery at the hours in which the brothers are engaged
+   in reading, and see to it that no troublesome brother be found who
+   is given to idleness and trifling, and is not intent on his
+   reading, being not only of no use to himself, but also stirring up
+   others. If such a one (may it not happen) be found, he shall be
+   reproved once and a second time. If he do not amend, he shall be
+   subject under the Rule to such punishment that the others may have
+   fear. Nor shall brother join brother at unsuitable hours. Moreover,
+   on Sunday all shall engage in reading, excepting those who are
+   assigned to various duties. But if any one be so negligent and lazy
+   that he will not or can not read, some task shall be imposed upon
+   him which he can do, so that he be not idle. On feeble or delicate
+   brothers such a task or art is to be imposed, that they shall
+   neither be idle nor so oppressed by the violence of labor as to be
+   driven to take flight. Their weakness is to be taken into
+   consideration by the abbot.
+
+     [Sidenote: Hospitality enjoined]
+
+   =53.= _Concerning the reception of guests._ All guests who come
+   shall be received as though they were Christ. For He Himself said,
+   "I was a stranger and ye took me in" [Matt. xxv. 35]. And to all
+   fitting honor shall be shown; but, most of all, to servants of the
+   faith and to pilgrims. When, therefore, a guest is announced, the
+   prior or the brothers shall run to meet him, with every token of
+   love. And first they shall pray together, and thus they shall be
+   joined together in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: Power of abbot to dispose of articles sent to the monks]
+
+   =54.= _Whether a monk should be allowed to receive letters or
+   anything._ By no means shall it be allowed to a monk--either from
+   his relatives, or from any man, or from one of his fellows--to
+   receive or to give, without order of the abbot, letters, presents,
+   or any gift, however small. But even if, by his relatives, anything
+   has been sent to him, he shall not presume to receive it, unless
+   it has first been shown to the abbot. But if the latter order it to
+   be received, it shall be in the power of the abbot to give it to
+   whomsoever he wishes. And the brother to whom it happened to have
+   been sent shall not be displeased; that an opportunity be not given
+   to the devil. Whoever, moreover, presumes to do otherwise shall be
+   subject to the discipline of the Rule.
+
+
+12. Gregory the Great on the Life of the Pastor
+
+Gregory the Great, whose papacy extended from 590 to 604, was a Roman
+of noble and wealthy family, and in many ways the ablest man who had
+yet risen to the papal office. The date of his birth is not recorded,
+but it was probably about 540, some ten years after St. Benedict of
+Nursia had established his monastery at Monte Cassino. He was
+therefore a contemporary of the historian Gregory of Tours [see p.
+47]. The education which he received was that which was usual with
+young Romans of his rank in life, and it is said that in grammar,
+rhetoric, logic, and law he became well versed, though without any
+claim to unusual scholarship. He entered public life and in 570 was
+made praetor of the city of Rome. All the time, however, he was
+struggling with the strange attractiveness which the life of the monk
+had for him, and in the end, upon the death of his father, he decided
+to forego the career to which his wealth and rank entitled him and to
+seek the development of his higher nature in seclusion. With the money
+obtained from the sale of his great estates he established six
+monasteries in Sicily and that of St. Andrew at Rome. In Gregory's
+case, however, retirement to monastic life did not mean oblivion, for
+soon he was selected by Pope Pelagius II., as resident minister
+(_apocrisiarius_) at Constantinople and in this important position he
+was maintained for five or six years. After returning to Rome he
+became abbot of St. Andrews, and in 590, as the records say, he was
+"demanded" as pope.
+
+Gregory was a man of very unusual ability and the force of his strong
+personality made his reign one of the great formative epochs in papal
+history. Besides his activity in relation to the affairs of the world
+in general, he has the distinction of being a literary pope. His
+letters and treatises were numerous and possessed a quality of thought
+and style which was exceedingly rare in his day. The most famous of
+his writings, and justly so, is the _Liber Regulae Pastoralis_, known
+commonly to English readers as the "Pastoral Care," or the "Pastoral
+Rule." This book was written soon after its author became pope (590)
+and was addressed to John, bishop of Ravenna, in reply to inquiries
+received from him respecting the duties and obligations of the clergy.
+Though thus put into form for a special purpose, there can be no doubt
+that it was the product of long thought, and in fact in his _Magna
+Moralia_, or "Commentary on the Book of Job," written during his
+residence at Constantinople, Gregory declared his purpose some day to
+write just such a book. Everywhere throughout Europe the work was
+received with the favor it deserved, and in Spain, Gaul, and Italy its
+influence upon the life and manners of the clergy was beyond estimate.
+Even in Britain, after King Alfred's paraphrase of it in the Saxon
+tongue had been made, three hundred years later [see p. 193], it was a
+real power for good. The permanent value of Gregory's instructions
+regarding the life of the clergy arose not only from the lofty spirit
+in which they were conceived and the clear-cut manner in which they
+were expressed, but from their breadth and adaptation to all times and
+places. There are few books which the modern pastor can read with
+greater profit. The work is in four parts: (1) on the selection of men
+for the work of the Church; (2) on the sort of life the pastor ought
+to live; (3) on the best methods of dealing with the various types of
+people which every pastor will be likely to encounter; and (4) on the
+necessity that the pastor guard himself against egotism and personal
+ambition. The passages below are taken from the second and third
+parts.
+
+     Source--Gregorius Magnus, _Liber Regulae Pastoralis_ [Gregory
+     the Great, "The Book of the Pastoral Rule"]. Text in Jacques
+     Paul Migne, _Patroligiae Cursus Completus_, First Series, Vol.
+     LXXVII., cols. 12-127 _passim_. Adapted from translation in
+     Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, _Select Library of Nicene and
+     Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church_ (New York, 1895),
+     Second Series, Vol. XII., pp. 9-71 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The qualities which ought to be united in the
+     pastor]
+
+   The conduct of a prelate[98] ought so far to be superior to the
+   conduct of the people as the life of a shepherd is accustomed to
+   exalt him above the flock. For one whose position is such that the
+   people are called his flock ought anxiously to consider how great a
+   necessity is laid upon him to maintain uprightness. It is
+   necessary, then, that in thought he should be pure, in action firm;
+   discreet in keeping silence, profitable in speech; a near neighbor
+   to every one in sympathy, exalted above all in contemplation; a
+   familiar friend of good livers through humility, unbending against
+   the vices of evil-doers through zeal for righteousness; not
+   relaxing in his care for what is inward by reason of being occupied
+   in outward things, nor neglecting to provide for outward things in
+   his anxiety for what is inward.
+
+     [Sidenote: Purity of heart essential]
+
+   The ruler should always be pure in thought, inasmuch as no impurity
+   ought to pollute him who has undertaken the office of wiping away
+   the stains of pollution in the hearts of others also; for the hand
+   that would cleanse from dirt must needs be clean, lest, being
+   itself sordid with clinging mire, it soil all the more whatever it
+   touches.
+
+     [Sidenote: He must teach by example]
+
+   The ruler should always be a leader in action, that by his living
+   he may point out the way of life to those who are put under him,
+   and that the flock, which follows the voice and manners of the
+   shepherd, may learn how to walk rather through example than through
+   words. For he who is required by the necessity of his position to
+   _speak_ the highest things is compelled by the same necessity to
+   _do_ the highest things. For that voice more readily penetrates the
+   hearer's heart, which the speaker's life commends, since what he
+   commands by speaking he helps the doing by showing.
+
+   The ruler should be discreet in keeping silence, profitable in
+   speech; lest he either utter what ought to be suppressed or
+   suppress what he ought to utter. For, as incautious speaking leads
+   into error, so indiscreet silence leaves in error those who might
+   have been instructed.
+
+     [Sidenote: He must be able to distinguish virtues and vices]
+
+   The ruler ought also to understand how commonly vices pass
+   themselves off as virtues. For often niggardliness excuses itself
+   under the name of frugality, and on the other hand extravagance
+   conceals itself under the name of liberality. Often inordinate
+   carelessness is believed to be loving-kindness, and unbridled wrath
+   is accounted the virtue of spiritual zeal. Often hasty action is
+   taken for promptness, and tardiness for the deliberation of
+   seriousness. Whence it is necessary for the ruler of souls to
+   distinguish with vigilant care between virtues and vices, lest
+   stinginess get possession of his heart while he exults in seeming
+   frugality in expenditure; or, while anything is recklessly wasted,
+   he glory in being, as it were, compassionately liberal; or, in
+   overlooking what he ought to have smitten, he draw on those that
+   are under him to eternal punishment; or, in mercilessly smiting an
+   offense, he himself offend more grievously; or, by rashly
+   anticipating, mar what might have been done properly and gravely;
+   or, by putting off the merit of a good action, change it to
+   something worse.
+
+     [Sidenote: No one kind of teaching adapted to all men]
+
+   Since, then, we have shown what manner of man the pastor ought to
+   be, let us now set forth after what manner he should teach. For, as
+   long before us Gregory Nazianzen,[99] of reverend memory, has
+   taught, one and the same exhortation does not suit all, inasmuch as
+   all are not bound together by similarity of character. For the
+   things that profit some often hurt others; seeing that also, for
+   the most part, herbs which nourish some animals are fatal to
+   others; and the gentle hissing that quiets horses incites whelps;
+   and the medicine which abates one disease aggravates another; and
+   the food which invigorates the life of the strong kills little
+   children. Therefore, according to the quality of the hearers ought
+   the discourse of teachers to be fashioned, so as to suit all and
+   each for their several needs, and yet never deviate from the art
+   of common edification. For what are the intent minds of hearers
+   but, so to speak, a kind of harp, which the skilful player, in
+   order to produce a tune possessing harmony, strikes in various
+   ways? And for this reason the strings render back a melodious
+   sound, because they are struck indeed with one quill, but not with
+   one kind of stroke. Whence every teacher also, that he may edify
+   all in the one virtue of charity, ought to touch the hearts of his
+   hearers out of one doctrine, but not with one and the same
+   exhortation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Various classes of hearers to be distinguished]
+
+   Differently to be admonished are these that follow:
+
+   Men and women.
+
+   The poor and the rich.
+
+   The joyful and the sad.
+
+   Prelates and subordinates.
+
+   Servants and masters.
+
+   The wise of this world and the dull.
+
+   The impudent and the bashful.
+
+   The forward and the faint-hearted.
+
+   The impatient and the patient.
+
+   The kindly disposed and the envious.
+
+   The simple and the insincere.
+
+   The whole and the sick.
+
+   Those who fear scourges, and therefore live innocently; and those
+   who have grown so hard in iniquity as not to be corrected even by
+   scourges.
+
+   The too silent, and those who spend time in much speaking.
+
+   The slothful and the hasty.
+
+   The meek and the passionate.
+
+   The humble and the haughty.
+
+   The obstinate and the fickle.
+
+   The gluttonous and the abstinent.
+
+   Those who mercifully give of their own, and those who would fain
+   seize what belongs to others.
+
+   Those who neither seize the things of others nor are bountiful
+   with their own; and those who both give away the things they have,
+   and yet cease not to seize the things of others.
+
+   Those who are at variance, and those who are at peace.
+
+   Lovers of strife and peacemakers.
+
+   Those who understand not aright the words of sacred law; and those
+   who understand them indeed aright, but speak them without humility.
+
+   Those who, though able to preach worthily, are afraid through
+   excessive humility; and those whom imperfection or age debars from
+   preaching, and yet rashness impels to it.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the wise and the dull are to be admonished]
+
+   (Admonition 7)[100]. Differently to be admonished are the wise of
+   this world and the dull. For the wise are to be admonished that
+   they leave off knowing what they know[101]; the dull also are to be
+   admonished that they seek to know what they know not. In the former
+   this thing first, that they think themselves wise, is to be
+   overcome; in the latter, whatsoever is already known of heavenly
+   wisdom is to be built up; since, being in no wise proud, they have,
+   as it were, prepared their hearts for supporting a building. With
+   those we should labor that they become more wisely foolish[102],
+   leave foolish wisdom, and learn the wise foolishness of God: to
+   these we should preach that from what is accounted foolishness
+   they should pass, as from a nearer neighborhood, to true wisdom.
+
+     [Sidenote: Emphasis on the importance of setting a right example]
+
+   But in the midst of these things we are brought back by the earnest
+   desire of charity to what we have already said above; that every
+   preacher should give forth a sound more by his deeds than by his
+   words, and rather by good living imprint footsteps for men to
+   follow than by speaking show them the way to walk in. For that
+   cock, too, whom the Lord in his manner of speech takes to represent
+   a good preacher, when he is now preparing to crow, first shakes his
+   wings, and by smiting himself makes himself more awake; since it is
+   surely necessary that those who give utterance to words of holy
+   preaching should first be well awake in earnestness of good living,
+   lest they arouse others with their voice while themselves torpid in
+   performance; that they should first shake themselves up by lofty
+   deeds, and then make others solicitous for good living; that they
+   should first smite themselves with the wings of their thoughts;
+   that whatsoever in themselves is unprofitably torpid they should
+   discover by anxious investigation, and correct by strict
+   self-discipline, and then at length set in order the life of others
+   by speaking; that they should take heed to punish their own faults
+   by bewailings, and then denounce what calls for punishment in
+   others; and that, before they give voice to words of exhortation,
+   they should proclaim in their deeds all that they are about to
+   speak.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[88] John Alzog. _Manual of Universal Church History_ (trans, by F. J.
+Pabisch and T. S. Byrne), Cincinnati, 1899, Vol. I., p. 668.
+
+[89] That is, the passage of Scripture read just before the sermon.
+
+[90] "See" is a term employed to designate a bishop's jurisdiction.
+According to common belief Peter had been bishop of Rome; his see was
+therefore that which Leo now held.
+
+[91] The anniversary of Leo's elevation to the papal office.
+
+[92] That is, the body of monks residing in the monastery.
+
+[93] The vow of poverty which must be taken by every Benedictine monk
+meant only that he must not acquire property individually. By gifts of
+land and by their own labor the monks became in many cases immensely
+rich, but their wealth was required to be held in common. No one man
+could rightfully call any part of it his own.
+
+[94] The converse of this principle was often affirmed by Benedictines
+in the saying, "To work is to pray."
+
+[95] The Bible and the writings of such Church fathers as Lactantius,
+Tertullian, Origen, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, Eusebius, and St.
+Jerome.
+
+[96] The first day of the month.
+
+[97] Thus the ordinary daily programme during the spring and summer
+months would be: from six o'clock until ten, manual labor; from ten
+until twelve, reading; at twelve, the midday meal; after this meal
+until the second one about half past two, rest and reading; and from
+the second meal until evening, labor. Manual labor was principally
+agricultural.
+
+[98] Gregory's remarks and instructions in the _Pastoral Rule_ were
+intended to apply primarily to the local priests--the humble pastors
+of whom we hear little, but upon whose piety and diligence ultimately
+depended the whole influence of the Church upon the masses of the
+people. The general principles laid down, however, were applicable to
+all the clergy, of whatever rank.
+
+[99] Gregory, bishop of Nazianzus (in Cappadocia), was a noted
+churchman of the fourth century.
+
+[100] After enumerating quite a number of other contrasted groups in
+the foregoing fashion Gregory proceeds in a series of "admonitions" to
+take up each pair and tell how persons belonging to it should be dealt
+with by the pastor. One of these admonitions is here given as a
+specimen.
+
+[101] Gregory's attitude toward the "learning of the world,"
+especially the classical languages and literatures, was that of the
+typical Christian ascetic. He had no use for it personally and
+regarded its influence as positively harmful. It must be said that
+there was little such learning in his day, for the old Latin and Greek
+culture had now reached a very low stage. Gregory took the ground that
+the churches should have learned bishops, but their learning was to
+consist exclusively in a knowledge of the Scriptures, the writings of
+the Church fathers, and the stories of the martyrs. As a matter of
+fact not only were the people generally quite unable to understand the
+Latin services of the Church, but great numbers of the clergy
+themselves stumbled blindly through the ritual without knowing what
+they were saying; and this condition of things prevailed for centuries
+after Gregory's day. [See Charlemagne's letter _De Litteris Colendis_,
+p. 146.]
+
+[102] That is, more simple and less self-satisfied in their own
+knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM
+
+
+13. Selections from the Koran
+
+The Koran comprises all of the recorded speeches and sayings of the
+prophet Mohammed and it has for nearly fifteen centuries been the
+absolute law and gospel of the Mohammedan religion. The teachings and
+revelations which are contained in it are believed by Mohammedans to
+have proceeded directly from God. They were delivered orally by
+Mohammed from time to time in the presence of his followers and until
+after the prophet's death in 632 no attempt was made to put them in
+organized written form. Many of the disciples, however, remembered the
+words their master had uttered, at least until they could inscribe
+them on palm leaves, bits of wood, bleached bones, or other such
+articles as happened to be at hand. In the reign of Abu-Bekr
+(632-634), Mohammed's successor, it became apparent that unless some
+measure was adopted to bring these scattered sayings together they
+were in a fair way to be lost for all time to come. Hence the caliph
+intrusted to a certain young man by the name of Zaid the task of
+collecting and putting in some sort of system all the teachings that
+had survived, whether in written form or merely in the minds of men.
+Zaid had served Mohammed in a capacity which we should designate
+perhaps as that of secretary, and so should have been well qualified
+for the work. In later years (about 660) the Koran, or "the reading,"
+as the collection began to be called, was again thoroughly revised.
+Thereafter all older copies were destroyed and no farther changes in
+any respect were ever made.
+
+The Koran is made up of one hundred and fourteen chapters, called
+_surahs_, arranged loosely in the order of their length, beginning
+with the longest. This arrangement does not correspond either to the
+dates at which the various passages were uttered by the prophet or to
+any sequence of thought and meaning, so that when one takes up the
+book to read it as it is ordinarily printed it seems about as confused
+as anything can well be. Scholars, however, have recently discovered
+the chronological order of the various parts and this knowledge has
+already come to be of no little assistance in the work of
+interpretation. Like all sacred books, the Koran abounds in
+repetitions; yet, taken all in all, it contains not more than
+two-thirds as many verses as the New Testament, and, as one writer has
+rather curiously observed, it is not more than one-third as lengthy as
+the ordinary Sunday edition of the New York _Herald_. The teachings
+which are most emphasized are (1) the unity and greatness of God, (2)
+the sin of worshipping idols, (3) the certainty of the resurrection of
+the body and the last judgment, (4) the necessity of a belief in the
+Scriptures as revelations from God communicated through angels to the
+line of prophets, (5) the luxuries of heaven and the torments of hell,
+(6) the doctrine of predestination, (7) the authoritativeness of
+Mohammed's teachings, and (8) the four cardinal obligations of worship
+(including purification and prayer), fasting, pilgrimages, and
+alms-giving. Intermingled with these are numerous popular legends and
+sayings of the Arabs before Mohammed's day, stories from the Old and
+New Testaments derived from Jewish and Christian settlers in Arabia,
+and certain definite and practical rules of everyday conduct. The book
+is not only thus haphazard in subject-matter but it is also very
+irregular in interest and elegance. Portions of it abound in splendid
+imagery and lofty conceptions, and represent the literary quality of
+the Arabian language at its best, though of course this quality is
+very largely lost in translation. The later surahs--those which appear
+first in the printed copy--are largely argumentative and legislative
+in character and naturally fall into a more prosaic and monotonous
+strain. From an almost inexhaustible maze of precepts, exhortations,
+and revelations, the following widely separated passages have been
+selected in the hope that they will serve to show something of the
+character of the Koran itself, as well as the nature of some of the
+more important Mohammedan beliefs and ideals. It will be found
+profitable to make a comparison of Christian beliefs on the same
+points as drawn from the New Testament.
+
+     Source--Text in Edward William Lane, _Selections from the
+     Kur-an_, edited by Stanley Lane-Poole (London, 1879),
+     _passim_.
+
+   In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
+
+     [Sidenote: The opening prayer[103]]
+
+     Praise be to God, the Lord of the Worlds,
+     The Compassionate, the Merciful,
+     The King of the day of judgment.
+     Thee do we worship, and of Thee seek we help.
+     Guide us in the right way,
+     The way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious,
+     Not of those with whom Thou art wroth, nor of the erring.[104]
+
+         Say, He is God, One [God];
+         God, the Eternal.
+         He begetteth not nor is begotten,
+         And there is none equal unto Him.[105]
+
+     [Sidenote: The "throne verse"]
+
+   God! There is no God but He, the _Ever_-living, the
+   Ever-Subsisting. Slumber seizeth Him not, nor sleep. To Him
+   belongeth whatsoever is in the Heavens and whatsoever is in the
+   Earth. Who is he that shall intercede with Him, unless by His
+   permission? He knoweth what [hath been] before them and what [shall
+   be] after them, and they shall not compass aught of His knowledge
+   save what He willeth. His Throne comprehendeth the Heavens and the
+   Earth, and the care of them burdeneth Him not. And He is the High,
+   The Great.[106]
+
+     [Sidenote: The day of resurrection]
+
+     When the earth is shaken with her shaking,
+     And the earth hath cast forth her dead,
+     And man shall say, 'What aileth her?'
+     On that day shall she tell out her tidings,
+     Because thy Lord hath inspired her,
+     On that day shall men come one by one to behold their works,
+     And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of good shall
+       behold it,
+     And whosoever shall have wrought an ant's weight of ill shall
+       behold it.
+
+     [Sidenote: The coming judgment]
+
+     When the heaven shall be cloven asunder,
+     And when the stars shall be scattered,
+     And when the seas shall be let loose,
+     And when the graves shall be turned upside-down,[107]
+     _Every_ soul shall know what it hath done and left undone.
+     O man! what hath seduced thee from thy generous Lord,
+     Who created thee and fashioned thee and disposed thee aright?
+     In the form which pleased Him hath He fashioned thee.
+     Nay, but ye treat the Judgment as a lie.
+     Verily there are watchers over you,
+     Worthy recorders,
+     Knowing what ye do.
+     Verily in delight shall the righteous dwell;
+     And verily the wicked in Hell [-Fire];
+     They shall be burnt at it on the day of doom,
+     And they shall not be hidden from it.
+     And what shall teach thee what the Day of Judgment is?
+     Again: What shall teach thee what is the Day of Judgment?
+     _It is_ a day when one soul shall be powerless for another soul;
+       and all on that day shall be in the hands of God.
+
+     [Sidenote: The reward of the righteous]
+
+     When one blast shall be blown on the trumpet,
+     And the earth shall be raised and the mountains, and be broken to
+       dust with one breaking,
+     On that day the Calamity shall come to pass:
+     And the heavens shall cleave asunder, being frail on that day,
+     And the angels on the sides thereof; and over them on that day
+       eight _of the angels_ shall bear the throne of thy Lord.
+     On that day ye shall be presented _for the reckoning_; none of
+       your secrets shall be hidden.
+     And as to him who shall have his book[108] given to him in his
+       right hand, he shall say, 'Take ye, read my book;'
+     Verily I was sure I should come to my reckoning.
+     And his [shall be] a pleasant life
+     In a lofty garden,
+     Whose clusters [shall be] near at hand.
+     'Eat ye and drink with benefit on account of that which ye paid
+       beforehand in the past days.'
+
+     [Sidenote: The fate of the wicked]
+
+     But as to him who shall have his book given to him in his left
+       hand, he shall say, 'O would that I had not had my book given
+       to me,
+     Nor known what [was] my reckoning!
+     O would that _my death_ had been the ending _of me_!
+     My wealth hath not profited me!
+     My power is passed from me!'
+     'Take him and chain him,
+     Then cast him into hell to be burnt,
+     Then in a chain of seventy cubits bind him:
+     For he believed not in God, the Great,
+     Nor urged to feed the poor;
+     Therefore he shall not have here this day a friend,
+     Nor any food save filth
+     Which none but the sinners shall eat.'
+
+     [Sidenote: "The preceders"]
+
+     When the Calamity shall come to pass
+     There shall not be _a soul_ that will deny its happening,
+     [It will be] an abaser _of some_, an exalter _of others_;
+     When the earth shall be shaken with a _violent_ shaking,
+     And the mountains shall be crumbled with a violent crumbling,
+     And shall become fine dust scattered abroad;
+     And ye shall be three classes.[109]
+     And the people of the right hand, what shall be the people of the
+       right hand!
+     And the people of the left hand, what the people of the left hand!
+     And the Preceders, the Preceders![110]
+     These [shall be] the brought-nigh [unto God]
+     In the gardens of delight,--
+     A crowd of the former generations,
+     And a few of the latter generations,
+     Upon inwrought couches,
+     Reclining thereon, face to face.
+     Youths ever-young shall go unto them round about
+     With goblets and ewers and a cup of flowing wine,
+     Their [heads] shall ache not with it, neither shall they be
+       drunken;
+     And with fruits of the [sorts] which they shall choose,
+     And the flesh of birds of the [kinds] which they shall desire.
+     And damsels with eyes like pearls laid up
+     _We will give them_ as a reward for that which they have done.
+     Therein shall they hear no vain discourse nor accusation of sin,
+     But [only] the saying, 'Peace! Peace!'
+
+     [Sidenote: The pleasures of paradise]
+
+     And the people of the right hand--what [shall be] the people of
+       the right hand!
+     [They shall dwell] among lote-trees without thorns
+     And bananas loaded with fruit,
+     And a shade _ever-spread_,
+     And water _ever_-flowing,
+     And fruits abundant
+     Unstayed and unforbidden,[111]
+     And couches raised.[112]
+     Verily we have created them[113] by a [peculiar] creation,
+     And have made them virgins,
+     Beloved of their husbands, of equal age [with them],
+     For the people of the right hand,
+     A crowd of the former generations
+     And a crowd of the latter generations.
+
+     [Sidenote: The torments of hell]
+
+     And the people of the left hand--what [shall be] the people of
+       the left hand!
+     [They shall dwell] amidst burning wind and scalding water,
+     And a shade of blackest smoke,
+     Not cool and not grateful.
+     For before this they were blest with worldly goods,
+     And they persisted in heinous sin,
+     And said, 'When we shall have died and become dust and bones,
+       shall we indeed be raised to life,
+     And our fathers the former generations?'
+     Say, verily the former and the latter generations
+     Shall be gathered together for the appointed time of a known day.
+     Then ye, O ye erring, belying [people],
+     Shall surely eat of the tree of Ez-Zakkoom,[114]
+     And fill therewith [your] stomachs,
+     And drink thereon boiling water,
+     And ye shall drink as thirsty camels drink.--
+     This [shall be] their entertainment on the day of retribution.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[103] This prayer of the Mohammedans corresponds in a way to the
+Lord's Prayer of Christian peoples. It is recited several times in
+each of the five daily prayers, and on numerous other occasions.
+
+[104] The petition is for guidance in the "right way" of the
+Mohammedan, marked out in the Koran. By those with whom God is
+"wroth," and by the "erring," is meant primarily the Jews. Mohammed
+regarded the Jews and Christians as having corrupted the true
+religion.
+
+[105] "This chapter is held in particular veneration by the
+Mohammedans and is declared, by a tradition of their prophet, to be
+equal in value to a third part of the whole Koran."--Sale, quoted in
+Lane, _Selections from the Kur-an_, p. 5.
+
+[106] This passage, known as the "throne verse," is regarded by
+Mohammedans as one of the most precious in the Koran and is often
+recited at the end of the five daily prayers. It is sometimes engraved
+on a precious stone or an ornament of gold and worn as an amulet.
+
+[107] These are all to be signs of the day of judgment.
+
+[108] The record of his deeds during life on earth.
+
+[109] The three classes are: (1) the "preceeders," (2) the people of
+the right hand, i.e., the good, and (3) the people of the left hand,
+i.e., the evil. The future state of each of the three is described in
+the lines that follow.
+
+[110] "Either the first converts to Mohammedanism, or the prophets,
+who were the respective leaders of their people, or any persons who
+have been eminent examples of piety and virtue, may be here intended.
+The original words literally rendered are, _The Leaders, The Leaders_:
+which repetition, as some suppose, was designed to express the dignity
+of these persons and the certainty of their future glory and
+happiness."--Sale, quoted in Wherry, _Comprehensive Commentary on the
+Qur-an_, Vol. IV., pp. 109-110.
+
+[111] The luxuries of paradise--the flowing rivers, the fragrant
+flowers, the delicious fruits--are sharply contrasted with the
+conditions of desert life most familiar to Mohammed's early converts.
+Such a description of the land of the blessed must have appealed
+strongly to the imaginative Arabs. It should be said that in the
+modern Mohammedan idea of heaven the spiritual element has a rather
+more prominent place.
+
+[112] Lofty beds.
+
+[113] The "damsels of paradise."
+
+[114] A scrubby bush bearing fruit like almonds, and extremely bitter.
+It was familiar to Arabs and hence was made to stand as a type of the
+tree whose fruit the wicked must eat in the lower world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY OF FRANKISH KINGS
+
+
+14. Pepin the Short Takes the Title of King (751)
+
+During the seventh and eighth centuries the Merovingian line of
+Frankish kings degenerated to a condition of weakness both pitiable
+and ridiculous. As the royal family became less worthy, the powers of
+government gradually slipped from its hands into those of a series of
+ministers commonly known by the title of Mayor of the Palace (_Maior
+Domus_). The most illustrious of these uncrowned sovereigns was
+Charles Martel, the victor over the Saracens near Poitiers, in whose
+time the Frankish throne for four years had no occupant at all. Martel
+contrived to make his peculiar office hereditary, and at his death in
+741 left it to be filled jointly by his two elder sons, Karlmann and
+Pepin the Short. They decided that it would be to their interest to
+keep up the show of Merovingian royalty a little longer and in 743
+allowed Childeric III. to mount the throne--a weakling destined to be
+the last of his family to wear the Frankish crown. Four years later
+Karlmann renounced his office and withdrew to the monastery of Monte
+Cassino, southeast of Rome, leaving Pepin sole "mayor" and the only
+real ruler of the Franks. Before many more years had passed, the utter
+uselessness of keeping up a royal line whose members were notoriously
+unfit to govern had impressed itself upon the nation to such an extent
+that when Pepin proceeded to put young Childeric in a monastery and
+take the title of king for himself, nobody offered the slightest
+objection. The sanction of the Pope was obtained for the act because
+Pepin thought that his course would thus be made to appear less like
+an outright usurpation. The Pope's reward came four years later when
+Pepin bestowed upon him the lands in northern and central Italy which
+eventually constituted, in the main, the so-called States of the
+Church. In later times, after the reign of Pepin's famous son
+Charlemagne, the new dynasty established by Pepin's elevation to the
+throne came to be known as the Carolingian (from _Karolus_, or
+Charles).
+
+The following account of the change from the Merovingian to the
+Carolingian line is taken from the so-called _Lesser Annals of
+Lorsch_. At the monastery of Lorsch, as at nearly every other such
+place in the Middle Ages, records or "annals" of one sort or another
+were pretty regularly kept. They were often very inaccurate and their
+writers had a curious way of filling up space with matters of little
+importance, but sometimes, as in the present instance, we can get from
+them some very interesting information. The monastery of Lorsch was
+about twelve miles distant from Heidelberg, in southern Germany.
+
+     Source--_Annales Laurissenses Minores_ ["Lesser Annals of
+     Lorsch"]. Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 116.
+
+   In the year 750[115] of the Lord's incarnation Pepin sent
+   ambassadors to Rome to Pope Zacharias,[116] to inquire concerning
+   the kings of the Franks who, though they were of the royal line and
+   were called kings, had no power in the kingdom, except that
+   charters and privileges were drawn up in their names. They had
+   absolutely no kingly authority, but did whatever the Major Domus of
+   the Franks desired.[117] But on the first day of March in the
+   Campus Martius,[118] according to ancient custom, gifts were
+   offered to these kings by the people, and the king himself sat in
+   the royal seat with the army standing round him and the Major Domus
+   in his presence, and he commanded on that day whatever was decreed
+   by the Franks; but on all other days thenceforward he remained
+   quietly at home. Pope Zacharias, therefore, in the exercise of his
+   apostolic authority, replied to their inquiry that it seemed to him
+   better and more expedient that the man who held power in the
+   kingdom should be called king and be king, rather than he who
+   falsely bore that name. Therefore the aforesaid pope commanded the
+   king and people of the Franks that Pepin, who was exercising royal
+   power, should be called king, and should be established on the
+   throne. This was therefore done by the anointing of the holy
+   archbishop Boniface in the city of Soissons. Pepin was proclaimed
+   king, and Childeric, who was falsely called king, was shaved and
+   sent into a monastery.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[115] The date is almost certainly wrong. Pepin was first acknowledged
+king by the Frankish nobles assembled at Soissons in November, 751. It
+was probably in 751 (possibly 752) that Pope Zacharias was consulted.
+In 754 Pepin was crowned king by Pope Stephen III., successor of
+Zacharias, who journeyed to France especially for the purpose.
+
+[116] Zacharias was pope from 741 to 752.
+
+[117] Einhard, the secretary of Charlemagne [see p. 108], in writing a
+biography of his master, described the condition of Merovingian
+kingship as follows: "All the resources and power of the kingdom had
+passed into the control of the prefects of the palace, who were called
+the 'mayors of the palace,' and who exercised the supreme authority.
+Nothing was left to the king. He had to content himself with his royal
+title, his flowing locks, and long beard. Seated in a chair of state,
+he was wont to display an appearance of power by receiving foreign
+ambassadors on their arrival, and, on their departure, giving them, as
+if on his own authority, those answers which he had been taught or
+commanded to give. Thus, except for his empty title, and an uncertain
+allowance for his sustenance, which the prefect of the palace used to
+furnish at his pleasure, there was nothing that the king could call
+his own, unless it were the income from a single farm, and that a very
+small one, where he made his home, and where such servants as were
+needful to wait on him constituted his scanty household. When he went
+anywhere he traveled in a wagon drawn by a yoke of oxen, with a rustic
+oxherd for charioteer. In this manner he proceeded to the palace, and
+to the public assemblies of the people held every year for the
+dispatch of the business of the kingdom, and he returned home again in
+the same sort of state. The administration of the kingdom, and every
+matter which had to be undertaken and carried through, both at home
+and abroad, was managed by the mayor of the palace."--Einhard, _Vita
+Caroli Magni_, Chap. 1.
+
+[118] See p. 52, note 1.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE
+
+
+15. Charlemagne the Man
+
+Biographical writings make up a not inconsiderable part of mediaeval
+literature, but unfortunately the greater portion of them are to be
+trusted in only a limited degree by the student of history. Many
+biographies, especially the lives of the saints and other noted
+Christian leaders, were prepared expressly for the purpose of giving
+the world concrete examples of how men ought to live. Their authors,
+therefore, were apt to relate only the good deeds of the persons about
+whom they wrote, and these were often much exaggerated for the sake of
+effect. The people of the time generally were superstitious and easily
+appealed to by strange stories and the recital of marvelous events.
+They were not critical, and even such of them as were able to read at
+all could be made to believe almost anything that the writers of books
+cared to say. And since these writers themselves shared in the
+superstition and credulousness of the age, naturally such biographies
+as were written abounded in tales which anybody to-day would know at a
+glance could not be true. To all this Einhard's _Life of Charles the
+Great_ stands as a notable exception. It has its inaccuracies, but it
+still deserves to be ranked almost in a class of its own as a
+trustworthy biographical contribution to our knowledge of the earlier
+Middle Ages.
+
+Einhard (or Eginhard) was a Frank, born about 770 near the Odenwald in
+Franconia. After being educated at the monastery of Fulda he was
+presented at the Frankish court, some time between 791 and 796, where
+he remained twenty years as secretary and companion of the king, and
+later emperor, Charlemagne. He was made what practically corresponds
+to a modern minister of public works and in that capacity is thought
+to have supervised the building of the palace and basilica of the
+temple at Aachen, the palace of Ingelheim, the bridge over the Rhine
+at Mainz, and many other notable constructions of the king, though
+regarding the precise work of this sort which he did there is a
+general lack of definite proof. Despite the fact that he was a layman,
+he was given charge of a number of abbeys. His last years were spent
+at the Benedictine monastery of Seligenstadt, where he died about 840.
+There is a legend that Einhard's wife, Emma, was a daughter of
+Charlemagne, but this is to be regarded as merely a twelfth-century
+invention.
+
+The _Vita Caroli Magni_ was written as an expression of the author's
+gratitude to his royal friend and patron, though it did not appear
+until shortly after the latter's death in 814. "It contains the
+history of a very great and distinguished man," says Einhard in his
+preface, "but there is nothing in it to wonder at, besides his deeds,
+except the fact that I, who am a barbarian, and very little versed in
+the Roman language, seem to suppose myself capable of writing
+gracefully and respectably in Latin." It is considered ordinarily that
+Einhard endeavored to imitate the style of the Roman Suetonius, the
+biographer of the first twelve Caesars, though in reality his writing
+is perhaps superior to that of Suetonius and there are scholars who
+hold that if he really followed a classical model at all that model
+was Julius Caesar. Aside from the matter of literary style, there can
+be no reasonable doubt that the idea of writing a biography of his
+master was suggested to Einhard by the biographies of Suetonius,
+particularly that of the Emperor Augustus. Despite his limitations,
+says Mr. Hodgkin, the fact remains that "almost all our real,
+vivifying knowledge of Charles the Great is derived from Einhard, and
+that the _Vita Caroli_ is one of the most precious literary bequests
+of the early Middle Ages."[119] Certainly few mediaeval writers had so
+good an opportunity as did Einhard to know the truth about the persons
+and events they undertook to describe.
+
+     Source--Einhard, _Vita Caroli Magni_ ["Life of Charles the
+     Great"], Chaps. 22-27. Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica,
+     Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 455-457. Adapted from
+     translation by Samuel Epes Turner in "Harper's School
+     Classics" (New York, 1880), pp. 56-65.
+
+     [Sidenote: Personal appearance]
+
+   =22.= Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though
+   not excessively tall. The upper part of his head was round, his
+   eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair auburn, and
+   face laughing and merry. His appearance was always stately and
+   dignified, whether he was standing or sitting, although his neck
+   was thick and somewhat short and his abdomen rather prominent. The
+   symmetry of the rest of his body concealed these defects. His gait
+   was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so
+   strong as his size led one to expect. His health was excellent,
+   except during the four years preceding his death, when he was
+   subject to frequent fevers; toward the end of his life he limped a
+   little with one foot. Even in his later years he lived rather
+   according to his own inclinations than the advice of physicians;
+   the latter indeed he very much disliked, because they wanted him to
+   give up roasts, to which he was accustomed, and to eat boiled meat
+   instead. In accordance with the national custom, he took frequent
+   exercise on horseback and in the chase, in which sports scarcely
+   any people in the world can equal the Franks. He enjoyed the vapors
+   from natural warm springs, and often indulged in swimming, in which
+   he was so skilful that none could surpass him; and hence it was
+   that he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and lived there
+   constantly during his later years....[120]
+
+     [Sidenote: Manner of dress]
+
+   =23.= His custom was to wear the national, that is to say, the
+   Frankish, dress--next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches,
+   and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by
+   bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet. In winter he
+   protected his shoulders and chest by a close-fitting coat of otter
+   or marten skins. Over all he flung a blue cloak, and he always had
+   a sword girt about him, usually one with a gold or silver hilt and
+   belt. He sometimes carried a jeweled sword, but only on great
+   feast-days or at the reception of ambassadors from foreign nations.
+   He despised foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed
+   himself to be robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned
+   the Roman tunic, chlamys,[121] and shoes; the first time at the
+   request of Pope Hadrian,[122] the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian's
+   successor.[123] On great feast-days he made use of embroidered
+   clothes, and shoes adorned with precious stones; his cloak was
+   fastened with a golden buckle, and he appeared crowned with a
+   diadem of gold and gems; but on other days his dress differed
+   little from that of ordinary people.
+
+     [Sidenote: Every-day life]
+
+   =24.= Charles was temperate in eating, and especially so in
+   drinking, for he abhorred drunkenness in anybody, much more in
+   himself and those of his household; but he could not easily abstain
+   from food, and often complained that fasts injured his health. He
+   gave entertainments but rarely, only on great feast-days, and then
+   to large numbers of people. His meals consisted ordinarily of four
+   courses, not counting the roast, which his huntsmen were accustomed
+   to bring in on the spit; he was more fond of this than of any other
+   dish. While at table, he listened to reading or music. The subjects
+   of the readings were the stories and deeds of olden time. He was
+   fond, too, of St. Augustine's books, and especially of the one
+   entitled _The City of God_.[124] He was so moderate in the use of
+   wine and all sorts of drink that he rarely allowed himself more
+   than three cups in the course of a meal. In summer, after the
+   midday meal, he would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off
+   his clothes and shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for
+   two or three hours. While he was dressing and putting on his shoes,
+   he not only gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the
+   Palace[125] told him of any suit in which his judgment was
+   necessary, he had the parties brought before him forthwith, heard
+   the case, and gave his decision, just as if he were sitting in the
+   judgment-seat. This was not the only business that he transacted at
+   this time, but he performed any duty of the day whatever, whether
+   he had to attend to the matter himself, or to give commands
+   concerning it to his officers.
+
+     [Sidenote: Education and accomplishments]
+
+   =25.= Charles had the gift of ready and fluent speech, and could
+   express whatever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He was
+   not satisfied with ability to use his native language merely, but
+   gave attention to the study of foreign ones, and in particular was
+   such a master of Latin that he could speak it as well as his native
+   tongue; but he could understand Greek better than he could speak
+   it. He was so eloquent, indeed, that he might have been taken for a
+   teacher of oratory. He most zealously cherished the liberal arts,
+   held those who taught them in great esteem, and conferred great
+   honors upon them. He took lessons in grammar of the deacon Peter of
+   Pisa, at that time an aged man.[126] Another deacon, Albin of
+   Britain, surnamed Alcuin, a man of Saxon birth, who was the
+   greatest scholar of the day, was his teacher in other branches of
+   learning.[127] The king spent much time and labor with him studying
+   rhetoric, dialectic, and especially astronomy. He learned to make
+   calculations, and used to investigate with much curiosity and
+   intelligence the motions of the heavenly bodies. He also tried to
+   write, and used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under his pillow,
+   that at leisure hours he might accustom his hand to form the
+   letters; however, as he began his efforts late in life, and not at
+   the proper time, they met with little success.
+
+     [Sidenote: Interest in religion and the Church]
+
+   =26.= He cherished with the greatest fervor and devotion the
+   principles of the Christian religion, which had been instilled into
+   him from infancy. Hence it was that he built the beautiful basilica
+   at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he adorned with gold and silver and
+   lamps, and with rails and doors of solid brass. He had the columns
+   and marbles for this structure brought from Rome and Ravenna, for
+   he could not find such as were suitable elsewhere.[128] He was a
+   constant worshipper at this church as long as his health permitted,
+   going morning and evening, even after nightfall, besides attending
+   mass. He took care that all the services there conducted should be
+   held in the best possible manner, very often warning the sextons
+   not to let any improper or unclean thing be brought into the
+   building, or remain in it. He provided it with a number of sacred
+   vessels of gold and silver, and with such a quantity of clerical
+   robes that not even the door-keepers, who filled the humblest
+   office in the church, were obliged to wear their everyday clothes
+   when in the performance of their duties. He took great pains to
+   improve the church reading and singing, for he was well skilled in
+   both, although he neither read in public nor sang, except in a low
+   tone and with others.
+
+     [Sidenote: Generosity and charities]
+
+   =27.= He was very active in aiding the poor, and in that open
+   generosity which the Greeks call alms; so much so, indeed, that he
+   not only made a point of giving in his own country and his own
+   kingdom, but when he discovered that there were Christians living
+   in poverty in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexandria,
+   and Carthage, he had compassion on their wants, and used to send
+   money over the seas to them. The reason that he earnestly strove to
+   make friends with the kings beyond seas was that he might get help
+   and relief to the Christians living under their rule. He cared for
+   the Church Of St. Peter the Apostle at Rome above all other holy
+   and sacred places, and heaped high its treasury with a vast wealth
+   of gold, silver, and precious stones. He sent great and countless
+   gifts to the popes;[129] and throughout his whole reign the wish
+   that he had nearest his heart was to re-establish the ancient
+   authority of the city of Rome under his care and by his influence,
+   and to defend and protect the Church of St. Peter, and to beautify
+   and enrich it out of his own store above all other churches.
+   Nevertheless, although he held it in such veneration, only four
+   times[130] did he repair to Rome to pay his vows and make his
+   supplications during the whole forty-seven years that he
+   reigned.[131]
+
+
+16. The War with the Saxons (772-803)
+
+When Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Franks, in 771, he found his
+kingdom pretty well hemmed in by a belt of kindred, though more or
+less hostile, Germanic peoples. The most important of these were the
+Visigoths in northern Spain, the Lombards in the Po Valley, the
+Bavarians in the region of the upper Danube, and the Saxons between
+the Rhine and the Elbe. The policy of the new king, perhaps only dimly
+outlined at the beginning of the reign but growing ever more definite
+as time went on, was to bring all of these neighboring peoples under
+the Frankish dominion, and so to build up a great state which should
+include the whole Germanic race of western and northern continental
+Europe. Most of the king's time during the first thirty years, or
+two-thirds, of the reign was devoted to this stupendous task. The
+first great step was taken in the conquest of the Lombards in 774,
+after which Charlemagne assumed the title of King of the Lombards. In
+787 Bavaria was annexed to the Frankish kingdom, the settlement in
+this case being in the nature of a complete absorption rather than a
+mere personal union such as followed the Lombard conquest. The next
+year an expedition across the Pyrenees resulted in the annexation of
+the Spanish March--a region in which the Visigoths had managed to
+maintain some degree of independence against the Saracens. In all
+these directions little fighting was necessary and for one reason or
+another the sovereignty of the Frankish king was recognized without
+much delay or resistance.
+
+The problem of reducing the Saxons was, however, a very different one.
+The Saxons of Charlemagne's day were a people of purest Germanic stock
+dwelling in the land along the Rhine, Ems, Weser, and Elbe, and inland
+as far as the low mountains of Hesse and Thuringia--the regions which
+now bear the names of Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg, and Westphalia.
+The Saxons, influenced as yet scarcely at all by contact with the
+Romans, retained substantially the manner of life described seven
+centuries earlier by Tacitus in the _Germania_. They lived in small
+villages, had only the loosest sort of government, and clung
+tenaciously to the warlike mythology of their ancestors. Before
+Charlemagne's time they had engaged in frequent border wars with the
+Franks and had shown capacity for making very obstinate resistance.
+And when Charlemagne himself undertook to subdue them he entered upon
+a task which kept him busy much of the time for over thirty years,
+that is, from 772 to 803. In all not fewer than eighteen distinct
+campaigns were made into the enemy's territory. The ordinary course
+of events was that Charlemagne would lead his army across the Rhine in
+the spring, the Saxons would make some little resistance and then
+disperse or withdraw toward the Baltic, and the Franks would leave a
+garrison and return home for the winter. As soon as the enemy's back
+was turned the Saxons would rally, expel or massacre the garrison, and
+assert their complete independence of Frankish authority. The next
+year the whole thing would have to be done over again. There were not
+more than two great battles in the entire contest; the war consisted
+rather of a monotonous series of "military parades," apparent
+submissions, revolts, and re-submissions. As Professor Emerton puts
+it, "From the year 772 to 803, a period of over thirty years, this war
+was always on the programme of the Frankish policy, now resting for a
+few years, and now breaking out with increased fury, until finally the
+Saxon people, worn out with the long struggle against a superior foe,
+gave it up and became a part of the Frankish Empire."[132]
+
+It is to be regretted that we have no Saxon account of the great
+contest except the well-meant, but very inadequate, history by
+Widukind, a monk of Corbie, written about the middle of the tenth
+century. However, the following passage from Einhard, the secretary
+and biographer of Charlemagne, doubtless describes with fair accuracy
+the conditions and character of the struggle. A few of the writer's
+strongest statements regarding Saxon perfidy should be accepted only
+with some allowance for Frankish prejudice.
+
+     Source--Einhard, _Vita Caroli Magni_, Chap. 7. Text in
+     _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol.
+     II., pp. 446-447. Adapted from translation by Samuel Epes
+     Turner in "Harper's School Classics" (New York, 1880), pp.
+     26-28.
+
+     [Sidenote: Lack of a natural frontier]
+
+   No war ever undertaken by the Frankish nation was carried on with
+   such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labor, because the
+   Saxons, like almost all the tribes of Germany, were a fierce
+   people, given to the worship of devils and hostile to our religion,
+   and did not consider it dishonorable to transgress and violate all
+   law, human and divine. Then there were peculiar circumstances that
+   tended to cause a breach of peace every day. Except in a few
+   places, where large forests or mountain-ridges intervened and made
+   the boundaries certain, the line between ourselves and the Saxons
+   passed almost in its whole extent through an open country, so that
+   there was no end to the murders, thefts, and arsons on both sides.
+   In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last
+   resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war with
+   the Saxons.
+
+     [Sidenote: Faithlessness of the Saxons]
+
+     [Sidenote: Charlemagne's settlement of Saxons in Gaul and Germany]
+
+     [Sidenote: The terms of peace]
+
+   Accordingly, war was begun against them, and was waged for
+   thirty-three successive years[133] with great fury; more, however,
+   to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could
+   doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been for
+   the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often they
+   were conquered, and, humbly submitting to the king, promised to do
+   what was enjoined upon them, gave without hesitation the required
+   hostages, and received the officers sent them from the king. They
+   were sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised to
+   renounce the worship of devils and to adopt Christianity; but they
+   were no less ready to violate these terms than prompt to accept
+   them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to them to
+   do; scarcely a year passed from the beginning of the war without
+   such changes on their part. But the king did not suffer his high
+   purpose and steadfastness--firm alike in good and evil fortune--to
+   be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be turned from
+   the task that he had undertaken; on the contrary, he never allowed
+   their faithless behavior to go unpunished, but either took the
+   field against them in person, or sent his counts with an army to
+   wreak vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction.[134] At last,
+   after conquering and subduing all who had offered resistance, he
+   took ten thousand of those who lived on the banks of the Elbe, and
+   settled them, with their wives and children, in many different
+   bodies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had lasted
+   so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms
+   offered by the king; which were renunciation of their national
+   religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the
+   sacraments of the Christian religion,[135] and union with the
+   Franks to form one people.
+
+
+17. The Capitulary Concerning the Saxon Territory (cir. 780)
+
+Just as the Saxons were the most formidable of Charlemagne's foes to
+meet and defeat in open battle, so were they the most difficult to
+maintain in anything like orderly allegiance after they had been
+tentatively conquered. This was true in part because of their untamed,
+freedom-loving character, but also in no small measure because of the
+thoroughgoing revolution which the Frankish king sought to work in
+their conditions of life, and especially in their religion. Before the
+Saxon war was far advanced it had very clearly assumed the character
+of a crusade of the Christian Franks against the "pagans of the
+north." And when the Saxon had been brought to give sullen promise of
+submission, it was his dearest possession--his fierce, heroic
+mythology--that was first to be swept away. By the stern decree of the
+conqueror Woden and Thor and Freya must go. In their stead was to be
+set up the Christian religion with its churches, its priests, its
+fastings, its ceremonial observances. Death was to be the penalty for
+eating meat during Lent, if done "out of contempt for Christianity,"
+and death also for "causing the body of a dead man to be burned in
+accordance with pagan rites." Even for merely scorning "to come to
+baptism," or "wishing to remain a pagan," a man was to forfeit his
+life. The selections which follow are taken from the capitulary _De
+Partibus Saxoniae_, which was issued by Charlemagne probably at the
+Frankish assembly held at Paderborn in 780. If this date is correct
+(and it cannot be far wrong) the regulations embodied in the
+capitulary were established for the Saxon territories when there
+perhaps seemed to be a good prospect of peace but when, as later
+events showed, there yet remained twenty-three years of war before the
+final subjugation. From the beginning of the struggle the Church had
+been busy setting up new centers of influence--some abbeys and
+especially the great bishoprics of Bremen, Minden, Paderborn, Verden,
+Osnabrueck, and Halberstadt--among the Saxon pagans, and the primary
+object of Charlemagne in this capitulary was to give to these
+ecclesiastical foundations the task of civilizing the country and to
+protect them, together with his counts or governing agents, while they
+should be engaged in this work. The severity of the Saxon war was
+responsible for the unusually stringent character of this body of
+regulations. In 797, at a great assembly at Aix-la-Chapelle, another
+capitulary for the Saxons was issued, known as the _Capitulum
+Saxonicum_, and in this the harsh features of the earlier capitulary
+were considerably relaxed. By 797 the resistance of the Saxons was
+pretty well broken, and it had become Charlemagne's policy to give his
+conquered subjects a government as nearly as possible like that the
+Franks themselves enjoyed. The chief importance of Charlemagne's
+conquests toward the east lies in the fact that by them broad
+stretches of German territory were brought for the first time within
+the pale of civilization.
+
+These capitularies, like the hundreds of others that were issued by
+the various kings of the Franks, were edicts or decrees drawn up under
+the king's direction, discussed and adopted in the assembly of the
+people, and published in the local districts of the kingdom by the
+counts and bishops. They were of a less permanent and fixed character
+than the so-called "leges," or laws established by long usage and
+custom.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 26, pp. 68-70. Translated by Dana
+     C. Munro in _University of Pennsylvania Translations and
+     Reprints_, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 2-5.
+
+   First, concerning the greater chapters it has been enacted:[136]
+
+   It is pleasing to all that the churches of Christ, which are now
+   being built in Saxony and consecrated to God, should not have less,
+   but greater and more illustrious honor than the shrines of the
+   idols have had.
+
+     [Sidenote: The churches as a place of refuge]
+
+   =2.= If any one shall have fled to a church for refuge, let no one
+   presume to expel him from the church by violence, but he shall be
+   left in peace until he shall be brought to the judicial assemblage;
+   and on account of the honor due to God and the saints, and the
+   reverence due to the church itself, let his life and all his
+   members be granted to him. Moreover, let him plead his cause as
+   best he can and he shall be judged; and so let him be led to the
+   presence of the lord king, and the latter shall send him where it
+   shall seem fitting to his clemency.
+
+   =3.= If any one shall have entered a church by violence and shall
+   have carried off anything in it by force or theft, or shall have
+   burned the church itself, let him be punished by death.[137]
+
+     [Sidenote: Offenses against the Church]
+
+   =4.= If any one, out of contempt for Christianity, shall have
+   despised the holy Lenten feast and shall have eaten flesh, let him
+   be punished by death. But, nevertheless, let it be taken into
+   consideration by a priest, lest perchance any one from necessity
+   has been led to eat flesh.[138]
+
+   =5.= If any one shall have killed a bishop or priest or deacon let
+   him likewise be punished capitally.
+
+   =6.= If any one, deceived by the devil, shall have believed, after
+   the manner of the pagans, that any man or woman is a witch and eats
+   men, and on this account shall have burned the person, or shall
+   have given the person's flesh to others to eat, or shall have eaten
+   it himself, let him be punished by a capital sentence.
+
+   =7.= If any one, in accordance with pagan rites, shall have caused
+   the body of a dead man to be burned, and shall have reduced his
+   bones to ashes, let him be punished capitally.
+
+     [Sidenote: Refusal to be baptized]
+
+   =8.= If any one of the race of the Saxons hereafter, concealed
+   among them, shall have wished to hide himself unbaptized, and shall
+   have scorned to come to baptism, and shall have wished to remain a
+   pagan, let him be punished by death.
+
+   =9.= If any one shall have sacrificed a man to the devil, and,
+   after the manner of the pagans, shall have presented him as a
+   victim to the demons, let him be punished by death.
+
+     [Sidenote: Conspiracy against Christians]
+
+   =10.= If any one shall have formed a conspiracy with the pagans
+   against the Christians, or shall have wished to join with them in
+   opposition to the Christians, let him be punished by death; and
+   whosoever shall have consented fraudulently to this same against
+   the king and the Christian people, let him be punished by death.
+
+   =11.= If any one shall have shown himself unfaithful to the lord
+   king, let him be punished with a capital sentence.
+
+   =13.= If any one shall have killed his lord or lady, let him be
+   punished in a like manner.
+
+   =14.= If, indeed, for these mortal crimes secretly committed any
+   one shall have fled of his own accord to a priest, and after
+   confession shall have wished to do penance, let him be freed by the
+   testimony of the priest from death....[139]
+
+     [Sidenote: Observance of the Sabbath and of festival days]
+
+   =18.= On the Lord's day no meetings or public judicial assemblages
+   shall be held, unless perchance in a case of great necessity, or
+   when war compels it, but all shall go to church to hear the word of
+   God, and shall be free for prayers or good works. Likewise, also,
+   on the special festivals they shall devote themselves to God and to
+   the services of the Church, and shall refrain from secular
+   assemblies.
+
+     [Sidenote: Baptism of infants]
+
+   =19.= Likewise, it has been pleasing to insert in these decrees
+   that all infants shall be baptized within a year; and we have
+   decreed this, that if any one shall have refused to bring his
+   infant to baptism within the course of a year, without the advice
+   or permission of the priest, if he is a noble he shall pay 120
+   _solidi_[140] to the treasury; if a freeman, 60; if a _litus_,
+   30.[141]
+
+   =20.= If any one shall have contracted a prohibited or illegal
+   marriage, if a noble, 60 _solidi_; if a freeman, 30; if a _litus_,
+   15.
+
+     [Sidenote: Keeping up heathen rites]
+
+   =21.= If any one shall have made a vow at springs or trees or
+   groves,[142] or shall have made an offering after the manner of the
+   heathen and shall have partaken of a repast in honor of the demons,
+   if he shall be a noble, 60 _solidi_; if a freeman, 30; if a
+   _litus_, 15. If, indeed, they have not the means of paying at once,
+   they shall be given into the service of the Church until the
+   _solidi_ are paid.
+
+   =22.= We command that the bodies of Saxon Christians shall be
+   carried to the church cemeteries, and not to the mounds of the
+   pagans.
+
+   =23.= We have ordered that diviners and soothsayers shall be handed
+   over to the churches and priests.
+
+     [Sidenote: Fugitive criminals]
+
+   =24.= Concerning robbers and malefactors who shall have fled from
+   one county to another, if any one shall receive them into his
+   protection and shall keep them with him for seven nights,[143]
+   except for the purpose of bringing them to justice, let him pay our
+   ban.[144] Likewise, if a count[145] shall have concealed them, and
+   shall be unwilling to bring them forward so that justice may be
+   done, and is not able to excuse himself for this, let him lose his
+   office.
+
+   =26.= No one shall presume to impede any man coming to us to seek
+   justice; and if anyone shall have attempted to do this, he shall
+   pay our ban.
+
+     [Sidenote: Public assemblies]
+
+   =34.= We have forbidden that Saxons shall hold public assemblies in
+   general, unless perchance our _missus_[146] shall have caused them
+   to come together in accordance with our command; but each count
+   shall hold judicial assemblies and administer justice in his
+   jurisdiction. And this shall be cared for by the priests, lest it
+   be done otherwise.[147]
+
+
+18. The Capitulary Concerning the Royal Domains (cir. 800)
+
+The revenues which came into Charlemagne's treasury were derived
+chiefly from his royal domains. There was no system of general
+taxation, such as modern nations maintain, and the funds realized from
+gifts, fines, rents, booty, and tribute money, were quite insufficient
+to meet the needs of the court, modest though they were. Charlemagne's
+interest in his villas, or private farms, was due therefore not less
+to his financial dependence upon them than to his personal liking for
+thrifty agriculture and thoroughgoing administration. The royal
+domains of the Frankish kingdom, already extensive at Charlemagne's
+accession, were considerably increased during his reign. It has been
+well said that Charlemagne was doubtless the greatest landed
+proprietor of the realm and that he "supervised the administration of
+these lands as a sovereign who knows that his power rests partly on
+his riches."[148] He gave the closest personal attention to his
+estates and was always watchful lest he be defrauded out of even the
+smallest portion of their products which was due him. The capitulary
+_De Villis_, from which the following passages have been selected, is
+a lengthy document in which Charlemagne sought to prescribe clearly
+and minutely the manifold duties of the stewards in charge of these
+estates. We may regard it, however, as in the nature of an ideal
+catalogue of what the king would like to have on his domains rather
+than as a definite statement of what was always actually to be found
+there. From it may be gleaned many interesting facts regarding rural
+life in western Europe during the eighth and ninth centuries. Its date
+is uncertain, but it was about 800--possibly somewhat earlier.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 32, pp. 82-91. Translated by
+     Roland P. Falkner in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_,
+     Vol. III., No. 2, pp. 2-4.
+
+     [Sidenote: Report to be made to the king by his stewards each
+     Christmas-tide]
+
+   =62.=[149] We desire that each steward shall make an annual
+   statement of all our income, with an account of our lands
+   cultivated by the oxen which our plowmen drive, and of our lands
+   which the tenants of farms ought to plow;[150] an account of the
+   pigs, of the rents,[151] of the obligations and fines; of the game
+   taken in our forests without our permission; of the various
+   compositions;[152] of the mills, of the forest, of the fields, and
+   of the bridges and ships; of the freemen and the districts under
+   obligations to our treasury; of markets, vineyards, and those who
+   owe wine to us; of the hay, fire-wood, torches, planks, and other
+   kinds of lumber; of the waste-lands; of the vegetables, millet, and
+   panic;[153] and of the wool, flax, and hemp; of the fruits of the
+   trees; of the nut trees, larger and smaller; of the grafted trees
+   of all kinds; of the gardens; of the turnips; of the fish-ponds; of
+   the hides, skins, and horns; of the honey and wax; of the fat,
+   tallow and soap; of the mulberry wine, cooked wine, mead, vinegar,
+   beer, wine new and old; of the new grain and the old; of the hens
+   and eggs; of the geese; of the number of fishermen, smiths,
+   sword-makers, and shoe-makers; of the bins and boxes; of the
+   turners and saddlers; of the forges and mines, that is iron and
+   other mines; of the lead mines; of the colts and fillies. They
+   shall make all these known to us, set forth separately and in
+   order, at Christmas, in order that we may know what and how much of
+   each thing we have.
+
+     [Sidenote: Domestic animals]
+
+   =23.= On each of our estates our stewards are to have as many
+   cow-houses, pig-sties, sheep-folds, stables for goats, as possible,
+   and they ought never to be without these. And let them have in
+   addition cows furnished by our serfs[154] for performing their
+   service, so that the cow-houses and plows shall be in no way
+   diminished by the service on our demesne. And when they have to
+   provide meat, let them have steers lame, but healthy, and cows and
+   horses which are not mangy, or other beasts which are not diseased
+   and, as we have said, our cow-houses and plows are not to be
+   diminished for this.
+
+     [Sidenote: Cleanliness enjoined]
+
+   =34.= They must provide with the greatest care that whatever is
+   prepared or made with the hands, that is, lard, smoked meat, salt
+   meat, partially salted meat, wine, vinegar, mulberry wine, cooked
+   wine, _garns_,[155] mustard, cheese, butter, malt, beer, mead,
+   honey, wax, flour, all should be prepared and made with the
+   greatest cleanliness.
+
+   =40.= That each steward on each of our domains shall always have,
+   for the sake of ornament, swans, peacocks, pheasants, ducks,
+   pigeons, partridges, turtle-doves.
+
+     [Sidenote: Household furniture]
+
+   =42.= That in each of our estates, the chambers shall be provided
+   with counterpanes, cushions, pillows, bed-clothes, coverings for
+   the tables and benches; vessels of brass, lead, iron and wood;
+   andirons, chains, pot-hooks, adzes, axes, augers, cutlasses, and
+   all other kinds of tools, so that it shall never be necessary to go
+   elsewhere for them, or to borrow them. And the weapons, which are
+   carried against the enemy, shall be well-cared for, so as to keep
+   them in good condition; and when they are brought back they shall
+   be placed in the chamber.
+
+   =43.= For our women's work they are to give at the proper time, as
+   has been ordered, the materials, that is the linen, wool,
+   woad,[156] vermilion, madder,[157] wool-combs, teasels,[158] soap,
+   grease, vessels, and the other objects which are necessary.
+
+     [Sidenote: Supplies to be furnished the king]
+
+   =44.= Of the food products other than meat, two-thirds shall be
+   sent each year for our own use, that is of the vegetables, fish,
+   cheese, butter, honey, mustard, vinegar, millet, panic, dried and
+   green herbs, radishes, and in addition of the wax, soap and other
+   small products; and they shall tell us how much is left by a
+   statement, as we have said above; and they shall not neglect this
+   as in the past; because from those two-thirds, we wish to know how
+   much remains.
+
+     [Sidenote: Workmen on the estates]
+
+   =45.= That each steward shall have in his district good workmen,
+   namely, blacksmiths, gold-smith, silver-smith, shoe-makers,
+   turners, carpenters, sword-makers, fishermen, foilers, soap-makers,
+   men who know how to make beer, cider, berry, and all the other
+   kinds of beverages, bakers to make pastry for our table, net-makers
+   who know how to make nets for hunting, fishing and fowling, and the
+   others who are too numerous to be designated.
+
+
+19. An Inventory of One of Charlemagne's Estates
+
+In the following inventory we have a specimen of the annual statements
+required by Charlemagne from the stewards on his royal domains. The
+location of Asnapium is unknown, but it is evident that this estate
+was one of the smaller sort. Like all the rest, it was liable
+occasionally to become the temporary abiding place of the king. The
+detailed character of the inventory is worthy of note, as is also the
+number of industries which must have been engaged in by the
+inhabitants of the estate and its dependent villas.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_ (Pertz
+     ed.), Vol. I., pp. 178-179.
+
+     [Sidenote: Buildings on the estate of Asnapium]
+
+   We found in the imperial estate of Asnapium a royal house built of
+   stone in the very best manner, having 3 rooms. The entire house was
+   surrounded with balconies and it had 11 apartments for women.
+   Underneath was 1 cellar. There were 2 porticoes. There were 17
+   other houses built of wood within the court-yard, with a similar
+   number of rooms and other fixtures, all well constructed. There was
+   1 stable, 1 kitchen, 1 mill, 1 granary, and 3 barns.
+
+   The yard was enclosed with a hedge and a stone gateway, and above
+   was a balcony from which distributions can be made. There was also
+   an inner yard, surrounded by a hedge, well arranged, and planted
+   with various kinds of trees.
+
+   Of vestments: coverings for 1 bed, 1 table-cloth, and 1 towel.
+
+   Of utensils: 2 brass kettles; 2 drinking cups; 2 brass cauldrons; 1
+   iron cauldron; 1 frying-pan; 1 gramalmin; 1 pair of andirons; 1
+   lamp; 2 hatchets; 1 chisel; 2 augers; 1 axe; 1 knife; 1 large
+   plane; 1 small plane; 2 scythes; 2 sickles; 2 spades edged with
+   iron; and a sufficient supply of utensils of wood.
+
+     [Sidenote: Supplies of various sorts]
+
+   Of farm produce: old spelt[159] from last year, 90 baskets which
+   can be made into 450 weight[160] of flour; and 100 measures[161] of
+   barley. From the present year, 110 baskets of spelt, of which 60
+   baskets had been planted, but the rest we found; 100 measures of
+   wheat, 60 sown, the rest we found; 98 measures of rye all sown;
+   1,800 measures of barley, 1,100 sown, the rest we found; 430
+   measures of oats; 1 measure of beans; 12 measures of peas. At 5
+   mills were found 800 measures of small size. At 4 breweries, 650
+   measures of small size, 240 given to the prebendaries,[162] the
+   rest we found. At 2 bridges, 60 measures of salt and 2 shillings.
+   At 4 gardens, 11 shillings. Also honey, 3 measures; about 1 measure
+   of butter; lard, from last year 10 sides; new sides, 200, with
+   fragments and fats; cheese from the present year, 43 weights.
+
+     [Sidenote: Kinds and number of animals]
+
+   Of cattle: 51 head of larger cattle; 5 three-year olds; 7 two-year
+   olds; 7 yearlings; 10 two-year old colts; 8 yearlings; 3
+   stallions; 16 cows; 2 asses; 50 cows with calves; 20 young bulls;
+   38 yearling calves; 3 bulls; 260 hogs; 100 pigs; 5 boars; 150 sheep
+   with lambs; 200 yearling lambs; 120 rams; 30 goats with kids; 30
+   yearling kids; 3 male goats; 30 geese; 80 chickens; 22 peacocks.
+
+   Also concerning the manors[163] which belong to the above mansion.
+   In the villa of Grisio we found domain buildings, where there are 3
+   barns and a yard enclosed by a hedge. There were, besides, 1 garden
+   with trees, 10 geese, 8 ducks, 30 chickens.
+
+   In another villa we found domain buildings and a yard surrounded by
+   a hedge, and within 3 barns; 1 arpent[164] of vines; 1 garden with
+   trees; 15 geese; 20 chickens.
+
+   In a third villa, domain buildings, with 2 barns; 1 granary; 1
+   garden and 1 yard well enclosed by a hedge.
+
+   We found all the dry and liquid measures just as in the palace. We
+   did not find any goldsmiths, silversmiths, blacksmiths, huntsmen,
+   or persons engaged in other services.
+
+     [Sidenote: Vegetables and trees]
+
+   The garden herbs which we found were lily, putchuck,[165] mint,
+   parsley, rue, celery, libesticum, sage, savory, juniper, leeks,
+   garlic, tansy, wild mint, coriander, scullions, onions, cabbage,
+   kohlrabi,[166] betony.[167] Trees: pears, apples, medlars, peaches,
+   filberts, walnuts, mulberries, quinces.[168]
+
+
+20. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800)
+
+The occasion of Charlemagne's presence in Rome in 800 was a conflict
+between Pope Leo III. and a faction of the populace led by two nephews
+of the preceding pope, Hadrian I. It seems that in 799 Leo had been
+practically driven out of the papal capital and imprisoned in a
+neighboring monastery, but that through the planning of a subordinate
+official he had soon contrived to escape. At any rate he got out of
+Italy as speedily as he could and made his way across the Alps to seek
+aid at the court of Charlemagne. The Frankish king was still busy with
+the Saxon war and did not allow the prospect of a papal visit to
+interfere with his intended campaign; but at Paderborn, in the very
+heart of the Saxon country, where he could personally direct the
+operations of his troops, he established his headquarters and awaited
+the coming of the refugee pope. The meeting of the two dignitaries
+resulted in a pledge of the king once more to take up the burden of
+defending the Roman Church and the Vicar of Christ, this time not
+against outside foes but against internal disturbers. After about a
+year Charlemagne repaired to Rome and called upon the Pope and his
+adversaries to appear before him for judgment. When the leaders of the
+hostile faction refused to comply, they were summarily condemned to
+death, though it is said that through the generous advice of Leo they
+were afterwards released on a sentence of exile. During the ceremonies
+which followed in celebration of Christmas occurred the famous
+coronation which is described in the two passages given below.
+
+Although the coronation has been regarded as so important as to have
+been called "the central event of the Middle Ages,"[169] it is by no
+means an easy task to determine precisely what significance it was
+thought to have at the time. We can look back upon it now and see
+that it marked the beginning of the so-called "Holy Roman Empire"--a
+creation that endured in _fact_ only a very short time but whose name
+and theory survived all the way down to Napoleon's reorganization of
+the German states in 1806. One view of the matter is that
+Charlemagne's coronation meant that a Frankish king had become the
+successor of Emperor Constantine VI., just deposed at Constantinople,
+and that therefore the universal Roman Empire was again to be ruled
+from a western capital as it had been before the time of the first
+Constantine. It will be observed that extract (a), taken from the
+Annals of Lauresheim, and therefore of German origin, at least
+suggests this explanation. But, whether or not precisely this idea was
+in the mind of those who took part in the ceremony, in actual fact no
+such transfer of universal sovereignty from Constantinople to the
+Frankish capital ever took place. The Eastern Empire lived right on
+under its own line of rulers and, so far as we know, aside from some
+rather vague negotiations for a marriage of Charlemagne and the
+Empress Irene, the new western Emperor seems never to have
+contemplated the extension of his authority over the East. His great
+aspiration had been to consolidate all the Germanic peoples of western
+continental Europe under the leadership of the Franks; that, by 800,
+he had practically done; he had no desire to go farther. His dominion
+was always limited strictly to the West, and at the most he can be
+regarded after 800 as not more than the reviver of the old western
+half of the Empire, and hence as the successor of Romulus Augustulus.
+But even this view is perhaps somewhat strained. The chroniclers of
+the time liked to set up fine theories of the sort, and later it came
+to be to the interest of papal and imperial rivals to make large use,
+in one way or another, of such theories. But we to-day may look upon
+the coronation as nothing more than a formal recognition of a
+condition of things already existing. By his numerous conquests
+Charlemagne had drawn under his control such a number of peoples and
+countries that his position had come to be that which we think of as
+an emperor's rather than that of simple king of the Franks. The Pope
+did not give Charlemagne his empire; the energetic king had built it
+for himself. At the most, what Leo did was simply to bestow a title
+already earned and to give with it presumably the blessing and favor
+of the Church, whose devoted servant Charlemagne repeatedly professed
+to be. That the idea of imperial unity still survived in the West is
+certain, and without doubt many men looked upon the ceremony of 800 as
+re-establishing such unity; but as events worked out it was not so
+much Charlemagne's empire as the papacy itself that was the real
+continuation of the power of the Caesars. Conditions had so changed
+that it was impossible in the nature of things for Charlemagne to be a
+Roman emperor in the old sense. The coronation gave him a new title
+and new prestige, but no new subjects, no larger army, no more
+princely income. The basis of his power continued to be, in every
+sense, his Frankish kingdom. The structural element in the revived
+empire was Frankish; the Roman was merely ornamental.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Annales Laureshamensis_ ["Annals of
+     Lauresheim"], Chap. 34. Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica,
+     Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 38.
+
+     (b) _Vitae Pontificorum Romanorum_ ["Lives of the Roman
+     Pontiffs"]. Text in Muratori, _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_,
+     Vol. III., pp. 284-285.
+
+   (a)
+
+   And because the name of emperor had now ceased among the Greeks,
+   and their empire was possessed by a woman,[170] it seemed both to
+   Leo the pope himself, and to all the holy fathers who were present
+   in the self-same council,[171] as well as to the rest of the
+   Christian people, that they ought to take to be emperor Charles,
+   king of the Franks, who held Rome herself, where the Caesars had
+   always been wont to sit, and all the other regions which he ruled
+   through Italy and Gaul and Germany; and inasmuch as God had given
+   all these lands into his hand, it seemed right that with the help
+   of God, and at the prayer of the whole Christian people, he should
+   have the name of emperor also. [The Pope's] petition King Charles
+   willed not to refuse,[172] but submitting himself with all humility
+   to God, and at the prayer of the priests, and of the whole
+   Christian people, on the day of the nativity of our Lord Jesus
+   Christ, he took on himself the name of emperor, being consecrated
+   by the Pope Leo.... For this also was done by the will of God ...
+   that the heathen might not mock the Christians if the name of
+   emperor should have ceased among them.
+
+   (b)
+
+   After these things, on the day of the birth of our Lord Jesus
+   Christ, when all the people were assembled in the Church of the
+   blessed St. Peter,[173] the venerable and gracious Pope with his
+   own hands crowned him [Charlemagne] with an exceedingly precious
+   crown. Then all the faithful Romans, beholding the choice of such a
+   friend and defender of the holy Roman Church, and of the pontiff,
+   did by the will of God and of the blessed Peter, the key-bearer of
+   the heavenly kingdom, cry with a loud voice, "To Charles, the most
+   pious Augustus, crowned of God, the great and peace-giving Emperor,
+   be life and victory." While he, before the altar of the church, was
+   calling upon many of the saints, it was proclaimed three times, and
+   by the common voice of all he was chosen to be emperor of the
+   Romans. Then the most holy high priest and pontiff anointed Charles
+   with holy oil, and also his most excellent son to be king,[174]
+   upon the very day of the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ.
+
+
+21. The General Capitulary for the Missi (802)
+
+Throughout the larger part of Charlemagne's dominion the chief local
+unit of administration was the county, presided over by the count. The
+count was appointed by the Emperor, generally from among the most
+important landed proprietors of the district. His duties included the
+levy of troops, the publication of the royal decrees or capitularies,
+the administration of justice, and the collection of revenues. On the
+frontiers, where the need of defense was greatest, these local
+officers exercised military functions of a special character and were
+commonly known as "counts of the march," or dukes, or sometimes as
+margraves. In order that these royal officials, in whatever part of
+the country, might not abuse their authority as against their
+fellow-subjects, or engage in plots against the unity of the empire,
+Charlemagne devised a plan of sending out at stated intervals men who
+were known as _missi dominici_ ("the lord's messengers") to visit the
+various counties, hear complaints of the people, inquire into the
+administration of the counts, and report conditions to the Emperor.
+They were to serve as connecting links between the central and local
+governments and as safeguards against the ever powerful forces of
+disintegration. Such itinerant royal agents had not been unknown in
+Merovingian times, and they had probably been made use of pretty
+frequently by Charles Martel and Pepin the Short. But it was
+Charlemagne who reduced the employment of _missi_ to a system and made
+it a fixed part of the governmental machinery of the Frankish kingdom.
+This he did mainly by the _Capitulare Missorum Generale_, promulgated
+early in 802 at an assembly at the favorite capital Aix-la-Chapelle.
+The whole empire was divided into districts, or _missaticae_, and each
+of these was to be visited annually by two of the _missi_. A churchman
+and a layman were usually sent out together, probably because they
+were to have jurisdiction over both the clergy and the laity, and also
+that they might restrain each other from injustice or other
+misconduct. They were appointed by the Emperor, at first from his
+lower order of vassals, but after a time from the leading bishops,
+abbots, and nobles of the empire. They were given power to depose
+minor officials for misdemeanors, and to summon higher ones before the
+Emperor. By 812, at least, they were required to make four rounds of
+inspection each year.
+
+In the capitulary for the _missi_ Charlemagne took occasion to include
+a considerable number of regulations and instructions regarding the
+general character of the local governments, the conduct of local
+officers, the manner of life of the clergy, the management of the
+monasteries, and other things of vital importance to the strength of
+the empire and the well-being of the people. The capitulary may be
+regarded as a broad outline of policy and conduct which its author,
+lately become emperor, wished to see realized throughout his vast
+dominion.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 33, pp. 91-99. Translated by Dana
+     C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol.
+     VI., No. 5, pp. 16-27.
+
+     [Sidenote: The missi sent out]
+
+   =1.= Concerning the embassy sent out by the lord emperor.
+
+   Therefore, the most serene and most Christian lord emperor Charles
+   has chosen from his nobles the wisest and most prudent men, both
+   archbishops and some of the other bishops also, and venerable
+   abbots and pious laymen, and has sent them throughout his whole
+   kingdom, and through them he would have all the various classes of
+   persons mentioned in the following chapters live in accordance
+   with the correct law. Moreover, where anything which is not right
+   and just has been enacted in the law, he has ordered them to
+   inquire into this most diligently and to inform him of it. He
+   desires, God granting, to reform it. And let no one, through his
+   cleverness or craft, dare to oppose or thwart the written law, as
+   many are wont to do, or the judicial sentence passed upon him, or
+   to do injury to the churches of God, or the poor, or the widows, or
+   the wards, or any Christian. But all shall live entirely in
+   accordance with God's precept, honestly and under a just rule, and
+   each one shall be admonished to live in harmony with his fellows in
+   his business or profession; the canonical clergy[175] ought to
+   observe in every respect a canonical life without heeding base
+   gain; nuns ought to keep diligent watch over their lives; laymen
+   and the secular clergy[176] ought rightly to observe their laws
+   without malicious fraud; and all ought to live in mutual charity
+   and perfect peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The duties of the missi]
+
+   And let the _missi_ themselves make a diligent investigation
+   whenever any man claims that an injustice has been done him by any
+   one, just as they desire to deserve the grace of omnipotent God and
+   to keep their fidelity promised to Him, so that in all cases, in
+   accordance with the will and fear of God, they shall administer the
+   law fully and justly in the case of the holy churches of God and of
+   the poor, of wards and widows, and of the whole people. And if
+   there be anything of such a nature that they, together with the
+   provincial counts, are not able of themselves to correct it and to
+   do justice concerning it, they shall, without any reservation,
+   refer it, together with their reports, to the judgment of the
+   emperor; and the straight path of justice shall not be impeded by
+   any one on account of flattery or gifts, or on account of any
+   relationship, or from fear of the powerful.[177]
+
+     [Sidenote: Oath to be taken to Charlemagne as emperor]
+
+   =2.= Concerning the fidelity to be promised to the lord emperor.
+
+   He has commanded that every man in his whole kingdom, whether
+   ecclesiastic or layman, and each one according to his vow and
+   occupation, should now promise to him as emperor the fidelity which
+   he had previously promised to him as king; and all of those who had
+   not yet made that promise should do likewise, down to those who
+   were twelve years old. And that it shall be announced to all in
+   public, so that each one might know, how great and how many things
+   are comprehended in that oath; not merely, as many have thought
+   hitherto, fidelity to the lord emperor as regards his life, and not
+   introducing any enemy into his kingdom out of enmity, and not
+   consenting to or concealing another's faithlessness to him; but
+   that all may know that this oath contains in itself the following
+   meaning:
+
+     [Sidenote: What the new oath was to mean]
+
+   =3.= First, that each one voluntarily shall strive, in accordance
+   with his knowledge and ability, to live completely in the holy
+   service of God, in accordance with the precept of God and in
+   accordance with his own promise, because the lord emperor is unable
+   to give to all individually the necessary care and discipline.
+
+   =4.= Secondly, that no man, either through perjury or any other
+   wile or fraud, or on account of the flattery or gift of any one,
+   shall refuse to give back or dare to take possession of or conceal
+   a serf of the lord emperor, or a district, or land, or anything
+   that belongs to him; and that no one shall presume, through perjury
+   or other wile, to conceal or entice away his fugitive fiscaline
+   serfs[178] who unjustly and fraudulently say that they are free.
+
+   =5.= That no one shall presume to rob or do any injury fraudulently
+   to the churches of God, or widows, or orphans, or pilgrims;[179]
+   for the lord emperor himself, under God and His saints, has
+   constituted himself their protector and defender.
+
+   =6.= That no one shall dare to lay waste a benefice[180] of the
+   lord emperor, or to make it his own property.
+
+   =7.= That no one shall presume to neglect a summons to war from the
+   lord emperor; and that no one of the counts shall be so
+   presumptuous as to dare to excuse any one of those who owe military
+   service, either on account of relationship, or flattery, or gifts
+   from any one.
+
+   =8.= That no one shall presume to impede at all in any way a
+   ban[181] or command of the lord emperor, or to tamper with his
+   work, or to impede, or to lessen, or in any way to act contrary to
+   his will or commands. And that no one shall dare to neglect to pay
+   his dues or tax.
+
+     [Sidenote: Justice to be rendered in the courts]
+
+   =9.= That no one, for any reason, shall make a practice in court of
+   defending another unjustly, either from any desire of gain when the
+   cause is weak, or by impeding a just judgment by his skill in
+   reasoning, or by a desire of oppressing when the cause is weak. But
+   each one shall answer for his own cause or tax or debt, unless any
+   one is infirm or ignorant of pleading;[182] for these the _missi_,
+   or the chiefs who are in the court, or the judge who knows the case
+   in question, shall plead before the court; or, if it is necessary,
+   such a person may be allowed as is acceptable to all and knows the
+   case well; but this shall be done wholly according to the
+   convenience of the chiefs or _missi_ who are present. But in every
+   case it shall be done in accordance with justice and the law; and
+   no one shall have the power to impede justice by a gift, reward, or
+   any kind of evil flattery, or from any hindrance of relationship.
+   And no one shall unjustly consent to another in anything, but with
+   all zeal and good-will all shall be prepared to carry out justice.
+
+   For all the above mentioned ought to be observed by the imperial
+   oath.[183]
+
+   =10.= [We ordain] that bishops and priests shall live according to
+   the canons[184] and shall teach others to do the same.
+
+     [Sidenote: Obligations of the clergy]
+
+   =11.= That bishops, abbots, and abbesses who are in charge of
+   others, with the greatest veneration shall strive to surpass their
+   subjects in this diligence and shall not oppress their subjects
+   with a harsh rule or tyranny, but with a sincere love shall
+   carefully guard the flock committed to them with mercy and charity,
+   or by the examples of good works.
+
+   =14.= That bishops, abbots and abbesses, and counts shall be
+   mutually in accord, following the law in order to render a just
+   judgment with all charity and unity of peace, and that they shall
+   live faithfully in accordance with the will of God, so that always
+   everywhere through them and among them a just judgment shall be
+   rendered. The poor, widows, orphans, and pilgrims shall have
+   consolation and defense from them; so that we, through the
+   good-will of these, may deserve the reward of eternal life rather
+   than punishment.
+
+   =19.= That no bishops, abbots, priests, deacons, or other members
+   of the clergy shall presume to have dogs for hunting, or hawks,
+   falcons, and sparrow-hawks, but each shall observe fully the
+   canons or rule of his order.[185] If any one shall presume to do
+   so, let him know that he shall lose his office. And in addition he
+   shall suffer such punishment for his misconduct that the others
+   will be afraid to possess such things for themselves.
+
+   =27.= And we command that no one in our whole kingdom shall dare to
+   deny hospitality to rich, or poor, or pilgrims; that is, let no one
+   deny shelter and fire and water to pilgrims traversing our country
+   in God's name, or to any one traveling for the love of God, or for
+   the safety of his own soul.
+
+     [Sidenote: The missi to be helped on their way]
+
+   =28.= Concerning embassies coming from the lord emperor. That the
+   counts and _centenarii_[186] shall provide most carefully, as they
+   desire the good-will of the lord emperor, for the _missi_ who are
+   sent out, so that they may go through their territories without any
+   delay; and the emperor commands all everywhere that they see to it
+   that no delay is encountered anywhere, but they shall cause the
+   _missi_ to go on their way in all haste and shall provide for them
+   in such a manner as they may direct.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crime of murder]
+
+   =32.= Murders, by which a multitude of the Christian people perish,
+   we command in every way to be shunned and to be forbidden....
+   Nevertheless, lest sin should also increase, in order that the
+   greatest enmities may not arise among Christians, when by the
+   persuasions of the devil murders happen, the criminal shall
+   immediately hasten to make amends and with all speed shall pay to
+   the relatives of the murdered man the fitting composition for the
+   evil done. And we forbid firmly that the relatives of the murdered
+   man shall dare in any way to continue their enmities on account of
+   the evil done, or shall refuse to grant peace to him who asks it,
+   but, having given their pledges, they shall receive the fitting
+   composition and shall make a perpetual peace; moreover, the guilty
+   one shall not delay to pay the composition....[187] But if any one
+   shall have scorned to make the fitting composition, he shall be
+   deprived of his property until we shall render our decision.[188]
+
+     [Sidenote: Theft of game from the royal forests]
+
+   =39.= That in our forests no one shall dare to steal our game,
+   which we have already many times forbidden to be done; and now we
+   again strictly forbid that any one shall do so in the future; just
+   as each one desires to preserve the fidelity promised to us, so let
+   him take heed to himself....
+
+   =40.= Lastly, therefore, we desire all our decrees to be known in
+   the whole kingdom through our _missi_ now sent out, either among
+   the men of the Church, bishops, abbots, priests, deacons, canons,
+   all monks or nuns, so that each one in his ministry or profession
+   may keep our ban or decree, or where it may be fitting to thank the
+   citizens for their good-will, or to furnish aid, or where there may
+   be need still of correcting anything.... Where we believe there is
+   anything unpunished, we shall so strive to correct it with all our
+   zeal and will that with God's aid we may bring it to correction,
+   both for our own eternal glory and that of all our faithful.
+
+
+22. A Letter of Charlemagne to Abbot Fulrad
+
+In Charlemagne's governmental and military system the clergy, both
+regular and secular, had a place of large importance. From early
+Frankish times the bishoprics and monasteries had been acquiring
+large landed estates on which they enjoyed peculiar political and
+judicial privileges. These lands came to the church authorities partly
+by purchase, largely by gift, and not infrequently through concessions
+by small land-holders who wished to get the Church's favor and
+protection without actually moving off the little farms they had been
+accustomed to cultivate. However acquired, the lands were administered
+by the clergy with larger independence than was apt to be allowed the
+average lay owner. Still, they were as much a part of the empire as
+before and the powerful bishops and abbots were expected to see that
+certain services were forthcoming when the Emperor found himself in
+need of them. Among these was the duty of leading, or sending, a quota
+of troops under arms to the yearly assembly. In the selection below we
+have a letter written by Charlemagne some time between 804 and 811 to
+Fulrad, abbot of St. Quentin (about sixty miles northeast of Paris),
+respecting the fulfilment of this important obligation. The closing
+sentence indicates very clearly the price exacted by the Emperor in
+return for concessions of temporal authority to ecclesiastical
+magnates.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 75, p. 168.
+
+     [Sidenote: The troops to be brought: their equipment]
+
+   In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Charles, most
+   serene, august, crowned of God, great pacific Emperor, who, by
+   God's mercy, is King of the Franks and Lombards, to Abbot Fulrad.
+
+   Let it be known to you that we have determined to hold our general
+   assembly[189] this year in the eastern part of Saxony, on the River
+   Bode, at the place which is known as Strassfurt.[190] Therefore,
+   we enjoin that you come to this meeting-place, with all your men
+   well armed and equipped, on the fifteenth day before the Kalends of
+   July, that is, seven days before the festival of St. John the
+   Baptist.[191] Come, therefore, so prepared with your men to the
+   aforesaid place that you may be able to go thence well equipped in
+   any direction in which our command shall direct; that is, with arms
+   and accoutrements also, and other provisions for war in the way of
+   food and clothing. Each horseman will be expected to have a shield,
+   a lance, a sword, a dagger, a bow, and quivers with arrows; and in
+   your carts shall be implements of various kinds, that is, axes,
+   planes, augers, boards, spades, iron shovels, and other utensils
+   which are necessary in an army. In the wagons also should be
+   supplies of food for three months, dating from the time of the
+   assembly, together with arms and clothing for six months. And
+   furthermore we command that you see to it that you proceed
+   peacefully to the aforesaid place, through whatever part of our
+   realm your journey shall be made; that is, that you presume to take
+   nothing except fodder, wood, and water. And let the followers of
+   each one of your vassals march along with the carts and horsemen,
+   and let the leader always be with them until they reach the
+   aforesaid place, so that the absence of a lord may not give to his
+   men an opportunity to do evil.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gifts for the Emperor]
+
+   Send your gifts,[192] which you ought to present to us at our
+   assembly in the middle of the month of May, to the place where we
+   then shall be. If it happens that your journey shall be such that
+   on your march you are able in person to present these gifts of
+   yours to us, we shall be greatly pleased. Be careful to show no
+   negligence in the future if you care to have our favor.
+
+
+23. The Carolingian Revival of Learning
+
+One of Charlemagne's chief claims to distinction is that his reign,
+largely through his own influence, comprised the most important period
+of the so-called Carolingian renaissance, or revival of learning. From
+the times of the Frankish conquest of Gaul until about the middle of
+the eighth century, education in western Europe, except in Ireland and
+Britain, was at a very low ebb and literary production quite
+insignificant. The old Roman intellectual activity had nearly ceased,
+and two or three centuries of settled life had been required to bring
+the Franks to the point of appreciating and encouraging art and
+letters. Even by Charlemagne's time people generally were far from
+being awake to the importance of education, though a few of the more
+far-sighted leaders, and especially Charlemagne himself, had come to
+lament the gross ignorance which everywhere prevailed and were ready
+to adopt strong measures to overcome it. Charlemagne was certainly no
+scholar, judged even by the standards of his own time; but had he been
+the most learned man in the world his interest in education could not
+have been greater. Before studying the selection given below, it would
+be well to read what Einhard said about his master's zeal for learning
+and the amount of progress he made personally in getting an education
+[see pp. 112--113].
+
+The most conspicuous of Charlemagne's educational measures was his
+enlarging and strengthening of the Scola Palatina, or Palace School.
+This was an institution which had existed in the reign of his father
+Pepin, and probably even earlier. It consisted of a group of scholars
+gathered at the Frankish court for the purpose of studying and writing
+literature, educating the royal household, and stimulating learning
+throughout the country. It formed what we to-day might call an academy
+of sciences. Under Charlemagne's care it came to include such men of
+distinction as Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards, Paulinus of
+Aquileia, a theologian, Peter of Pisa, a grammarian, and above all
+Alcuin, a skilled teacher and writer from the school of York in
+England. Its history falls into three main periods: (1) from the
+middle of the eighth century to the year 782--the period during which
+it was dominated by Paul the Deacon and his Italian colleagues; (2)
+from 782 to about 800, when its leading spirit was Alcuin; and (3)
+from 800 to the years of its decadence in the later ninth century,
+when Frankish rather than foreign names appear most prominently in its
+annals.
+
+It was Charlemagne's ideal that throughout his entire dominion
+opportunity should be open to all to obtain at least an elementary
+education and to carry their studies as much farther as they liked. To
+this end a regular system of schools was planned, beginning with the
+village school, in charge of the parish priest for the most elementary
+studies, and leading up through monastic and cathedral schools to the
+School of the Palace. In the intermediate stages, corresponding to our
+high schools and academies to-day, the subjects studied were
+essentially the same as those which received attention in the Scola
+Palatina. They were divided into two groups: (1) the _trivium_,
+including grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic (or philosophy), and (2)
+the _quadrivium_, including geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and
+music. The system thus planned was never fully put in operation
+throughout Frankland, for after Charlemagne's death the work which he
+had so well begun was seriously interfered with by the falling off in
+intellectual aggressiveness of the sovereigns, by civil war, and by
+the ravages of the Hungarian and Norse invaders [see p. 163]. A
+capitulary of Louis the Pious in 817, for example, forbade the
+continuance of secular education in monastic schools. Still, much of
+what had been done remained, and never thereafter did learning among
+the Frankish people fall to quite so low a stage as it had passed
+through in the sixth and seventh centuries.
+
+Charlemagne's interest in education may be studied best of all in his
+capitularies. In the extract below we have the so-called letter _De
+Litteris Colendis_, written some time between 780 and 800, which,
+though addressed personally to Abbot Baugulf, of the monastery of
+Fulda, was in reality a capitulary establishing certain regulations
+regarding education in connection with the work of the monks. To the
+Church was intrusted the task of raising the level of intelligence
+among the masses, and the clergy were admonished to bring together the
+children of both freemen and serfs in schools in which they might be
+trained, even as the sons of the nobles were trained at the royal
+court.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. I., No. 29, pp. 78-79. Adapted from
+     translation by Dana C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+     Reprints_, Vol. VI., No. 5, pp. 12-14.
+
+   Charles, by the grace of God, king of the Franks and Lombards and
+   Patrician of the Romans.[193] To Abbot Baugulf, and to all the
+   congregation--also to the faithful placed under your care--we have
+   sent loving greetings by our ambassadors in the name of
+   all-powerful God.
+
+     [Sidenote: Men of the Church charged with the work of education]
+
+     [Sidenote: Even the clergy often unable to speak and write
+   correctly]
+
+   Be it known, therefore, to you, devoted and acceptable to God, that
+   we, together with our faithful, have deemed it expedient that the
+   bishoprics and monasteries intrusted by the favor of Christ to our
+   control, in addition to the order of monastic life and the
+   relationships of holy religion, should be zealous also in the
+   cherishing of letters, and in teaching those who by the gift of God
+   are able to learn, according as each has capacity. So that, just as
+   the observance of the rule[194] adds order and grace to the
+   integrity of morals, so also zeal in teaching and learning may do
+   the same for sentences, to the end that those who wish to please
+   God by living rightly should not fail to please Him also by
+   speaking correctly. For it is written, "Either from thy words thou
+   shall be justified or from thy words thou shalt be condemned"
+   [Matt., xii. 37]. Although right conduct may be better than
+   knowledge, nevertheless knowledge goes before conduct. Therefore
+   each one ought to study what he desires to accomplish, in order
+   that so much the more fully the mind may know what ought to be
+   done. as the tongue speeds in the praises of all-powerful God
+   without the hindrances of mistakes. For while errors should be
+   shunned by all men, so much the more ought they to be avoided, as
+   far as possible, by those who are chosen for this very purpose
+   alone.[195] They ought to be the specially devoted servants of
+   truth. For often in recent years when letters have been written to
+   us from monasteries, in which it was stated that the brethren who
+   dwelt there offered up in our behalf sacred and pious prayers, we
+   have recognized, in most cases, both correct thoughts and uncouth
+   expressions; because what pious devotion dictated faithfully to the
+   mind, the tongue, uneducated on account of the neglect of study,
+   was not able to express in the letter without error. Whence it
+   happened that we began to fear lest perchance, as the skill in
+   writing was less, so also the wisdom for understanding the Holy
+   Scriptures might be much less than it rightly ought to be. And we
+   all know well that, although errors of speech are dangerous, far
+   more dangerous are errors of the understanding.
+
+     [Sidenote: Education essential to an understanding of the
+   Scriptures]
+
+   Therefore, we exhort you not only not to neglect the study of
+   letters, but also with most humble mind, pleasing to God, to study
+   earnestly in order that you may be able more easily and more
+   correctly to penetrate the mysteries of the divine Scriptures.
+   Since, moreover, images [similes], tropes[196] and like figures are
+   found in the sacred pages, nobody doubts that each one in reading
+   these will understand the spiritual sense more quickly if
+   previously he shall have been fully instructed in the mastery of
+   letters. Such men truly are to be chosen for this work as have both
+   the will and the ability to learn and a desire to instruct others.
+   And may this be done with a zeal as great as the earnestness with
+   which we command it. For we desire you to be, as the soldiers of
+   the Church ought to be, devout in mind, learned in discourse,
+   chaste in conduct, and eloquent in speech, so that when any one
+   shall seek to see you, whether out of reverence for God or on
+   account of your reputation for holy conduct, just as he is edified
+   by your appearance, he may also be instructed by the wisdom which
+   he has learned from your reading or singing, and may go away
+   gladly, giving thanks to Almighty God.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[119] Thomas Hodgkin, _Charles the Great_ (London, 1903), p. 222.
+
+[120] The German name for Aix-la-Chapelle was Aachen. From Roman times
+the place was noted throughout Europe for its warm sulphur springs and
+for centuries before Charlemagne's day it had been a favorite resort
+for health-seekers. It was about the middle of his reign that
+Charlemagne determined to have the small palace already existing
+rebuilt, together with its accompanying chapel. Marbles and mosaics
+were obtained at Rome and Ravenna, and architects and artisans were
+brought together for the work from all Christendom. The chapel was
+completed in 805 and was dedicated by Pope Leo III. Both palace and
+chapel were destroyed a short time before the Emperor's death,
+probably as the result of an earthquake. The present town-house of
+Aix-la-Chapelle has been constructed on the ruins of this palace. The
+chapel, rebuilt on the ancient octagonal plan in 983, contains the
+tomb of Charlemagne, marked by a stone bearing the inscription "Carolo
+Magno." Besides Aachen, Charlemagne had many other residences, as
+Compiegne, Worms, Attigny, Mainz, Paderborn, Ratisbon, Heristal, and
+Thionville.
+
+[121] A loose, flowing outer garment, or cloak. It was a feature of
+ancient Greek dress.
+
+[122] Hadrian I., 772-775. Charlemagne's first visit to Rome was in
+774.
+
+[123] Leo III., 795-816. The Roman dress was donned by Charlemagne
+during his visit in 800 [see p. 130].
+
+[124] St. Augustine, the greatest of the Church fathers, was born in
+Numidia in 354. He spent a considerable part of his early life
+studying in Rome and other Italian cities. The _De Civitate Dei_
+("City of God"), generally regarded as his most important work, was
+completed in 426, its purpose being to convince the Romans that even
+though the supposedly eternal city of Rome had recently been sacked by
+the barbarian Visigoths, the true "city of God" was in the hearts of
+men beyond the reach of desecrating invaders. When he wrote the book
+Augustine was bishop of Hippo, an important city of northern Africa.
+His death occurred in 430, during the siege of Hippo by Gaiseric and
+his horde of Vandals.
+
+[125] The Count of the Palace was one of the coterie of officials by
+whose aid Charlemagne managed the affairs of the state. He was
+primarily an officer of justice, corresponding in a way to the old
+Mayor of the Palace, but with very much less power.
+
+[126] When Charlemagne captured Pavia, the Lombard capital, in 774, he
+found Peter the Pisan teaching in that city. With characteristic zeal
+for the advancement of education among his own people he proceeded to
+transfer the learned deacon to the Frankish Palace School [see p.
+144].
+
+[127] Alcuin was born at York in 735. He took up his residence at
+Charlemagne's court about 782, and died in the office of abbot of St.
+Martin of Tours in 804.
+
+[128] During the Napoleonic period many of these columns were taken
+possession of by the French and transported to Paris. Only recently
+have they been replaced in the Aix-la-Chapelle cathedral. Most of them
+came originally from the palace of the Exarch of Ravenna.
+
+[129] These statements of Einhard respecting the lavishness of
+Charlemagne's gifts must be taken with some allowance. They were
+doubtless considerable for the day, but Charlemagne's revenues were
+not such as to enable him to display wealth which in modern times
+would be regarded as befitting a monarch of so exalted rank.
+
+[130] In 774, 781, 787, and 800.
+
+[131] Charlemagne became joint ruler of the Franks with his brother
+Karlmann in 768; hence when he died, in 814, he had reigned only
+forty-six years instead of forty-seven.
+
+[132] Ephraim Emerton, _Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_
+(Boston, 1903), p. 189.
+
+[133] The war really lasted only thirty, or at the most thirty-one,
+years.
+
+[134] The only notable act of vengeance during the war was the
+beheading of 4,500 Saxons in a single day at Verden, on the Weser. It
+was occasioned by a great Saxon revolt in 782, led by the chieftain
+Widukind.
+
+[135] The formula of renunciation and confession generally employed in
+the Christianizing of the Germans, and therefore in all probability in
+the conversion of the Saxons, was as follows:
+
+     Question. Forsakest thou the devil?
+
+     Answer. I forsake the devil.
+
+     Ques. And all the devil's service?
+
+     Ans. And I forsake all the devil's service.
+
+     Ques. And all the devil's works?
+
+     Ans. And I forsake all the devil's works and words. Thor and Woden and
+     Saxnot and all the evil spirits that are their companions.
+
+     Ques. Believest thou in God the Almighty Father?
+
+     Ans. I believe in God the Almighty Father.
+
+     Ques. Believest thou in Christ the Son of God?
+
+     Ans. I believe in Christ the Son of God.
+
+     Ques. Believest thou in the Holy Ghost?
+
+     Ans. I believe in the Holy Ghost.
+
+"Accepting Christianity was to the German very much like changing of
+allegiance from one political sovereign to another. He gave up Thor
+and Woden (Odin) and Saxnot, and in their place took the Father, the
+Son, and the Holy Ghost."--Emerton, _Introduction to the Study of the
+Middle Ages_, pp. 155-156. Text of these "Interrogationes et
+Responsiones Baptismales" is in the _Monumenta Germaniae Historica,
+Leges_ (Boretius ed.), Vol. II., No. 107.
+
+[136] That is, the more important offenses, involving capital
+punishment, as contrasted with the later "lesser chapters" dealing
+with minor misdemeanors.
+
+[137] The Saxons were to be won to the Church through the protection
+it afforded, but they were likewise to be made to stand in awe of the
+sanctity of its property.
+
+[138] The apparent harshness of this whole body of regulations was
+considerably diminished in practice by the large discretion left to
+the priests, as in this case. They were exhorted to exercise care and
+to take circumstances into account in judging a man's guilt or
+innocence.
+
+[139] From this point the capitulary deals with the "lesser chapters,"
+i.e., non-capital offenses.
+
+[140] For the value of the _solidus_, see p. 61.
+
+[141] Three classes of society are distinguished--nobles, freemen, and
+serfs. The ordinary freeman pays half as much as the noble, and the
+serf half as much as the freeman.
+
+[142] A prominent characteristic of the early Teutonic religion was
+that its ceremonies were invariably conducted out of doors. Tacitus,
+in the _Germania_ (Chap. 9), tells us that the Germans had no temples
+or other buildings for religious purposes, but worshipped in sacred
+groves. The "Irmensaule," probably a giant tree-trunk, was the central
+shrine of the Saxon people, and Charlemagne's destruction of it in 772
+was the most serious offense that could have been committed against
+them.
+
+[143] The Germans reckoned by nights rather than by days, as explained
+by Tacitus, _Germania_, Chap. 11 [see p. 27].
+
+[144] A sum assessed by the king, in this case against the illegal
+harboring of criminals.
+
+[145] The counts, together with the bishops, were the local
+representatives or agents of the king. They presided over judicial
+assemblies, collected revenues, and preserved order. There were about
+three hundred of them in Charlemagne's empire when at its greatest
+extent.
+
+[146] An officer sent out by the king to investigate the
+administration of the counts and render judgment in certain cases. As
+a rule two were sent together, a layman and an ecclesiastic [see p.
+134].
+
+[147] Under ordinary circumstances the priests were thus charged with
+the responsibility of seeing that local government in their various
+communities was just and legal.
+
+[148] Bemont and Monod, _Mediaeval Europe_ (New York, 1902), p. 202.
+
+[149] Chapter 62 is here given out of order because it contains a
+comprehensive survey of the products and activities upon which the
+royal stewards were expected to report. The other chapters are more
+specific. It is likely that they have not come down to us in their
+original order.
+
+[150] The ordinary estate in this period, whether royal or not,
+consisted of two parts. One was the demesne, which the owner kept
+under his immediate control; the other was the remaining lands, which
+were divided among tenants who paid certain rentals for their use and
+also performed stated services on the lord's demesne. Charlemagne
+instructs his stewards to report upon both sorts of land.
+
+[151] Probably payments for the right to keep pigs in the woods. The
+most common meat in the Middle Ages was pork and the use of the oak
+forests as hog pasture was a privilege of considerable value.
+
+[152] Fines imposed upon offenders to free them from crime or to
+repair damages done.
+
+[153] Panic was a kind of grass, the seeds of which were not
+infrequently used for food.
+
+[154] The serfs were a semi-free class of country people. They did not
+own the land on which they lived and were not allowed to move off it
+without the owner's consent. They cultivated the soil and paid rents
+of one kind or another to their masters--in the present case, to the
+agents of the king.
+
+[155] A variety of fermented liquor made of salt fish.
+
+[156] A blue coloring matter derived from the leaves of a plant of the
+same name.
+
+[157] A red coloring matter derived from a plant of the same name.
+
+[158] Burrs of the teasel plant, stiff and prickly, with hooked
+bracts; used in primitive manufacturing for raising a nap on woolen
+cloth.
+
+[159] A kind of grain still widely cultivated for food in Germany and
+Switzerland; sometimes known as German wheat.
+
+[160] The unit of weight was the pound. Charlemagne replaced the old
+Gallic pound by the Roman, which was a tenth less.
+
+[161] The unit of measure was the _muid_. Charlemagne had a standard
+measure (_modius publicus_) constructed and in a number of his
+capitularies enjoined that it be taken as a model by all his subjects.
+It contained probably a little less than six pecks. A smaller measure
+was the _setier_, containing about five and two-thirds pints.
+
+[162] Clergymen attached to the church on or near the estate.
+
+[163] "Attached to the royal villa, in the center of which stood the
+palace or manse, were numerous dependent and humbler dwellings,
+occupied by mechanics, artisans, and tradesmen, or rather
+manufacturers and craftsmen, in great numbers. The dairy, the bakery,
+the butchery, the brewery, the flour-mill were there.... The villa was
+a city in embryo, and in due course it grew into one, for as it
+supplied in many respects the wants of the surrounding country, so it
+attracted population and became a center of commerce."--Jacob I.
+Mombert, _Charles the Great_ (New York, 1888), pp. 401-402.
+
+[164] An ancient Gallic land measure, equivalent to about half a Roman
+_jugerum_ (the _jugerum_ was about two-thirds of an acre). The arpent
+in modern France has varied greatly in different localities. In Paris
+it is 4,088 square yards.
+
+[165] The same as "pachak." The fragrant roots of this plant are still
+exported from India to be used for burning as incense.
+
+[166] A kind of cabbage. The edible part is a large turnip-like
+swelling of the stem above the surface of the ground.
+
+[167] A plant used both as a medicine and as a dye.
+
+[168] "All the cereals grown in the country were cultivated. The
+flower gardens were furnished with the choicest specimens for beauty
+and fragrance, the orchards and kitchen gardens produced the richest
+and best varieties of fruit and vegetables. Charles specified by name
+not less than seventy-four varieties of herbs which he commanded to be
+cultivated; all the vegetables still raised in Central Europe,
+together with many herbs now found in botanical gardens only, bloomed
+on his villas; his orchards yielded a rich harvest in cherries,
+apples, pears, prunes, peaches, figs, chestnuts, and mulberries. The
+hill-sides were vineyards laden with the finest varieties of
+grapes."--Mombert, _Charles the Great_, p. 400.
+
+[169] James Bryce, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904),
+p. 50.
+
+[170] Irene, the wife of Emperor Leo IV. After the death of her
+husband in 780 she became regent during the minority of her son,
+Constantine VI., then only nine years of age. In 790 Constantine
+succeeded in taking the government out of her hands; but seven years
+afterwards she caused him to be blinded and shut up in a dungeon,
+where he soon died. The revolting crimes by which Irene established
+her supremacy at Constantinople were considered, even in her day, a
+disgrace to Christendom.
+
+[171] This expression has given rise to a view which will be found in
+some books that Pope Leo convened a general council of Frankish and
+Italian clergy to consider the advisability of giving the imperial
+title to Charlemagne. The whole matter is in doubt, but it does not
+seem likely that there was any such formal deliberation. Leo certainly
+ascertained that the leading lay and ecclesiastical magnates would
+approve the contemplated step, but that a definite election in council
+took place may be pretty confidently denied. The writer of the Annals
+of Lauresheim was interested in making the case of Charlemagne, and
+therefore of the later emperors, as strong as possible.
+
+[172] Einhard, Charlemagne's biographer, says that the king at first
+had such aversion to the titles of Emperor and Augustus "that he
+declared he would not have set foot in the church the day that they
+were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have
+foreseen the design of the Pope" (_Vita Caroli Magni_, Chap. 28).
+Despite this statement, however, we are not to regard the coronation
+as a genuine surprise to anybody concerned. In all probability there
+had previously been a more or less definite understanding between the
+king and the Pope that in due time the imperial title should be
+conferred. It is easy to believe, though, that Charlemagne had had no
+idea that the ceremony was to be performed on this particular occasion
+and it is likely enough that he had plans of his own as to the proper
+time and place for it, plans which Leo rather rudely interfered with,
+but which the manifest good-will of everybody constrained the king to
+allow to be sacrificed. It may well be that Charlemagne had decided
+simply to assume the imperial crown without a papal coronation at all,
+in order that the whole question of papal supremacy, which threatened
+to be a troublesome one, might be kept in the background.
+
+[173] The celebration of the Nativity was by far the greatest festival
+of the Church. At this season the basilica of St. Peter at Rome was
+the scene of gorgeous ceremonials, and to its sumptuous shrine
+thronged the devout of all Christendom. Its magnificence on the famous
+Christmas of 800 was greater than ever, for only recently Charlemagne
+had bestowed the most costly of all his gifts upon it--the spoils of
+the Avar wars.
+
+[174] Charles, the eldest son, since 789 king of Maine. In reality, of
+course, he was but an under-king, since Maine was an integral part of
+Charlemagne's dominion. He was anointed by Pope Leo in 800 as
+heir-apparent to the new imperial dignity of his father.
+
+[175] The term "canonical" was applied more particularly to the clergy
+attached to a cathedral church, the clergy being known individually as
+"canons," collectively as a "chapter." In the present connection,
+however, it probably refers to the monks, who, living as they did by
+"canons" or rules, were in that sense "canonical clergy."
+
+[176] The secular clergy were the bishops, priests, deacons, and other
+church officers, who lived with the people in the _saeculum_, or world,
+as distinguished from the monks, ascetics, cenobites, anchorites, and
+others, who dwelt in monasteries or other places of seclusion.
+
+[177] This is really as splendid a guarantee of equality before the
+law as is to be found in Magna Charta or the Constitution of the
+United States. Unfortunately there was not adequate machinery in the
+Frankish government to enforce it, though we may suppose that while
+the _missi_ continued efficient (which was not more than a hundred
+years) considerable progress was made in this direction.
+
+[178] Serfs who worked on the fiscal lands, or, in other words, on the
+royal estates.
+
+[179] Compare chapters 14 and 27.
+
+[180] A benefice, as the term is here used, was land granted by the
+Emperor to a friend or dependent. The holder was to use such land on
+stated terms for his own and the Emperor's gain, but was in no case to
+claim ownership of it.
+
+[181] The word has at least three distinct meanings--a royal edict, a
+judicial fine, and a territorial jurisdiction. It is here used in the
+first of these senses.
+
+[182] There was little room under Charlemagne's system for
+professional lawyers or advocates.
+
+[183] In other words, when the oath of allegiance is taken, as it must
+be by every man and boy above the age of twelve, all the obligations
+mentioned from Chap. 3 to Chap. 9 are to be considered as assumed
+along with that of fidelity to the person and government of the
+Emperor.
+
+[184] That is, the laws of the Church.
+
+[185] One of the greatest temptations of the mediaeval clergy was to
+spend time in hunting, to the neglect of religious duties. Apparently
+this evil was pretty common in Charlemagne's day.
+
+[186] The _centenarii_ were minor local officials, subordinate to the
+counts, and confined in authority to their particular district or
+"hundred."
+
+[187] In the Frankish kingdom, as commonly among Germanic peoples of
+the period, murder not only might be, but was expected to be, atoned
+for by a money payment to the slain man's relatives. The payment,
+known as the _wergeld_, would vary according to the rank of the man
+killed. If it were properly made, such "composition" was bound to be
+accepted as complete reparation for the injury. In this regulation we
+can discern a distinct advance over the old system of blood-feud under
+which a murder almost invariably led to family and clan wars. Plainly
+the Franks were becoming more civilized.
+
+[188] If a murderer refused to pay the required composition his
+property was to be taken possession of by the Emperor's officers and
+the case must be laid before the Emperor himself. If the latter chose,
+he might order the restoration of the property, but this he was not
+likely to do.
+
+[189] Beginning with the reign of Charlemagne there were really two
+assemblies each year--one in the spring, the other in the autumn; but
+the one in the spring, the so-called "May-field," was much the more
+important. All the nobles and higher clergy attended, and if a
+campaign was in prospect all who owed military service would be called
+upon to bring with them their portion of the war-host, with specified
+supplies. Charlemagne proposed all measures, the higher magnates
+discussed them with him, and the lower ones gave a perfunctory
+sanction to acts already determined upon. The meeting place was
+changed from year to year, being rotated irregularly among the royal
+residences, as Aix-la-Chapelle, Paderborn, Ingelheim, and Thionville;
+occasionally they were held, as in this instance, in places otherwise
+almost unknown.
+
+[190] Strassfurt was some distance south of Magdeburg.
+
+[191] The date of the festival of St. John the Baptist was June 22.
+
+[192] From earliest Germanic times we catch glimpses of this practice
+of requiring gifts from a king's subjects. By Charlemagne's day it had
+crystallized into an established custom and was a very important
+source of revenue, though other sources had been opened up which were
+quite unknown to the German sovereigns of three or four hundred years
+before. Ordinarily these gifts, in money, jewels, or provisions, were
+presented to the sovereign each year at the May assembly.
+
+[193] The title "Patricius of Rome" was conferred on Charlemagne by
+Pope Hadrian I., in 774. Its bestowal was a token of papal
+appreciation of the king's renewal of Pepin's grant of lands to the
+papacy. In practice the title had little or no meaning. It was dropped
+in 800 when Charlemagne was crowned emperor [see p. 130].
+
+[194] That is, the law of the Church; in case of the monasteries, more
+especially the regulations laid down for their order, e.g., the
+Benedictine Rule.
+
+[195] In the Middle Ages it was assumed that churchmen were educated;
+few other men had any claim to learning. Charlemagne here says that it
+is bad indeed when men who have been put in ecclesiastical positions
+because of their supposed education fall into errors which ought to be
+expected only from ordinary people.
+
+[196] In rhetoric a trope is ordinarily defined as the use of a word
+or expression in a different sense from that which properly belongs to
+it. The most common varieties are metaphor, metonomy, synechdoche, and
+irony.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE ERA OF THE LATER CAROLINGIANS
+
+
+24. The Oaths of Strassburg (842)
+
+The broad empire of Germanic peoples built up by Charlemagne was
+extremely difficult to hold together. Even before the death of its
+masterful creator, in 814, it was already showing signs of breaking
+up, and after that event the process of dissolution set in rapidly. It
+will not do to look upon this falling to pieces as caused entirely by
+the weakness of Charlemagne's successors. The trouble lay deeper, in
+the natural love of independence common to all the Germans, in the
+wide differences that had come to exist among Saxons, Lombards,
+Bavarians, Franks, and other peoples in the empire, and finally in the
+prevailing ill-advised principle of royal succession by which the
+territories making up the empire, like those composing the old
+Frankish kingdom, were regarded as personal property to be divided
+among the sovereign's sons, just as was the practice respecting
+private possessions. As a consequence of these things the generation
+following the death of Charlemagne was a period of much confusion in
+western Europe. The trouble first reached an acute stage in 817 when
+Emperor Louis the Pious, Charlemagne's son and successor, was
+constrained to make a division of the empire among his three sons,
+Lothair, Pepin, and Louis. The Emperor expressly stipulated that
+despite this arrangement there was to be still "one sole empire, and
+not three"; but it is obvious that the imperial unity was at least
+pretty seriously threatened, and when, in 823, Louis's second wife,
+Judith of Bavaria, gave birth to a son and immediately set up in his
+behalf an urgent demand for a share of the empire, civil war among the
+rival claimants could not be averted. In the struggle that followed
+the distracted Emperor completely lost his throne for a time (833).
+Thereafter he was ready to accept almost any arrangement that would
+enable him to live out his remaining days in peace. When he died, in
+840, two of the sons, Louis the German and Judith's child, who came to
+be known as Charles the Bald, combined against their brother Lothair
+(Pepin had died in 838) with the purpose of wresting from him the
+imperial crown, which the father, shortly before his death, had
+bestowed upon him. At least they were determined that this mark of
+favor from the father should not give the older brother any
+superiority over them. In the summer of 841 the issue was put to the
+test in a great battle at Fontenay, a little distance east of Orleans,
+with the result that Lothair was badly defeated. In February of the
+following year Louis and Charles, knowing that Lothair was still far
+from regarding himself as conquered, bound themselves by oath at
+Strassburg, in the valley of the Rhine, to keep up their joint
+opposition until they should be entirely successful.
+
+The pledges exchanged on this occasion are as interesting to the
+student of language as to the historian. The army which accompanied
+Louis was composed of men of almost pure Germanic blood and speech,
+while that with Charles was made up of men from what is now southern
+and western France, where the people represented a mixture of Frankish
+and old Roman and Gallic stocks. As a consequence Louis took the oath
+in the _lingua romana_ for the benefit of Charles's soldiers, and
+Charles reciprocated by taking it in the _lingua teudisca_, in order
+that the Germans might understand it. Then the followers of the two
+kings took oath, each in his own language, that if their own king
+should violate his agreement they would not support him in acts of
+hostility against the other brother, provided the latter had been true
+to his word. The _lingua romana_ employed marks a stage in the
+development of the so-called Romance languages of to-day--French,
+Spanish, and Italian--just as the _lingua teudisca_ approaches the
+character of modern Teutonic languages--German, Dutch, and English.
+The oaths and the accompanying address of the kings are the earliest
+examples we have of the languages used by the common people of the
+early Middle Ages. Latin was of course the language of literature,
+records, and correspondence, matters with which ordinary people had
+little or nothing to do. The necessity under which the two kings found
+themselves of using two quite different modes of speech in order to be
+understood by all the soldiers is evidence that already by the middle
+of the ninth century the Romance and Germanic languages were becoming
+essentially distinct. It was prophetic, too, of the fast approaching
+cleavage of the northern and southern peoples politically.
+
+Nithardus, whose account of the exchange of oaths at Strassburg is
+translated below, was an active participant in the events of the first
+half of the ninth century. He was born about 790, his mother being
+Charlemagne's daughter Bertha and his father the noted courtier and
+poet Angilbert. In the later years of Charlemagne's reign, and
+probably under Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald, he was in charge
+of the defense of the northwest coasts against the Northmen. He fought
+for Charles the Bald at Fontenay and was frequently employed in those
+troublous years between 840 and 843 in the fruitless negotiations
+among the rival sons of Louis. Neither the date nor the manner of his
+death is known. There are traditions that he was killed in 858 or 859
+while fighting the Northmen; but other stories just as well founded
+tell us that he became disgusted with the turmoil of the world,
+retired to a monastery, and there died about 853. His history of the
+wars of the sons of Louis the Pious (covering the period 840-843) was
+undertaken at the request of Charles the Bald. The first three books
+were written in 842, the fourth in 843. Aside from a rather too
+favorable attitude toward Charles, the work is very trustworthy, and
+the claim is even made by some that among all of the historians of the
+Carolingian period, not even Einhard excepted, no one surpassed
+Nithardus in spirit, method, and insight. It may further be noted that
+Nithardus was the first historical writer of any importance in the
+Middle Ages who was not some sort of official in the Church.
+
+     Source--Nithardus, _Historiarum Libri IV._ ["Four Books of
+     Histories"], Bk. III., Chaps. 4-5. Text in _Monumenta Germaniae
+     Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 665-666.
+
+     [Sidenote: Movements of the hostile parties in 841-842]
+
+   Lothair was given to understand that Louis and Charles were
+   supporting each other with considerable armies.[197] Seeing that
+   his plans were crushed in every direction, he made a long but
+   profitless expedition and abandoned the country about Tours. At
+   length he returned into France,[198] worn out with fatigue, as was
+   also his army. Pepin,[199] bitterly repenting that he had been on
+   Lothair's side, withdrew into Aquitaine. Charles, learning that
+   Otger, bishop of Mainz, objected to the proposed passage of Louis
+   by way of Mainz to join his brother, set out by way of the city of
+   Toul[200] and entered Alsace at Saverne. When Otger heard of this,
+   he and his supporters abandoned the river and sought places where
+   they might hide themselves as speedily as possible. On the
+   fifteenth of February Louis and Charles came together in the city
+   formerly called Argentoratum, now known as Strassburg, and there
+   they took the mutual oaths which are given herewith, Louis in the
+   _lingua romana_ and Charles in the _lingua teudisca_. Before the
+   exchange of oaths they addressed the assembled people, each in his
+   own language, and Louis, being the elder, thus began:
+
+     [Sidenote: The speech of Louis the German]
+
+   "How often, since the death of our father, Lothair has pursued my
+   brother and myself and tried to destroy us, is known to you all.
+   So, then, when neither brotherly love, nor Christian feeling, nor
+   any reason whatever could bring about a peace between us upon fair
+   conditions, we were at last compelled to bring the matter before
+   God, determined to abide by whatever issue He might decree. And we,
+   as you know, came off victorious;[201] our brother was beaten, and
+   with his followers got away, each as best he could. Then we, moved
+   by brotherly love and having compassion on our Christian people,
+   were not willing to pursue and destroy them; but, still, as before,
+   we begged that justice might be done to each. He, however, after
+   all this, not content with the judgment of God, has not ceased to
+   pursue me and my brother with hostile purpose, and to harass our
+   peoples with fire, plunder, and murder. Wherefore we have been
+   compelled to hold this meeting, and, since we feared that you might
+   doubt whether our faith was fixed and our alliance secure, we have
+   determined to make our oaths thereto in your presence. And we do
+   this, not from any unfair greed, but in order that, if God, with
+   your help, shall grant us peace, we may the better provide for the
+   common welfare. But if, which God forbid, I shall dare to violate
+   the oath which I shall swear to my brother, then I absolve each one
+   of you from your allegiance and from the oath which you have sworn
+   to me."
+
+   After Charles had made the same speech in the _lingua romana_,
+   Louis, as the elder of the two, swore first to be faithful to his
+   alliance:
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of Louis]
+
+   _Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament,
+   dist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si
+   salvaraeio cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha et in cadhuna cosa,
+   si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi
+   fazet; et ab Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist
+   meon fradre Karle in damno sit._[202]
+
+   When Louis had taken this oath, Charles swore the same thing in the
+   _lingua teudisca_:
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of Charles]
+
+   _In Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero
+   gealtnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mir Got gewizci
+   indi madh furgibit, so haldih tesan minan bruodher, soso man mit
+   rehtu sinan bruodher scal, in thiu, thaz er mig sosoma duo; indi
+   mit Ludheren in nohheiniu thing ne gegango, the minan willon imo
+   ce scadhen werhen._
+
+   The oath which the subjects of the two kings then took, each
+   [people] in its own language, reads thus in the _lingua romana_:
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath taken by the subjects of the two kings]
+
+   _Si Lodhwigs sagrament qua son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat, et
+   Karlus meos sendra, de suo part, non lo stanit, si io returnar non
+   lint pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla aiudha
+   contra Lodhuwig nun li iver._[203]
+
+   And in the _lingua teudisca_:
+
+   _Oba Karl then eid then, er sineno bruodher Ludhuwige gesuor,
+   geleistit, indi Ludhuwig min herro then er imo gesuor, forbrihchit,
+   obih ina es irwenden ne mag, noh ih no thero nohhein then ih es
+   irwended mag, widhar Karle imo ce follusti ne wirdhic._
+
+
+25. The Treaty of Verdun (843)
+
+After the meeting at Strassburg, Charles and Louis advanced against
+Lothair, who now abandoned Aachen and retreated southward past
+Chalons-sur-Marne toward Lyons. When the brothers had come into the
+vicinity of Chalons-sur-Saone, they were met by ambassadors from
+Lothair who declared that he was weary of the struggle and was ready
+to make peace if only his imperial dignity should be properly
+recognized and the share of the kingdom awarded to him should be
+somewhat the largest of the three. Charles and Louis accepted their
+brother's overtures and June 15, 842, the three met on an island in
+the Saone and signed preliminary articles of peace. It was agreed that
+a board of a hundred and twenty prominent men should assemble October
+1 at Metz, on the Moselle, and make a definite division of the
+kingdom. This body, with the three royal brothers, met at the
+appointed time, but adjourned to Worms, and subsequently to Verdun, on
+the upper Meuse, in order to have the use of maps at the latter
+place. The treaty which resulted during the following year was one of
+the most important in all mediaeval times. Unfortunately the text of it
+has not survived, but all its more important provisions are well known
+from the writings of the chroniclers of the period. Two such accounts
+of the treaty, brief but valuable, are given below.
+
+Louis had been the real sovereign of Bavaria for sixteen years and to
+his kingdom were now added all the German districts on the right bank
+of the Rhine (except Friesland), together with Mainz, Worms, and
+Speyer on the left bank, under the general name of _Francia
+Orientalis_. Charles retained the western countries--Aquitaine,
+Gascony, Septimania, the Spanish March, Burgundy west of the Saone,
+Neustria, Brittany, and Flanders--designated collectively as _Francia
+Occidentalis_.[204] The intervening belt of lands, including the two
+capitals Rome and Aachen, and extending from Terracina in Italy to the
+North Sea, went to Lothair.[205] With it went the more or less nominal
+imperial dignity. In general, Louis's portion represented the coming
+Germany and Charles's the future France. But that of Lothair was
+utterly lacking in either geographical or racial unity and was
+destined not long to be held together. Parts of it, particularly
+modern Alsace and Lorraine, have remained to this day a bone of
+contention between the states on the east and west. "The partition of
+843," says Professor Emerton, "involved, so far as we know, nothing
+new in the relations of the three brothers to each other. The theory
+of the empire was preserved, but the meaning of it disappeared. There
+is no mention of any actual superiority of the Emperor (Lothair) over
+his brothers, and there is nothing to show that the imperial name was
+anything but an empty title, a memory of something great which men
+could not quite let die, but which for a hundred years to come was to
+be powerless for good or evil."[206] The empire itself was never
+afterwards united under the rule of one man, except for two years
+(885-887) in the time of Charles the Fat.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Annales Bertiniani_ ["Annals of Saint Bertin"].
+     Translated from text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica,
+     Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 440.
+
+     (b) _Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales_ ["Annals of Rudolph of
+     Fulda"]. Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. I., p. 362.
+
+     [Sidenote: A statement from the annals of Saint Bertin]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Charles set out to find his brothers, and they met at Verdun. By
+   the division there made Louis received for his share all the
+   country beyond the Rhine,[207] and on this side Speyer, Worms,
+   Mainz, and the territories belonging to these cities. Lothair
+   received that which is between the Scheldt and the Rhine toward the
+   sea, and that lying beyond Cambresis, Hainault, and the counties
+   adjoining on this side of the Meuse, down to the confluence of the
+   Saone and Rhone, and thence along the Rhone to the sea, together
+   with the adjacent counties. Charles received all the remainder,
+   extending to Spain. And when the oath was exchanged they went their
+   several ways.
+
+     [Sidenote: Another from those of Rudolph of Fulda]
+
+   (b)
+
+   The realm had from early times been divided in three portions, and
+   in the month of August the three kings, coming together at Verdun
+   in Gaul, redivided it among themselves. Louis received the eastern
+   part, Charles the western. Lothair, who was older than his
+   brothers, received the middle portion. After peace was firmly
+   established and oaths exchanged, each brother returned to his
+   dominion to control and protect it. Charles, presuming to regard
+   Aquitaine as belonging properly to his share, was given much
+   trouble by his nephew Pepin,[208] who annoyed him by frequent
+   incursions and caused great loss.
+
+
+26. A Chronicle of the Frankish Kingdom in the Ninth Century
+
+The following passages from the Annals of Xanten are here given for
+two purposes--to show something of the character of the period of the
+Carolingian decline, and to illustrate the peculiar features of the
+mediaeval chronicle. Numerous names, places, and events neither very
+clearly understood now, nor important if they were understood, occur
+in the text, and some of these it is not deemed worth while to attempt
+to explain in the foot-notes. The selection is valuable for the
+general impressions it gives rather than for the detailed facts which
+it contains, though some of the latter are interesting enough.
+
+Annals as a type of historical writing first assumed considerable
+importance in western Europe in the time of Charles Martel and
+Charlemagne. Their origin, like that of most forms of mediaeval
+literary production, can be traced directly to the influence of the
+Church. The annals began as mere occasional notes jotted down by the
+monks upon the "Easter tables," which were circulated among the
+monasteries so that the sacred festival might not fail to be observed
+at the proper date. The Easter tables were really a sort of calendar,
+and as they were placed on parchment having a broad margin it was very
+natural that the monks should begin to write in the margin opposite
+the various years some of the things that had happened in those years.
+An Easter table might pass through a considerable number of hands and
+so have events recorded upon it by a good many different men. All
+sorts of things were thus made note of--some important, some
+unimportant--and of course it is not necessary to suppose that
+everything written down was actually true. Many mistakes were
+possible, especially as the writer often had only his memory, or
+perhaps mere hearsay, to rely upon. And when, as frequently happened,
+these scattered Easter tables were brought together in some monastery
+and there revised, fitted together, and written out in one continuous
+chronicle, there were chances at every turn for serious errors to
+creep in. The compilers were sometimes guilty of wilful
+misrepresentation, but more often their fault was only their
+ignorance, credulity, and lack of critical discernment. In these
+annals there was no attempt to write history as we now understand it;
+that is, the chroniclers did not undertake to work out the causes and
+results and relations of things. They merely recorded year by year
+such happenings as caught their attention--the succession of a new
+pope, the death of a bishop, the coronation of a king, a battle, a
+hail-storm, an eclipse, the birth of a two-headed calf--all sorts of
+unimportant, and from our standpoint ridiculous, items being thrown in
+along with matters of world-wide moment. Heterogeneous as they are,
+however, the large collections of annals that have come down to us
+have been used by modern historians with the greatest profit, and but
+for them we should know far less than we do about the Middle Ages, and
+especially about the people and events of the ninth, tenth, and
+eleventh centuries.
+
+The Annals of Xanten here quoted are the work originally of a number
+of ninth century monks. The fragments from which they were ultimately
+compiled are thought to have been brought together at Cologne, or at
+least in that vicinity. They cover especially the years 831-873.
+
+     Source--_Annales Xantenses_ ["Annals of Xanten"]. Text in
+     _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol.
+     II., p. 227. Adapted from translation in James H. Robinson,
+     _Readings in European History_ (New York, 1904), Vol. I., pp.
+     158-162.
+
+   =844.= Pope Gregory departed this world and Pope Sergius followed
+   in his place.[209] Count Bernhard was killed by Charles. Pepin,
+   king of Aquitaine, together with his son and the son of Bernhard,
+   routed the army of Charles,[210] and there fell the abbot Hugo. At
+   the same time King Louis advanced with his army against the
+   Wends,[211] one of whose kings, Gestimus by name, was killed; the
+   rest came to Louis and pledged him their fidelity, which, however,
+   they broke as soon as he was gone. Thereafter Lothair, Louis, and
+   Charles came together for council in Diedenhofen, and after a
+   conference they went their several ways in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen in Frisia and Gaul]
+
+   =845.= Twice in the canton of Worms there was an earthquake; the
+   first in the night following Palm Sunday, the second in the holy
+   night of Christ's Resurrection. In the same year the heathen[212]
+   broke in upon the Christians at many points, but more than twelve
+   thousand of them were killed by the Frisians. Another party of
+   invaders devastated Gaul; of these more than six hundred men
+   perished. Yet, owing to his indolence, Charles agreed to give them
+   many thousand pounds of gold and silver if they would leave Gaul,
+   and this they did. Nevertheless the cloisters of most of the saints
+   were destroyed and many of the Christians were led away captive.
+
+   After this had taken place King Louis once more led a force against
+   the Wends. When the heathen had learned this they sent ambassadors,
+   as well as gifts and hostages, to Saxony, and asked for peace.
+   Louis then granted peace and returned home from Saxony. Thereafter
+   the robbers were afflicted by a terrible pestilence, during which
+   the chief sinner among them, by the name of Reginheri, who had
+   plundered the Christians and the holy places, was struck down by
+   the hand of God. They then took counsel and threw lots to determine
+   from which of their gods they should seek safety; but the lots did
+   not fall out happily, and on the advice of one of their Christian
+   prisoners that they should cast their lot before the God of the
+   Christians, they did so, and the lot fell happily. Then their king,
+   by the name of Rorik, together with all the heathen people,
+   refrained from meat and drink for fourteen days, when the plague
+   ceased, and they sent back all their Christian prisoners to their
+   country.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen again in Frisia]
+
+   =846.= According to their custom, the Northmen plundered eastern
+   and western Frisia and burned the town of Dordrecht, with two other
+   villages, before the eyes of Lothair, who was then in the castle of
+   Nimwegen, but could not punish the crime. The Northmen, with their
+   boats filled with immense booty, including both men and goods,
+   returned to their own country.
+
+   In the same year Louis sent an expedition from Saxony against the
+   Wends across the Elbe. He personally, however, went with his army
+   against the Bohemians, whom we call Beuwinitha, but with great
+   risk.... Charles advanced against the Britons, but accomplished
+   nothing.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rome attacked by the Saracens]
+
+   At this same time, as no one can mention or hear without great
+   sadness, the mother of all churches, the basilica of the apostle
+   Peter, was taken and plundered by the Moors, or Saracens, who had
+   already occupied the region of Beneventum.[213] The Saracens,
+   moreover, slaughtered all the Christians whom they found outside
+   the walls of Rome, either within or without this church. They also
+   carried men and women away prisoners. They tore down, among many
+   others, the altar of the blessed Peter, and their crimes from day
+   to day bring sorrow to Christians. Pope Sergius departed life this
+   year.
+
+   =847.= After the death of Sergius no mention of the apostolic see
+   has come in any way to our ears. Rabanus [Maurus], master and abbot
+   of Fulda,[214] was solemnly chosen archbishop as the successor of
+   Bishop Otger, who had died. Moreover, the Northmen here and there
+   plundered the Christians and engaged in a battle with the counts
+   Sigir and Liuthar. They continued up the Rhine as far as Dordrecht,
+   and nine miles farther to Meginhard, when they turned back, having
+   taken their booty.
+
+     [Sidenote: An outbreak of heresy repressed]
+
+   =848.= On the fourth of February, towards evening, it lightened and
+   there was thunder heard. The heathen, as was their custom,
+   inflicted injury on the Christians. In the same year King Louis
+   held an assembly of the people near Mainz. At this synod a heresy
+   was brought forward by a few monks in regard to predestination.
+   These were convicted and beaten, to their shame, before all the
+   people. They were sent back to Gaul whence they had come, and,
+   thanks be to God, the condition of the Church remained uninjured.
+
+   =849.= While King Louis was ill, his army of Bavaria took its way
+   against the Bohemians. Many of these were killed and the remainder
+   withdrew, much humiliated, into their own country. The heathen from
+   the North wrought havoc in Christendom as usual and grew greater in
+   strength; but it is painful to say more of this matter.
+
+     [Sidenote: Further ravages by the Northmen and the Saracens]
+
+   =850.= On January 1st of that season, in the octave of the
+   Lord,[215] towards evening, a great deal of thunder was heard and a
+   mighty flash of lightning seen; and an overflow of water afflicted
+   the human race during this winter. In the following summer an all
+   too great heat of the sun burned the earth. Leo, pope of the
+   apostolic see, an extraordinary man, built a fortification around
+   the church of St. Peter the apostle. The Moors, however, devastated
+   here and there the coast towns in Italy. The Norman Rorik, brother
+   of the above-mentioned younger Heriold, who earlier had fled
+   dishonored from Lothair, again took Dordrecht and did much evil
+   treacherously to the Christians. In the same year so great a peace
+   existed between the two brothers--Emperor Lothair and King
+   Louis--that they spent many days together in Osning [Westphalia]
+   and there hunted, so that many were astonished thereat; and they
+   went each his way in peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen again in Frisia and Saxony]
+
+   =851.= The bodies of certain saints were sent from Rome to
+   Saxony--that of Alexander, one of seven brethren, and those of
+   Romanus and Emerentiana. In the same year the very noble Empress,
+   Irmingard by name, wife of the Emperor Lothair, departed this
+   world. The Normans inflicted much harm in Frisia and about the
+   Rhine. A mighty army of them collected by the River Elbe against
+   the Saxons, and some of the Saxon towns were besieged, others
+   burned, and most terribly did they oppress the Christians. A
+   meeting of our kings took place on the Maas [Meuse].
+
+   =852.= The steel of the heathen glistened; excessive heat; a famine
+   followed. There was not fodder enough for the animals. The
+   pasturage for the swine was more than sufficient.
+
+   =853.= A great famine in Saxony, so that many were forced to live
+   on horse meat.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen burn the church of St. Martin at Tours]
+
+   =854.= The Normans, in addition to the very many evils which they
+   were everywhere inflicting upon the Christians, burned the church
+   of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, where his body rests.
+
+   =855.= In the spring Louis, the eastern king, sent his son of the
+   same name to Aquitaine to obtain possession of the heritage of his
+   uncle Pepin.
+
+   =856.= The Normans again chose a king of the same name as the
+   preceding one, and related to him, and the Danes made a fresh
+   incursion by sea, with renewed forces, against the Christians.
+
+   =857.= A great sickness prevailed among the people. This produced a
+   terrible foulness, so that the limbs were separated from the body
+   even before death came.
+
+   =858.= Louis, the eastern king, held an assembly of the people of
+   his territory in Worms.
+
+   =859.= On the first of January, as the early Mass was being said, a
+   single earthquake occurred in Worms and a triple one in Mainz
+   before daybreak.
+
+   =860.= On the fifth of February thunder was heard. The king
+   returned from Gaul after the whole empire had gone to destruction,
+   and was in no way bettered.
+
+     [Sidenote: Sacred relics brought together at the Freckenhorst]
+
+   =861.= The holy bishop Luitbert piously furnished the cloister
+   which is called the Freckenhorst with many relics of the saints,
+   namely, of the martyrs Boniface and Maximus, and of the confessors
+   Eonius and Antonius, and added a portion of the manger of the Lord
+   and of His grave, and likewise of the dust of the Lord's feet as He
+   ascended to heaven. In this year the winter was long and the
+   above-mentioned kings again had a secret consultation on the island
+   near Coblenz, and they laid waste everything round about.
+
+
+27. The Northmen in the Country of the Franks.
+
+Under the general name of Northmen in the ninth and tenth centuries
+were included all those peoples of pure Teutonic stock who inhabited
+the two neighboring peninsulas of Denmark and Scandinavia. In this
+period, and after, they played a very conspicuous part in the history
+of western Europe--at first as piratical invaders along the Atlantic
+coast, and subsequently as settlers in new lands and as conquerors and
+state-builders. _Northmen_ was the name by which the people of the
+continent generally knew them, but to the Irish they were known as
+_Ostmen_ or _Eastmen_, and to the English as _Danes_, while the name
+which they applied to themselves was _Vikings_ ["Creekmen"]. Their
+prolonged invasions and plunderings, which fill so large a place in
+the ninth and tenth century chronicles of England and France, were the
+result of several causes and conditions: (1) their natural love of
+adventure, common to all early Germanic peoples; (2) the fact that the
+population of their home countries had become larger than the limited
+resources of these northern regions would support; (3) the proximity
+of the sea on every side, with its fiords and inlets inviting the
+adventurer to embark for new shores; and (4) the discontent of the
+nobles, or jarls, with the growing rigor of kingly government. In
+consequence of these and other influences large numbers of the people
+became pirates, with no other occupation than the plundering of the
+more civilized and wealthier countries to the east, west, and south.
+Those from Sweden visited most commonly the coasts of Russia, those
+from Norway went generally to Scotland and Ireland, and those from
+Denmark to England and France. In fast-sailing vessels carrying sixty
+or seventy men, and under the leadership of "kings of the sea" who
+never "sought refuge under a roof, nor emptied their drinking-horns at
+a fireside," they darted along the shores, ascended rivers, converted
+islands into temporary fortresses, and from thence sallied forth in
+every direction to burn and pillage and carry off all the booty upon
+which they could lay hands. So swift and irresistible were their
+operations that they frequently met with not the slightest show of
+opposition from the terrified inhabitants.
+
+It was natural that Frankland, with its numerous large rivers flowing
+into the ocean and leading through fertile valleys dotted with towns
+and rich abbeys, should early have attracted the marauders; and in
+fact they made their appearance there as early as the year 800. Before
+the end of Charlemagne's reign they had pillaged Frisia, and a monkish
+writer of the time tells us that upon one occasion the great Emperor
+burst into tears and declared that he was overwhelmed with sorrow as
+he looked forward and saw what evils they would bring upon his
+offspring and people. Whether or not this story is true, certain it is
+that before the ninth century was far advanced incursions of the
+barbarians--"the heathen," as the chroniclers generally call them--had
+come to be almost annual events. In 841 Rouen was plundered and
+burned; in 843 Nantes was besieged, the bishop killed, and many
+captives carried off; in 845 the invaders appeared at Paris and were
+prevented from attacking the place only by being bribed; and so the
+story goes, until by 846 we find the annalists beginning their
+melancholy record of the year's events with the matter-of-course
+statement that, "according to their custom," the Northmen plundered
+such and such a region [see p. 159]. Below are a few passages taken
+from the Annals of Saint-Bertin, the poem of Abbo on the siege of
+Paris, and the Chronicle of Saint-Denys, which show something of the
+character of the Northmen's part in early French history, first as
+mere invaders and afterwards as permanent settlers.
+
+The Annals of Saint-Bertin are so called because they have been copied
+from an old manuscript found in the monastery of that name. The period
+which they cover is 741-882. Several writers evidently had a hand in
+their compilation. The portion between the dates 836 and 861 is
+attributed to Prudence, bishop of Troyes, and that between 861 and 882
+to Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims.
+
+Abbo, the author of the second selection given below, was a monk of
+St. Germain des Pres, at Paris. He wrote a poem in which he undertook
+to give an account of the siege of Paris by the Northmen in 885 and
+886, and of the struggles of the Frankish people with the invaders to
+the year 896. As literature the poem has small value, but for the
+historian it possesses some importance.
+
+The account of Rollo's conversion comes from a history of the Normans
+written in the twelfth century by William of Jumieges. The work covers
+the period 851-1137, its earlier portions (to 996) being based on an
+older history written by Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, in the eleventh
+century. The Chronicle of St.-Denys was composed at a later time and
+served to preserve most of the history recorded by Dudo and William of
+Jumieges.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Annales Bertiniani_ ["Annals of St. Bertin"].
+     Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.),
+     Vol. I., pp. 439-454.
+
+     (b) Abbonis Monachi S. Germani Parisiensis, _De Bellis
+     Parisiacae Urbis, et Odonis Comitis, post Regis, adversus
+     Northmannos urbem ipsam obsidentes, sub Carolo Crasso Imp. ac
+     Rege Francorum_ [Abbo's "Wars of Count Odo with the Northmen
+     in the Reign of Charles the Fat"]. Text in Bouquet, _Recueil
+     des Historiens des Gaules et de la France_, Vol. VIII., pp.
+     4-26.
+
+     (c) _Chronique de Saint-Denys d'apres Dudo et Guillaume de
+     Jumieges_ ["Chronicle of St. Denys based on Dudo and William
+     of Jumieges"], Vol. III., p. 105.
+
+   (a) THE EARLIER RAVAGES OF THE NORTHMEN
+
+   =843=. Pirates of the Northmen's race came to Nantes, killed the
+   bishop and many of the clergy and laymen, both men and women, and
+   pillaged the city. Thence they set out to plunder the lands of
+   lower Aquitaine. At length they arrived at a certain island[216]
+   and carried materials thither from the mainland to build themselves
+   houses; and they settled there for the winter, as if that were to
+   be their permanent dwelling-place.
+
+   =844.= The Northmen ascended the Garonne as far as Toulouse and
+   pillaged the lands along both banks with impunity. Some, after
+   leaving this region went into Galicia[217] and perished, part of
+   them by the attacks of the cross-bowmen who had come to resist
+   them, part by being overwhelmed by a storm at sea. But others of
+   them went farther into Spain and engaged in long and desperate
+   combats with the Saracens; defeated in the end, they withdrew.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen bought off at Paris]
+
+   =845.= The Northmen with a hundred ships entered the Seine on the
+   twentieth of March and, after ravaging first one bank and then the
+   other, came without meeting any resistance to Paris. Charles[218]
+   resolved to hold out against them; but seeing the impossibility of
+   gaining a victory, he made with them a certain agreement and by a
+   gift of 7,000 livres he bought them off from advancing farther and
+   persuaded them to return.
+
+   Euric, king of the Northmen, advanced, with six hundred vessels,
+   along the course of the River Elbe to attack Louis of Germany.[219]
+   The Saxons prepared to meet him, gave battle, and with the aid of
+   our Lord Jesus Christ won the victory.
+
+   The Northmen returned [from Paris] down the Seine and coming to the
+   ocean pillaged, destroyed, and burned all the regions along the
+   coast.
+
+   =846.= The Danish pirates landed in Frisia.[220] They were able to
+   force from the people whatever contributions they wished and, being
+   victors in battle, they remained masters of almost the entire
+   province.
+
+   =847.= The Northmen made their appearance in the part of Gaul
+   inhabited by the Britons[221] and won three victories.
+   Nomenoe,[222] although defeated, at length succeeded in buying
+   them off with presents and getting them out of his country.
+
+     [Sidenote: The burning of Tours]
+
+   =853-854.= The Danish pirates, making their way into the country
+   eastward from the city of Nantes, arrived without opposition,
+   November eighth, before Tours. This they burned, together with the
+   church of St. Martin and the neighboring places. But that incursion
+   had been foreseen with certainty and the body of St. Martin had
+   been removed to Cormery, a monastery of that church, and from there
+   to the city of Orleans. The pirates went on to the chateau of
+   Blois[223] and burned it, proposing then to proceed to Orleans and
+   destroy that city in the same fashion. But Agius, bishop of
+   Orleans, and Burchard, bishop of Chartres,[224] had gathered
+   soldiers and ships to meet them; so they abandoned their design and
+   returned to the lower Loire, though the following year [855] they
+   ascended it anew to the city of Angers.[225]
+
+   =855.= They left their ships behind and undertook to go overland to
+   the city of Poitiers;[226] but the Aquitanians came to meet them
+   and defeated them, so that not more than 300 escaped.
+
+     [Sidenote: Orleans pillaged]
+
+   =856.= On the eighteenth of April, the Danish pirates came to the
+   city of Orleans, pillaged it, and went away without meeting
+   opposition. Other Danish pirates came into the Seine about the
+   middle of August and, after plundering and ruining the towns on the
+   two banks of the river, and even the monasteries and villages
+   farther back, came to a well located place near the Seine called
+   Jeufosse, and, there quietly passed the winter.
+
+   =859.= The Danish pirates having made a long sea-voyage (for they
+   had sailed between Spain and Africa) entered the Rhone, where they
+   pillaged many cities and monasteries and established themselves on
+   the island called Camargue.... They devastated everything before
+   them as far as the city of Valence.[227] Then after ravaging all
+   these regions they returned to the island where they had fixed
+   their habitation. Thence they went on toward Italy, capturing and
+   plundering Pisa and other cities.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Northmen arrive at the city]
+
+   (b) THE SIEGE OF PARIS
+
+   =885.= The Northmen came to Paris with 700 sailing ships, not
+   counting those of smaller size which are commonly called barques.
+   At one stretch the Seine was lined with the vessels for more than
+   two leagues, so that one might ask in astonishment in what cavern
+   the river had been swallowed up, since it was not to be seen. The
+   second day after the fleet of the Northmen arrived under the walls
+   of the city, Siegfred, who was then king only in name[228] but who
+   was in command of the expedition, came to the dwelling of the
+   illustrious bishop. He bowed his head and said: "Gauzelin, have
+   compassion on yourself and on your flock. We beseech you to listen
+   to us, in order that you may escape death. Allow us only the
+   freedom of the city. We will do no harm and we will see to it that
+   whatever belongs either to you or to Odo shall be strictly
+   respected." Count Odo, who later became king, was then the defender
+   of the city.[229] The bishop replied to Siegfred, "Paris has been
+   entrusted to us by the Emperor Charles, who, after God, king and
+   lord of the powerful, rules over almost all the world. He has put
+   it in our care, not at all that the kingdom may be ruined by our
+   misconduct, but that he may keep it and be assured of its peace.
+   If, like us, you had been given the duty of defending these walls,
+   and if you should have done that which you ask us to do, what
+   treatment do you think you would deserve?" Siegfred replied, "I
+   should deserve that my head be cut off and thrown to the dogs.
+   Nevertheless, if you do not listen to my demand, on the morrow our
+   war machines will destroy you with poisoned arrows. You will be the
+   prey of famine and of pestilence and these evils will renew
+   themselves perpetually every year." So saying, he departed and
+   gathered together his comrades.
+
+     [Sidenote: The attack upon the tower]
+
+     [Sidenote: Fierce fighting]
+
+     [Sidenote: The bravery of Count Odo]
+
+   In the morning the Northmen, boarding their ships, approached the
+   tower and attacked it.[230] They shook it with their engines and
+   stormed it with arrows. The city resounded with clamor, the people
+   were aroused, the bridges trembled. All came together to defend the
+   tower. There Odo, his brother Robert,[231] and the Count Ragenar
+   distinguished themselves for bravery; likewise the courageous Abbot
+   Ebolus,[232] the nephew of the bishop. A keen arrow wounded the
+   prelate, while at his side the young warrior Frederick was struck
+   by a sword. Frederick died, but the old man, thanks to God,
+   survived. There perished many Franks; after receiving wounds they
+   were lavish of life. At last the enemy withdrew, carrying off their
+   dead. The evening came. The tower had been sorely tried, but its
+   foundations were still solid, as were also the narrow _baies_ which
+   surmounted them. The people spent the night repairing it with
+   boards. By the next day, on the old citadel had been erected a new
+   tower of wood, a half higher than the former one. At sunrise the
+   Danes caught their first glimpse of it. Once more the latter
+   engaged with the Christians in violent combat. On every side arrows
+   sped and blood flowed. With the arrows mingled the stones hurled
+   by slings and war-machines; the air was filled with them. The tower
+   which had been built during the night groaned under the strokes of
+   the darts, the city shook with the struggle, the people ran hither
+   and thither, the bells jangled. The warriors rushed together to
+   defend the tottering tower and to repel the fierce assault. Among
+   these warriors two, a count and an abbot [Ebolus], surpassed all
+   the rest in courage. The former was the redoubtable Odo who never
+   experienced defeat and who continually revived the spirits of the
+   worn-out defenders. He ran along the ramparts and hurled back the
+   enemy. On those who were secreting themselves so as to undermine
+   the tower he poured oil, wax, and pitch, which, being mixed and
+   heated, burned the Danes and tore off their scalps. Some of them
+   died; others threw themselves into the river to escape the awful
+   substance....[233]
+
+   Meanwhile Paris was suffering not only from the sword outside but
+   also from a pestilence within which brought death to many noble
+   men. Within the walls there was not ground in which to bury the
+   dead.... Odo, the future king, was sent to Charles, emperor of the
+   Franks,[234] to implore help for the stricken city.
+
+     [Sidenote: Odo's mission to Emperor Charles the Fat]
+
+   One day Odo suddenly appeared in splendor in the midst of three
+   bands of warriors. The sun made his armor glisten and greeted him
+   before it illuminated the country around. The Parisians saw their
+   beloved chief at a distance, but the enemy, hoping to prevent his
+   gaining entrance to the tower, crossed the Seine and took up their
+   position on the bank. Nevertheless Odo, his horse at a gallop, got
+   past the Northmen and reached the tower, whose gates Ebolus opened
+   to him. The enemy pursued fiercely the comrades of the count who
+   were trying to keep up with him and get refuge in the tower. [The
+   Danes were defeated in the attack.]
+
+     [Sidenote: Terms of peace arranged by Charles]
+
+   Now came the Emperor Charles, surrounded by soldiers of all
+   nations, even as the sky is adorned with resplendent stars. A great
+   throng, speaking many languages, accompanied him. He established
+   his camp at the foot of the heights of Montmartre, near the tower.
+   He allowed the Northmen to have the country of Sens to
+   plunder;[235] and in the spring he gave them 700 pounds of silver
+   on condition that by the month of March they leave France for their
+   own kingdom.[236] Then Charles returned, destined to an early
+   death.[237]
+
+     [Sidenote: Rollo receives Normandy from Charles the Simple]
+
+   (c) THE BAPTISM OF ROLLO AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NORMANS IN
+   FRANCE[238]
+
+   The king had at first wished to give to Rollo the province of
+   Flanders, but the Norman rejected it as being too marshy. Rollo
+   refused to kiss the foot of Charles when he received from him the
+   duchy of Normandy. "He who receives such a gift," said the bishops
+   to him, "ought to kiss the foot of the king." "Never," replied he,
+   "will I bend the knee to any one, or kiss anybody's foot."
+   Nevertheless, impelled by the entreaties of the Franks, he ordered
+   one of his warriors to perform the act in his stead. This man
+   seized the foot of the king and lifted it to his lips, kissing it
+   without bending and so causing the king to tumble over backwards.
+   At that there was a loud burst of laughter and a great commotion in
+   the crowd of onlookers. King Charles, Robert, Duke of the
+   Franks,[239] the counts and magnates, and the bishops and abbots,
+   bound themselves by the oath of the Catholic faith to Rollo,
+   swearing by their lives and their bodies and by the honor of all
+   the kingdom, that he might hold the land and transmit it to his
+   heirs from generation to generation throughout all time to come.
+   When these things had been satisfactorily performed, the king
+   returned in good spirits into his dominion, and Rollo with Duke
+   Robert set out for Rouen.
+
+     [Sidenote: Rollo becomes a Christian]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 912 Rollo was baptized in holy water in the
+   name of the sacred Trinity by Franco, archbishop of Rouen. Duke
+   Robert, who was his godfather, gave to him his name. Rollo
+   devotedly honored God and the Holy Church with his gifts.... The
+   pagans, seeing that their chieftain had become a Christian,
+   abandoned their idols, received the name of Christ, and with one
+   accord desired to be baptized. Meanwhile the Norman duke made ready
+   for a splendid wedding and married the daughter of the king
+   [Gisela] according to Christian rites.
+
+     [Sidenote: His work in Normandy]
+
+   Rollo gave assurance of security to all those who wished to dwell
+   in his country. The land he divided among his followers, and, as it
+   had been a long time unused, he improved it by the construction of
+   new buildings. It was peopled by the Norman warriors and by
+   immigrants from outside regions. The duke established for his
+   subjects certain inviolable rights and laws, confirmed and
+   published by the will of the leading men, and he compelled all his
+   people to live peaceably together. He rebuilt the churches, which
+   had been entirely ruined; he restored the temples, which had been
+   destroyed by the ravages of the pagans; he repaired and added to
+   the walls and fortifications of the cities; he subdued the Britons
+   who rebelled against him; and with the provisions obtained from
+   them he supplied all the country that had been granted to him.
+
+
+28. Later Carolingian Efforts to Preserve Order
+
+The ninth century is chiefly significant in Frankish history as an era
+of decline of monarchy and increase of the powers and independence of
+local officials and magnates. Already by Charlemagne's death, in 814,
+the disruptive forces were at work, and under the relatively weak
+successors of the great Emperor the course of decentralization went on
+until by the death of Charles the Bald, in 877, the royal authority
+had been reduced to a condition of insignificance. This century was
+the formative period _par excellence_ of the feudal system--a type of
+social and economic organization which the conditions of the time
+rendered inevitable and under which great monarchies tended to be
+dissolved into a multitude of petty local states. Large landholders
+began to regard themselves as practically independent; royal
+officials, particularly the counts, refused to be parted from their
+positions and used them primarily to enhance their own personal
+authority; the churches and monasteries stretched their royal grants
+of immunity so far as almost to refuse to acknowledge any obligations
+to the central government. In these and other ways the Carolingian
+monarchy was shorn of its powers, and as it was quite lacking in
+money, lands, and soldiers who could be depended on, there was little
+left for it to do but to legislate and ordain without much prospect of
+being able to enforce its laws and ordinances. The rapidity with which
+the kings of the period were losing their grip on the situation comes
+out very clearly from a study of the capitularies which they issued
+from time to time. In general these capitularies, especially after
+about 840, testify to the disorder everywhere prevailing, the
+usurpations of the royal officials, and the popular contempt of the
+royal authority, and reiterate commands for the preservation of order
+until they become fairly wearisome to the reader. Royalty was at a bad
+pass and its weakness is reflected unmistakably in its attempts to
+govern by mere edict without any backing of enforcing power. In 843,
+853, 856, 857, and many other years of Charles the Bald's reign,
+elaborate decrees were issued prohibiting brigandage and lawlessness,
+but with the tell-tale provision that violators were to be "admonished
+with Christian love to repent," or that they were to be punished "as
+far as the local officials could remember them," or that the royal
+agents were themselves to take oath not to become highway robbers!
+Sometimes the king openly confessed his weakness and proceeded to
+implore, rather than to command, his subjects to obey him.
+
+The capitulary quoted below belongs to the last year of the short
+reign of Carloman (882-884), son of Louis the Stammerer and grandson
+of Charles the Bald. It makes a considerable show of power, ordaining
+the punishment of criminals as confidently as if there had really been
+means to assure its enforcement. But in truth all the provisions in it
+had been embodied in capitularies of Carloman's predecessors with
+scarcely perceptible effect, and there was certainly no reason to
+expect better results now. With the nobles practicing, if not
+asserting, independence, the churches and monasteries heeding the
+royal authority hardly at all, the country being ravaged by Northmen
+and the people turning to the great magnates for the protection they
+could no longer get from the king, and the counts and _missi dominici_
+making their lands and offices the basis for hereditary local
+authority, the king had come to be almost powerless in the great realm
+where less than a hundred years before Charlemagne's word, for all
+practical purposes, was law. Even Charlemagne himself, however, could
+have done little to avert the state of anarchy which conditions too
+strong for any sovereign to cope with had brought about.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Boretius ed.), Vol. II., pp. 371-375.
+
+     [Sidenote: The keeping of the peace enjoined]
+
+   =1.= According to the custom of our predecessors, we desire that in
+   our palace shall prevail the worship of God, the honor of the king,
+   piety, concord, and a condition of peace; and that that peace
+   established in our palace by the sanction of our predecessors shall
+   extend to, and be observed throughout, our entire kingdom.
+
+   =2.= We desire that all those who live at our court, and all who
+   come there, shall live peaceably. If any one, in breach of the
+   peace, is guilty of violence, let him be brought to a hearing at
+   our palace, by the authority of the king and by the order of our
+   _missus_, as it was ordained by the capitularies of our
+   predecessors, that he may be punished according to a legal judgment
+   and may pay a triple composition with the royal ban.[240]
+
+   =3.= If the offender has no lord, or if he flees from our court,
+   our _missus_ shall go to find him and shall order him, in our name,
+   to appear at the palace.[241] If he should be so rash as to disdain
+   to come, let him be brought by force. If he spurns both us and our
+   _missus_, and while refusing to obey summons is killed in
+   resisting, and any of his relatives or friends undertake to
+   exercise against our agents who have killed him the right of
+   vengeance,[242] we will oppose them there and will give our agents
+   all the aid of our royal authority.
+
+     [Sidenote: The bishop's part in repressing crime]
+
+   =5.= The bishop of the diocese in which the crime shall have been
+   committed ought, through the priest of the place, to give three
+   successive invitations to the offender to repent and to make
+   reparation for his fault in order to set himself right with God and
+   the church that he has injured. If he scorns and rejects this
+   summons and invitation, let the bishop wield upon him the pastoral
+   rod, that is to say, the sentence of excommunication; and let him
+   separate him from the communion of the Holy Church until he shall
+   have given the satisfaction that is required.
+
+     [Sidenote: Obligations of lay officials to restrain violence]
+
+   =9.= In order that violence be entirely brought to an end and order
+   restored, it is necessary that the bishop's authority should be
+   supplemented by that of the public officials. Therefore we and our
+   faithful have judged it expedient that the _missi dominici_ should
+   discharge faithfully the duties of their office.[243] The count
+   shall enjoin to the viscount,[244] to his _vicarii_ and
+   _centenarii_,[245] and to all the public officials, as well as to
+   all Franks who have a knowledge of the law, that all should give as
+   much aid as they can to the Church, both on their own account and
+   in accord with the requests of the clergy, every time they shall be
+   called upon by the bishop, the officers of the bishop, or even by
+   the needy. They should do this for the love of God, the peace of
+   the Holy Church, and the fidelity that they owe to us.
+
+
+29. The Election of Hugh Capet (987).
+
+The election of Hugh Capet as king of France in 987 marked the
+establishment of the so-called Capetian line of monarchs, which
+occupied the French throne in all not far from eight centuries--a
+record not equaled by any other royal house in European history. The
+circumstances of the election were interesting and significant. For
+more than a hundred years there had been keen rivalry between the
+Carolingian kings and one of the great ducal houses of the Franks,
+known as the Robertians. In the disorder which so generally prevailed
+in France in the ninth and tenth centuries, powerful families
+possessing extensive lands and having large numbers of vassals and
+serfs were able to make themselves practically independent of the
+royal power. The greatest of these families was the Robertians, the
+descendants of Robert the Strong, father of the Odo who distinguished
+himself at the siege of Paris in 885-886 [see p. 170]. Between 888 and
+987 circumstances brought it about three different times that members
+of the Robertian house were elevated to the Frankish throne (Odo,
+888-898; Robert I., 922-923; and Rudolph--related to the Robertians by
+marriage only,--923-936). The rest of the time the throne was occupied
+by Carolingians (Charles the Simple, 898-922; Louis IV., 936-954;
+Lothair, 954-986; and Louis V., 986-987). With the death of the young
+king Louis V., in 987, the last direct descendant of Charlemagne
+passed away and the question of the succession was left for solution
+by the nobles and higher clergy of the realm. As soon as the king was
+dead, such of these magnates as were assembled at the court to attend
+the funeral bound themselves by oath to take no action until a general
+meeting could be held at Senlis (a few miles north of Paris) late in
+May, 987. The proceedings of this general meeting are related in the
+passage below. Apparently it had already been pretty generally agreed
+that the man to be elected was Hugh Capet, great-grandson of Robert
+the Strong and the present head of the famous Robertian house, and the
+speech of Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, of which Richer gives a
+resume, was enough to ensure this result. There was but one other
+claimant of importance. That was the late king's uncle, Charles of
+Lower Lorraine. He was not a man of force and Adalbero easily disposed
+of his candidacy, though the rejected prince was subsequently able to
+make his successful rival a good deal of trouble. Hugh owed his
+election to his large material resources, the military prestige of
+his ancestors, the active support of the Church, and the lack of
+direct heirs of the Carolingian dynasty.
+
+Richer, the chronicler whose account of the election is given below,
+was a monk living at Rheims at the time when the events occurred which
+he describes. His "Four Books of Histories," discovered only in 1833,
+is almost our only considerable source of information on Frankish
+affairs in the later tenth century. In his writing he endeavored to
+round out his work into a real history and to give more than the bare
+outline of events characteristic of the mediaeval annalists. In this he
+was only partially successful, being at fault mainly in indulging in
+too much rhetoric and in allowing partisan motives sometimes to guide
+him in what he said. His partisanship was on the side of the fallen
+Carolingians. The period covered by the "Histories" is 888-995; they
+are therefore roughly continuous chronologically with the Annals of
+Saint Bertin [see p. 164].
+
+     Source--Richer, _Historiarum Libri IV._ ["Four Books of
+     Histories"], Bk. IV., Chaps. 11-12. Text in _Monumenta
+     Germaniae Historica, Scriptores_ (Pertz ed.), Vol. III., pp.
+     633-634.
+
+   Meanwhile, at the appointed time the magnates of Gaul who had taken
+   the oath came together at Senlis. When they had all taken their
+   places in the assembly and the duke[246] had given the sign, the
+   archbishop[247] spoke to them as follows:[248]
+
+     [Sidenote: Adalbero's speech at Senlis]
+
+   "King Louis, of divine memory, having been removed from the world,
+   and having left no heirs, it devolves upon us to take serious
+   counsel as to the choice of a successor, so that the state may not
+   suffer any injury through neglect and the lack of a leader. On a
+   former occasion[249] we thought it advisable to postpone that
+   deliberation in order that each of you might be able to come here
+   and, in the presence of the assembly, voice the sentiment which God
+   should have inspired in you, and that from all these different
+   expressions of opinion we might be able to find out what is the
+   general will.
+
+     [Sidenote: Election, not heredity, the true basis of Frankish
+   kingship]
+
+   "Here we are assembled. Let us see to it, by our prudence and
+   honor, that hatred shall not destroy reason, that love shall not
+   interfere with truth. We are aware that Charles[250] has his
+   partisans, who claim that the throne belongs to him by right of
+   birth. But if we look into the matter, the throne is not acquired
+   by hereditary right, and no one ought to be placed at the head of
+   the kingdom unless he is distinguished, not only by nobility of
+   body, but also by strength of mind--only such a one as honor and
+   generosity recommend.[251] We read in the annals of rulers of
+   illustrious descent who were deposed on account of their
+   unworthiness and replaced by others of the same, or even lesser,
+   rank.[252]
+
+     [Sidenote: Objections to Charles of Lorraine]
+
+     [Sidenote: Election of Hugh Capet urged]
+
+   "What dignity shall we gain by making Charles king? He is not
+   guided by honor, nor is he possessed of strength. Then, too, he has
+   compromised himself so far as to have become the dependent of a
+   foreign king[253] and to have married a girl taken from among his
+   own vassals. How could the great duke endure that a woman of the
+   low rank of vassal should become queen and rule over him? How could
+   he tender services to this woman, when his equals, and even his
+   superiors, in birth bend the knee before him and place their hands
+   under his feet? Think of this seriously and you will see that
+   Charles must be rejected for his own faults rather than on account
+   of any wrong done by others. Make a decision, therefore, for the
+   welfare rather than for the injury of the state. If you wish ill to
+   your country, choose Charles to be king; if you have regard for its
+   prosperity, choose Hugh, the illustrious duke.... Elect, then, the
+   duke, a man who is recommended by his conduct, by his nobility, and
+   by his military following. In him you will find a defender, not
+   only of the state, but also of your private interests. His
+   large-heartedness will make him a father to you all. Who has ever
+   fled to him for protection without receiving it? Who that has been
+   deserted by his friends has he ever failed to restore to his
+   rights?"
+
+     [Sidenote: The beginning of his reign]
+
+   This speech was applauded and concurred in by all, and by unanimous
+   consent the duke was raised to the throne. He was crowned at
+   Noyon[254] on the first of June[255] by the archbishop and the
+   other bishops as king of the Gauls, the Bretons, the Normans, the
+   Aquitanians, the Goths, the Spaniards and the Gascons.[256]
+   Surrounded by the nobles of the king, he issued decrees and made
+   laws according to royal custom, judging and disposing of all
+   matters with success.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[197] After the battle of Fontenay, June 25, 841, Charles and Louis
+had separated and Lothair had formed the design of attacking and
+conquering first one and then the other. He made an expedition against
+Charles, but was unable to accomplish anything before his two enemies
+again drew together at Strassburg.
+
+[198] The name "Francia" was as yet confined to the country lying
+between the Loire and the Scheldt.
+
+[199] This Pepin was a son of Pepin, the brother of Charles, Louis,
+and Lothair. Upon the death of the elder Pepin in 838 his part of the
+empire--the great region between the Loire and the Pyrenees, known as
+Aquitaine--had been taken possession of by Charles, without regard for
+the two surviving sons. It was natural, therefore, that in the
+struggle which ensued between Charles and Louis on the one side and
+Lothair on the other, young Pepin should have given such aid as he
+could to the latter.
+
+[200] On the upper Moselle.
+
+[201] This refers to the battle of Fontenay.
+
+[202] The translation of this oath is as follows: "For the love of
+God, and for the sake as well of our peoples as of ourselves, I
+promise that from this day forth, as God shall grant me wisdom and
+strength, I will treat this my brother as one's brother ought to be
+treated, provided that he shall do the same by me. And with Lothair I
+will not willingly enter into any dealings which may injure this my
+brother."
+
+[203] This oath, taken by the followers of the two kings, may be thus
+translated: "If Louis [or Charles] shall observe the oath which he has
+sworn to his brother Charles [or Louis], and Charles [or Louis], our
+lord, on his side, should be untrue to his oath, and we should be
+unable to hold him to it, neither we nor any whom we can deter, shall
+give him any support." The oath taken by the two armies was the same,
+with only the names of the kings interchanged.
+
+[204] This name in the course of time became simply "Francia," then
+"France." In the eastern kingdom, "Francia" gradually became
+restricted to the region about the Main, or "Franconia."
+
+[205] It was commonly known as "Lotharii regnum," later as
+"Lotharingia," and eventually (a fragment of the kingdom only) as
+"Lorraine."
+
+[206] Emerton, _Mediaeval Europe_ (Boston, 1903), p. 30.
+
+[207] This statement is only approximately true. In reality Friesland
+(Frisia) and a strip up the east bank of the Rhine almost to the mouth
+of the Moselle went to Lothair.
+
+[208] See p. 152, note 2.
+
+[209] Gregory IV. (827-844) was succeeded in the papal office by
+Sergius II. (844-847).
+
+[210] By the treaty of Verdun in 843 Charles the Bald had been given
+Aquitaine, along with the other distinctively Frankish regions of
+western Europe. His nephew Pepin, however, who had never been
+reconciled to Charles's taking possession of Aquitaine in 838, called
+himself king of that country and made stubborn resistance to his
+uncle's claims of sovereignty [see p. 156].
+
+[211] The Wends were a Slavonic people living in the lower valley of
+the Oder.
+
+[212] By "the heathen" are meant the Norse pirates from Denmark and
+the Scandinavian peninsula. On their invasions see p. 163.
+
+[213] This Saracen attack upon Rome was made by some Arab pirates who
+in the Mediterranean were playing much the same role of destruction as
+were the Northmen on the Atlantic coasts. A league of Naples, Gaeta,
+and Amalfi defeated the pirates in 849, and delivered Rome from her
+oppressors long enough for new fortifications to be constructed. Walls
+were built at this time to include the quarter of St. Peter's--a
+district known to this day as the "Leonine City" in memory of Leo IV.,
+who in 847 succeeded Sergius as pope [see above text under date 850].
+
+[214] Fulda was an important monastery on one of the upper branches of
+the Weser, northeast of Mainz.
+
+[215] An octave, in the sense here meant, is the week (strictly eight
+days) following a church festival; in this case, the eight days
+following the anniversary of Christ's birth, or Christmas.
+
+[216] The isle of Rhe, near Rochelle, north of the mouth of the
+Garonne.
+
+[217] Galicia was a province in the extreme northwest of the Spanish
+peninsula.
+
+[218] Charles the Bald, who by the treaty of Verdun in 843, had
+obtained the western part of the empire built up by Charlemagne [see
+p. 154].
+
+[219] Louis, a half-brother of Charles the Bald, who had received the
+eastern portion of Charlemagne's empire by the settlement of 843.
+
+[220] Frisia, or Friesland, was the northernmost part of the kingdom
+of Lothair.
+
+[221] That is, in Brittany.
+
+[222] Nomenoe was a native chief of the Britons. Charles the Bald made
+many efforts to reduce him to obedience, but with little success. In
+848 or 849 he took the title of king. During his brief reign (which
+ended in 851) he invaded Charles's dominions and wrought almost as
+much destruction as did the Northmen themselves.
+
+[223] Tours, Blois, and Orleans were all situated within a range of a
+hundred miles along the lower Loire.
+
+[224] Chartres was some eighty miles northwest of Orleans.
+
+[225] About midway between Nantes and Tours.
+
+[226] Poitiers was about seventy miles southwest of Tours.
+
+[227] Valence was on the Rhone, nearly a hundred and fifty miles back
+from the Mediterranean coast.
+
+[228] The Northmen who ravaged France really had no kings, but only
+military chieftains.
+
+[229] Odo, or Eudes, was chosen king by the Frankish nobles and clergy
+in 888, to succeed the deposed Charles the Fat. He was not of the
+Carolingian family but a Robertian (son of Robert the Strong), and
+hence a forerunner of the Capetian line of kings regularly established
+on the French throne in 987 [see p. 177]. His election to the kingship
+was due in a large measure to his heroic conduct during the siege of
+Paris by the Northmen.
+
+[230] The tower blocked access to the city by the so-called "Great
+Bridge," which connected the right bank of the Seine with the island
+on which the city was built. The tower stood on the present site of
+the Chatelet.
+
+[231] In time Robert also became king. He reigned only from 922 to
+923.
+
+[232] Abbot Ebolus was head of the monastery of St. Germain des Pres.
+
+[233] The Northmen were finally compelled to abandon their efforts
+against the tower. They then retired to the bank of the Seine near the
+abbey of Saint-Denys and from that place as a center ravaged all the
+country lying about Paris. In a short time they renewed the attack
+upon the city itself.
+
+[234] Charles the Fat, under whom during the years 885-887 the old
+empire of Charlemagne was for the last time united under a single
+sovereign. When Odo went to find him in 886 he was at Metz in Germany.
+German and Italian affairs interested him more than did those of the
+Franks.
+
+[235] Sens was about a hundred miles southeast of Paris. Charles
+abandoned the region about Sens to the Northmen to plunder during the
+winter of 886-887. His very lame excuse for doing this was that the
+people of the district did not properly recognize his authority and
+were deserving of such punishment.
+
+[236] The twelve month siege of Paris thus brought to an end had many
+noteworthy results. Chief among these was the increased prestige of
+Odo as a national leader and of Paris as a national stronghold. Prior
+to this time Paris had not been a place of importance, even though
+Clovis had made it his capital. In the period of Charlemagne it was
+distinctly a minor city and it gained little in prominence under Louis
+the Pious and Charles the Bald. The great Carolingian capitals were
+Laon and Compiegne. The siege of 885-886, however, made it apparent
+that Paris occupied a strategic position, commanding the valley of the
+Seine, and that the inland city was one of the true bulwarks of the
+kingdom. Thereafter the place grew rapidly in population and prestige,
+and when Odo became king (in 888) it was made his capital. As time
+went on it grew to be the heart of the French kingdom and came to
+guide the destinies of France as no other city of modern times has
+guided a nation.
+
+[237] He was deposed in 887, largely because of his utter failure to
+take any active measures to defend the Franks against their Danish
+enemies. From Paris he went to Germany where he died, January 13, 888,
+at a small town on the Danube.
+
+[238] After the famous siege of Paris in 885-886 the Northmen, or
+Normans as they may now be called, continued to ravage France just as
+they had done before that event. In 910 one of their greatest
+chieftains, Rollo, appeared before Paris and prepared to take the
+city. In this project he was unsuccessful, but his warriors caused so
+much devastation in the surrounding country that Charles the Simple,
+who was now king, decided to try negotiations. A meeting was held at
+Saint-Clair-sur-Epte where, in the presence of the Norman warriors and
+the Frankish magnates, Charles and Rollo entered into the first treaty
+looking toward a permanent settlement of Northmen on Frankish
+territory. Rollo promised to desist from his attacks upon Frankland
+and to become a Christian. Charles agreed to give over to the Normans
+a region which they in fact already held, with Rouen as its center,
+and extending from the Epte River on the east to the sea on the west.
+The arrangement was dictated by good sense and proved a fortunate one
+for all parties concerned.
+
+[239] Robert was Odo's brother. "Duke of the Franks" was a title, at
+first purely military, but fast developing to the point where it was
+to culminate in its bearer becoming the first Capetian king [see p.
+177].
+
+[240] See p. 138, note 4.
+
+[241] If the offender had a lord, this lord would be expected to
+produce his accused vassal at court.
+
+[242] That is, the old blood-feud of the Germans.
+
+[243] The office of _missus_ had by this time fallen pretty much into
+decay. Many of the _missi_ were at the same time counts--a combination
+of authority directly opposed to the earlier theory of the
+administrative system. The _missus_ had been supposed to supervise the
+counts and restrain them from disloyalty to the king and from
+indulgence in arbitrary or oppressive measures of local government.
+
+[244] The viscount (_vicecomes_) was the count's deputy. By Carloman's
+time there were sometimes several of these in a county. They were at
+first appointed by the count, but toward the end of the ninth century
+they became hereditary.
+
+[245] The _vicarii_ and _centenarii_ were local assistants of the
+count in administrative and judicial affairs. In Merovingian times
+their precise duties are not clear, but under the Carolingians the two
+terms tended to become synonyms. The _centenarius_, or hundredman, was
+charged mainly with the administration of justice in the smallest
+local division, i.e., the hundred. In theory he was elected by the
+people of the hundred, but in practice he was usually appointed by the
+count.
+
+[246] Hugh Capet, whose title prior to 987 was "Duke of the Franks."
+
+[247] Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims.
+
+[248] We are not to suppose that Richer here gives a literal
+reproduction of Adalbero's speech, but so far as we can tell the main
+points are carefully stated.
+
+[249] At the funeral of Louis.
+
+[250] Charles of Lower Lorraine, uncle of Louis V.
+
+[251] The elective principle here asserted had prevailed in the choice
+of French and German kings for nearly a century. The kings chosen,
+however, usually came from one family, as the Carolingians in France.
+
+[252] Almost exactly a century earlier there had been such a case
+among the Franks, when Charles the Fat was deposed and Odo, the
+defender of Paris, elevated to the throne (888).
+
+[253] Charles had been made duke of Lower Lorraine by the German
+emperor. This passage in Adalbero's speech looks like something of an
+appeal to Frankish pride, or as we would say in these days, to
+national sentiment. Still it must be remembered that while a sense of
+common interest was undoubtedly beginning to develop among the peoples
+represented in the assembly at Senlis, these peoples were still far
+too diverse to be spoken of accurately as making up a unified
+nationality. Adalbero was indulging in a political harangue and piling
+up arguments for effect, without much regard for their real weight.
+
+[254] Noyon was a church center about fifty miles north of Paris. That
+the coronation really occurred at this place has been questioned by
+some, but there seems to be small reason for doubting Richer's
+statement in the matter.
+
+[255] M. Pfister in Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, Vol. II., p. 412,
+asserts that the coronation occurred July 3, 987.
+
+[256] This method of describing the extent of the new king's dominion
+shows how far from consolidated the so-called Frankish kingdom really
+was. The royal domain proper, that is, the land over which the king
+had immediate control, was limited to a long fertile strip extending
+from the Somme to a point south of Orleans, including the important
+towns of Paris, Orleans, Etampes, Senlis, and Compiegne. Even this was
+not continuous, but was cut into here and there by the estates of
+practically independent feudal lords. By far the greater portion of
+modern France (the name in 987 was only beginning to be applied to the
+whole country) consisted of great counties and duchies, owing
+comparatively little allegiance to the king and usually rendering even
+less than they owed. Of these the most important was the county (later
+duchy) of Normandy, the county of Bretagne (Brittany), the county of
+Flanders, the county of Anjou, the county of Blois, the duchy of
+Burgundy, the duchy of Aquitaine, the county of Toulouse, the county
+of Gascony, and the county of Barcelona (south of the Pyrenees). The
+"Goths" referred to by Richer were the inhabitants of the "march," or
+border county, of Gothia along the Mediterranean coast between the
+lower Rhone and the Pyrenees (old Septimania).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ALFRED THE GREAT IN WAR AND IN PEACE
+
+
+30. The Danes in England
+
+The earliest recorded visit of the Danes, or Northmen, to England
+somewhat antedates the appearance of these peoples on the Frankish
+coast in the year 800. In 787 three Danish vessels came to shore at
+Warham in Dorset and their sailors slew the unfortunate reeve who
+mistook them for ordinary foreign merchants and tried to collect port
+dues from them. Thereafter the British coasts were never free for many
+years at a time from the depredations of the marauders. In 793 the
+famous church at Lindisfarne, in Northumberland, was plundered; in 795
+the Irish coasts began to suffer; in 833 a fleet of twenty-five
+vessels appeared at the mouth of the Thames; in 834 twelve hundred
+pillagers landed in Dorset; in 842 London and Rochester were sacked
+and their population scattered; in 850 a fleet of 350 ships carrying
+perhaps ten or twelve thousand men, wintered at the mouth of the
+Thames and in the spring caused London again to suffer; and from then
+on until the accession of King Alfred, in 871, destructive raids
+followed one another with distressing frequency.
+
+The account of the Danish invasions given below is taken from a
+biography of King Alfred commonly attributed to Asser, a monk of Welsh
+origin connected with the monastery of St. David (later bishop of
+Sherborne) and a close friend and adviser of the great king. It gives
+us some idea of the way in which Alfred led his people through the
+darkest days in their history, and of the settlement known as the
+"Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" by which the Danish leader became a
+Christian and the way was prepared for the later division of the
+English country between the two contending peoples.
+
+     Source--Johannes Menevensis Asserius, _De rebus gestis Aelfredi
+     Magni_ [Asser, "The Deeds of Alfred the Great"], Chaps. 42-55
+     _passim_. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles in _Six Old
+     English Chronicles_ (London, 1866), pp. 56-63.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred becomes king (871)]
+
+     [Sidenote: The struggle with the Danes]
+
+   In the year 871 Alfred, who up to that time had been of only
+   secondary rank, while his brothers were alive, by God's permission,
+   undertook the government of the whole kingdom, welcomed by all the
+   people. Indeed, if he had cared to, he might have done so earlier,
+   even while his brother was still alive;[257] for in wisdom and
+   other qualities he excelled all of his brothers, and, moreover, he
+   was courageous and victorious in all his wars. He became king
+   almost against his will, for he did not think that he could alone
+   withstand the numbers and the fierceness of the pagans, though even
+   during the lifetime of his brothers he had carried burdens enough
+   for many men. And when he had ruled one month, with a small band of
+   followers and on very unequal terms, he fought a battle with the
+   entire army of the pagans. This was at a hill called Wilton, on the
+   south bank of the River Wily, from which river the whole of that
+   district is named.[258] And after a long and fierce engagement the
+   pagans, seeing the danger they were in, and no longer able to meet
+   the attacks of their enemies, turned their backs and fled. But, oh,
+   shame to say, they deceived the English, who pursued them too
+   boldly, and, turning swiftly about, gained the victory. Let no one
+   be surprised to learn that the Christians had only a small number
+   of men, for the Saxons had been worn out by eight battles with the
+   pagans in one year. In these they had slain one king, nine dukes,
+   and innumerable troops of soldiers. There had also been numberless
+   skirmishes, both by day and by night, in which Alfred, with his
+   ministers and chieftains and their men, were engaged without rest
+   or relief against the pagans. How many thousands of pagans fell in
+   these skirmishes God only knows, over and above the numbers slain
+   in the eight battles before mentioned. In the same year the Saxons
+   made peace with the invaders, on condition that they should take
+   their departure, and they did so.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred's plan to meet the pagans on the sea]
+
+   In the year 877 the pagans, on the approach of autumn, partly
+   settled in Exeter[259] and partly marched for plunder into
+   Mercia.[260] The number of that disorderly horde increased every
+   day, so that, if thirty thousand of them were slain in one battle,
+   others took their places to double the number. Then King Alfred
+   commanded boats and galleys, i.e., long ships, to be built
+   throughout the kingdom, in order to offer battle by sea to the
+   enemy as they were coming.[261] On board these he placed sailors,
+   whom he commanded to keep watch on the seas. Meanwhile he went
+   himself to Exeter, where the pagans were wintering and, having shut
+   them up within the walls, laid siege to the town. He also gave
+   orders to his sailors to prevent the enemy from obtaining any
+   supplies by sea. In a short time the sailors were encountered by a
+   fleet of a hundred and twenty ships full of armed soldiers, who
+   were on their way to the relief of their countrymen. As soon as the
+   king's men knew that the ships were manned by pagan soldiers they
+   leaped to their arms and bravely attacked those barbaric tribes.
+   The pagans, who had now for almost a month been tossed and almost
+   wrecked among the waves of the sea, fought vainly against them.
+   Their bands were thrown into confusion in a very short time, and
+   all were sunk and drowned in the sea, at a place called
+   Swanwich.[262]
+
+   In 878, which was the thirtieth year of King Alfred's life, the
+   pagan army left Exeter and went to Chippenham. This latter place
+   was a royal residence situated in the west of Wiltshire, on the
+   eastern bank of the river which the Britons called the Avon. They
+   spent the winter there and drove many of the inhabitants of the
+   surrounding country beyond the sea by the force of their arms, and
+   by the want of the necessities of life. They reduced almost
+   entirely to subjection all the people of that country.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred in refuge at Athelney]
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle of Ethandune and the establishment of peace
+   (878)]
+
+   The same year, after Easter, King Alfred, with a few followers,
+   made for himself a stronghold in a place called Athelney,[263] and
+   from thence sallied, with his companions and the nobles of
+   Somersetshire, to make frequent assaults upon the pagans. Also, in
+   the seventh week after Easter, he rode to Egbert's stone, which is
+   in the eastern part of the wood that is called Selwood.[264] Here
+   he was met by all the folk of Somersetshire and Wiltshire and
+   Hampshire, who had not fled beyond the sea for fear of the pagans;
+   and when they saw the king alive after such great tribulation they
+   received him, as he deserved, with shouts of joy, and encamped
+   there for one night. At dawn on the following day the king broke
+   camp and went to Okely, where he encamped for one night. The next
+   morning he moved to Ethandune[265] and there fought bravely and
+   persistently against the whole army of the pagans. By the help of
+   God he defeated them with great slaughter and pursued them flying
+   to their fortification. He at once slew all the men and carried off
+   all the booty that he could find outside the fortress, which he
+   immediately laid siege to with his entire army. And when he had
+   been there fourteen days the pagans, driven by famine, cold, fear,
+   and finally by despair, asked for peace on the condition that they
+   should give the king as many hostages as he should ask, but should
+   receive none from him in return. Never before had they made a
+   treaty with any one on such terms. The king, hearing this, took
+   pity upon them and received such hostages as he chose. Then the
+   pagans swore that they would immediately leave the kingdom, and
+   their king, Guthrum, promised to embrace Christianity and receive
+   baptism at Alfred's hands. All of these pledges he and his men
+   fulfilled as they had promised.[266]
+
+
+31. Alfred's Interest in Education
+
+As an epoch of literary and educational advancement the reign of
+Alfred in England (871-901) was in many respects like that of
+Charlemagne among the Franks (768-814). Like Charlemagne, Alfred grew
+up with very slight education, at least of a literary sort; but both
+sovereigns were strongly dissatisfied with their ignorance, and both
+made earnest efforts to overcome their own defects and at the same
+time to raise the standard of intelligence among their people at
+large. When one considers how crowded were the reigns of both with
+wars and the pressing business of administration, such devotion to the
+interests of learning appears the more deserving of praise.
+
+In the first passage below, taken from Asser's life of Alfred, the
+anxiety of the king for the promotion of his own education and that of
+his children is clearly and strongly stated. We find him following
+Charlemagne's plan of bringing scholars from foreign countries. He
+brought them, too, from parts of Britain not under his direct control,
+and used them at the court, or in bishoprics, to perform the work of
+instruction. Curiously enough, whereas Charlemagne had found the chief
+of his Palace School, Alcuin, in England, Alfred was glad to secure
+the services of two men (Grimbald and John) who had made their
+reputations in monasteries situated within the bounds of the old
+Frankish empire.
+
+Aside from some native songs and epic poems, all the literature known
+to the Saxon people was in Latin, and but few persons in the kingdom
+knew Latin well enough to read it. The king himself did not, until
+about 887. It was supposed, of course, that the clergy were able to
+use the Latin Bible and the Latin ritual of the Church, but when
+Alfred came to investigate he found that even these men were often
+pretty nearly as ignorant as the people they were charged to instruct.
+What the king did, then, was to urge more study on the part of the
+clergy, under the direction of such men as Plegmund, Asser, Grimbald,
+John, and Werfrith. The people in general could not be expected to
+master a foreign language; hence, in order that they might not be shut
+off entirely from the first-hand use of books, Alfred undertook the
+translation of certain standard works from the Latin into the Saxon.
+Those thus translated were Boethius's _Consolations of Philosophy_,
+Orosius's _Universal History of the World_, Bede's _Ecclesiastical
+History of England_, and Pope Gregory the Great's _Pastoral Rule_. The
+second passage given below is Alfred's preface to his Saxon edition of
+the last-named book, taking the form of a letter to the scholarly
+Bishop Werfrith of Worcester. The _Pastoral Rule_ [see p. 90] was
+written by Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) as a body of instructions
+in doctrine and conduct for the clergy. Alfred's preface, as a picture
+of the ruin wrought by the long series of Danish wars, is of the
+utmost importance in the study of ninth and tenth century England, as
+well as a most interesting revelation of the character of the great
+king.
+
+     Sources--(a) Asser, _De rebus gestis Aelfredi Magni_, Chaps.
+     75-78. Adapted from translation by J. A. Giles in _Six Old
+     English Chronicles_ (London, 1866), pp. 68-70.
+
+     (b) King Alfred's West-Saxon Version of Pope Gregory's
+     _Pastoral Rule_. Edited by Henry Sweet in the Publications of
+     the Early English Text Society (London, 1871), p. 2.
+
+     [Sidenote: The education of Alfred's children]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Ethelwerd, the youngest [of Alfred's children],[267] by the divine
+   counsels and the admirable prudence of the king, was consigned to
+   the schools of learning, where, with the children of almost all the
+   nobility of the country, and many also who were not noble, he
+   prospered under the diligent care of his teachers. Books in both
+   languages, namely, Latin and Saxon, were read in the school.[268]
+   They also learned to write, so that before they were of an age to
+   practice manly arts, namely, hunting and such pursuits as befit
+   noblemen, they became studious and clever in the liberal arts.
+   Edward[269] and Aelfthryth[270] were reared in the king's court and
+   received great attention from their attendants and nurses; nay,
+   they continue to this day with the love of all about them, and
+   showing friendliness, and even gentleness, towards all, both
+   natives and foreigners, and in complete subjection to their father.
+   Nor, among their other studies which pertain to this life and are
+   fit for noble youths, are they suffered to pass their time idly and
+   unprofitably without learning the liberal arts; for they have
+   carefully learned the Psalms and Saxon books, especially the Saxon
+   poems, and are continually in the habit of making use of books.
+
+     [Sidenote: The varied activities of the king]
+
+     [Sidenote: His devout character]
+
+   In the meantime the king, during the frequent wars and other
+   hindrances of this present life, the invasions of the pagans, and
+   his own infirmities of body, continued to carry on the government,
+   and to practice hunting in all its branches; to teach his workers
+   in gold and artificers of all kinds, his falconers, hawkers and
+   dog-keepers; to build houses, majestic and splendid, beyond all the
+   precedents of his ancestors, by his new mechanical inventions; to
+   recite the Saxon books, and especially to learn by heart the Saxon
+   poems, and to make others learn them.[271] And he alone never
+   desisted from studying most diligently to the best of his ability.
+   He attended the Mass and other daily services of religion. He was
+   diligent in psalm-singing and prayer, at the hours both of the day
+   and of the night. He also went to the churches, as we have already
+   said, in the night-time to pray, secretly and unknown to his
+   courtiers. He bestowed alms and gifts on both natives and
+   foreigners of all countries. He was affable and pleasant to all,
+   and curiously eager to investigate things unknown. Many Franks,
+   Frisians, Gauls, pagans, Britons, Scots, and Armoricans,[272] noble
+   and low-born, came voluntarily to his domain; and all of them,
+   according to their nation and deserving, were ruled, loved, honored
+   and enriched with money and power.[273] Moreover, the king was in
+   the habit of hearing the divine Scriptures read by his own
+   countrymen, or, if by any chance it so happened, in company with
+   foreigners, and he attended to it with care and solicitude. His
+   bishops, too, and all ecclesiastics, his earls and nobles,
+   ministers[274] and friends, were loved by him with wonderful
+   affection, and their sons, who were reared in the royal household,
+   were no less dear to him than his own. He had them instructed in
+   all kinds of good morals, and, among other things, never ceased to
+   teach them letters night and day.
+
+     [Sidenote: Regret at his lack of education]
+
+   But, as if he had no consolation in all these things, and though
+   he suffered no other annoyance, either from within or without, he
+   was harassed by daily and nightly affliction, so that he complained
+   to God and to all who were admitted to his intimate fondness, that
+   Almighty God had made him ignorant of divine wisdom, and of the
+   liberal arts--in this emulating the pious, the wise, and wealthy
+   Solomon, king of the Hebrews, who at first, despising all present
+   glory and riches, asked wisdom of God and found both, namely,
+   wisdom and worldly glory; as it is written: "Seek first the kingdom
+   of God and his righteousness, and all these things shall be added
+   unto you." But God, who is always the observer of the thoughts of
+   the mind within and the author of all good intentions, and a most
+   plentiful helper that good desires may be formed (for He would not
+   prompt a man to good intentions, unless He also amply supplied that
+   which the man justly and properly wishes to have) stimulated the
+   king's mind within: as it is written, "I will hearken what the Lord
+   God will say concerning me." He would avail himself of every
+   opportunity to procure co-workers in his good designs, to aid him
+   in his strivings after wisdom that he might attain to what he aimed
+   at. And, like a prudent bee, which, going forth in summer with the
+   early morning from its cell, steers its rapid flight through the
+   uncertain tracks of ether and descends on the manifold and varied
+   flowers of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, discovering that which
+   pleases most, that it may bear it home, so did he direct his eyes
+   afar and seek without that which he had not within, that is, in his
+   own kingdom.[275]
+
+     [Sidenote: Learned men from Mercia brought to the English court]
+
+   But God at that time, as some relief to the king's anxiety,
+   yielding to his complaint, sent certain lights to illuminate him,
+   namely, Werfrith, bishop of the church of Worcester, a man well
+   versed in divine Scripture, who, by the king's command, first
+   turned the books of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory and Peter, his
+   disciple, from Latin into Saxon, and sometimes putting sense for
+   sense, interpreted them with clearness and elegance. After him was
+   Plegmund,[276] a Mercian by birth, archbishop of the church of
+   Canterbury, a venerable man, and endowed with wisdom; Ethelstan
+   also,[277] and Werwulf,[278] his priests and chaplains,[279]
+   Mercians by birth and learned. These four had been invited from
+   Mercia by King Alfred, who exalted them with many honors and powers
+   in the kingdom of the West Saxons, besides the privileges which
+   Archbishop Plegmund and Bishop Werfrith enjoyed in Mercia. By their
+   teaching and wisdom the king's desires increased unceasingly, and
+   were gratified. Night and day, whenever he had leisure, he
+   commanded such men as these to read books to him, for he never
+   suffered himself to be without one of them; wherefore he possessed
+   a knowledge of every book, though of himself he could not yet
+   understand anything of books, for he had not yet learned to read
+   anything.[280]
+
+     [Sidenote: Grimbald and John brought from the continent]
+
+   But the king's commendable desire could not be gratified even in
+   this; wherefore he sent messengers beyond the sea to Gaul, to
+   procure teachers, and he invited from thence Grimbald,[281] priest
+   and monk, a venerable man and good singer, adorned with every kind
+   of ecclesiastical training and good morals, and most learned in
+   holy Scripture. He also obtained from thence John,[282] also priest
+   and monk, a man of most energetic talents, and learned in all kinds
+   of literary science, and skilled in many other arts. By the
+   teaching of these men the king's mind was much enlarged, and he
+   enriched and honored them with much influence.
+
+     [Sidenote: Alfred writes to Bishop Werfrith on the state of
+   learning in England]
+
+   (b)
+
+   King Alfred greets Bishop Werfrith with loving words and with
+   friendship.
+
+   I let it be known to thee that it has very often come into my mind
+   what wise men there formerly were throughout England, both within
+   the Church and without it; also what happy times there were then
+   and how the kings who had power over the nation in those days
+   obeyed God and His ministers; how they cherished peace, morality,
+   and order at home, and at the same time enlarged their territory
+   abroad; and how they prospered both in war and in wisdom. Often
+   have I thought, also, of the sacred orders, how zealous they were
+   both in teaching and learning, and in all the services they owed to
+   God; and how foreigners came to this land in search of wisdom and
+   instruction, which things we should now have to get from abroad if
+   we were to have them at all.
+
+   So general became the decay of learning in England that there were
+   very few on this side of the Humber[283] who could understand the
+   rituals[284] in English, or translate a letter from Latin into
+   English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber
+   who could do these things. There were so few, in fact, that I
+   cannot remember a single person south of the Thames when I came to
+   the throne. Thanks be to Almighty God that we now have some
+   teachers among us. And therefore I enjoin thee to free thyself, as
+   I believe thou art ready to do, from worldly matters, that thou
+   mayst apply the wisdom which God has given thee wherever thou
+   canst. Consider what punishments would come upon us if we neither
+   loved wisdom ourselves nor allowed other men to obtain it. We
+   should then care for the name only of Christian, and have regard
+   for very few of the Christian virtues.
+
+     [Sidenote: Learning in the days before the Danish invasions]
+
+   When I thought of all this I remembered also how I saw the country
+   before it had been all ravaged and burned; how the churches
+   throughout the whole of England stood filled with treasures and
+   books. There was also a great multitude of God's servants, but they
+   had very little knowledge of books, for they could not understand
+   anything in them because they were not written in their own
+   language.[285] When I remembered all this I wondered extremely that
+   the good and wise men who were formerly all over England and had
+   learned perfectly all the books, did not wish to translate them
+   into their own language. But again I soon answered myself and said:
+   "Their own desire for learning was so great that they did not
+   suppose that men would ever become so indifferent and that learning
+   would ever so decay; and they wished, moreover, that wisdom in this
+   land might increase with our knowledge of languages." Then I
+   remembered how the law was first known in Hebrew and when the
+   Greeks had learned it how they translated the whole of it into
+   their own tongue,[286] and all other books besides. And again the
+   Romans, when they had learned it, translated the whole of it into
+   their own language.[287] And also all other Christian nations
+   translated a part of it into their languages.
+
+     [Sidenote: Plan to translate Latin books into English]
+
+   Therefore it seems better to me, if you agree, for us also to
+   translate some of the books which are most needful for all men to
+   know into the language which we can all understand. It shall be
+   your duty to see to it, as can easily be done if we have
+   tranquility enough,[288] that all the free-born youth now in
+   England, who are rich enough to be able to devote themselves to it,
+   be set to learn as long as they are not fit for any other
+   occupation, until they are well able to read English writing. And
+   let those afterwards be taught more in the Latin language who are
+   to continue learning and be promoted to a higher rank.
+
+     [Sidenote: The translation of Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care]
+
+   When I remembered how the knowledge of Latin had decayed through
+   England, and yet that many could read English writing, I began,
+   among other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom, to
+   translate into English the book which is called in Latin
+   _Pastoralis_, and in English _The Shepherd's Book_, sometimes word
+   for word, and sometimes according to the sense, as I had learned it
+   from Plegmund, my archbishop, and Asser, my bishop, and Grimbald,
+   my mass-priest, and John, my mass-priest. And when I had learned
+   it, as I could best understand it and most clearly interpret it, I
+   translated it into English.
+
+   I will send a copy of this book to every bishopric in my kingdom,
+   and on each copy there shall be a clasp worth fifty mancuses.[289]
+   And I command in God's name that no man take the clasp from the
+   book, or the book from the minster.[290] It is uncertain how long
+   there may be such learned bishops as, thanks be to God, there now
+   are almost everywhere; therefore, I wish these copies always to
+   remain in their places, unless the bishop desires to take them with
+   him, or they be loaned out anywhere, or any one wishes to make a
+   copy of them.
+
+
+32. Alfred's Laws
+
+Here are a few characteristic laws included by Alfred in the code
+which he drew up on the basis of old customs and the laws of some of
+the earlier Saxon kings. On the nature of the law of the early
+Germanic peoples, see p. 59.
+
+     Source--Text in Benjamin Thorpe, _The Ancient Laws and
+     Institutes of England_ (London, 1840), pp. 20-44 _passim_.
+
+   If any one smite his neighbor with a stone, or with his fist, and
+   he nevertheless can go out with a staff, let him get him a
+   physician and do his work as long as he himself cannot.
+
+   If an ox gore a man or a woman, so that they die, let it be stoned,
+   and let not its flesh be eaten. The owner shall not be liable if
+   the ox were wont to push with its horns for two or three days
+   before, and he knew it not; but if he knew it, and would not shut
+   it in, and it then shall have slain a man or a woman, let it be
+   stoned; and let the master be slain, or the person killed be paid
+   for, as the "witan"[291] shall decree to be right.
+
+   Injure ye not the widows and the stepchildren, nor hurt them
+   anywhere; for if ye do otherwise they will cry unto me and I will
+   hear them, and I will slay you with my sword; and I will cause that
+   your own wives shall be widows, and your children shall be
+   stepchildren.
+
+   If a man strike out another's eye, let him pay sixty shillings,
+   and six shillings, and six pennies, and a third part of a penny, as
+   'bot.'[292] If it remain in the head, and he cannot see anything
+   with it, let one-third of the 'bot' be remitted.
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for various crimes of violence]
+
+   If a man strike out another's tooth in the front of his head, let
+   him make 'bot' for it with eight shillings; if it be the canine
+   tooth, let four shillings be paid as 'bot.' A man's grinder is
+   worth fifteen shillings.
+
+   If the shooting finger be struck off, the 'bot' is fifteen
+   shillings; for its nail it is four shillings.
+
+   If a man maim another's hand outwardly, let twenty shillings be
+   paid him as 'bot,' if he can be healed; if it half fly off, then
+   shall forty shillings be paid as 'bot.'
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[257] That is, Ethelred I., whom Alfred succeeded.
+
+[258] Wiltshire, on the southern coast, west of the Isle of Wight.
+
+[259] The same as the modern city of the name.
+
+[260] Mercia was one of the seven old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It lay
+east of Wales.
+
+[261] This marked a radical departure in methods of fighting the
+invaders. On the continent, and hitherto in England, there had been no
+effort to prevent the enemy from getting into the country they
+proposed to plunder. Alfred's creation of a navy was one of his wisest
+acts. Although the English had by this time grown comparatively
+unaccustomed to seafaring life they contrived to win their first naval
+encounter with the enemy.
+
+[262] In Dorsetshire.
+
+[263] Athelney was in Somersetshire, northeast of Exeter, in the
+marshes at the junction of the Tone and the Parret.
+
+[264] The modern Brixton Deverill, in Wiltshire, near Warminster.
+
+[265] In Wiltshire, a little east of Westbury. In January the Danes
+had removed from Exeter to Chippenham. Edington (or Ethandune) was
+eight miles from the camp at the latter place. The Danes were first
+defeated in an open battle at Edington, and then forced to surrender
+after a fourteen days' siege at Chippenham.
+
+[266] This so-called "Peace of Alfred and Guthrum" in 878 provided
+only for the acceptance of Christianity by the Danish leader. It is
+sometimes known as the treaty of Chippenham and is not to be confused
+with the treaty of Wedmore, of a few weeks later, by which Alfred and
+Guthrum divided the English country between them. The text of this
+second treaty will be found in Lee's _Source-Book of English History_
+(pp. 98-99), though the introductory statement there given is somewhat
+misleading. This assignment of the Danelaw to Guthrum's people may
+well be compared with the yielding of Normandy to Rollo by Charles the
+Simple in 911 [see p. 172].
+
+[267] Ethelwerd was Alfred's fifth living child.
+
+[268] This was, of course, not a school in the modern sense of the
+word. All that is meant is simply that young Ethelwerd, along with
+sons of nobles and non-nobles, received instruction from the learned
+men at the court. It had been customary before Alfred's day for the
+young princes and sons of nobles to receive training at the court, but
+not in letters.
+
+[269] This was Edward the Elder who succeeded Alfred as king and
+reigned from 901 to 925. He was Alfred's eldest son.
+
+[270] Aelfthryth was Alfred's fourth child. She became the wife of
+Baldwin II. of Flanders.
+
+[271] Among other labors in behalf of learning, Alfred made a
+collection of the ancient epics and lyrics of the Saxon people.
+Unfortunately, except in the case of the epic Beowulf, only fragments
+of these have survived. Beowulf was, so far as we know, the earliest
+of the Saxon poems, having originated before the migration to Britain,
+though it was probably put in its present form by a Christian monk of
+the eighth century.
+
+[272] Armorica was the name applied in Alfred's time to the region
+southward from the mouth of the Seine to Brittany.
+
+[273] There is a good deal of independent evidence that Alfred was
+peculiarly hospitable to foreigners. He delighted in learning from
+them about their peoples and experiences.
+
+[274] The word in the original is _ministeriales_. It is not Saxon but
+Franco-Latin and is an instance of the Frankish element in Asser's
+vocabulary. Here, as among the Franks, the _ministeriales_ were the
+officials of second-rate importance surrounding the king, the highest
+being known as the _ministri_.
+
+[275] This comparison of the gathering of learning to the operations
+of a bee in collecting honey is very common among classical writers
+and also among those of the Carolingian renaissance. It occurs in
+Lucretius, Seneca, Macrobius, Alcuin, and the poet Candidus.
+
+[276] Plegmund became archbishop of Canterbury in 890, but it is
+probable that he was with Alfred some time before his election to the
+primacy.
+
+[277] This Ethelstan was probably the person of that name who was
+consecrated bishop of Ramsbury in 909.
+
+[278] From another document it appears that Werwulf was a friend of
+Bishop Werfrith in Mercia before either took up residence at Alfred's
+court.
+
+[279] In Chap. 104 of Asser's biography the _capellani_ are described
+as supplying the king with candles, by whose burning he measured time.
+The word _capellanus_ is of pure Frankish origin and was originally
+applied to the clerks (_clerici capellani_) who were charged with the
+custody of the cope (_cappa_) of St. Martin, which was kept in the
+_capella_. From this the term _capella_ came to mean a room especially
+devoted to religious uses, that is, a chapel. It was used in this
+sense as early as 829 in Frankland. Whether by _capellanus_ Asser
+meant mere clerks, or veritable "chaplains" in the later sense, cannot
+be known, though his usage was probably the latter.
+
+[280] Chapter 87 of Asser informs us that Alfred mastered the art of
+reading in the year 887.
+
+[281] Grimbald came from the Flemish monastery of St. Bertin at St.
+Omer. He was recommended to Alfred by Fulco, archbishop of Rheims, who
+had once been abbot of St. Bertin. We do not know in what year
+Grimbald went to England, though there is some evidence that it was
+not far from 887.
+
+[282] John the Old Saxon is mentioned by Alfred as his mass-priest. It
+is probable that he came from the abbey of Corbei on the upper Weser.
+Not much is known about the man, but if he was as learned as Asser
+says he was, he must have been a welcome addition to Alfred's group of
+scholars particularly as the language which he used was very similar
+to that of the West Saxons in England.
+
+[283] That is, south of the Humber.
+
+[284] The service of the Church.
+
+[285] They were written, of course, in Latin.
+
+[286] By the middle of the third century A.D. as many as three
+different translations of the Old Testament into Greek had been
+made--those of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmochus. These eventually
+took fixed shape in the so-called Septuagint version of the Old
+Testament.
+
+[287] About the year 385 St. Jerome revised the older Latin
+translation of the New Testament and translated the Old Testament
+directly from the Hebrew. This complete version gradually superseded
+all others for the whole Latin-reading Church, being known as the
+"Vulgate," that is, the version commonly accepted. It was in the form
+of the Vulgate that the Scriptures were known to the Saxons and all
+other peoples of western Europe.
+
+[288] In other words, sufficient relief from the Danish incursions.
+
+[289] The _mancus_ was a Saxon money value equivalent to a mark.
+
+[290] A minster was a church attached to a monastery.
+
+[291] The witan was the gathering of "wisemen"--members of the royal
+family, high officials in the Church, and leading nobles--about the
+Anglo-Saxon king to assist in making ordinances and supervising the
+affairs of state.
+
+[292] Compensation rendered to an injured person.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE ORDEAL
+
+
+33. Tests by Hot Water, Cold Water, and Fire
+
+Among the early Germans the settling of disputes and the testing of
+the guilt or innocence of an accused person were generally
+accomplished through the employment of one or both of two very
+interesting judicial practices--compurgation and the ordeal. According
+to the German conception of justice, when one person was accused of
+wrongdoing by another and chose to defend himself, he was not under
+obligation to prove directly that he did not commit the alleged
+misdeed; rather it was his business to produce, if he could, a
+sufficient number of persons who would take oath that they believed
+the accused to be a trustworthy man and that he was telling the truth
+when he denied that he was guilty. The persons brought forward to take
+this oath were known as compurgators, or "co-swearers," and the legal
+act thus performed was called compurgation. The number of compurgators
+required to free a man was usually from seven to twelve, though it
+varied greatly among different tribes and according to the rank of the
+parties involved. Naturally they were likely to be relatives or
+friends of the accused man, though it was not essential that they be
+such. It was in no wise expected that they be able to give facts or
+evidence regarding the case; in other words, they were not to serve at
+all as witnesses, such as are called in our courts to-day.
+
+If the accused succeeded in producing the required number of
+compurgators, and they took the oath in a satisfactory manner, the
+defendant was usually declared to be innocent and the case was
+dropped. If, however, the compurgators were not forthcoming, or there
+appeared some irregularity in their part of the procedure, resort
+would ordinarily be had to the ordeal. The ordeal was essentially an
+appeal to the gods for decision between two contending parties. It
+was based on the belief that the gods would not permit an innocent
+person to suffer by reason of an unjust accusation and that when the
+opportunity was offered under certain prescribed conditions the divine
+power would indicate who was in the right and who in the wrong. The
+ordeal, having its origin far back in the times when the Germans were
+pagans and before their settlements in the Roman Empire, was retained
+in common usage after the Christianizing and civilizing of the
+barbarian tribes. The administering of it simply passed from the old
+pagan priests to the Christian clergy, and the appeals were directed
+to the Christian's God instead of to Woden and Thor. Under Christian
+influence, the wager of battle (or personal combat to settle judicial
+questions), which had been exceedingly common, was discouraged as much
+as possible, and certain new modes of appeal to divine authority were
+introduced. Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the chief forms of the
+ordeal were: (1) the ordeal by walking through fire; (2) the ordeal by
+hot iron, in which the accused either carried a piece of hot iron a
+certain distance in his hands or walked barefoot over pieces of the
+same material; (3) the ordeal by hot water, in which the accused was
+required to plunge his bared arm into boiling water and bring forth a
+stone or other object from the bottom; (4) the ordeal by cold water,
+in which the accused was thrown, bound hand and foot, into a pond or
+stream, to sink if he were innocent, to float if he were guilty; (5)
+the ordeal of the cross, in which the accuser and accused stood with
+arms outstretched in the form of a cross until one of them could
+endure the strain of the unnatural attitude no longer; (6) the ordeal
+of the sacrament, in which the accused partook of the sacrament, the
+idea being that divine vengeance would certainly fall upon him in so
+doing if he were guilty; (7) the ordeal of the bread and cheese, in
+which the accused, made to swallow morsels of bread and cheese, was
+expected to choke if he were guilty; and (8) the judicial combat,
+which was generally reserved for freemen, and which, despite the
+opposition of the Church, did not die out until the end of the
+mediaeval period.
+
+The three passages quoted below illustrate, respectively, the ordeal
+by hot water, by cold water, and by fire. The first (a) is a story
+told by the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours [see p. 46]. The
+second (b) is an explanation of the cold water ordeal written by
+Hincmar, an archbishop of Rheims in the ninth century. The third (c)
+is an account, by Raymond of Agiles, of how Peter Bartholomew was put
+to the test by the ordeal of fire. This incident occurred at Antioch
+during the first crusade. Peter Bartholomew had just discovered a
+lance which he claimed was the one thrust into the side of Christ at
+the crucifixion and, some of the crusaders being skeptical as to the
+genuineness of the relic, the discoverer was submitted to the ordeal
+by fire to test the matter.
+
+     Sources--(a) Gregorius Episcopus Turonensis, _Libri
+     Miraculorum_ [Gregory of Tours, "Books of Miracles"], Chap.
+     80. Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores
+     Merovingicarum_, Vol. I., p. 542. Translated by Arthur C.
+     Howland in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV.,
+     No. 4, pp. 10-11.
+
+     (b) Hincmari Archiepiscopi Rhemensis, _De divortio Lotharii
+     regis et Tetbergae reginae_ [Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, "The
+     Divorce of King Lothair and Queen Teutberga"], Chap. 6. Text
+     in Migne, _Patroligiae Cursus Completus_, Second Series, Vol.
+     CXXV., cols. 668-669. Translated by Arthur C. Howland, _ibid_.
+
+     (c) Raimundus de Agiles, _Historia Francorum qui ceperunt
+     Jerusalem_ [Raimond of Agiles, "History of the Franks who
+     captured Jerusalem"], Chap. 18. Text in Migne, _Patrologiae
+     Cursus Completus_, Second Series, Vol. CLV., cols. 619-621.
+
+     [Sidenote: A challenge to the ordeal by hot water]
+
+     [Sidenote: Preparations for the ordeal]
+
+     [Sidenote: Result of the ordeal]
+
+   An Arian presbyter, disputing with a deacon of our religion, made
+   venomous assertions against the Son of God and the Holy Ghost, as
+   is the habit of that sect.[293] But when the deacon had discoursed
+   a long time concerning the reasonableness of our faith, and the
+   heretic, blinded by the fog of unbelief, continued to reject the
+   truth (according as it is written, "Wisdom shall not enter the
+   mind of the wicked") the former said: "Why weary ourselves with
+   long discussions? Let acts demonstrate the truth. Let a kettle be
+   heated over the fire and some one's ring be thrown into the boiling
+   water. Let him who shall take it from the heated liquid be approved
+   as a follower of the truth, and afterwards let the other party be
+   converted to the knowledge of this truth. And do thou understand, O
+   heretic, that this our party will fulfill the conditions with the
+   aid of the Holy Ghost; thou shalt confess that there is no
+   inequality, no dissimilarity, in the Holy Trinity." The heretic
+   consented to the proposition and they separated, after appointing
+   the next morning for the trial. But the fervor of faith in which
+   the deacon had first made this suggestion began to cool through the
+   instigation of the enemy [i.e., Satan]. Rising with the dawn, he
+   bathed his arm in oil and smeared it with ointment. But
+   nevertheless he made the round of the sacred places and called in
+   prayer on the Lord. What more shall I say? About the third hour
+   they met in the market place. The people came together to see the
+   show. A fire was lighted, the kettle was placed upon it, and when
+   it grew very hot the ring was thrown into the boiling water. The
+   deacon invited the heretic to take it out of the water first. But
+   he promptly refused, saying, "Thou who didst propose this trial art
+   the one to take it out." The deacon, all of a tremble, bared his
+   arm. And when the heretic presbyter saw it besmeared with ointment
+   he cried out: "With magic arts thou hast thought to protect
+   thyself, that thou hast made use of these salves, but what thou
+   hast done will not avail." While they were thus quarreling, there
+   came up a deacon from Ravenna named Iacinthus, who inquired what
+   the trouble was about. When he learned the truth, he drew his arm
+   out from under his robe at once and plunged his right hand into the
+   kettle. Now the ring that had been thrown in was a little thing and
+   very light, so that it was tossed about by the water as chaff would
+   be blown about by the wind; and, searching for it a long time, he
+   found it after about an hour. Meanwhile the flame beneath the
+   kettle blazed up mightily, so that the greater heat might make it
+   difficult for the ring to be followed by the hand; but the deacon
+   extracted it at length and suffered no harm, protesting rather that
+   at the bottom the kettle was cold while at the top it was just
+   pleasantly warm. When the heretic beheld this, he was greatly
+   confused and audaciously thrust his hand into the kettle saying,
+   "My faith will aid me." As soon as his hand had been thrust in, all
+   the flesh was boiled off the bones clear up to the elbow. And so
+   the dispute ended.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the ordeal of cold water is to be conducted]
+
+   (b)
+
+   Now the one about to be examined is bound by a rope and cast into
+   the water because, as it is written, "each one shall be holden with
+   the cords of his iniquity." And it is manifest that he is bound for
+   two reasons, namely, that he may not be able to practice any fraud
+   in connection with the judgment, and that he may be drawn out at
+   the right time if the water should receive him as innocent, so that
+   he perish not. For as we read that Lazarus, who had been dead four
+   days (by whom is signified each one buried under a load of crimes),
+   was buried wrapped in bandages and, bound by the same bands, came
+   forth from the sepulchre at the word of the Lord and was loosed by
+   the disciples at His command; so he who is to be examined by this
+   judgment is cast into the water bound, and is drawn forth again
+   bound, and is either immediately set free by the decree of the
+   judges, being purged, or remains bound until the time of his
+   purgation and is then examined by the court.... And in this ordeal
+   of cold water whoever, after the invocation of God, who is the
+   Truth, seeks to hide the truth by a lie, cannot be submerged in the
+   waters above which the voice of the Lord God has thundered; for the
+   pure nature of the water recognizes as impure, and therefore
+   rejects as inconsistent with itself, such human nature as has once
+   been regenerated by the waters of baptism and is again infected by
+   falsehood.
+
+     [Sidenote: Preparations for the ordeal by fire]
+
+   (c)
+
+   All these things were pleasing to us and, having enjoined on him a
+   fast, we declared that a fire should be prepared upon the day on
+   which the Lord was beaten with stripes and put upon the cross for
+   our salvation. And the fourth day thereafter was the day before the
+   Sabbath. So when the appointed day came round, a fire was prepared
+   after the noon hour. The leaders and the people to the number of
+   60,000 came together. The priests were there also with bare feet,
+   clothed in ecclesiastical garments. The fire was made of dry olive
+   branches, covering a space thirteen feet long; and there were two
+   piles, with a space about a foot wide between them. The height of
+   these piles was four feet. Now when the fire had been kindled so
+   that it burned fiercely, I, Raimond, in the presence of the whole
+   multitude, said: "If Omnipotent God has spoken to this man face to
+   face, and the blessed Andrew has shown him our Lord's lance while
+   he was keeping his vigil,[294] let him go through the fire
+   unharmed. But if it is false, let him be burned, together with the
+   lance, which he is to carry in his hand." And all responded on
+   bended knees, "Amen."
+
+     [Sidenote: Peter Bartholomew passes through the flames]
+
+   The fire was growing so hot that the flames shot up thirty cubits
+   high into the air and scarcely any one dared approach it. Then
+   Peter Bartholomew, clothed only in his tunic and kneeling before
+   the bishop of Albar,[295] called God to witness that "he had seen
+   Him face to face on the cross, and that he had heard from Him those
+   things above written."... Then, when the bishop had placed the
+   lance in his hand, he knelt and made the sign of the cross and
+   entered the fire with the lance, firm and unterrified. For an
+   instant's time he paused in the midst of the flames, and then by
+   the grace of God passed through.... But when Peter emerged from the
+   fire so that neither his tunic was burned nor even the thin cloth
+   with which the lance was wrapped up had shown any sign of damage,
+   the whole people received him, after he had made over them the sign
+   of the cross with the lance in his hand and had cried, "God help
+   us!" All the people, I say, threw themselves upon him and dragged
+   him to the ground and trampled on him, each one wishing to touch
+   him, or to get a piece of his garment, and each thinking him near
+   some one else. And so he received three or four wounds in the legs
+   where the flesh was torn away, his back was injured, and his sides
+   bruised. Peter had died on the spot, as we believe, had not Raimond
+   Pelet, a brave and noble soldier, broken through the wild crowd
+   with a band of friends and rescued him at the peril of their
+   lives.... After this, Peter died in peace at the hour appointed to
+   him by God, and journeyed to the Lord; and he was buried in the
+   place where he had carried the lance of the Lord through the
+   fire.[296]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[293] The principal difference between Arian and orthodox Christians
+arose out of the much discussed problem as to whether Jesus was of the
+same substance as God and co-eternal with Him. The Arians maintained
+that while Jesus was truly the Son of God, He must necessarily have
+been inferior to the Father, else there would be two gods. Arianism
+was formally condemned by the Council of Nicaea in 325, but it
+continued to be the prevalent belief in many parts of the Roman
+Empire; and when the Germans became Christians, it was Christianity of
+the Arian type (except in the case of the Franks) that they
+adopted--because it happened to be this creed that the missionaries
+carried to them. The Franks became orthodox Christians, which in part
+explains their close relations with the papacy in the earlier Middle
+Ages [see p. 50]. Of course Gregory of Tours, who relates the story of
+the Arian presbyter, as a Frank, was a hater of Arianism, and
+therefore we need not be surprised at the expressions of contempt
+which he employs in referring to "the heretic."
+
+[294] The story as told by Raimond of Agiles was that Peter
+Bartholomew had been visited by Andrew the Apostle, who had revealed
+to him the spot where the lance lay buried beneath the Church of St.
+Peter in Antioch.
+
+[295] Albar, or Albara, was a town southeast of Antioch, beyond the
+Orontes.
+
+[296] Owing to Peter's early death after undergoing the ordeal, a
+serious controversy arose as to whether he had really passed through
+it without injury from the fire. His friends ascribed his death to the
+wounds he had received from the enthusiastic crowd, but his enemies
+declared that he died from burns.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+
+34. Older Institutions Involving Elements of Feudalism
+
+The history of the feudal system in Europe makes up a very large part
+of the history of the Middle Ages, particularly of the period between
+the ninth and the fourteenth centuries. This is true because
+feudalism, in one way or another, touched almost every phase of the
+life of western Europe during this long era. More than anything else,
+it molded the conditions of government, the character and course of
+war, the administration of justice, the tenure of land, the manner of
+everyday life, and even the relations of the Church with sovereigns
+and people. "Coming into existence," says a French historian, "in the
+obscure period that followed the dissolution of the Carolingian
+empire, the feudal regime developed slowly, without the intervention
+of a government, without the aid of a written law, without any general
+understanding among individuals; rather only by a gradual
+transformation of customs, which took place sooner or later, but in
+about the same way, in France, Italy, Christian Spain, and Germany.
+Then, toward the end of the eleventh century, it was transplanted into
+England and into southern Italy, in the twelfth and thirteenth into
+the Latin states of the East, and beginning with the fourteenth into
+the Scandinavian countries. This regime, established thus not
+according to a general plan but by a sort of natural growth, never had
+forms and usages that were everywhere the same. It is impossible to
+gather it up into a perfectly exact picture, which would not be in
+contradiction to several cases."[297]
+
+The country in which feudalism reached its fullest perfection was
+France and most of the passages here given to illustrate the subject
+have to do with French life and institutions. In France, speaking
+generally, feudalism took shape during the ninth and tenth centuries,
+developed steadily until the thirteenth, and then slowly declined,
+leaving influences on society which have not yet all disappeared. When
+the system was complete--say by the tenth century--we can see in it
+three essential elements which may be described as the personal, the
+territorial, and the governmental. The personal element, in brief, was
+the relation between lord and vassal under which the former gave
+protection in return for the latter's fidelity. The territorial
+element was the benefice, or fief, granted to the vassal by the lord
+to be used on certain conditions by the former while the title to it
+remained with the latter. The governmental element was the rights of
+jurisdiction over his fief usually given by a lord to his vassal,
+especially if the fief were an important one. At one time it was
+customary to trace back all these features of the feudal system to the
+institutions of Rome. Later it became almost as customary to trace
+them to the institutions of the early Germans. But recent scholarship
+shows that it is quite unnecessary, in fact very misleading, to
+attempt to ascribe them wholly to either Roman or German sources, or
+even to both together. All that we can say is that in the centuries
+preceding the ninth these elements all existed in the society of
+western Europe and that, while something very like them ran far back
+into old Roman and German times, they existed in sixth and seventh
+century Europe primarily because conditions were then such as to
+_demand_ their existence. Short extracts to illustrate the most
+important of these old feudal elements are given below. It should
+constantly be borne in mind that no one of these things--whether
+vassalage, the benefice, or the immunity--was in itself feudalism.
+Most of them could, and did, exist separately, and it was only when
+they were united, as commonly became the case in the ninth and tenth
+centuries, that the word feudalism can properly be brought into use,
+and then only as applied to the complete product.
+
+(1) VASSALAGE
+
+For the personal element in feudalism it is possible to find two
+prototypes, one Roman and the other German. The first was the
+institution of the later Empire known as the _patrocinium_--the
+relation established between a powerful man (patron) and a weak one
+(client) when the latter pledged himself to perform certain services
+for the former in return for protection. The second was the German
+_comitatus_--a band of young warriors who lived with a prince or noble
+and went on campaigns under his leadership. The _patrocinium_
+doubtless survived in Roman Gaul long after the time of the Frankish
+invasion, but it is not likely that the _comitatus_ ever played much
+part in that country. It seems that, with the exception of the king,
+the Frankish men of influence did not have bands of personal followers
+after the settlement on Roman soil. But, wholly aside from earlier
+practices, the conditions which the conquest, and the later struggles
+of the rival kings, brought about made it still necessary for many men
+who could not protect themselves or their property to seek the favor
+of some one who was strong enough to give them aid. The name which
+came to be applied to the act of establishing this personal relation
+was _commendation_. The man who promised the protection was the lord,
+and the man who pledged himself to serve the lord and be faithful to
+him was the _homo_, after the eighth century known as the vassal
+(_vassus_). In the eighth century, when the power of the Merovingian
+kings was ebbing away and the people were left to look out for
+themselves, large numbers entered into the vassal relation; and in the
+ninth century, when Carolingian power was likewise running low and the
+Northmen, Hungarians, and Saracens were ravaging the country, scarcely
+a free man was left who did not secure for himself the protection of a
+lord. The relation of vassalage was first recognized as legal in the
+capitularies of Charlemagne. Here is a Frankish formula of
+commendation dating from the seventh century--practically a blank
+application in which the names of the prospective lord and vassal
+could be inserted as required.
+
+     Source--Eugene de Roziere, _Recueil General des Formules
+     usitees dans l'Empire des Francs du Ve au Xe siecle_
+     ["General Collection of Formulae employed in the Frankish
+     Empire from the Fifth to the Tenth Century"], Vol. I., p. 69.
+     Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in _Univ. of Pa. Translations
+     and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 3-4.
+
+   To that magnificent lord ----, I, ----. Since it is well known to
+   all how little I have wherewith to feed and clothe myself, I have
+   therefore petitioned your piety, and your good-will has decreed to
+   me, that I should hand myself over, or commend myself, to your
+   guardianship, which I have thereupon done; that is to say, in this
+   way, that you should aid and succor me, as well with food as with
+   clothing, according as I shall be able to serve you and deserve it.
+
+   And so long as I shall live I ought to provide service and honor to
+   you, compatible with my free condition;[298] and I shall not,
+   during the time of my life, have the right to withdraw from your
+   control or guardianship; but must remain during the days of my life
+   under your power or defense. Wherefore it is proper that if either
+   of us shall wish to withdraw himself from these agreements, he
+   shall pay ---- shillings to the other party, and this agreement
+   shall remain unbroken.[299]
+
+   (Wherefore it is fitting that they should make or confirm between
+   themselves two letters drawn up in the same form on this matter;
+   which they have thus done.)
+
+(2) THE BENEFICE
+
+The benefice, or grant of land to a vassal by a lord, by the Church,
+or by the king, had its origin among the Franks in what were known as
+the _precaria_ of the Church. At the time of the Frankish settlement
+in Gaul, it was quite customary for the Church to grant land to men in
+answer to _preces_ ("prayers," or requests), on condition that it
+might be recalled at any time and that the temporary holder should be
+unable to enforce any claims as against the owner. For the use of such
+land a small rent in money, in produce, or in service was usually
+paid. This form of tenure among the Franks was at first restricted to
+church lands, but by the eighth century lay owners, even the king
+himself, had come to employ it. The term _precarium_ dropped out of
+use and all such grants, by whomsoever made, came to be known as
+benefices ("benefits," or "favors"). The ordinary vassal might or
+might not once have had land in his own name, but if he had such he
+was expected to give over the ownership of it to his lord and receive
+it back as a benefice to be used on certain prescribed conditions. In
+time it became common, too, for lords to grant benefices out of their
+own lands to landless vassals. A man could be a vassal without having
+a benefice, but rarely, at least after the eighth century, could he
+have a benefice without entering into the obligations of vassalage.
+Benefices were at first granted by the Church with the understanding
+that they might be recalled at any time; later they were granted by
+Church, kings, and seigniors for life, or for a certain term of years;
+and finally, in the ninth and tenth centuries, they came generally to
+be regarded as hereditary. By the time the hereditary principle had
+been established, the name "fief" (_feodum_, _feudum_--whence our word
+feudal) had supplanted the older term "benefice." The tendency of the
+personal element of vassalage and the territorial element of the
+benefice, or fief, to merge was very strong, and by the tenth century
+nearly every vassal was also a fief-holder. The following formulae
+belong to the seventh century. The first (a) is for the grant of lands
+to a church or monastery; the second (b) for their return to the
+grantor as a _precarium_--or what was known a century later as a
+benefice.
+
+     Source--Eugene de Roziere, _Recueil General des Formules_,
+     Vol. I., p. 473. Translated by E. P. Cheyney in _Univ. of Pa.
+     Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp. 6-8.
+
+     [Sidenote: Description of property yielded to a church or
+   monastery]
+
+     [Sidenote: Terms of the contract]
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalty for faithlessness]
+
+   (a)
+
+   I, ----, in the name of God. I have settled in my mind that I
+   ought, for the good of my soul, to make a gift of something from my
+   possessions, which I have therefore done. And this is what I hand
+   over, in the district named ----, in the place of which the name is
+   ----, all those possessions of mine which there my father left me
+   at his death, and which, as against my brothers, or as against my
+   co-heirs, the lot legitimately brought me in the division,[300] or
+   those which I was able afterward to add to them in any way, in
+   their whole completeness, that is to say, the courtyard with its
+   buildings, with slaves, houses, lands (cultivated and
+   uncultivated), meadows, woods, waters, mills, etc. These, as I have
+   said before, with all the things adjacent or belonging to them, I
+   hand over to the church, which was built in honor of Saint ----, to
+   the monastery which is called ----, where the Abbot ---- is
+   acknowledged to rule regularly over God's flock. On these
+   conditions: that so long as life remains in my body, I shall
+   receive from you as a benefice for usufruct the possessions above
+   described, and the due payment I will make to you and your
+   successors each year, that is ---- [amount named]. And my son shall
+   have the same possessions for the days of his life, and shall make
+   the above-named payment; and if my children should survive me, they
+   shall have the same possessions during the days of their lives and
+   shall make the same payment; and if God shall give me a son from a
+   legitimate wife, he shall have the same possessions for the days of
+   his life only, after the death of whom the same possessions, with
+   all their improvements, shall return to your hands to be held
+   forever; and if it should be my chance to beget sons from a
+   legitimate marriage, these shall hold the same possessions after my
+   death, making the above-named payment, during the time of their
+   lives. If not, however, after my death, without subterfuge of any
+   kind, by right of your authority, the same possessions shall revert
+   to you, to be retained forever. If any one, however (which I do not
+   believe will ever occur)--if I myself, or any other person--shall
+   wish to violate the firmness and validity of this grant, the order
+   of truth opposing him, may his falsity in no degree succeed; and
+   for his bold attempt may he pay to the aforesaid monastery double
+   the amount which his ill-ordered cupidity has been prevented from
+   abstracting; and moreover let him be indebted to the royal
+   authority for ---- solidi of gold; and, nevertheless, let the
+   present charter remain inviolate with all that it contains, with
+   the witnesses placed below.
+
+   Done in ----, publicly, those who are noted below being present, or
+   the remaining innumerable multitude of people.
+
+     [Sidenote: The property again described]
+
+     [Sidenote: Returned to the original owner to be used by him]
+
+   (b)
+
+   In the name of God, I, Abbot ----, with our commissioned brethren.
+   Since it is not unknown how you, ----, by the suggestion of divine
+   exhortation, did grant to ---- [monastery named], to the church
+   which is known to be constructed in honor of Saint ----, where we
+   by God's authority exercise our pastoral care, all your possessions
+   which you seemed to have in the district named, in the vill
+   [village] named, which your father on his death bequeathed to you
+   there, or which by your own labor you were able to gain there, or
+   which, as against your brother or against ----, a co-heir, a just
+   division gave you, with courtyard and buildings, gardens and
+   orchards, with various slaves, ---- by name, houses, lands,
+   meadows, woods (cultivated and uncultivated), or with all the
+   dependencies and appurtenances belonging to it, which it would be
+   extremely long to enumerate, in all their completeness; but
+   afterwards, at your request, it has seemed proper to us to cede to
+   you the same possessions to be held for usufruct; and you will not
+   neglect to pay at annual periods the due _census_ [i.e., the
+   rental] hence, that is ---- [amount named]. And if God should give
+   you a son by your legal wife, he shall have the same possessions
+   for the days of his life only, and shall not presume to neglect the
+   above payment, and similarly your sons which you are seen to have
+   at present, shall do for the days of their lives; after the death
+   of whom, all the possessions above-named shall revert to us and
+   our successors perpetually. Moreover, if no sons shall have been
+   begotten by you, immediately after your death, without any harmful
+   contention, the possessions shall revert to the rulers or guardians
+   of the above-named church, forever. Nor may any one, either
+   ourselves or our successors, be successful in a rash attempt
+   inordinately to destroy these agreements, but just as the time has
+   demanded in the present _precaria_, may that be sure to endure
+   unchanged which we, with the consent of our brothers, have decided
+   to confirm.
+
+   Done in ----, in the presence of ---- and of others whom it is not
+   worth while to enumerate. [Seal of the same abbot who has ordered
+   this _precaria_ to be made.]
+
+(3) THE IMMUNITY
+
+The most important element in the governmental phase of feudalism was
+what was known as the immunity. In Roman law immunity meant exemption
+from taxes and public services and belonged especially to the lands
+owned personally by the emperors. Such exemptions were, however,
+sometimes allowed to the lands of imperial officers and of men in
+certain professions, and in later times to the lands held by the
+Church. How closely this Roman immunity was connected with the feudal
+immunity of the Middle Ages is not clear. Doubtless the institution
+survived in Gaul, especially on church lands, long after the Frankish
+conquest. It is best, however, to look upon the typical Frankish
+immunity as of essentially independent origin. From the time of
+Clovis, the kings were accustomed to make grants of the sort to
+land-holding abbots and bishops, and by the time of Charlemagne nearly
+all such prelates had been thus favored. But such grants were not
+confined to ecclesiastics. Even in the seventh and eighth centuries
+lay holders of royal benefices often received the privileges of the
+immunity also. Speaking generally, the immunity exempted the lands to
+which it applied from the jurisdiction of the local royal officials,
+especially of the counts. The lands were supposed to be none the less
+ultimately subject to the royal authority, but by the grant of
+immunity the sovereign took their financial and judicial
+administration from the counts, who would ordinarily have charge, and
+gave it to the holders of the lands. The counts were forbidden to
+enter the specified territories to collect taxes or fines, hold
+courts, and sometimes even to arrange for military service. The
+layman, or the bishop, or the abbot, who held the lands performed
+these services and was responsible only to the crown for them. The
+king's chief object in granting the immunity was to reward or win the
+support of the grantees and to curtail the authority of his local
+representatives, who in many cases threatened to become too powerful
+for the good of the state; but by every such grant the sovereign
+really lost some of his own power, and this practice came to be in no
+small measure responsible for the weakness of monarchy in feudal
+times.
+
+The first of the extracts below (a) is a seventh-century formula for
+the grant of an immunity by the king to a bishop. The second (b) is a
+grant made by Charlemagne, in 779, confirming an old immunity enjoyed
+by the monastery at Chalons-sur-Saone.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Legum
+     Sectio V., Formulae_, Part I., pp. 43-44.
+
+     (b) Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_ (Pertz ed.),
+     Vol. II., p. 287. Adapted from translation in Ephraim Emerton,
+     _Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_ (new ed.,
+     Boston, 1903), p. 246.
+
+     [Sidenote: A formula for a grant of immunity]
+
+   (a)
+
+   We believe that we give our royal authority its full splendor if,
+   with benevolent intentions, we bestow upon churches--or upon any
+   persons--the favors which they merit, and if, with the aid of God,
+   we give a written assurance of the continuance of these favors. We
+   wish, then, to make known that at the request of a prelate, lord of
+   ---- [the estate named] and bishop of ---- [the church named], we
+   have accorded to him, for the sake of our eternal salvation, the
+   following benefits: that in the domains of the bishop's church,
+   both those which it possesses to-day and those which by God's grace
+   it may later acquire, no public official shall be permitted to
+   enter, either to hold courts or to exact fines, on any account; but
+   let these prerogatives be vested in full in the bishop and his
+   successors. We ordain therefore that neither you nor your
+   subordinates,[301] nor those who come after you, nor any person
+   endowed with a public office, shall ever enter the domains of that
+   church, in whatever part of our kingdom they may be situated,
+   either to hold trials or to collect fines. All the taxes and other
+   revenues which the royal treasury has a right to demand from the
+   people on the lands of the said church, whether they be freemen or
+   slaves, Romans or barbarians, we now bestow on the said church for
+   our future salvation, to be used by the officials of the church
+   forever for the best interests of the church.
+
+   (b)
+
+   Charles, by the grace of God King of the Franks and Lombards and
+   Patrician of the Romans, to all having charge of our affairs, both
+   present and to come:
+
+   By the help of the Lord, who has raised us to the throne of this
+   kingdom, it is the chief duty of our clemency to lend a gracious
+   ear to the need of all, and especially ought we devoutly to regard
+   that which we are persuaded has been granted by preceding kings to
+   church foundations for the saving of souls, and not to deny fitting
+   benefits, in order that we may deserve to be partakers of the
+   reward, but to confirm them in still greater security.
+
+     [Sidenote: The old immunity enjoyed by the monastery at Chalons]
+
+   Now the illustrious Hubert, bishop and ruler of the church of St.
+   Marcellus, which lies below the citadel of Chalons,[302] where the
+   precious martyr of the Lord himself rests in the body, has brought
+   it to the attention of our Highness that the kings who preceded us,
+   or our lord and father of blessed memory, Pepin, the preceding
+   king, had by their charters granted complete immunities to that
+   monastery, so that in the towns or on the lands belonging to it no
+   public judge, nor any one with power of hearing cases or exacting
+   fines, or raising sureties, or obtaining lodging or entertainment,
+   or making requisitions of any kind, should enter.
+
+   Moreover, the aforesaid bishop, Hubert, has presented the original
+   charters of former kings, together with the confirmations of them,
+   to be read by us, and declares the same favors to be preserved to
+   the present day; but desiring the confirmation of our clemency, he
+   prays that our authority may confirm this grant anew to the
+   monastery.
+
+     [Sidenote: =The immunity confirmed=]
+
+   Wherefore, having inspected the said charters of former kings, we
+   command that neither you, nor your subordinates, nor your
+   successors, nor any person having judicial powers, shall presume to
+   enter into the villages which may at the present time be in
+   possession of that monastery, or which hereafter may have been
+   bestowed by God-fearing men [or may be about to be so
+   bestowed].[303] Let no public officer enter for the hearing of
+   cases, or for exacting fines, or procuring sureties, or obtaining
+   lodging or entertainment, or making any requisitions; but in full
+   immunity, even as the favor of former kings has been continued down
+   to the present day, so in the future also shall it, through our
+   authority, remain undiminished. And if in times past, through any
+   negligence of abbots, or luke-warmness of rulers, or the
+   presumption of public officers, anything has been changed or taken
+   away, removed or withdrawn, from these immunities, let it, by our
+   authority and favor, be restored. And, further, let neither you nor
+   your subordinates presume to infringe upon or violate what we have
+   granted.
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for its violation]
+
+   But if there be any one, _dominus_,[304] _comes_ [count],
+   _domesticus_,[305] _vicarius_,[306] or one vested with any judicial
+   power whatsoever, by the indulgence of the good or by the favor of
+   pious Christians or kings, who shall have presumed to infringe upon
+   or violate these immunities, let him be punished with a fine of six
+   hundred _solidi_,[307] two parts to go to the library of this
+   monastery, and the third part to be paid into our treasury, so that
+   impious men may not rejoice in violating that which our ancestors,
+   or good Christians, may have conceded or granted. And whatever our
+   treasury may have had a right to expect from this source shall go
+   to the profit of the men of this church of St. Marcellus the
+   martyr, to the better establishment of our kingdom and the good of
+   those who shall succeed us.
+
+   And that this decree may firmly endure we have ordered it to be
+   confirmed with our own hand under our seal.
+
+
+35. The Granting of Fiefs
+
+The most obvious feature of feudalism was a peculiar divided tenure of
+land under which the title was vested in one person and the use in
+another. The territorial unit was the fief, which in extent might be
+but a few acres, a whole county, or even a vast region like Normandy
+or Burgundy. Fiefs were granted to vassals by contracts which bound
+both grantor and grantee to certain specific obligations. The two
+extracts below are examples of the records of such feudal grants,
+bearing the dates 1167 and 1200 respectively. It should be remembered,
+however, that fiefs need not necessarily be land. Offices, payments of
+money, rights to collect tolls, and many other valuable things might
+be given by one man to another as fiefs in just the same way that land
+was given. Du Cange, in his _Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis_,
+mentions eighty-eight different kinds of fiefs, and it has been said
+that this does not represent more than one-fourth of the total number.
+Nevertheless, the typical fief consisted of land. The term might
+therefore be defined in general as the land for which the vassal, or
+hereditary possessor, rendered to the lord, or hereditary proprietor,
+services of a special character which were considered honorable, such
+as military aid and attendance at courts.
+
+     Sources--(a) Nicolas Brussel, _Nouvel Examen de l'Usage
+     general des Fiefs en France pendant le XI, le XII, le XIII, et
+     le XIVe Siecle_ ["New Examination of the Customs of Fiefs in
+     the 11th, the 12th, the 13th, and the 14th Century"], Paris,
+     1727, Vol. I., p. 3, note. Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in
+     _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, pp.
+     15-16.
+
+     (b) Maximilien Quantin, _Recueil de Pieces du XIIIe Siecle_
+     ["Collection of Documents of the Thirteenth Century"],
+     Auxerre, 1873, No. 2, pp. 1-2. Translated by Cheyney, _ibid._
+
+     [Sidenote: The count of Champagne grants a fief to the bishop of
+   Beauvais]
+
+   (a)
+
+   In the name of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, Amen. I, Louis,[308]
+   by the grace of God king of the French, make known to all present
+   as well as to come, that at Mante in our presence, Count Henry of
+   Champagne[309] conceded the fief of Savigny to Bartholomew, bishop
+   of Beauvais,[310] and his successors. And for that fief the said
+   bishop has made promise and engagement for one knight and justice
+   and service to Count Henry;[311] and he also agreed that the
+   bishops who shall come after him will do likewise. In order that
+   this may be understood and known to posterity we have caused the
+   present charter to be attested by our seal. Done at Mante, in the
+   year of the Incarnate Word, 1167; present in our palace those whose
+   names and seals are appended: seal of Thiebault, our steward; seal
+   of Guy, the butler; seal of Matthew, the chamberlain; seal of
+   Ralph, the constable. Given by the hand of Hugh, the chancellor.
+
+     [Sidenote: A grant by Count Thiebault]
+
+   (b)
+
+   I, Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes,[312] make known to those
+   present and to come that I have given in fee[313] to Jocelyn
+   d'Avalon and his heirs the manor which is called Gillencourt,[314]
+   which is of the castellanerie[315] of La Ferte-sur-Aube; and
+   whatever the same Jocelyn shall be able to acquire in the same
+   manor I have granted to him and his heirs in enlargement of that
+   fief. I have granted, moreover, to him that in no free manor of
+   mine will I retain men who are of this gift.[316] The same Jocelyn,
+   moreover, on account of this has become my liege man, saving,
+   however, his allegiance to Gerad d'Arcy, and to the lord duke of
+   Burgundy, and to Peter, count of Auxerre.[317] Done at Chouaude, by
+   my own witness, in the year of the Incarnation of our Lord 1200, in
+   the month of January. Given by the hand of Walter, my chancellor.
+
+
+36. The Ceremonies of Homage and Fealty
+
+The personal relation between lord and vassal was established by the
+double ceremony of homage and fealty. Homage was the act by which the
+vassal made himself the man (_homo_) of the lord, while fealty was the
+oath of fidelity to the obligations which must ordinarily be assumed
+by such a man. The two were really distinct, though because they
+almost invariably went together they finally became confounded in the
+popular mind. The details of the ceremonies varied much in different
+times and places, but, in general, when homage was to be performed,
+the prospective vassal presented himself before his future seigneur
+bareheaded and without arms; knelt, placed his hands in those of the
+seigneur, and declared himself his man; then he was kissed by the
+seigneur and lifted to his feet. In the act of fealty, the vassal
+placed his hand upon sacred relics, or upon the Bible, and swore
+eternal faithfulness to his seigneur. The so-called "act of
+investiture" generally followed, the seigneur handing over to the
+vassal a bit of turf, a stick, or some other object symbolizing the
+transfer of the usufruct of the property in question. The whole
+process was merely a mode of establishing a binding contract between
+the two parties. Below we have: (_a_) a mediaeval definition of homage,
+taken from the customary law of Normandy; (_b_) an explanation of
+fealty, given in an old English law-book; (_c_) a French chronicler's
+account of the rendering of homage and fealty to the count of Flanders
+in the year 1127; and (_d_) a set of laws governing homage and fealty,
+written down in a compilation of the ordinances of Saint Louis (king
+of France, 1226-1270), but doubtless showing substantially the
+practice in France for a long time before King Louis's day.
+
+     Sources--(a) _L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_ ["The Old
+     Custom of Normandy"], Chap. 29.
+
+     (b) Sir Thomas Lyttleton, _Treatise of Tenures in French and
+     English_ (London, 1841), Bk. II., Chap. 2, p. 123.
+
+     (c) Galbert de Bruges, _De Multro, Traditione, et Occisione
+     gloriosi Karoli comitis Flandriarum_ ["Concerning the Murder,
+     Betrayal, and Death of the glorious Charles, Count of
+     Flanders"]. Text in Henri Pirenne, _Histoire du Meurtre de
+     Charles le Bon, comte de Flandre, par Galbert de Bruges_
+     (Paris, 1891). Translated by Edward P. Cheyney in _Univ. of
+     Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3, p. 18.
+
+     (d) _Les Etablissements de Saint Louis_ ["The Ordinances of
+     St. Louis"], Bk. II., Chap. 19. Text in Paul Viollet's edition
+     (Paris, 1881), Vol. II., pp. 395-398.
+
+     [Sidenote: A Norman definition of homage]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Homage is a pledge to keep faith in respect to matters that are
+   right and necessary, and to give counsel and aid. He who would do
+   homage ought to place his hands between those of the man who is to
+   be his lord, and speak these words: "I become your man, to keep
+   faith with you against all others, saving my allegiance to the duke
+   of Normandy."
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of fealty]
+
+   (b)
+
+   And when a free tenant shall swear fealty to his lord, let him
+   place his right hand on the book[318] and speak thus: "Hear thou
+   this, my lord, that I will be faithful and loyal to you and will
+   keep my pledges to you for the lands which I claim to hold of you,
+   and that I will loyally perform for you the services specified, so
+   help me God and the saints." Then he shall kiss the book; but he
+   shall not kneel when he swears fealty, nor take so humble a posture
+   as is required in homage.
+
+   (c)
+
+   Through the whole remaining part of the day those who had been
+   previously enfeoffed by the most pious count Charles, did homage to
+   the count,[319] taking up now again their fiefs and offices and
+   whatever they had before rightfully and legitimately obtained. On
+   Thursday, the seventh of April, homages were again made to the
+   count, being completed in the following order of faith and
+   security:
+
+     [Sidenote: The rendering of homage and fealty to the count of
+   Flanders]
+
+   First they did their homage thus. The count asked if he was willing
+   to become completely his man, and the other replied, "I am
+   willing"; and with clasped hands, surrounded by the hands of the
+   count, they were bound together by a kiss. Secondly, he who had
+   done homage gave his fealty to the representative of the count in
+   these words, "I promise on my faith that I will in future be
+   faithful to Count William, and will observe my homage to him
+   completely, against all persons, in good faith and without deceit."
+   Thirdly, he took his oath to this upon the relics of the saints.
+   Afterwards, with a little rod which the count held in his hand, he
+   gave investitures to all who by this agreement had given their
+   security and homage and accompanying oath.
+
+     [Sidenote: An ordinance of St. Louis on homage and fealty]
+
+   (d)
+
+   If any one would hold from a lord in fee, he ought to seek his lord
+   within forty days. And if he does not do it within forty days, the
+   lord may and ought to seize his fief for default of homage, and the
+   things which are found there he should seize without compensation;
+   and yet the vassal should be obliged to pay to his lord the
+   redemption.[320] When any one wishes to enter into the fealty of a
+   lord, he ought to seek him, as we have said above, and should speak
+   as follows: "Sir, I request you, as my lord, to put me in your
+   fealty and in your homage for such and such a thing situated in
+   your fief, which I have bought." And he ought to say from what man,
+   and this one ought to be present and in the fealty of the
+   lord;[321] and whether it is by purchase or by escheat[322] or by
+   inheritance he ought to explain; and with his hands joined, to
+   speak as follows: "Sir, I become your man and promise to you fealty
+   for the future as my lord, towards all men who may live or die,
+   rendering to you such service as the fief requires, making to you
+   your relief as you are the lord." And he ought to say whether for
+   guardianship,[323] or as an escheat, or as an inheritance, or as a
+   purchase.
+
+   The lord should immediately reply to him: "And I receive you and
+   take you as my man, and give you this kiss as a sign of faith,
+   saving my right and that of others," according to the usage of the
+   various districts.
+
+
+37. The Mutual Obligations of Lords and Vassals
+
+The feudal relation was essentially one of contract involving
+reciprocal relations between lord and vassal. In the following letter,
+written in the year 1020 by Bishop Fulbert of Chartres[324] to the
+duke of Aquitaine, we find laid down the general principles which
+ought to govern the discharge of these mutual obligations. It is
+affirmed that there were six things that no loyal vassal could do, and
+these are enumerated and explained. Then comes the significant
+statement that these negative duties must be supplemented with
+positive acts for the service and support of the lord. What some of
+these acts were will appear in the extracts in Sec.38. Bishop Fulbert
+points out also that the lord is himself bound by feudal law not to do
+things detrimental to the safety, honor, or prosperity of his vassal.
+The letter is an admirable statement of the spirit of the feudal
+system at its best. Already by 1020 a considerable body of feudal
+customs having the force of law had come into existence and it appears
+that Fulbert had made these customs the subject of some special study
+before answering the questions addressed to him by Duke William.
+
+     Source--Text in Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des Historiens des
+     Gaules et de la France_ ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul
+     and of France"], Vol. X., p. 463.
+
+   To William, most illustrious duke of the Aquitanians, Bishop
+   Fulbert, the favor of his prayers:
+
+     [Sidenote: What the vassal owes the lord]
+
+   Requested to write something regarding the character of fealty, I
+   have set down briefly for you, on the authority of the books, the
+   following things. He who takes the oath of fealty to his lord ought
+   always to keep in mind these six things: what is harmless, safe,
+   honorable, useful, easy, and practicable.[325] _Harmless_, which
+   means that he ought not to injure his lord in his body; _safe_,
+   that he should not injure him by betraying his confidence or the
+   defenses upon which he depends for security; _honorable_, that he
+   should not injure him in his justice, or in other matters that
+   relate to his honor; _useful_, that he should not injure him in his
+   property; _easy_, that he should not make difficult that which his
+   lord can do easily; and _practicable_, that he should not make
+   impossible for the lord that which is possible.
+
+   However, while it is proper that the faithful vassal avoid these
+   injuries, it is not for doing this alone that he deserves his
+   holding: for it is not enough to refrain from wrongdoing, unless
+   that which is good is done also. It remains, therefore, that in the
+   same six things referred to above he should faithfully advise and
+   aid his lord, if he wishes to be regarded as worthy of his benefice
+   and to be safe concerning the fealty which he has sworn.
+
+     [Sidenote: The obligations of the lord]
+
+   The lord also ought to act toward his faithful vassal in the same
+   manner in all these things. And if he fails to do this, he will be
+   rightfully regarded as guilty of bad faith, just as the former, if
+   he should be found shirking, or willing to shirk, his obligations
+   would be perfidious and perjured.[326]
+
+   I should have written to you at greater length had I not been busy
+   with many other matters, including the rebuilding of our city and
+   church, which were recently completely destroyed by a terrible
+   fire. Though for a time we could not think of anything but this
+   disaster, yet now, by the hope of God's comfort, and of yours also,
+   we breathe more freely again.
+
+
+38. Some of the More Important Rights of the Lord
+
+The obligations of vassals to lords outlined in the preceding
+selection were mainly of a moral character--such as naturally grew out
+of the general idea of loyalty and fidelity to a benefactor. They were
+largely negative and were rather vague and indefinite. So far as they
+went, they were binding upon lords and vassals alike. There were,
+however, several very definite and practical rights which the lords
+possessed with respect to the property and persons of their
+dependents. Some of these were of a financial character, some were
+judicial, and others were military. Five of the most important are
+illustrated by the passages given below.
+
+(_a_) AIDS
+
+Under the feudal system the idea prevailed that the vassal's purse as
+well as his body was to be at the lord's service. Originally the right
+to draw upon his vassals for money was exercised by the lord whenever
+he desired, but by custom this ill-defined power gradually became
+limited to three sorts of occasions when the need of money was likely
+to be especially urgent, i.e., when the eldest son was knighted, when
+the eldest daughter was married, and when the lord was to be ransomed
+from captivity. In the era of the crusades, the starting of the lord
+on an expedition to the Holy Land was generally regarded as another
+emergency in which an aid might rightfully be demanded. The following
+extract from the old customary law of Normandy represents the practice
+in nearly all feudal Europe.
+
+     Source--_L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_, Chap. 35.
+
+     [Sidenote: The three aids]
+
+   In Normandy there are three chief aids. The first is to help make
+   the lord's eldest son a knight; the second is to marry his eldest
+   daughter; the third is to ransom the body of the lord from prison
+   when he shall be taken captive during a war for the duke.[327] By
+   this it appears that the _aide de chevalerie_ [knighthood-aid] is
+   due when the eldest son of the lord is made a knight. The eldest
+   son is he who has the dignity of primogeniture.[328] The _aide de
+   mariage_ [marriage-aid] is due when the eldest daughter is
+   married. The _aide de rancon_ [ransom-aid] is due when it is
+   necessary to deliver the lord from the prisons of the enemies of
+   the duke. These aids are paid in some fiefs at the rate of half a
+   relief, and in some at the rate of a third.[329]
+
+(_b_) MILITARY SERVICE
+
+From whatever point of view feudalism is regarded--whether as a system
+of land tenure, as a form of social organization, or as a type of
+government--the military element in it appears everywhere important.
+The feudal period was the greatest era of war the civilized world has
+ever known. Few people between the tenth and fourteenth centuries,
+except in the peasant classes, were able to live out their lives
+entirely in peace. Of greatest value to kings and feudal magnates,
+greater even than money itself, was a goodly following of soldiers;
+hence the almost universal requirement of military service by lords
+from their vassals. Fiefs were not infrequently granted out for no
+other purpose than to get the military service which their holders
+would owe. The amount of such service varied greatly in different
+times and places, but the following arrangement represents the most
+common practice.
+
+     Source--_Les Etablissements de Saint Louis_, Bk. I., Chap. 65.
+     Text in Paul Viollet's edition (Paris, 1881), Vol. II., pp.
+     95-96.
+
+     [Sidenote: The conditions of military service]
+
+   The baron and the vassals of the king ought to appear in his army
+   when they shall be summoned, and ought to serve at their own
+   expense for forty days and forty nights, with whatever number of
+   knights they owe.[330] And he possesses the right to exact from
+   them these services when he wishes and when he has need of them.
+   If, however, the king shall wish to keep them more than forty days
+   and forty nights at their own expense, they need not remain unless
+   they desire.[331] But if he shall wish to retain them at his cost
+   for the defense of the kingdom, they ought lawfully to remain. But
+   if he shall propose to lead them outside of the kingdom, they need
+   not go unless they are willing, for they have already served their
+   forty days and forty nights.
+
+(_c_) WARDSHIP AND MARRIAGE
+
+Very important among the special prerogatives of the feudal lord was
+his right to manage, and enjoy the profits of, fiefs inherited by
+minors. When a vassal died, leaving an heir who was under age, the
+lord was charged with the care of the fief until the heir reached his
+or her majority. On becoming of age, a young man was expected to take
+control of his fief at once. But a young woman remained under wardship
+until her marriage, though if she married under age she could get
+possession of her fief immediately, just as she would had she waited
+until older. The control of the marriage of heiresses was largely in
+the hands of their lords, for obviously it was to the lord's interest
+that no enemy of his, nor any shiftless person, should become the
+husband of his ward. The lord could compel a female ward to marry and
+could oblige her to accept as a husband one of the candidates whom he
+offered her; but it was usually possible for the woman to purchase
+exemption from this phase of his jurisdiction. After the thirteenth
+century the right of wardship gradually declined in France, though it
+long continued in England. The following extract from the customs of
+Normandy sets forth the typical feudal law on the subject.
+
+     Source--_L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_, Chap. 33.
+
+   Heirs should be placed in guardianship until they reach the age of
+   twenty years; and those who hold them as wards should give over to
+   them all the fiefs which came under their control by reason of
+   wardship, provided they have not lost anything by judicial
+   process.... When the heirs pass out of the condition of wardship,
+   their lords shall not impose upon them any reliefs for their fiefs,
+   for the profits of wardship shall be reckoned in place of the
+   relief.
+
+     [Sidenote: The marriage of a female ward]
+
+   When a female ward reaches the proper age to marry, she should be
+   married by the advice and consent of her lord, and by the advice
+   and consent of her relatives and friends, according as the nobility
+   of her ancestry and the value of her fief may require; and upon her
+   marriage the fief which has been held in guardianship should be
+   given over to her. A woman cannot be freed from wardship except by
+   marriage; and let it not be said that she is of age until she is
+   twenty years old. But if she be married at the age at which it is
+   allowable for a woman to marry, the fact of her marriage makes her
+   of age and delivers her fief from wardship.
+
+     [Sidenote: The lord's obligation to care for the fief of his ward]
+
+   The fiefs of those who are under wardship should be cared for
+   attentively by their lords, who are entitled to receive the produce
+   and profits.[332] And in this connection let it be known that the
+   lord ought to preserve in their former condition the buildings, the
+   manor-houses, the forests and meadows, the gardens, the ponds, the
+   mills, the fisheries, and the other things of which he has the
+   profits. And he should not sell, destroy, or remove the woods, the
+   houses, or the trees.
+
+(_d_) RELIEFS
+
+A relief was a payment made to the lord by an heir before entering
+upon possession of his fief. The history of reliefs goes back to the
+time when benefices were not hereditary and when, if a son succeeded
+his father in the usufruct of a piece of property, it was regarded as
+an unusual thing--a special favor on the part of the owner to be paid
+for by the new tenant. Later, when fiefs had become almost everywhere
+hereditary, the custom of requiring reliefs still survived. The amount
+was at first arbitrary, being arranged by individual bargains; but in
+every community, especially in France, the tendency was toward a fixed
+custom regarding it. Below are given some brief extracts from English
+Treasury records which show how men in England between the years 1140
+and 1230 paid the king for the privilege of retaining the fiefs held
+by their fathers.
+
+     Source--Thomas Madox, _History and Antiquities of the
+     Exchequer of the Kings of England_ (London, 1769), Vol. I.,
+     pp. 312-322 _passim_.
+
+   Walter Hait renders an account of 5 marks of silver for the relief
+   of the land of his father.
+
+   Walter Brito renders an account of L66, 13s. and 4d. for the relief
+   of his land.
+
+   Richard of Estre renders an account of L15 for the relief for 3
+   knights' fees which he holds from the honor of Mortain.
+
+   Walter Fitz Thomas, of Newington, owes 28s. 4d. for having a fourth
+   part of one knight's fee which had been seized into the hand of the
+   king for default of relief.
+
+   John of Venetia renders an account of 300 marks for the fine of his
+   land and for the relief of the land which was his father's which he
+   held from the king _in capite_.[333]
+
+   John de Balliol owes L150 for the relief of 30 knights' fees which
+   Hugh de Balliol, his father, held from the king _in capite_, that
+   is 100s. for each fee.
+
+   Peter de Bruce renders an account of L100 for his relief for the
+   barony which was of Peter his father.
+
+(_e_) FORFEITURE
+
+The lord's most effective means of compelling his vassals to discharge
+their obligations was his right to take back their fiefs for breach of
+feudal contract. Such a breach, or felony, as it was technically
+called, might consist in refusal to render military service or the
+required aids, ignoring the sovereign authority of the lord, levying
+war against the lord, dishonoring members of the lord's family, or, as
+in the case below, refusing to obey the lord's summons to appear in
+court. In practice the lords generally found it difficult to enforce
+the penalty of forfeiture and after the thirteenth century the
+tendency was to substitute money fines for dispossession, except in
+the most aggravated cases. The following is an account of the
+condemnation of Arnold Atton, a nobleman of south France, by the
+feudal court of Raymond, count of Toulouse, in the year 1249. The
+penalty imposed was the loss of the valuable chateau of Auvillars.
+
+     Source--Teulet, _Layettes du Tresor des Cartes_ ["Bureau of
+     Treasury Accounts "], No. 3778, Vol. III., p. 70. Translated
+     by Edward P. Cheyney in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+     Reprints_, Vol. IV., No. 3. pp. 33-34.
+
+   Raymond, by the grace of God count of Toulouse, marquis of
+   Provence, to the nobleman Arnold Atton, viscount of Lomagne,
+   greeting:
+
+     [Sidenote: The court's sentence upon Arnold Atton]
+
+   Let it be known to your nobility by the tenor of these presents
+   what has been done in the matter of the complaints which we have
+   made about you before the court of Agen; that you have not taken
+   the trouble to keep or fulfill the agreements sworn by you to us,
+   as is more fully contained in the instrument drawn up there, sealed
+   with our seal by the public notary; and that you have refused
+   contemptuously to appear before the said court for the purpose of
+   doing justice, and have otherwise committed multiplied and great
+   delinquencies against us. As your faults have required, the
+   aforesaid court of Agen has unanimously and concordantly pronounced
+   sentence against you, and for these matters have condemned you to
+   hand over and restore to us the chateau of Auvillars and all that
+   land which you hold from us in fee, to be had and held by us by
+   right of the obligation by which you have bound it to us for
+   fulfilling and keeping the said agreements.
+
+   Likewise it has declared that we are to be put into possession of
+   the said land and that it is to be handed over to us, on account of
+   your contumacy, because you have not been willing to appear before
+   the same court on the days which were assigned to you. Moreover, it
+   has declared that you shall be held and required to restore the
+   said land in whatsoever way we wish to receive it, with few or
+   many, in peace or in anger, in our own person, by right of
+   lordship. Likewise it has declared that you shall restore to us all
+   the expenses which we have incurred, or the court itself has
+   incurred, on those days which were assigned to you, or because of
+   those days, and has condemned you to repay these to us.[334]
+
+   Moreover, it has declared that the nobleman Gerald d'Armagnac, whom
+   you hold captive, you shall liberate, and deliver him free to us.
+   We demand, moreover, by right of our lordship that you liberate
+   him.
+
+   We call, therefore, upon your discretion in this matter, strictly
+   enjoining you and commanding that you obey the aforesaid sentences
+   in all things and fulfill them in all respects and in no way delay
+   the execution of them.
+
+
+39. The Peace and the Truce of God
+
+War rather than peace was the normal condition of feudal society.
+Peasants were expected to settle their disputes in the courts of law,
+but lords and seigneurs possessed a legal right to make war upon their
+enemies and were usually not loath to exercise it. Private warfare was
+indeed so common that it all the time threatened seriously the lives
+and property of the masses of the people and added heavily to the
+afflictions which flood, drought, famine, and pestilence brought
+repeatedly upon them. The first determined efforts to limit, if not to
+abolish, the ravages of private war were made by the Church, partly
+because the Church itself often suffered by reason of them, partly
+because its ideal was that of peace and security, and partly because
+it recognized its duty as the protector of the poor and oppressed.
+Late in the tenth century, under the influence of the Cluniacs [see p.
+245], the clergy of France, both secular and regular, began in their
+councils to promulgate decrees which were intended to establish what
+was known as the Peace of God. These decrees, which were enacted by so
+many councils between 989 and 1050 that they came to cover pretty
+nearly all France, proclaimed generally that any one who should use
+violence toward women, peasants, merchants, or members of the clergy
+should be excommunicated. The principle was to exempt certain classes
+of people from the operations of war and violence, even though the
+rest of the population should continue to fight among themselves. It
+must be said that these decrees, though enacted again and again, had
+often little apparent effect.
+
+Effort was then made in another direction. From about 1027 the
+councils began to proclaim what was known as the Truce of God,
+sometimes alone and sometimes in connection with the Peace. The
+purport of the Truce of God was that all men should abstain from
+warfare and violence during a certain portion of each week, and during
+specified church festivals and holy seasons. At first only Sunday was
+thus designated; then other days, until the time from Wednesday night
+to Monday morning was all included; then extended periods, as Lent,
+were added, until finally not more than eighty days remained of the
+entire year on which private warfare was allowable. As one writer has
+stated it, "the Peace of God was intended to protect certain classes
+at all times and the Truce to protect all classes at certain times."
+It was equally difficult to secure the acquiescence of the lawless
+nobles in both, and though the efforts of the Church were by no means
+without result, we are to think of private warfare as continuing quite
+common until brought gradually to an end by the rise of strong
+monarchies, by the turning of men to commerce and trade, and by the
+drawing off of military energies into foreign and international wars.
+
+The decree given below, which combines features of both the Peace and
+the Truce, was issued by the Council of Toulouges (near Perpignan) in
+1041, or, as some scholars think, in 1065. Its substance was many
+times reenacted, notably by the Council of Clermont, in 1095, upon the
+occasion of the proclamation of the first Crusade. It should have
+procured about 240 days of peace in every year and reduced war to
+about 120 days, but, like the others, it was only indifferently
+observed.
+
+     Source--Text in Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des Historiens des
+     Gaules et de la France_ ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul
+     and of France"], Paris, 1876, Vol. XI., pp. 510-511.
+
+     [Sidenote: Acts of violence forbidden in or near churches]
+
+   =1.= This Peace has been confirmed by the bishops, by the abbots,
+   by the counts and viscounts and the other God-fearing nobles in
+   this bishopric, to the effect that in the future, beginning with
+   this day, no man may commit an act of violence in a church, or in
+   the space which surrounds it and which is covered by its
+   privileges, or in the burying-ground, or in the dwelling-houses
+   which are, or may be, within thirty paces of it.
+
+   =2.= We do not include in this measure the churches which have
+   been, or which shall be, fortified as chateaux, or those in which
+   plunderers and thieves are accustomed to store their ill-gotten
+   booty, or which give them a place of refuge. Nevertheless we desire
+   that such churches be under this protection until complaint of them
+   shall be made to the bishop, or to the chapter. If the bishop or
+   chapter[335] act upon such information and lay hold of the
+   malefactors, and if the latter refuse to give themselves up to the
+   justice of the bishop or chapter, the malefactors and all their
+   possessions shall not be immune, even within the church. A man who
+   breaks into a church, or into the space within thirty paces around
+   it, must pay a fine for sacrilege, and double this amount to the
+   person wronged.
+
+     [Sidenote: Attacks upon the clergy prohibited]
+
+   =3.= Furthermore, it is forbidden that any one attack the clergy,
+   who do not bear arms, or the monks and religious persons, or do
+   them any wrong; likewise it is forbidden to despoil or pillage the
+   communities of canons, monks, and religious persons, the
+   ecclesiastical lands which are under the protection of the Church,
+   or the clergy, who do not bear arms; and if any one shall do such
+   a thing, let him pay a double composition.[336]
+
+     [Sidenote: Protection extended to the peasantry]
+
+   =5.= Let no one burn or destroy the dwellings of the peasants and
+   the clergy, the dove-cotes and the granaries. Let no man dare to
+   kill, to beat, or to wound a peasant or serf, or the wife of
+   either, or to seize them and carry them off, except for
+   misdemeanors which they may have committed; but it is not forbidden
+   to lay hold of them in order to bring them to justice, and it is
+   allowable to do this even before they shall have been summoned to
+   appear. Let not the raiment of the peasants be stolen; let not
+   their ploughs, or their hoes, or their olive-fields be burned.
+
+   =6.= ... Let any one who has broken the peace, and has not paid his
+   fines within a fortnight, make amends to him whom he has injured by
+   paying a double amount, which shall go to the bishop and to the
+   count who shall have had charge of the case.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Truce of God confirmed]
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for violations of the Truce]
+
+   =7.= The bishops of whom we have spoken have solemnly confirmed the
+   Truce of God, which has been enjoined upon all Christians, from the
+   setting of the sun of the fourth day of the week, that is to say,
+   Wednesday, until the rising of the sun on Monday, the second
+   day.... If any one during the Truce shall violate it, let him pay a
+   double composition and subsequently undergo the ordeal of cold
+   water.[337] When any one during the Truce shall kill a man, it has
+   been ordained, with the approval of all Christians, that if the
+   crime was committed intentionally the murderer shall be condemned
+   to perpetual exile, but if it occurred by accident the slayer shall
+   be banished for a period of time to be fixed by the bishops and
+   the canons. If any one during the Truce shall attempt to seize a
+   man or to carry him off from his chateau, and does not succeed in
+   his purpose, let him pay a fine to the bishop and to the chapter,
+   just as if he had succeeded. It is likewise forbidden during the
+   Truce, in Advent and Lent, to build any chateau or fortification,
+   unless it was begun a fortnight before the time of the Truce. It
+   has been ordained also that at all times disputes and suits on the
+   subject of the Peace and Truce of God shall be settled before the
+   bishop and his chapter, and likewise for the peace of the churches
+   which have before been enumerated. When the bishop and the chapter
+   shall have pronounced sentences to recall men to the observance of
+   the Peace and the Truce of God, the sureties and hostages who show
+   themselves hostile to the bishop and the chapter shall be
+   excommunicated by the chapter and the bishop, with their protectors
+   and partisans, as guilty of violating the Peace and the Truce of
+   the Lord; they and their possessions shall be excluded from the
+   Peace and the Truce of the Lord.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[297] Charles Seignobos, _The Feudal Regime_ (translated in
+"Historical Miscellany" series), New York, 1904, p. 1.
+
+[298] A man was not supposed in any way to sacrifice his freedom by
+becoming a vassal and the lord's right to his service would be
+forfeited if this principle were violated.
+
+[299] The relation of lord and vassal was, at this early time, limited
+to the lifetime of the two parties. When one died, the other was
+liberated from his contract. But in the ninth and tenth centuries
+vassalage became generally hereditary.
+
+[300] Casting lots for the property of a deceased father was not
+uncommon among the Franks. All sons shared in the inheritance, but
+particular parts of the property were often assigned by lot.
+
+[301] The grant of immunity was thus brought to the attention of the
+count in whose jurisdiction the exempted lands lay.
+
+[302] Chalons-sur-Saone was about eighty miles north of the junction
+of the Saone with the Rhone. It should not be confused with
+Chalons-sur-Marne where the battle was fought with Attila's Huns in
+451.
+
+[303] There is some doubt at this point as to the correct translation.
+That given seems best warranted.
+
+[304] _Dominus_ was a common name for a lord.
+
+[305] A member of the king's official household.
+
+[306] A subordinate officer under the count [see p. 176, note 3].
+
+[307] See p. 61. note 2.
+
+[308] Louis VII., king of France, 1137-1180.
+
+[309] The county of Champagne lay to the east of Paris. It was
+established by Charlemagne and, while at first insignificant, grew
+until by the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was one of the most
+important in France.
+
+[310] Beauvais was about sixty miles northwest of Paris.
+
+[311] That is, the bishop of Beauvais was bound to furnish his lord,
+the count of Champagne, the service of one knight for his army,
+besides ordinary feudal obligations.
+
+[312] The county of Troyes centered about the city of that name on the
+upper Seine. It was eventually absorbed by Champagne.
+
+[313] As a fief.
+
+[314] A manor, in the general sense, was a feudal estate.
+
+[315] A castellanerie was a feudal holding centering about a castle.
+
+[316] That is, Count Thiebault promises Jocelyn not to deprive him of
+the services of men who rightfully belong on the manor which is being
+granted.
+
+[317] Here is an illustration of the complexity of the feudal system.
+Count Thiebault is Jocelyn's _fourth_ lord, and loyalty and service
+are owed to all of the four at the same time. Accordingly, Thiebault
+must be content with only such allegiance of his new vassal as will
+not involve a breach of the contracts which Jocelyn has already
+entered into with his other lords. For example, Thiebault could not
+expect Jocelyn to aid him in war against the duke of Burgundy, for
+Jocelyn is pledged to fidelity to that duke. In general, when a man
+had only one lord he owed him full and unconditional allegiance
+(_liege homage_), but when he became vassal to other lords he could
+promise them allegiance only so far as would not conflict with
+contracts already entered into. It was by no means unusual for a man
+to have several lords, and it often happened that A was B's vassal for
+a certain piece of land while at the same time B was A's vassal for
+another piece. Not infrequently the king himself was thus a vassal of
+one or more of his own vassals.
+
+[318] The Bible. Sometimes only the Gospels were used.
+
+[319] Charles, count of Flanders, had just died and had been succeeded
+by his son William. All persons who had received fiefs from the
+deceased count were now brought together to renew their homage and
+fealty to the new count.
+
+[320] Such a case as this would be most apt to arise when a lord died
+and a vassal failed to renew his homage to the successor; or when a
+vassal died and his heir failed to do homage as was required.
+
+[321] This law would apply also to a case where a man who is already a
+vassal of a lord should acquire from another vassal of the same lord
+some additional land and so become indebted to the lord for a new
+measure of fealty.
+
+[322] Reversion to the original proprietor because of failure of
+heirs.
+
+[323] Such land might be acquired for temporary use only i.e., for
+guardianship, during the absence or disability of its proprietor.
+
+[324] Chartres was somewhat less than twenty miles southwest of Paris.
+
+[325] The terms used in the original are _incolume_, _tutum_,
+_honestum_, _utile_, _facile_, _et possibile_.
+
+[326] In the English customary law of the twelfth century we read
+that, "it is allowable to any one, without punishment, to support his
+lord if any one assails him, and to obey him in all legitimate ways,
+except in theft, murder, and in all such things as are not conceded to
+any one to do and are reckoned infamous by the laws;" also that, "the
+lord ought to do likewise equally with counsel and aid, and he may
+come to his man's assistance in his vicissitudes in all
+ways."--Thorpe, _Ancient Laws and Institutes_, Vol. I., p. 590.
+
+[327] The duke of Normandy. Outside of Normandy, of course, other
+feudal princes would be substituted.
+
+[328] It was the feudal system that first gave the eldest son in
+France a real superiority over his brothers. This may be seen most
+clearly in the change wrought by feudalism whereby the old Frankish
+custom of allowing all the sons to inherit their father's property
+equally was replaced by the mediaeval rule of primogeniture
+(established by the eleventh century) under which the younger sons
+were entirely, or almost entirely, excluded from the inheritance.
+
+[329] Relief is the term used to designate the payment made to the
+lord by the son of the deceased vassal before taking up the
+inheritance [see p. 225]. The "custom" says that sometimes the amount
+paid as an aid to the lord was equal to half that paid as relief and
+sometimes it was only a third.
+
+[330] The number of men brought by a vassal to the royal army depended
+on the value of his fief and the character of his feudal contract.
+Greater vassals often appeared with hundreds of followers.
+
+[331] This provision rendered the ordinary feudal army much more
+inefficient than an army made up of paid soldiers. Under ordinary
+circumstances, when their forty days of service had expired, the
+feudal troops were free to go home, even though their doing so might
+force the king to abandon a siege or give up a costly campaign only
+partially completed. By the thirteenth century it had become customary
+for the king to accept extra money payments instead of military
+service from his vassals. With the revenues thus obtained, soldiers
+could be hired who made war their profession and who were willing to
+serve indefinitely.
+
+[332] Every fief-holder was supposed to render some measure of
+military service. As neither a minor nor a woman could do this
+personally, it was natural that the lord should make up for the
+deficiency by appropriating the produce of the estate during the
+period of wardship.
+
+[333] Tenants _in capite_ in England were those who held their land by
+direct royal grant.
+
+[334] Apparently the king's court had been assembled several times to
+consider the charges against Viscount Atton, but had been prevented
+from taking action because of the latter's failure to appear. At last
+the court decided that it was useless to delay longer and proceeded to
+condemn the guilty noble and send him a statement of what had been
+done. He was not only to lose his chateau of Auvillars but also to
+reimburse the king for the expenses which the court had incurred on
+his account.
+
+[335] The chapter was the body of clergy attached to a cathedral
+church. Its members were known as canons.
+
+[336] That is, the penalty for using violence against peaceful
+churchmen, or despoiling their property was to be twice that demanded
+by the law in case of similar offenses committed against laymen.
+
+[337] The ordeal of cold water was designed to test a man's guilt or
+innocence. The accused person was thrown into a pond and if he sank he
+was considered innocent; if he floated, guilty, on the supposition
+that the pure water would refuse to receive a person tainted with
+crime [see p. 200].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE NORMAN CONQUEST
+
+
+40. The Battle of Hastings: the English and the Normans
+
+The Northmen, under the leadership of the renowned Rollo, got their
+first permanent foothold in that important part of France since known
+as Normandy in the year 911 [see p. 171]. Almost from the beginning
+the new county (later duchy) increased rapidly both in territorial
+extent and in political influence. The Northmen, or Normans, were a
+vigorous, ambitious, and on the whole very capable people, and they
+needed only the polishing which peaceful contact with the French could
+give to make them one of the most virile elements in the population of
+western Europe. They gave up their old gods and accepted Christianity,
+ceased to speak their own language and began the use of French, and to
+a considerable extent became ordinary soldiers and traders instead of
+the wild pirates their forefathers had been. The spirit of unrest,
+however, and the love of adventure so deeply ingrained in their
+natures did not die out, and we need not be surprised to learn that
+they continued still to enjoy nothing quite so much as war, especially
+if it involved hazardous expeditions across seas. Some went to help
+the Christians of Spain against the Saracens; some went to aid the
+Eastern emperors against the Turks; others went to Sicily and southern
+Italy, where they conquered weak rulers and set up principalities of
+their own; and finally, under the leadership of Duke William the
+Bastard, in 1066, they entered upon the greatest undertaking of all,
+i.e., the conquest of England and the establishment of a Norman
+chieftain upon the throne of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom.
+
+Duke William was one of the greatest and most ambitious feudal lords
+of France--more powerful really than the French king himself. He had
+overcome practically all opposition among his unruly vassals in
+Normandy, and by 1066, when the death of King Edward the Confessor
+occurred in England, he was ready to engage in great enterprises
+which gave promise of enhanced power and renown. He had long cherished
+a claim to the English throne, and when he learned that in utter
+disregard of this claim the English witan had chosen Harold, son of
+the West Saxon Earl Godwin, to be Edward's successor, he prepared to
+invade the island kingdom and force an acknowledgment of what he
+pretended at least to believe were his rights. Briefly stated, William
+claimed the English throne on the ground (1) that through his wife
+Matilda, a descendant of Emma, Edward the Confessor's mother, he was a
+nearer heir than was Harold, who was only the late king's
+brother-in-law; (2) that on the occasion of a visit to England in 1051
+Edward had promised him the inheritance; and (3) that Harold himself,
+when some years before he had been shipwrecked on the coast of
+Normandy, had sworn on sacred relics to help him gain the crown. There
+is some doubt as to the actual facts in connection with both of these
+last two points, but the truth is that all of William's claims taken
+together were not worth much, since the recognized principle of the
+English government was that the king should be chosen by the wisemen,
+or witan. Harold had been so chosen and hence was in every way the
+legitimate sovereign.
+
+William, however, was determined to press his claims and, after
+obtaining the blessing of the Pope (Alexander II.), he gathered an
+army of perhaps 65,000 Normans and adventurers from all parts of
+France and prepared a fleet of some 1,500 transports at the mouth of
+the Dive to carry his troops across the Channel. September 28, 1066,
+the start was made and the following day the host landed at Pevensey
+in Sussex. Friday, the 29th, Hastings was selected and fortified to
+serve as headquarters. The English were taken at great disadvantage.
+Only two days before the Normans crossed the Channel Harold with all
+the troops he could muster had been engaged in a great battle at
+Stamford Bridge, in Northumberland, with Harold Hardrada, king of
+Norway, who was making an independent invasion. The English had won
+the fight, but they were not in a position to meet the Normans as they
+might otherwise have been. With admirable energy, however, Harold
+marched his weary army southward to Senlac, a hill near the town of
+Hastings, and there took up his position to await an attack by the
+duke's army. The battle came on Saturday, October 14, and after a very
+stubborn contest, in which Harold was slain, it resulted in a
+decisive victory for the Normans. Thereafter the conquest of the
+entire kingdom, while by no means easy, was inevitable.
+
+William of Malmesbury, from whose _Chronicle of the Kings of England_
+our account of the battle and of the two contending peoples is taken,
+was a Benedictine monk, born of a Norman father and an English mother.
+He lived about 1095-1150 and hence wrote somewhat over half a century
+after the Conquest. While thus not strictly a contemporary, he was a
+man of learning and discretion and there is every reason to believe
+that he made his history as accurate as he was able, with the
+materials at his command. His parentage must have enabled him to
+understand both combatants in an unusual degree and, though his
+sympathies were with the conquerors, we may take his characterizations
+of Saxon and Norman alike to be at least fairly reliable. His
+_Chronicle_ covers the period 449-1135, and for the years after 1066
+it is the fullest, most carefully written, and most readable account
+of English affairs that we have.
+
+     Source--Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, _De gestis regum
+     Anglorum_ [William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the Kings of
+     England"], Bk. III. Adapted from translation by John Sharpe
+     (London, 1815), pp. 317-323.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the English prepared for battle]
+
+   The courageous leaders mutually prepared for battle, each according
+   to his national custom. The English passed the night[338] without
+   sleep, in drinking and singing, and in the morning proceeded
+   without delay against the enemy. All on foot, armed with
+   battle-axes, and covering themselves in front by joining their
+   shields, they formed an impenetrable body which would assuredly
+   have secured their safety that day had not the Normans, by a
+   pretended flight, induced them to open their ranks, which until
+   that time, according to their custom, had been closely knit
+   together. King Harold himself, on foot, stood with his brothers
+   near the standard in order that, so long as all shared equal
+   danger, none could think of retreating. This same standard William
+   sent, after his victory, to the Pope. It was richly embroidered
+   with gold and precious stones, and represented the figure of a man
+   fighting.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the Normans prepared]
+
+   On the other hand, the Normans passed the whole night in confessing
+   their sins, and received the communion of the Lord's body in the
+   morning. Their infantry, with bows and arrows, formed the vanguard,
+   while their cavalry, divided into wings, was placed in the rear.
+   The duke, with serene countenance, declaring aloud that God would
+   favor his as being the righteous side, called for his arms; and
+   when, through the haste of his attendants, he had put on his
+   hauberk[339] the rear part before, he corrected the mistake with a
+   laugh, saying, "The power of my dukedom shall be turned into a
+   kingdom." Then starting the song of Roland,[340] in order that the
+   warlike example of that hero might stimulate the soldiers, and
+   calling on God for assistance, the battle commenced on both sides,
+   and was fought with great ardor, neither side yielding ground
+   during the greater part of the day.
+
+     [Sidenote: William's strategem]
+
+   Observing this, William gave a signal to his troops, that,
+   pretending flight, they should withdraw from the field.[341] By
+   means of this device the solid phalanx of the English opened for
+   the purpose of cutting down the fleeing enemy and thus brought upon
+   itself swift destruction; for the Normans, facing about, attacked
+   them, thus disordered, and compelled them to fly. In this manner,
+   deceived by stratagem, they met an honorable death in avenging
+   their country; nor indeed were they at all without their own
+   revenge, for, by frequently making a stand, they slaughtered their
+   pursuers in heaps. Getting possession of a higher bit of ground,
+   they drove back the Normans, who in the heat of pursuit were
+   struggling up the slope, into the valley beneath, where, by hurling
+   their javelins and rolling down stones on them as they stood below,
+   the English easily destroyed them to a man. Besides, by a short
+   passage with which they were acquainted, they avoided a deep ditch
+   and trod underfoot such a multitude of their enemies in that place
+   that the heaps of bodies made the hollow level with the plain. This
+   alternating victory, first of one side and then of the other,
+   continued as long as Harold lived to check the retreat; but when he
+   fell, his brain pierced by an arrow, the flight of the English
+   ceased not until night.[342]
+
+     [Sidenote: The valor of Harold]
+
+   In the battle both leaders distinguished themselves by their
+   bravery. Harold, not content with the duties of a general and with
+   exhorting others, eagerly assumed himself the work of a common
+   soldier. He was constantly striking down the enemy at close
+   quarters, so that no one could approach him with impunity, for
+   straightway both horse and rider would be felled by a single blow.
+   So it was at long range, as I have said, that the enemy's deadly
+   arrow brought him to his death. One of the Norman soldiers gashed
+   his thigh with a sword, as he lay prostrate; for which shameful and
+   cowardly action he was branded with ignominy by William and
+   expelled from the army.
+
+     [Sidenote: William's bravery and ardor]
+
+   William, too, was equally ready to encourage his soldiers by his
+   voice and by his presence, and to be the first to rush forward to
+   attack the thickest of the foe. He was everywhere fierce and
+   furious. He lost three choice horses, which were that day killed
+   under him. The dauntless spirit and vigor of the intrepid general,
+   however, still held out. Though often called back by the thoughtful
+   remonstrance of his bodyguard, he still persisted until approaching
+   night crowned him with complete victory. And no doubt the hand of
+   God so protected him that the enemy could draw no blood from his
+   person, though they aimed so many javelins at him.
+
+   This was a fatal day to England, and melancholy havoc was wrought
+   in our dear country during the change of its lords.[343] For it had
+   long before adopted the manners of the Angles, which had indeed
+   altered with the times; for in the first years of their arrival
+   they were barbarians in their look and manner, warlike in their
+   usages, heathen in their rites.
+
+     [Sidenote: Religious zeal of the Saxons before the Conquest]
+
+   After embracing the faith of Christ, by degrees and, in process of
+   time, in consequence of the peace which they enjoyed, they
+   consigned warfare to a secondary place and gave their whole
+   attention to religion. I am not speaking of the poor, the meanness
+   of whose fortune often restrains them from overstepping the bounds
+   of justice; I omit, too, men of ecclesiastical rank, whom sometimes
+   respect for their profession and sometimes the fear of shame
+   suffers not to deviate from the true path; I speak of princes, who
+   from the greatness of their power might have full liberty to
+   indulge in pleasure. Some of these in their own country, and others
+   at Rome, changing their habit, obtained a heavenly kingdom and a
+   saintly fellowship. Many others during their whole lives devoted
+   themselves in outward appearance to worldly affairs, but in order
+   that they might expend their treasures on the poor or divide them
+   amongst monasteries.
+
+   What shall I say of the multitudes of bishops, hermits, and abbots?
+   Does not the whole island blaze with such numerous relics of its
+   own people that you can scarcely pass a village of any consequence
+   without hearing the name of some new saint? And of how many more
+   has all remembrance perished through the want of records?
+
+     [Sidenote: Recent decline of learning and religion]
+
+   Nevertheless, the attention to literature and religion had
+   gradually decreased for several years before the arrival of the
+   Normans. The clergy, contented with a little confused learning,
+   could scarcely stammer out the words of the sacraments; and a
+   person who understood grammar was an object of wonder and
+   astonishment.[344] The monks mocked the rule of their order by fine
+   vestments and the use of every kind of food. The nobility, given up
+   to luxury and wantonness, went not to church in the morning after
+   the manner of Christians, but merely, in a careless manner, heard
+   matins and masses from a hurrying priest in their chambers, amid
+   the blandishments of their wives. The community, left unprotected,
+   became a prey to the most powerful, who amassed fortunes, either by
+   seizing on their property or by selling their persons into foreign
+   countries; although it is characteristic of this people to be more
+   inclined to reveling than to the accumulation of wealth.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English people described]
+
+   Drinking in parties was an universal practice, in which occupation
+   they passed entire nights as well as days. They consumed their
+   whole substance in mean and despicable houses, unlike the Normans
+   and French, who live frugally in noble and splendid mansions. The
+   vices attendant on drunkenness, which enervate the human mind,
+   followed; hence it came about that when they resisted William, with
+   more rashness and precipitate fury than military skill, they doomed
+   themselves and their country to slavery by a single, and that an
+   easy, victory.[345] For nothing is less effective than rashness;
+   and what begins with violence quickly ceases or is repelled. The
+   English at that time wore short garments, reaching to the mid-knee;
+   they had their hair cropped, their beards shaven, their arms laden
+   with golden bracelets, their skin adorned with tattooed designs.
+   They were accustomed to eat until they became surfeited, and to
+   drink until they were sick. These latter qualities they imparted to
+   their conquerors; as for the rest, they adopted their manners. I
+   would not, however, have these bad characteristics ascribed to the
+   English universally; I know that many of the clergy at that day
+   trod the path of sanctity by a blameless life. I know that many of
+   the laity, of all ranks and conditions, in this nation were
+   well-pleasing to God. Be injustice far from this account; the
+   accusation does not involve the whole, indiscriminately. But as in
+   peace the mercy of God often cherishes the bad and the good
+   together, so, equally, does His severity sometimes include them
+   both in captivity.
+
+     [Sidenote: A description of the Normans]
+
+   The Normans--that I may speak of them also--were at that time, and
+   are even now, exceedingly particular in their dress and delicate in
+   their food, but not so to excess. They are a race accustomed to
+   war, and can hardly live without it; fierce in rushing against the
+   enemy, and, where force fails to succeed, ready to use stratagem or
+   to corrupt by bribery. As I have said, they live in spacious houses
+   with economy, envy their superiors, wish to excel their equals, and
+   plunder their subjects, though they defend them from others; they
+   are faithful to their lords, though a slight offense alienates
+   them. They weigh treachery by its chance of success, and change
+   their sentiments for money. The most hospitable, however, of all
+   nations, they esteem strangers worthy of equal honor with
+   themselves; they also intermarry with their vassals. They revived,
+   by their arrival, the rule of religion which had everywhere grown
+   lifeless in England.[346] You might see churches rise in every
+   village, and monasteries in the towns and cities, built after a
+   style unknown before; you might behold the country flourishing with
+   renewed rites; so that each wealthy man accounted that day lost to
+   him which he had neglected to signalize by some beneficent act.
+
+
+41. William the Conqueror as Man and as King
+
+In the following passage, taken from the Saxon Chronicle, we have an
+interesting summary of the character of the Conqueror and of his
+conduct as king of England. Both the good and bad sides of the picture
+are clearly brought out and perhaps it is not quite easy to say which
+is given the greater prominence. On the one hand there is William's
+devotion to the Church, his establishment of peace and order, his
+mildness in dealing with all but those who had antagonized him, and
+the virtue of his personal life; on the other is his severity,
+rapacity, and pride, his heavy taxes and his harsh forest laws. As one
+writer says, "the Conquest was bad as well as good for England; but
+the harm was only temporary, the good permanent." It is greatly to the
+credit of the English chronicler that he was able to deal so fairly
+with the character of one whom he had not a few patriotic reasons for
+maligning.
+
+     Source--_The Saxon Chronicle._ Translated by J. A. Giles
+     (London, 1847), pp. 461-462.
+
+     [Sidenote: William's religious zeal]
+
+   If any one would know what manner of man King William was, the
+   glory that he obtained, and of how many lands he was lord, then
+   will we describe him as we have known him, we who have looked upon
+   him and who once lived at his court. This King William, of whom we
+   are speaking, was a very wise and a great man, and more honored and
+   more powerful than any of his predecessors. He was mild to those
+   good men who loved God, but severe beyond measure towards those who
+   withstood his will. He founded a noble monastery on the spot where
+   God permitted him to conquer England, and he established monks in
+   it, and he made it very rich.[347] In his days the great monastery
+   at Canterbury was built,[348] and many others also throughout
+   England; moreover, this land was filled with monks who lived after
+   the rule of St. Benedict; and such was the state of religion in his
+   days that all who would might observe that which was prescribed by
+   their respective orders.
+
+     [Sidenote: His strong government]
+
+   King William was also held in much reverence. He wore his crown
+   three times every year when he was in England: at Easter he wore it
+   at Winchester,[349] at Pentecost at Westminster,[350] and at
+   Christmas at Gloucester.[351] And at these times all the men of
+   England were with him, archbishops, bishops, abbots and earls,
+   thanes[352] and knights.[353] So also was he a very stern and a
+   wrathful man, so that none durst do anything against his will, and
+   he kept in prison those earls who acted against his pleasure. He
+   removed bishops from their sees[354] and abbots from their offices,
+   and he imprisoned thanes, and at length he spared not his own
+   brother Odo. This Odo was a very powerful bishop in Normandy. His
+   see was that of Bayeux,[355] and he was foremost to serve the king.
+   He had an earldom in England, and when William was in Normandy he
+   [Odo] was the first man in this country [England], and him did
+   William cast into prison.[356]
+
+     [Sidenote: The extent of his power]
+
+   Amongst other things, the good order that William established is
+   not to be forgotten. It was such that any man, who was himself
+   aught, might travel over the kingdom with a bosom full of gold
+   unmolested; and no man durst kill another, however great the injury
+   he might have received from him. He reigned over England, and being
+   sharp-sighted to his own interest, he surveyed the kingdom so
+   thoroughly that there was not a single hide of land throughout the
+   whole of which he knew not the possessor, and how much it was
+   worth, and this he afterwards entered in his register.[357] The
+   land of the Britons [Wales] was under his sway, and he built
+   castles therein; moreover he had full dominion over the Isle of
+   Man;[358] Scotland also was subject to him, from his great
+   strength; the land of Normandy was his by inheritance, and he
+   possessed the earldom of Maine;[359] and had he lived two years
+   longer, he would have subdued Ireland by his prowess, and that
+   without a battle.[360]
+
+     [Sidenote: His faults as a ruler]
+
+   Truly there was much trouble in these times, and very great
+   distress. He caused castles to be built and oppressed the poor. The
+   king was also of great sternness, and he took from his subjects
+   many marks of gold, and many hundred pounds of silver, and this,
+   either with or without right, and with little need. He was given to
+   avarice, and greedily loved gain.[361] He made large forests for
+   the deer, and enacted laws therewith, so that whoever killed a hart
+   or a hind should be blinded. As he forbade killing the deer, so
+   also the boars; and he loved the tall stags as if he were their
+   father. He also commanded concerning the hares, that they should go
+   free.[362] The rich complained and the poor murmured, but he was so
+   sturdy that he recked nought of them; they must will all that the
+   king willed, if they would live, or would keep their lands, or
+   would hold their possessions, or would be maintained in their
+   rights. Alas that any man should so exalt himself, and carry
+   himself in his pride over all! May Almighty God show mercy to his
+   soul, and grant him the forgiveness of his sins! We have written
+   concerning him these things, both good and bad, that virtuous men
+   may follow after the good, and wholly avoid the evil, and may go in
+   the way that leadeth to the kingdom of heaven.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[338] Friday night, October 13.
+
+[339] A long coat of mail made of interwoven metal rings.
+
+[340] Roland, count of Brittany, was slain at the pass of Roncesvalles
+in the famous attack of the Gascons upon Charlemagne's retreating army
+in 778. One of the chronicles says simply, "In this battle Roland,
+count of Brittany, was slain," and we have absolutely no other
+historical knowledge of the man. His career was taken up by the
+singers of the Middle Ages, however, and employed to typify all that
+was brave and daring and romantic. It was some one of the many "songs
+of Roland" that William used at Hastings to stimulate his men.
+
+[341] In a battle so closely contested this was a dangerous stratagem
+and its employment seems to indicate that William despaired of
+defeating the English by direct attack. His main object, in which he
+was altogether successful, was to entice the English into abandoning
+their advantageous position on the hilltop.
+
+[342] After the Norman victory was practically assured, William sought
+to bring the battle to an end by having his archers shoot into the
+air, that their arrows might fall upon the group of soldiers,
+including the king, who were holding out in defense of the English
+standard. It was in this way that Harold was mortally wounded; he died
+immediately from the blows inflicted by Norman knights at close hand.
+
+[343] The victory at Hastings did not at once make William king, but
+it revealed to both himself and the English people that the crown was
+easily within his grasp. After the battle he advanced past London into
+the interior of the country. Opposition melted before him and on
+Christmas day, 1066, the Norman duke, having already been regularly
+elected by the witan, was crowned at London by the archbishop of York.
+In the early years of his reign he succeeded in making his power
+recognized in the more turbulent north.
+
+[344] The work of Alfred had not been consistently followed up during
+the century and a half since his death [see p. 185].
+
+[345] The conquest of England by the Normans was really far from an
+enslavement. Norman rule was strict, but hardly more so than
+conditions warranted.
+
+[346] It seems to be true, as William of Malmesbury says, that the
+century preceding the Norman Conquest had been an era of religious as
+well as literary decline among the English. After 1066 the native
+clergy, ignorant and often grossly immoral, were gradually replaced by
+Normans, who on the whole were better men. By 1088 there remained only
+one bishop of English birth in the entire kingdom. One should be
+careful, however, not to exaggerate the moral differences between the
+two peoples.
+
+[347] The story goes that just before entering the battle of Hastings
+in 1066 William made a vow that if successful he would establish a
+monastery on the site where Harold's standard stood. The vow was
+fulfilled by the founding of the Abbey of St. Martin, or Battle Abbey,
+in the years 1070-1076. The monastery was not ready for consecration
+until 1094.
+
+[348] Christchurch. This cathedral monastery had been organized before
+the Conqueror's day, but it was much increased in size and in
+importance by Lanfranc, William's archbishop of Canterbury; and the
+great building which it occupied in the later Middle Ages was
+constructed at this time.
+
+[349] In Hampshire, in the southern part of the kingdom.
+
+[350] In Middlesex, near London.
+
+[351] On the Severn, in the modern county of Gloucester.
+
+[352] A thane (or thegn) was originally a young warrior; then one who
+became a noble by serving the king in arms; then the possessor of five
+hides of land. A hide was a measure of arable ground varying in extent
+at the time of William the Conqueror, but by Henry II.'s reign
+(1154-1189) fixed at about 100 acres. The thane before the Conquest
+occupied nearly the same position socially as the knight after it.
+
+[353] This assembly of dignitaries, summoned by the king three times a
+year, was the so-called Great Council, which in Norman times
+superseded the old Saxon witan. Its duties were mainly judicial. It
+acted also as an advisory body, but the king was not obliged to
+consult it or to carry out its recommendations [see p. 307, note 2].
+
+[354] The _see_ of a bishop is his ecclesiastical office; the area
+over which his authority extends is more properly known as his
+diocese.
+
+[355] On the Orne River, near the English Channel.
+
+[356] Odo, though a churchman, was a man of brutal instincts and evil
+character. Through his high-handed course, both as a leading
+ecclesiastical dignitary in Normandy and as earl of Kent and
+vicegerent in England, he gave William no small amount of trouble. The
+king finally grew tired of his brother's conduct and had him
+imprisoned in the town of Rouen where he was left for four years, or
+until the end of the reign (1087).
+
+[357] This was the famous Domesday Survey, begun in 1085.
+
+[358] In the Irish Sea.
+
+[359] Maine lay directly to the south of Normandy.
+
+[360] This statement is doubtful, though it is true that Lanfranc made
+a beginning by consecrating a number of bishops in Ireland.
+
+[361] All of the early Norman kings were greedy for money and apt to
+bear heavily upon the people in their efforts to get it. Englishmen
+were not accustomed to general taxation and felt the new regime to be
+a serious burden. There was consequently much complaint, but, as our
+historian says, William was strong enough to be able to ignore it.
+
+[362] Most of William's harsh measures can be justified on the ground
+that they were designed to promote the ultimate welfare of his people.
+This is not true, however, of his elaborate forest laws, which
+undertook to deprive Englishmen of their accustomed freedom of hunting
+when and where they pleased. William's love of the chase amounted to a
+passion and he was not satisfied with merely enacting such stringent
+measures as that the slayer of a hart or a hind in his forests should
+be blinded, but also set apart a great stretch of additional country,
+the so-called New Forest, as his own exclusive hunting grounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE MONASTIC REFORMATION OF THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH CENTURIES
+
+
+42. The Foundation Charter of the Monastery of Cluny (910)
+
+Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the Benedictine Rule [see p. 83]
+was the code under which were governed practically all the monastic
+establishments of western Europe. There was a natural tendency,
+however, for the severe and exacting features of the Rule to be
+softened considerably in actual practice. As one writer puts it, "the
+excessive abstinence and many other of the mechanical observances of
+the rule were soon found to have little real utility when simply
+enforced by a rule, and not practiced willingly for the sake of
+self-discipline." The obligation of manual labor, for example, was
+frequently dispensed with in order that the monks might occupy
+themselves with the studies for which the Benedictines have always
+been famous. Too often such relaxation was but a pretext for the
+indulgence of idleness or vice. The disrepute into which such
+tendencies brought the monastics in the tenth and eleventh centuries
+gave rise to numerous attempts to revive the primitive discipline, the
+most notable of which was the so-called "Cluniac movement."
+
+The monastery of Cluny, on the borders of Aquitaine and Burgundy, was
+established under the terms of a charter issued by William the Pious,
+duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, September 11, 910. The
+conditions of its foundation, set forth in the text of the charter
+given below, were in many ways typical. The history of the monastery
+was, however, quite exceptional. During the invasions and civil wars
+of the latter half of the ninth century, many of the monasteries of
+western Europe had fallen under the control of unscrupulous laymen who
+used them mainly to satisfy their greed or ambition, and in
+consequence by the time that Cluny was founded the standard of
+monastic life and service had been seriously impaired. The monks had
+grown worldly, education was neglected, and religious services had
+become empty formalities. Powerful nobles used their positions of
+advantage to influence, and often to dictate, the election of bishops
+and abbots, and the men thus elected were likely enough to be unworthy
+of their offices in both character and ability. The charter of the
+Cluny monastery, however, expressly provided that the abbot should be
+chosen by canonical election, i.e., by the monks, and without any sort
+of outside interference. The life of the monastery was to be regulated
+by the Benedictine Rule, though with rather less stress on manual
+labor and rather more on religious services and literary employment.
+Cluny, indeed, soon came to be one of the principal centers of
+learning in western Europe, as well as perhaps the greatest
+administrator of charity.
+
+Another notable achievement of Cluny was the building up of the
+so-called "Cluny Congregation." Hitherto it had been customary for
+monasteries to be entirely independent of one another, even when
+founded by monks sent out from a parent establishment. Cluny, however,
+kept under the control of her own abbot all monasteries founded by her
+agents and made the priors of these monasteries directly responsible
+to him. Many outside abbeys were drawn into the new system, so that by
+the middle of the twelfth century the Cluny congregation was comprised
+of more than two thousand monasteries, all working harmoniously under
+a single abbot-general. The majority of these were in France, but
+there were many also in Spain, Italy, Poland, Germany, and England. It
+was the Cluny monks who gave the Pope his chief support in the
+struggle to free the Church from lay investiture and simony and to
+enforce the ideal of a celibate clergy. This movement for reform may
+properly be said, indeed, to have originated with the Cluniacs and to
+have been taken up only later by the popes, chiefly by Gregory VII. By
+the end of the eleventh century Cluniac discipline had begun to grow
+lax and conditions were gradually shaped for another wave of monastic
+reform, which came with the establishment of the Carthusians (in 1084)
+and of the Cistercians (in 1098).
+
+     Source--Text in Martin Bouquet, _Recueil des Historiens des
+     Gaules et de la France_ ["Collection of the Historians of Gaul
+     and of France"] (Paris, 1874), Vol. IX., pp. 709-711.
+
+     [Sidenote: Motives for Duke William's benefaction]
+
+   To all who think wisely it is evident that the providence of God
+   has made it possible for rich men, by using well their temporal
+   possessions, to be able to merit eternal rewards.... I, William,
+   count and duke, after diligent reflection, and desiring to provide
+   for my own safety while there is still time, have decided that it
+   is advisable, indeed absolutely necessary, that from the
+   possessions which God has given me I should give some portion for
+   the good of my soul. I do this, indeed, in order that I who have
+   thus increased in wealth may not at the last be accused of having
+   spent all in caring for my body, but rather may rejoice, when fate
+   at length shall snatch all things away, in having preserved
+   something for myself. I cannot do better than follow the precepts
+   of Christ and make His poor my friends. That my gift may be durable
+   and not transitory I will support at my own expense a congregation
+   of monks. And I hope that I shall receive the reward of the
+   righteous because I have received those whom I believe to be
+   righteous and who despise the world, although I myself am not able
+   to despise all things.[363]
+
+     [Sidenote: The land and other property ceded]
+
+   Therefore be it known to all who live in the unity of the faith and
+   who await the mercy of Christ, and to those who shall succeed them
+   and who shall continue to exist until the end of the world, that,
+   for the love of God and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, I hand over
+   from my own rule to the holy apostles, namely, Peter and Paul, the
+   possessions over which I hold sway--the town of Cluny, with the
+   court and demesne manor, and the church in honor of St. Mary, the
+   mother of God, and of St. Peter, the prince of the apostles,
+   together with all the things pertaining to it, the villas, the
+   chapels, the serfs of both sexes, the vines, the fields, the
+   meadows, the woods, the waters and their outlets, the mills, the
+   incomes and revenues, what is cultivated and what is not, all
+   without reserve. These things are situated in or about the county
+   of Macon[364], each one marked off by definite bounds. I give,
+   moreover, all these things to the aforesaid apostles--I, William,
+   and my wife Ingelberga--first for the love of God; then for the
+   soul of my lord King Odo, of my father and my mother; for myself
+   and my wife,--for the salvation, namely, of our souls and bodies;
+   and not least, for that of Ava, who left me these things in her
+   will; for the souls also of our brothers and sisters and nephews,
+   and of all our relatives of both sexes; for our faithful ones who
+   adhere to our service; for the advancement, also, and integrity of
+   the Catholic religion. Finally, since all of us Christians are held
+   together by one bond of love and faith, let this donation be for
+   all--for the orthodox, namely, of past, present, or future times.
+
+     [Sidenote: A monastery to be established.]
+
+     [Sidenote: Election of abbots to be "canonical"]
+
+   I give these things, moreover, with this understanding, that in
+   Cluny a monastery shall be constructed in honor of the holy
+   apostles Peter and Paul, and that there the monks shall congregate
+   and live according to the rule of St. Benedict, and that they shall
+   possess and make use of these same things for all time. In such
+   wise, however, that the venerable house of prayer which is there
+   shall be faithfully frequented with vows and supplications, and
+   that heavenly conversations shall be sought after with all desire
+   and with the deepest ardor; and also that there shall be diligently
+   directed to God prayers and exhortations, as well for me as for
+   all, according to the order in which mention has been made of them
+   above. And let the monks themselves, together with all aforesaid
+   possessions, be under the power and dominion of the abbot Berno,
+   who, as long as he shall live, shall preside over them regularly
+   according to his knowledge and ability.[365] But after his death,
+   those same monks shall have power and permission to elect any one
+   of their order whom they please as abbot and rector, following the
+   will of God and the rule promulgated by St. Benedict--in such wise
+   that neither by the intervention of our own or of any other power
+   may they be impeded from making a purely canonical election. Every
+   five years, moreover, the aforesaid monks shall pay to the church
+   of the apostles at Rome ten shillings to supply them with lights;
+   and they shall have the protection of those same apostles and the
+   defense of the Roman pontiff; and those monks may, with their whole
+   heart and soul, according to their ability and knowledge, build up
+   the aforesaid place.
+
+     [Sidenote: Works of charity enjoined]
+
+   We will, further, that in our times and in those of our successors,
+   according as the opportunities and possibilities of that place
+   shall allow, there shall daily, with the greatest zeal, be
+   performed works of mercy towards the poor, the needy, strangers,
+   and pilgrims.[366] It has pleased us also to insert in this
+   document that, from this day, those same monks there congregated
+   shall be subject neither to our yoke, nor to that of our relatives,
+   nor to the sway of the royal might, nor to that of any earthly
+   power. And, through God and all His saints, and by the awful day of
+   judgment, I warn and admonish that no one of the secular princes,
+   no count, no bishop, not even the pontiff of the aforesaid Roman
+   see, shall invade the property of these servants of God, or
+   alienate it, or diminish it, or exchange it, or give it as a
+   benefice to any one, or set up any prelate over them against their
+   will.[367]
+
+
+43. The Early Career of St. Bernard and the Founding of Clairvaux
+
+The most important individual who had part in the twelfth century
+movement for monastic reform was unquestionably St. Bernard, of whom
+indeed it has been said with reason that for a quarter of a century
+there was no more influential man in Europe. Born in 1091, he came
+upon the scene when times were ripe for great deeds and great careers,
+whether with the crusading hosts in the East or in the vexed swirl of
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs in the West. Particularly were the
+times ripe for a great preacher and reformer--one who could avail
+himself of the fresh zeal of the crusading period and turn a portion
+of it to the regeneration of the corrupt and sluggish spiritual life
+which in far too great a measure had crept in to replace the earlier
+purity and devotion of the clergy. The need of reform was perhaps most
+conspicuous in the monasteries, for many monastic establishments had
+not been greatly affected by the Cluniac movement of the previous
+century, and in many of those which had been touched temporarily the
+purifying influences had about ceased to produce results. It was as a
+monastic reformer that St. Bernard rendered greatest service to the
+Church of his day, though he was far more than a mere zealot. He was,
+says Professor Emerton, more than any other man, representative of the
+spirit of the Middle Ages. "The monastery meant to him, not a place of
+easy and luxurious retirement, where a man might keep himself pure
+from earthly contact, nor even a home of learning, from which a man
+might influence his world. It meant rather a place of pitiless
+discipline, whereby the natural man should be reduced to the lowest
+terms and thus the spiritual life be given its largest liberty. The
+aim of Bernard was nothing less than the regeneration of society
+through the presence in it of devoted men, bound together by a compact
+organization, and holding up to the world the highest types of an
+ideal which had already fixed itself in the imagination of the
+age."[368]
+
+The founding of Clairvaux by St. Bernard, in 1115, was not the
+beginning of a new monastic order; the Cistercians, to whom the
+establishment properly belonged, had originated at Citeaux seventeen
+years before. But in later times St. Bernard was very properly
+regarded as a second founder of the Cistercians, and the story of his
+going forth from the parent house to establish the new one affords an
+excellent illustration of the spirit which dominated the leaders in
+monastic reform in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and of the
+methods they employed to keep alive the lofty ideals of the old
+Benedictine system; and, although individual monasteries were founded
+under the most diverse circumstances, the story is of interest as
+showing us the precise way in which one monastic house took its
+origin. By the time of St. Bernard's death (1153) not fewer than a
+hundred and fifty religious houses had been regenerated under his
+inspiration.
+
+We are fortunate in possessing a composite biography of the great
+reformer which is practically contemporary. It is in five books, the
+first of which was written by William, abbot of St. Thierry of Rheims;
+the second by Arnold, abbot of Bonneval, near Chartres; and the third,
+fourth, and fifth by Geoffrey, a monk of Clairvaux and a former
+secretary of St. Bernard. William of St. Thierry (from whose portion
+of the biography selection "a" below is taken) wrote about 1140,
+Arnold and Geoffrey soon after Bernard's death in 1153.
+
+     Sources--(a) Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, _Bernardus
+     Claraevallensis_ [William of Saint Thierry, "Life of St.
+     Bernard"], Bk. I., Chaps. 1-4.
+
+     (b) The _Acta Sanctorum_. Translated in Edward L. Cutts,
+     _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1872), pp.
+     11-12.
+
+     [Sidenote: Bernard's parents]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Saint Bernard was born at Fontaines in Burgundy [near Dijon], at
+   the castle of his father. His parents were famed among the famous
+   of that age, most of all because of their piety. His father,
+   Tescelin, was a member of an ancient and knightly family, fearing
+   God and scrupulously just. Even when engaged in holy war he
+   plundered and destroyed no one; he contented himself with his
+   worldly possessions, of which he had an abundance, and used them in
+   all manner of good works. With both his counsel and his arms he
+   served temporal lords, but so as never to neglect to render to the
+   sovereign Lord that which was due Him. Bernard's mother, Alith, of
+   the castle Montbar, mindful of holy law, was submissive to her
+   husband and, with him, governed the household in the fear of God,
+   devoting herself to deeds of mercy and rearing her children in
+   strict discipline. She bore seven children, six boys and one girl,
+   not so much for the glory of her husband as for that of God; for
+   all the sons became monks and the daughter a nun....[369]
+
+     [Sidenote: His early characteristics]
+
+   As soon as Bernard was of sufficient age his mother intrusted his
+   education to the teachers in the church at Chatillon[370] and did
+   everything in her power to enable him to make rapid progress. The
+   young boy, abounding in pleasing qualities and endowed with natural
+   genius, fulfilled his mother's every expectation; for he advanced
+   in his study of letters at a speed beyond his age and that of other
+   children of the same age. But in secular matters he began already,
+   and very naturally, to humble himself in the interest of his future
+   perfection, for he exhibited the greatest simplicity, loved to be
+   in solitude, fled from people, was extraordinarily thoughtful,
+   submitted himself implicitly to his parents, had little desire to
+   converse, was devoted to God, and applied himself to his studies as
+   the means by which he should be able to learn of God through the
+   Scriptures....
+
+     [Sidenote: He decides to become a monk at Citeaux]
+
+   Determined that it would be best for him to abandon the world, he
+   began to inquire where his soul, under the yoke of Christ, would be
+   able to find the most complete and sure repose. The recent
+   establishment of the order of Citeaux[371] suggested itself to his
+   thought. The harvest was abundant, but the laborers were few, for
+   hardly any one had sought happiness by taking up residence there,
+   because of the excessive austerity of life and the poverty which
+   there prevailed, but which had no terrors for the soul truly
+   seeking God. Without hesitation or misgivings, he turned his steps
+   to that place, thinking that there he would be able to find
+   seclusion and, in the secret of the presence of God, escape the
+   importunities of men; wishing particularly there to gain a refuge
+   from the vain glory of the noble's life, and to win purity of soul,
+   and perhaps the name of saint.
+
+     [Sidenote: His struggle and his victory]
+
+   When his brothers, who loved him according to the flesh, discovered
+   that he intended to become a monk, they employed every means to
+   turn him to the pursuit of letters and to attach him to the secular
+   life by the love of worldly knowledge. Without doubt, as he has
+   himself declared, he was not a little moved by their arguments. But
+   the memory of his devout mother urged him importunately to take the
+   step. It often seemed to him that she appeared before him,
+   reproaching him and reminding him that she had not reared him for
+   frivolous things of that sort, and that she had brought him up in
+   quite another hope. Finally, one day when he was returning from the
+   siege of a chateau called Grancey, and was coming to his brothers,
+   who were with the duke of Burgundy, he began to be violently
+   tormented by these thoughts. Finding by the roadside a church, he
+   went in and there prayed, with flooded eyes, lifting his hands
+   toward Heaven and pouring out his heart like water before the Lord.
+   That day fixed his resolution irrevocably. From that hour, even as
+   the fire consumes the forests and the flame ravages the mountains,
+   seizing everything, devouring first that which is nearest but
+   advancing to objects farther removed, so did the fire which God had
+   kindled in the heart of his servant, desiring that it should
+   consume it, lay hold first of his brothers (of whom only the
+   youngest, incapable yet of becoming a monk, was left to console his
+   old father), then his parents, his companions, and his friends,
+   from whom no one had ever expected such a step....
+
+     [Sidenote: Bernard and his companions at Chatillon]
+
+   The number of those who decided to take upon themselves monastic
+   vows increased and, as one reads of the earliest sons of the
+   Church, "all the multitude of those who believed were of one mind
+   and one heart" [Acts v. 32]. They lived together and no one else
+   dared mingle with them. They had at Chatillon a house which they
+   possessed in common and in which they held meetings, dwelt
+   together, and held converse with one another. No one was so bold as
+   to enter it, unless he were a member of the congregation. If any
+   one entered there, seeing and hearing what was done and said (as
+   the Apostle declared of the Christians of Corinth), he was
+   convinced by their prophecies and, adoring the Lord and perceiving
+   that God was truly among them, he either joined himself to the
+   brotherhood or, going away, wept at his own plight and their happy
+   state....
+
+     [Sidenote: They enter Citeaux]
+
+   At that time, the young and feeble establishment at Citeaux, under
+   the venerable abbot Stephen,[372] began to be seriously weakened by
+   its paucity of numbers and to lose all hope of having successors to
+   perpetuate the heritage of holy poverty, for everybody revered the
+   life of these monks for its sanctity but held aloof from it because
+   of its austerity. But the monastery was suddenly visited and made
+   glad by the Lord in a happy and unhoped-for manner. In 1113,
+   fifteen years after the foundation of the monastery, the servant of
+   God, Bernard, then about twenty-three years of age, entered the
+   establishment under the abbot Stephen, with his companions to the
+   number of more than thirty, and submitted himself to the blessed
+   yoke of Christ. From that day God prospered the house, and that
+   vine of the Lord bore fruit, putting forth its branches from sea to
+   sea.
+
+   Such were the holy beginnings of the monastic life of that man of
+   God. It is impossible to any one who has not been imbued as he with
+   the spirit of God to recount the illustrious deeds of his career,
+   and his angelic conduct, during his life on earth. He entered the
+   monastery poor in spirit, still obscure and of no fame, with the
+   intention of there perishing in the heart and memory of men, and
+   hoping to be forgotten and ignored like a lost vessel. But God
+   ordered it otherwise, and prepared him as a chosen vessel, not only
+   to strengthen and extend the monastic order, but also to bear His
+   name before kings and peoples to the ends of the earth....
+
+     [Sidenote: Bernard prays for and obtains the ability to reap]
+
+     [Sidenote: His devotion and knowledge of the Scriptures]
+
+   At the time of harvest the brothers were occupied, with the fervor
+   and joy of the Holy Spirit, in reaping the grain. Since he
+   [Bernard] was not able to have part in the labor, they bade him sit
+   by them and take his ease. Greatly troubled, he had recourse to
+   prayer and, with much weeping, implored the Lord to grant him the
+   strength to become a reaper. The simplicity of his faith did not
+   deceive him, for that which he asked he obtained. Indeed from that
+   day he prided himself in being more skilful than the others at that
+   task; and he was the more given over to devotion during that labor
+   because he realized that the ability to perform it was a direct
+   gift from God. Refreshed by his employments of this kind, he
+   prayed, read, or meditated continuously. If an opportunity for
+   prayer in solitude offered itself, he seized it; but in any case,
+   whether by himself or with companions, he preserved a solitude in
+   his heart, and thus was everywhere alone. He read gladly, and
+   always with faith and thoughtfulness, the Holy Scriptures, saying
+   that they never seemed to him so clear as when read in the text
+   alone, and he declared his ability to discern their truth and
+   divine virtue much more readily in the source itself than in the
+   commentaries which were derived from it. Nevertheless, he read
+   humbly the saints and orthodox commentators and made no pretense of
+   rivaling their knowledge; but, submitting his to theirs, and
+   tracing it faithfully to its sources, he drank often at the
+   fountain whence they had drawn. It is thus that, full of the spirit
+   which has divinely inspired all Holy Scripture, he has served God
+   to this day, as the Apostle says, with so great confidence, and
+   such ability to instruct, convert, and sway. And when he preaches
+   the word of God, he renders so clear and agreeable that which he
+   takes from Scripture to insert in his discourse, and he has such
+   power to move men, that everybody, both those clever in worldly
+   matters and those who possess spiritual knowledge, marvel at the
+   eloquent words which fall from his lips.
+
+     [Sidenote: Site selected for the new monastery]
+
+   (b)
+
+   Twelve monks and their abbot, representing our Lord and His
+   apostles, were assembled in the church. Stephen placed a cross in
+   Bernard's hands, who solemnly, at the head of his small band,
+   walked forth from Citeaux.... Bernard struck away to the northward.
+   For a distance of nearly ninety miles he kept this course, passing
+   up by the source of the Seine, by Chatillon, of school-day
+   memories, until he arrived at La Ferte, about equally distant
+   between Troyes and Chaumont, in the diocese of Langres, and
+   situated on the river Aube.[373] About four miles beyond La Ferte
+   was a deep valley opening to the east. Thick umbrageous forests
+   gave it a character of gloom and wildness; but a gushing stream of
+   limpid water which ran through it was sufficient to redeem every
+   disadvantage.
+
+     [Sidenote: The first building constructed]
+
+   In June, 1115, Bernard took up his abode in the "Valley of
+   Wormwood," as it was called, and began to look for means of shelter
+   and sustenance against the approaching winter. The rude fabric
+   which he and his monks raised with their own hands was long
+   preserved by the pious veneration of the Cistercians. It consisted
+   of a building covered by a single roof, under which chapel,
+   dormitory, and refectory were all included. Neither stone nor wood
+   hid the bare earth, which served for a floor. Windows scarcely
+   wider than a man's head admitted a feeble light. In this room the
+   monks took their frugal meals of herbs and water. Immediately above
+   the refectory was the sleeping apartment. It was reached by a
+   ladder, and was, in truth, a sort of loft. Here were the monks'
+   beds, which were peculiar. They were made in the form of boxes, or
+   bins, of wooden planks, long and wide enough for a man to lie down
+   in. A small space, hewn out with an axe, allowed room for the
+   sleeper to get in or out. The inside was strewn with chaff, or
+   dried leaves, which, with the woodwork, seem to have been the only
+   covering permitted....
+
+     [Sidenote: Hardships encountered]
+
+   The monks had thus got a house over their heads; but they had very
+   little else. They had left Citeaux in June. Their journey had
+   probably occupied them a fortnight; their clearing, preparations,
+   and building, perhaps two months; and thus they were near September
+   when this portion of their labor was accomplished. Autumn and
+   winter were approaching, and they had no store laid by. Their food
+   during the summer had been a compound of leaves intermixed with
+   coarse grain. Beech-nuts and roots were to be their main support
+   during the winter. And now to the privations of insufficient food
+   was added the wearing out of their shoes and clothes. Their
+   necessities grew with the severity of the season, until at last
+   even salt failed them; and presently Bernard heard murmurs. He
+   argued and exhorted; he spoke to them of the fear and love of God,
+   and strove to rouse their drooping spirits by dwelling on the hopes
+   of eternal life and Divine recompense. Their sufferings made them
+   deaf and indifferent to their abbot's words. They would not remain
+   in this valley of bitterness; they would return to Citeaux.
+   Bernard, seeing they had lost their trust in God, reproved them no
+   more; but himself sought in earnest prayer for release from their
+   difficulties. Presently a voice from heaven said, "Arise, Bernard,
+   thy prayer is granted thee." Upon which the monks said, "What didst
+   thou ask of the Lord?" "Wait, and ye shall see, ye of little
+   faith," was the reply; and presently came a stranger who gave the
+   abbot ten livres.
+
+
+44. A Description of Clairvaux
+
+The following is an interesting description of the abbey of Clairvaux,
+written by William of St. Thierry, the friend and biographer of
+Bernard. After giving an account of the external appearance and
+surroundings of the monastery, the writer goes on to portray the daily
+life and devotion of the monks who resided in it. In reading the
+description it should be borne in mind that Clairvaux was a new
+establishment, founded expressly to further the work of monastic
+reform, and that therefore at the time when William of St. Thierry
+knew it, it exhibited a state of piety and industry considerably above
+that to be found in the average abbey of the day.
+
+     Source--Guillaume de Saint-Thierry, _Bernardus Claraevallensis_
+     [William of Saint Thierry, "Life of St. Bernard"], Bk. I.,
+     Chap. 7. Translated in Edward L. Cutts, _Scenes and Characters
+     of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1872), pp. 12-14.
+
+     [Sidenote: The solitude of Clairvaux]
+
+   At the first glance as you entered Clairvaux by descending the hill
+   you could see that it was a temple of God; and the still, silent
+   valley bespoke, in the modest simplicity of its buildings, the
+   unfeigned humility of Christ's poor. Moreover, in this valley full
+   of men, where no one was permitted to be idle, where one and all
+   were occupied with their allotted tasks, a silence deep as that of
+   night prevailed. The sounds of labor, or the chants of the brethren
+   in the choral service, were the only exceptions. The orderliness of
+   this silence, and the report that went forth concerning it, struck
+   such a reverence even into secular persons that they dreaded
+   breaking it,--I will not say by idle or wicked conversation, but
+   even by proper remarks. The solitude, also, of the place--between
+   dense forests in a narrow gorge of neighboring hills--in a certain
+   sense recalled the cave of our father St. Benedict,[374] so that
+   while they strove to imitate his life, they also had some
+   similarity to him in their habitation and loneliness....
+
+     [Sidenote: Marvelous works accomplished there]
+
+   Although the monastery is situated in a valley, it has its
+   foundations on the holy hills, whose gates the Lord loveth more
+   than all the dwellings of Jacob. Glorious things are spoken of it,
+   because the glorious and wonderful God therein worketh great
+   marvels. There the insane recover their reason, and although their
+   outward man is worn away, inwardly they are born again. There the
+   proud are humbled, the rich are made poor, and the poor have the
+   Gospel preached to them, and the darkness of sinners is changed
+   into light. A large multitude of blessed poor from the ends of the
+   earth have there assembled, yet have they one heart and one mind;
+   justly, therefore, do all who dwell there rejoice with no empty
+   joy. They have the certain hope of perennial joy, of their
+   ascension heavenward already commenced. In Clairvaux, they have
+   found Jacob's ladder, with angels upon it; some descending, who so
+   provide for their bodies that they faint not on the way; others
+   ascending, who so rule their souls that their bodies hereafter may
+   be glorified with them.
+
+     [Sidenote: The piety of the monks]
+
+   For my part, the more attentively I watch them day by day, the more
+   do I believe that they are perfect followers of Christ in all
+   things. When they pray and speak to God in spirit and in truth, by
+   their friendly and quiet speech to Him, as well as by their
+   humbleness of demeanor, they are plainly seen to be God's
+   companions and friends. When, on the other hand, they openly praise
+   God with psalms, how pure and fervent are their minds, is shown by
+   their posture of body in holy fear and reverence, while by their
+   careful pronunciation and modulation of the psalms, is shown how
+   sweet to their lips are the words of God--sweeter than honey to
+   their mouths. As I watch them, therefore, singing without fatigue
+   from before midnight to the dawn of day, with only a brief
+   interval, they appear a little less than the angels, but much more
+   than men....
+
+     [Sidenote: Their manual labor]
+
+   As regards their manual labor, so patiently and placidly, with such
+   quiet countenances, in such sweet and holy order, do they perform
+   all things, that although they exercise themselves at many works,
+   they never seem moved or burdened in anything, whatever the labor
+   may be. Whence it is manifest that that Holy Spirit worketh in them
+   who disposeth of all things with sweetness, in whom they are
+   refreshed, so that they rest even in their toil. Many of them, I
+   hear, are bishops and earls, and many illustrious through their
+   birth or knowledge; but now, by God's grace, all distinction of
+   persons being dead among them, the greater any one thought himself
+   in the world, the more in this flock does he regard himself as less
+   than the least. I see them in the garden with hoes, in the meadows
+   with forks or rakes, in the fields with scythes, in the forest with
+   axes. To judge from their outward appearance, their tools, their
+   bad and disordered clothes, they appear a race of fools, without
+   speech or sense. But a true thought in my mind tells me that their
+   life in Christ is hidden in the heavens. Among them I see Godfrey
+   of Peronne, Raynald of Picardy, William of St. Omer, Walter of
+   Lisle, all of whom I knew formerly in the old man, whereof I now
+   see no trace, by God's favor. I knew them proud and puffed up; I
+   see them walking humbly under the merciful hand of God.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[363] In other words, it is Duke William's hope that, though not
+himself willing to be restricted to the life of a monk, he may secure
+substantially an equivalent reward by patronizing men who _are_ thus
+willing.
+
+[364] Macon, the seat of the diocese in which Cluny was situated, was
+on the Saone, a short distance to the southeast.
+
+[365] Berno served as abbot of Cluny from 910 until 927.
+
+[366] That the charitable side of the monastery's work was well
+attended to is indicated by the fact that in a single year, late in
+the eleventh century, seventeen thousand poor were given assistance by
+the monks.
+
+[367] The remainder of the charter consists of a series of
+imprecations of disaster and punishment upon all who at any time and
+in any way should undertake to interfere with the vested rights just
+granted. These imprecations were strictly typical of the mediaeval
+spirit-so much so that many of them came to be mere formulae, employed
+to give documents due solemnity, but without any especially direful
+designs on the part of the writer who used them.
+
+[368] Emerton, _Mediaeval Europe_, p. 458.
+
+[369] Bernard was the third son.
+
+[370] About sixty miles southeast of Troyes.
+
+[371] Citeaux (established by Odo, duke of Burgundy, in 1098) was near
+Dijon in Burgundy.
+
+[372] Stephen Harding, an Englishman, succeeded Alberic as abbot of
+Citeaux in 1113.
+
+[373] Chatillon was about twelve miles south of La Ferte. The latter
+was fifty miles southeast of Troyes and only half as far from
+Chaumont, despite the author's statement that, it lay midway between
+the two places. The Aube is an important tributary of the upper Seine.
+
+[374] The famous founder of the monastery of Monte Cassino and the
+compiler of the Benedictine Rule [see p. 83].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+THE CONFLICT OVER INVESTITURE
+
+
+45. Gregory VII.'s Conception of the Papal Authority
+
+Hildebrand, who as pope was known as Gregory VII., was born about the
+year 1025 in the vicinity of the little Tuscan town of Soana. His
+education was received in the rich monastery of Saint Mary on the
+Aventine, of which one of his uncles was abbot. At the age of
+twenty-five he became chaplain to Pope Gregory VI., after whose fall
+from power he sought seclusion in the monastery at Cluny. In 1049,
+however, he again appeared in Italy, this time in the role of
+companion to the new pontiff, Leo IX. In a few years he became
+sub-deacon and cardinal and was intrusted with the municipal affairs
+and financial interests of the Holy See. He served as papal legate in
+France and in 1057 was sent to Germany to obtain the consent of
+Empress Agnes to the hurried election of Stephen IX. While in these
+countries he became convinced that the evil conditions--simony, lay
+investiture, and non-celibacy of the clergy--which the Cluniacs were
+seeking to reform would never be materially improved by the temporal
+powers, and consequently that the only hope of betterment lay in the
+establishing of an absolute papal supremacy before which kings, and
+even emperors, should be compelled to bow in submission. In April,
+1073, Hildebrand himself was made pope, nominally by the vote of the
+College of Cardinals, but really by the enthusiastic choice of the
+Roman populace. His whole training and experience had fitted him
+admirably for the place and had equipped him with the capacity to make
+of his office something more than had any of his predecessors. When he
+became pope it was with a very lofty ideal of what the papacy should
+be, and the surprising measure in which he was able to realize this
+ideal entitles him without question to be regarded as the greatest of
+all mediaeval popes.
+
+In the document given below, the so-called _Dictatus Papae_, Pope
+Gregory's conception of the nature of the papal power and its proper
+place in the world is stated in the form of a clear and forcible
+summary. Until recently the _Dictatus_ was supposed to have been
+written by Gregory himself, but it has been fairly well demonstrated
+that it was composed not earlier than 1087 and was therefore the work
+of some one else (Gregory died in 1085). It conforms very closely to a
+collection of the laws of the Church published in 1087 by a certain
+cardinal by the name of Deusdedit. The document loses little or none
+of its value by reason of this uncertainty as to its authorship, for
+it represents Pope Gregory's views as accurately as if he were known
+to have written it. In judging Gregory's theories it should be borne
+in mind (1) that it was not personal ambition, but sincere conviction,
+that lay beneath them; (2) that the temporal states which existed in
+western Europe in Gregory's day were rife with feudal anarchy and
+oppression and often too weak to be capable of rendering justice; and
+(3) that Gregory claimed, not that the Church should actually assume
+the management of the civil government throughout Europe, but only
+that in cases of notorious failure of temporal sovereigns to live
+right and govern well, the supreme authority of the papacy should be
+brought to bear upon them, either to depose them or to compel them to
+mend their ways. It is worthy of note, however, that Gregory was
+careful to lay the foundations of a formidable political power in
+Italy, chiefly by availing himself of the practices of feudalism, as
+seen, for example, in the grant of southern Italy to the Norman Robert
+Guiscard to be held as a fief of the Roman see.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniae Historica
+     Selecta_ (Muenchen, 1889), Vol. III., p. 17.
+
+   =1.= That the Roman Church was founded by God alone.
+
+   =2.= That the Roman bishop alone is properly called
+   universal.[375]
+
+   =3.= That he alone has the power to depose bishops and reinstate
+   them.
+
+   =4.= That his legate, though of inferior rank, takes precedence of
+   all bishops in council, and may give sentence of deposition against
+   them.
+
+   =5.= That the Pope has the power to depose [bishops] in their
+   absence.[376]
+
+   =6.= That we should not even stay in the same house with those who
+   are excommunicated by him.
+
+   =8.= That he alone may use the imperial insignia.[377]
+
+   =9.= That the Pope is the only person whose feet are kissed by all
+   princes.
+
+   =11.= That the name which he bears belongs to him alone.[378]
+
+   =12.= That he has the power to depose emperors.[379]
+
+   =13.= That he may, if necessity require, transfer bishops from one
+   see to another.
+
+   =16.= That no general synod may be called without his consent.
+
+   =17.= That no action of a synod, and no book, may be considered
+   canonical without his authority.[380]
+
+   =18.= That his decree can be annulled by no one, and that he alone
+   may annul the decrees of any one.
+
+   =19.= That he can be judged by no man.
+
+   =20.= That no one shall dare to condemn a person who appeals to the
+   apostolic see.
+
+   =22.= That the Roman Church has never erred, nor ever, by the
+   testimony of Scripture, shall err, to all eternity.[381]
+
+   =26.= That no one can be considered Catholic who does not agree
+   with the Roman Church.
+
+   =27.= That he [the Pope] has the power to absolve the subjects of
+   unjust rulers from their oath of fidelity.
+
+
+46. Letter of Gregory VII. to Henry IV. (December, 1075)
+
+The high ideal of papal supremacy over temporal sovereigns which
+Gregory cherished when he became pope in 1073, and which is set forth
+so forcibly in the _Dictatus_, was one whose validity no king or
+emperor could be brought to recognize. It involved an attitude of
+inferiority and submissiveness which monarchs felt to be quite
+inconsistent with the complete independence which they claimed in the
+management of the affairs of their respective states. Perhaps one may
+say that the theory in itself, as a mere expression of religious
+sentiment, was not especially obnoxious; many an earlier pope had
+proclaimed it in substance without doing the kings and emperors of
+Europe material injury. It was the firm determination and the
+aggressive effort of Gregory to reduce the theory to an actual working
+system that precipitated a conflict.
+
+The supreme test of Gregory's ability to make the papal power felt in
+the measure that he thought it should be came early in the pontificate
+in the famous breach with Henry IV. of Germany. Henry at the time was
+not emperor in name, but only "king of the Romans," the imperial
+coronation not yet having taken place.[382] For all practical
+purposes, however, he may be regarded as occupying the emperor's
+position, since all that was lacking was the performance of a more or
+less perfunctory ceremony. Henry's specific grievances against the
+Pope were that the latter had declared it a sin for an ecclesiastic to
+be invested with his office by a layman, though this was almost the
+universal practice in Germany, and that he had condemned five of the
+king's councilors for simony,[383] suspended the archbishop of Bremen,
+the bishops of Speyer and Strassburg, and two Lombard bishops, and
+deposed the bishop of Florence. Half of the land and wealth of Germany
+was in the hands of bishops and abbots who, if the Pope were to have
+his way, would be released from all practical dependence upon the king
+and so would be free to encourage and take part in the feudal revolts
+which Henry was exerting himself so vigorously to crush. June 8, 1075,
+on the banks of the Unstrutt, the king won a signal victory over the
+rebellious feudal lords, after which he felt strong enough to defy the
+authority of Gregory with impunity. He therefore continued to
+associate with the five condemned councilors and, in contempt of
+recent papal declarations against lay investiture, took it upon
+himself to appoint and invest a number of bishops and abbots, though
+always with extreme care that the right kind of men be selected. Pope
+Gregory was, of course, not the man to overlook such conduct and at
+once made vigorous protest. The letter given below was written in
+December, 1075, and is one of a considerable series which passed back
+and forth across the Alps prior to the breaking of the storm in
+1076-1077. At this stage matters had not yet got beyond the
+possibility of compromise and reconciliation; in fact Gregory writes
+as much as anything else to get the king's own statement regarding the
+reports of his conduct which had come to Rome. The tone of the letter
+is firm, it is true, but conciliatory. The thunder of subsequent
+epistles to the recreant Henry had not yet been brought into play.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniae Historica
+     Selecta_ (Muenchen, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 18-22. Adapted from
+     translation in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source
+     Book for Mediaeval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 147-150.
+
+   Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to Henry, the
+   king, greeting and apostolic benediction,--that is, if he be
+   obedient to the apostolic see as is becoming in a Christian king:
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry exhorted to confess his sins]
+
+   It is with some hesitation that we have sent you our apostolic
+   benediction, knowing that for all our acts as pope we must render
+   an account to God, the severe judge. It is reported that you have
+   willingly associated with men who have been excommunicated by
+   decree of the Pope and sentence of a synod.[384] If this be true,
+   you are very well aware that you can receive the blessing neither
+   of God nor of the Pope until you have driven them from you and have
+   compelled them to do penance, and have also yourself sought
+   absolution and forgiveness for your transgressions with due
+   repentance and good works. Therefore we advise you that, if you
+   realize your guilt in this matter, you immediately confess to some
+   pious bishop, who shall absolve you with our permission,
+   prescribing for you penance in proportion to the fault, and who
+   shall faithfully report to us by letter, with your permission, the
+   nature of the penance required.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Pope's claim to authority over temporal princes]
+
+   We wonder, moreover, that you should continue to assure us by
+   letter and messengers of your devotion and humility; that you
+   should call yourself our son and the son of the holy mother Church,
+   obedient in the faith, sincere in love, diligent in devotion; and
+   that you should commend yourself to us with all zeal of love and
+   reverence--whereas in fact you are constantly disobeying the
+   canonical and apostolic decrees in important matters of the
+   faith.... Since you confess yourself a son of the Church, you
+   should treat with more honor the head of the Church, that is, St.
+   Peter, the prince of the apostles. If you are one of the sheep of
+   the Lord, you have been entrusted to him by divine authority, for
+   Christ said to him: "Peter, feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16]; and
+   again: "And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of
+   Heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in
+   heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in
+   heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19]. And since we, although an unworthy
+   sinner, exercise his authority by divine will, the words which you
+   address to us are in reality addressed directly to him. And
+   although we read or hear only the words, he sees the heart from
+   which the words proceed. Therefore your highness should be very
+   careful that no insincerity be found in your words and messages to
+   us; and that you show due reverence, not to us, indeed, but to
+   omnipotent God, in those things which especially make for the
+   advance of the Christian faith and the well-being of the Church.
+   For our Lord said to the apostles and to their successors: "He that
+   heareth you heareth me, and he that despiseth you despiseth me"
+   [Luke, x. 16]. For no one will disregard our admonitions if he
+   believes that the decrees of the Pope have the same authority as
+   the words of the apostle himself....[385]
+
+     [Sidenote: Abuses in the Church to be corrected]
+
+   Now in the synod held at the apostolic seat to which the divine
+   will has called us (at which some of your subjects also were
+   present) we, seeing that the Christian religion had been weakened
+   by many attacks and that the chief and proper motive, that of
+   saving souls, had for a long time been neglected and slighted, were
+   alarmed at the evident danger of the destruction of the flock of
+   the Lord, and had recourse to the decrees and the doctrine of the
+   holy fathers. We decreed nothing new, nothing of our invention; but
+   we decided that the error should be abandoned and the single
+   primitive rule of ecclesiastical discipline and the familiar way of
+   the saints should be again sought out and followed.[386] For we
+   know that no other door to salvation and eternal life lies open to
+   the sheep of Christ than that which was pointed out by Him who
+   said: "I am the door: by me if any man enter in he shall be saved,
+   and find pasture" [John, x. 9]; and this, we learn from the gospels
+   and from the sacred writings, was preached by the apostles and
+   observed by the holy fathers. And we have decided that this
+   decree--which some, placing human above divine honor, have called
+   an unendurable weight and an immense burden, but which we call by
+   its proper name, that is, the truth and light necessary to
+   salvation--is to be received and observed not only by you and your
+   subjects, but also by all princes and peoples of the earth who
+   confess and worship Christ; for it is greatly desired by us, and
+   would be most fitting to you, that as you are greater than others
+   in glory, in honor, and in virtue, so you should be more
+   distinguished in devotion to Christ.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory disposed to treat Henry fairly]
+
+   Nevertheless, that this decree may not seem to you beyond measure
+   grievous and unjust, we have commanded you by your faithful
+   ambassadors to send to us the wisest and most pious men whom you
+   can find in your kingdom, so that if they can show or instruct us
+   in any way how we can temper the sentence promulgated by the holy
+   fathers without offense to the eternal King or danger to our souls,
+   we may consider their advice. But, even if we had not warned you in
+   so friendly a manner, it would have been only right on your part,
+   before you violated the apostolic decrees, to ask justice of us in
+   a reasonable manner in any matter in which we had injured or
+   affected your honor. But from what you have since done and decreed
+   it is evident how little you care for our warnings, or for the
+   observance of justice.
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry's obligation to serve and obey the papacy]
+
+   But since we hope that, while the long-suffering patience of God
+   still invites you to repent, you may become wiser and your heart
+   may be turned to obey the commands of God, we warn you with
+   fatherly love that, knowing the rule of Christ to be over you, you
+   should consider how dangerous it is to place your honor above His,
+   and that you should not interfere with the liberty of the Church
+   which He has deigned to join to Himself by heavenly union, but
+   rather with faithful devotion you should offer your assistance to
+   the increasing of this liberty to omnipotent God and St. Peter,
+   through whom also your glory may be enhanced. You ought to
+   recognize what you undoubtedly owe to them for giving you victory
+   over your enemies,[387] that as they have gladdened you with great
+   prosperity, so they should see that you are thereby rendered more
+   devout. And in order that the fear of God, in whose hands is all
+   power and all rule, may affect your heart more than these our
+   warnings, you should recall what happened to Saul, when, after
+   winning the victory which he gained by the will of the prophet, he
+   glorified himself in his triumph and did not obey the warnings of
+   the prophet, and how God reproved him; and, on the other hand, what
+   grace King David acquired by reason of his humility, as well as his
+   other virtues.
+
+
+47. Henry IV.'s Reply to Gregory's Letter (January, 1076)
+
+In 1059, when Nicholas II. was pope and Hildebrand was yet only a
+cardinal, a council assembled at the Lateran decreed that henceforth
+the right of electing the sovereign pontiff should be vested
+exclusively in the college of cardinals, or in other words, in seven
+cardinal bishops in the vicinity of Rome and a certain number of
+cardinal priests and deacons attached to the parishes of the city. The
+people and clergy generally were deprived of participation in the
+election, except so far as merely to give their consent. Hildebrand
+seems to have been the real author of the decree. Nevertheless, in
+1073, when he was elevated to the papal chair, the decree of 1059 was
+in a measure ignored, for he was elected by popular vote and his
+choice was only passively sanctioned by the cardinals. When,
+therefore, the quarrel between him and Henry IV. came on, the latter
+was not slow to make use of the weapon which Hildebrand's (or
+Gregory's) uncanonical election placed in his hands. In replying,
+January 24, 1076, to the papal letter of December, 1075, he bluntly
+addresses himself to "Hildebrand, not pope, but false monk," and
+writes a stinging epistle in the tone thus assumed in his salutation.
+In his arraignment of Gregory the king doubtless went far beyond the
+truth; but the fact remains that Gregory's dominating purposes in the
+interest of the papal authority threatened to cut deeply into the
+independence of all temporal sovereigns, and therefore rendered such
+resistance as Henry offered quite inevitable. In the interim between
+receiving the Pope's letter and dispatching his reply Henry had
+convened at Worms a council of the German clergy, and this body had
+decreed that Gregory, having wrongfully ascended the papal throne,
+should be compelled forthwith to abdicate it.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniae Historica
+     Selecta_ (Muenchen, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 24-25. Translated in
+     Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source Book for
+     Mediaeval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 151-152.
+
+   Henry, king not by usurpation, but by the holy ordination of God,
+   to Hildebrand, not pope, but false monk.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory declared to be only a demagogue]
+
+     [Sidenote: The papal claim to temporal supremacy rejected]
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry also cites Scripture]
+
+   This is the salutation which you deserve, for you have never held
+   any office in the Church without making it a source of confusion
+   and a curse to Christian men, instead of an honor and a blessing.
+   To mention only the most obvious cases out of many, you have not
+   only dared to lay hands on the Lord's anointed, the archbishops,
+   bishops, and priests, but you have scorned them and abused them, as
+   if they were ignorant servants not fit to know what their master
+   was doing. This you have done to gain favor with the vulgar crowd.
+   You have declared that the bishops know nothing and that you know
+   everything; but if you have such great wisdom you have used it not
+   to build but to destroy. Therefore we believe that St. Gregory,
+   whose name you have presumed to take, had you in mind when he said:
+   "The heart of the prelate is puffed up by the abundance of
+   subjects, and he thinks himself more powerful than all others." All
+   this we have endured because of our respect for the papal office,
+   but you have mistaken our humility for fear, and have dared to make
+   an attack upon the royal and imperial authority which we received
+   from God. You have even threatened to take it away, as if we had
+   received it from you, and as if the Empire and kingdom were in your
+   disposal and not in the disposal of God. Our Lord Jesus Christ has
+   called us to the government of the Empire, but He never called you
+   to the rule of the Church. This is the way you have gained
+   advancement in the Church: through craft you have obtained wealth;
+   through wealth you have obtained favor; through favor, the power of
+   the sword; and through the power of the sword, the papal seat,
+   which is the seat of peace; and then from the seat of peace you
+   have expelled peace. For you have incited subjects to rebel against
+   their prelates by teaching them to despise the bishops, their
+   rightful rulers. You have given to laymen the authority over
+   priests, whereby they condemn and depose those whom the bishops
+   have put over them to teach them. You have attacked me, who,
+   unworthy as I am, have yet been anointed to rule among the anointed
+   of God, and who, according to the teaching of the fathers, can be
+   judged by no one save God alone, and can be deposed for no crime
+   except infidelity. For the holy fathers in the time of the apostate
+   Julian[388] did not presume to pronounce sentence of deposition
+   against him, but left him to be judged and condemned by God. St.
+   Peter himself said, "Fear God, honor the king" [1 Pet., ii. 17].
+   But you, who fear not God, have dishonored me, whom He hath
+   established. St. Paul, who said that even an angel from heaven
+   should be accursed who taught any other than the true doctrine, did
+   not make an exception in your favor, to permit you to teach false
+   doctrines. For he says, "But though we, or an angel from heaven,
+   preach any other gospel unto you than that which we have preached
+   unto you, let him be accursed" [Gal., i. 8]. Come down, then, from
+   that apostolic seat which you have obtained by violence; for you
+   have been declared accursed by St. Paul for your false doctrines,
+   and have been condemned by us and our bishops for your evil rule.
+   Let another ascend the throne of St. Peter, one who will not use
+   religion as a cloak of violence, but will teach the life-giving
+   doctrine of that prince of the apostles. I, Henry, king by the
+   grace of God, with all my bishops, say unto you: "Come down, come
+   down, and be accursed through all the ages."
+
+
+48. Henry IV. Deposed by Pope Gregory (1076)
+
+The foregoing letter of Henry IV. was received at Rome with a storm of
+disapproval and the envoys who bore it barely escaped with their
+lives. A council of French and Italian bishops was convened in the
+Lateran (Feb. 24, 1076), and the king's haughty epistle, together with
+the decree of the council at Worms deposing Gregory, were read and
+allowed to have their effect. With the assent of the bishops, the Pope
+pronounced the sentence of excommunication against Henry and formally
+released all the latter's Christian subjects from their oath of
+allegiance. Naturally the action of Gregory aroused intense interest
+throughout Europe. In Germany it had the intended effect of detaching
+many influential bishops and abbots from the imperial cause and
+stirring the political enemies of the king to renewed activity. The
+papal ban became a pretext for the renewal of the hostility on part of
+his dissatisfied subjects which Henry had but just succeeded in
+suppressing.
+
+In the first part of the papal decree Gregory seeks to defend himself
+against the charges brought by Henry and the German clergy to the
+effect that he had mounted the papal throne through personal ambition
+and the employment of unbecoming means. It was indisputable that his
+election had not been strictly in accord with the decree of 1059, but
+it seems equally true that, as Gregory declares, he was placed at the
+helm of the Church contrary to his personal desires.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniae Historica
+     Selecta_ (Muenchen, 1889), Vol. III., p. 26. Translated in
+     Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source Book for
+     Mediaeval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 155-156.
+
+     [Sidenote: Gregory denies that he ever sought the papal
+     office]
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry deposed by papal decree]
+
+   St. Peter, prince of the apostles, incline thine ear unto me, I
+   beseech thee, and hear me, thy servant, whom thou hast nourished
+   from mine infancy and hast delivered from mine enemies that hate me
+   for my fidelity to thee. Thou art my witness, as are also my
+   mistress, the mother of God, and St. Paul thy brother, and all the
+   other saints, that the Holy Roman Church called me to its
+   government against my own will, and that I did not gain thy throne
+   by violence; that I would rather have ended my days in exile than
+   have obtained thy place by fraud or for worldly ambition. It is not
+   by my efforts, but by thy grace, that I am set to rule over the
+   Christian world which was especially intrusted to thee by Christ.
+   It is by thy grace, and as thy representative that God has given to
+   me the power to bind and to loose in heaven and in earth. Confident
+   of my integrity and authority, I now declare in the name of the
+   omnipotent God, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, that Henry, son
+   of the Emperor Henry,[389] is deprived of his kingdom of Germany
+   and Italy. I do this by thy authority and in defense of the honor
+   of thy Church, because he has rebelled against it. He who attempts
+   to destroy the honor of the Church should be deprived of such honor
+   as he may have held. He has refused to obey as a Christian should;
+   he has not returned to God from whom he had wandered; he has had
+   dealings with excommunicated persons; he has done many iniquities;
+   he has despised the warnings which, as thou art witness, I sent to
+   him for his salvation; he has cut himself off from thy Church, and
+   has attempted to rend it asunder; therefore, by thy authority, I
+   place him under the curse. It is in thy name that I curse him, that
+   all people may know that thou art Peter, and upon thy rock the Son
+   of the living God has built his Church, and the gates of Hell shall
+   not prevail against it.
+
+
+49. The Penance of Henry IV. at Canossa (1077)
+
+In his contest with the Pope, Henry's chances of winning were from the
+outset diminished by the readiness of his subjects to take advantage
+of his misfortunes to recover political privileges they had lost under
+his vigorous rule. In October, 1076, the leading German nobles, lay
+and clerical, encouraged by the papal decree of the preceding
+February, assembled at Tribur, near Mainz, and proceeded to formulate
+a plan of action. Henry, with the few followers who remained faithful,
+awaited the result at Oppenheim, just across the Rhine. The magnates
+at last agreed that unless Henry could secure the removal of the papal
+ban within a year he should be deposed from the throne. By the
+Oppenheim Convention he was forced to promise to revoke his sentence
+of deposition against Gregory and to offer him his allegiance. The
+promise was executed in a royal edict of the same month. Seeing that
+there remained no hope in further resistance, and hearing that Gregory
+was about to present himself in Germany to compel a final adjustment
+of the affair, Henry fled from Speyer, where he had been instructed by
+the nobles to remain, and by a most arduous winter journey over the
+Alps arrived at last at the castle of Canossa, in Tuscany,[390] where
+the Pope, on his way to Germany, was being entertained by one of his
+allies, the Countess Matilda. Gregory might indeed already have been
+on the Rhine but that he had heard of the move Henry was making and
+feared that he was proposing to stir up revolt in the papal dominions.
+The king was submissive, apparently conquered; yet Gregory was loath
+to end the conflict at this point. He had hoped to establish a
+precedent by entering German territory and there disposing of the
+crown according to his own will. But it was a cardinal rule of the
+Church that a penitent sincerely seeking absolution could not be
+denied, and in his request Henry was certainly importunate enough to
+give every appearance of sincerity. Accordingly, the result of the
+meeting of king [Emperor] and Pope at Canossa was that the ban of
+excommunication was revoked by the latter, while the former took an
+oath fully acknowledging the papal claims.
+
+Inasmuch as he had saved his crown and frustrated the design of
+Gregory to cross the mountains into Germany, Henry may be said to have
+won a temporary advantage; and this was followed within a few years,
+when the struggle broke out again, by the practical expulsion of
+Gregory from Rome and his death in broken-hearted exile (1085).
+Nevertheless the moral effect of the Canossa episode, and of the
+events which followed, in the long run operated decidedly against the
+king's position and the whole imperial theory. The document below is a
+letter of Gregory to the German magnates giving an account of the
+submission of the king at Canossa, and including the text of the oath
+which he there took.
+
+     Source--Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniae Historica
+     Selecta_ (Muenchen, 1889), Vol. III., pp. 33-34. Adapted from
+     translation in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical
+     Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 385-388.
+
+Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to all the
+archbishops, bishops, dukes, counts, and other princes of the realm of
+the Germans who defend the Christian faith, greeting and apostolic
+benediction.
+
+Inasmuch as for love of justice you assumed common cause and danger
+with us in the struggle of Christian warfare, we have taken care to
+inform you, beloved, with sincere affection, how the king, humbled to
+penance, obtained the pardon of absolution and how the whole affair
+has progressed from his entrance into Italy to the present time.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory's advance into Tuscany]
+
+As had been agreed with the legates who had been sent to us on your
+part,[391] we came into Lombardy about twenty days before the date on
+which one of the commanders was to come over the pass to meet us,
+awaiting his advent that we might cross over to the other side. But
+when the period fixed upon had already passed, and we were told that
+at this time on account of many difficulties--as we can readily
+believe--an escort could not be sent to meet us, we were involved in
+no little perplexity as to what would be best for us to do, having no
+other means of coming to you.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry at Canossa]
+
+Meanwhile, however, we learned that the king was approaching. He also,
+before entering Italy, sent to us suppliant legates, offering in all
+things to render satisfaction to God, to St. Peter, and to us. And he
+renewed his promise that, besides amending his way of living, he would
+observe all obedience if only he might deserve to obtain from us the
+favor of absolution and the apostolic benediction. When, after long
+postponing a decision and holding frequent consultations, we, through
+all the envoys who passed, had severely taken him to task for his
+excesses, he came at length of his own accord, with a few followers,
+showing nothing of hostility or boldness, to the town of Canossa where
+we were tarrying. And there, having laid aside all the belongings of
+royalty, wretchedly, with bare feet and clad in wool, he continued for
+three days to stand before the gate of the castle. Nor did he desist
+from imploring with many tears, the aid and consolation of the
+apostolic mercy until he had moved all of those who were present
+there, and whom the report of it reached, to such pity and depth of
+compassion that, interceding for him with many prayers and tears, all
+wondered indeed at the unaccustomed hardness of our heart, while some
+actually cried out that we were exercising, not the dignity of
+apostolic severity, but the cruelty, as it were, of a tyrannical
+madness.
+
+Finally, won by the persistency of his suit and by the constant
+supplications of all who were present, we loosed the chain of the
+anathema[392] and at length received him into the favor of communion
+and into the lap of the holy mother Church, those being accepted as
+sponsors for him whose names are written below.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory's purpose to visit Germany]
+
+Having thus accomplished these matters, we desire at the first
+opportunity to cross over to your country in order that, by God's aid,
+we may more fully arrange all things for the peace of the Church and
+the concord of the kingdom, as has long been our wish. For we desire,
+beloved, that you should know beyond a doubt that the whole question
+at issue is as yet so little cleared up--as you can learn from the
+sponsors mentioned--that both our coming and the concurrence of your
+counsels are extremely necessary. Wherefore strive ye all to continue
+in the faith in which you have begun and in the love of justice; and
+know that we are not otherwise committed to the king save that, by
+word alone, as is our custom, we have said that he might have hopes
+from us in those matters in which, without danger to his soul or to
+our own, we might be able to help him to his salvation and honor,
+either through justice or through mercy.
+
+OATH OF KING HENRY
+
+I, King Henry, on account of the murmuring and enmity which the
+archbishops and bishops, dukes, counts and other princes of the realm
+of the Germans, and others who follow them in the same matter of
+dissension, bring to bear against me, will, within the term which our
+master Pope Gregory has constituted, either do justice according to
+his judgment or conclude peace according to his counsels--unless an
+absolute impediment should stand in his way or in mine. And on the
+removal of this impediment I shall be ready to continue in the same
+course. Likewise, if that same lord Pope Gregory shall wish to go
+beyond the mountains [i.e., into Germany], or to any other part of the
+world, he himself, as well as those who shall be in his escort or
+following, or who are sent by him, or come to him from any parts of
+the world whatever, shall be secure while going, remaining, or
+returning, on my part, and on the part of those whom I can constrain,
+from every injury to life or limb, or from capture. Nor shall he, by
+my consent, meet any other hindrance that is contrary to his dignity;
+and if any such be placed in his way I will aid him according to my
+ability. So help me God and this holy gospel.
+
+
+50. The Concordat of Worms (1122)
+
+The veteran Emperor Henry IV. died at Liege in 1106 and was succeeded
+by his son, Henry V. The younger Henry had some months before been
+prompted by Pope Paschal II. to rebel against his father and,
+succeeding in this, had practically established himself on the throne
+before his legitimate time. Pope Paschal expected the son to be more
+submissive than the father had been and in 1106 issued a decree
+renewing the prohibition of lay investiture. Outside of Germany this
+evil had been brought almost to an end and, now that the vigorous
+Henry IV. was out of the way, the Pope felt that the time had come to
+make the reform complete throughout Christendom. But in this he was
+mistaken, for Henry V. proved almost as able and fully as determined a
+power to contend with as had been his father. In fact, the new monarch
+could command a much stronger army, and he was in no wise loath to use
+it. In 1110 he led a host of thirty thousand men across the Alps,
+compelled the submission of the north Italian towns, and marched on
+Rome. The outcome was a secret compact (February 4, 1111) by which the
+king, on the one hand, was to abandon all claim to the right of
+investiture and the Pope, on the other, was to see that the
+ecclesiastical princes of the Empire (bishops and abbots holding large
+tracts of land) should give up all the lands which they had received
+by royal grant since the days of Charlemagne. The abandonment of
+investiture looked like a surrender on the part of Henry, but in
+reality all that he wanted was direct control over all the lands of
+the Empire, and if the ecclesiastical princes were to be dispossessed
+of these he cared little or nothing about having a part in the mere
+religious ceremony. This settlement was rendered impossible, however,
+by the attitude of the princes themselves, who naturally refused to be
+thus deprived of their landed property and chief source of income. The
+Pope was then forced to make a second compact surrendering the full
+right of investiture to the imperial authority, and Henry also got the
+coveted imperial coronation. But his triumph was short-lived.
+Rebellions among the German nobles robbed him of his strength and
+after years of wearisome bickerings and petty conflicts he again came
+to the point where he was willing to compromise. Calixtus II., who
+became pope in 1119, was similarly inclined.
+
+Accordingly, in a diet at Worms, in 1122, the whole problem was taken
+up for settlement, and happily this time with success. The documents
+translated below contain the concessions made mutually by the two
+parties. Calixtus, in brief, grants that the elections of bishops and
+abbots may take place in the presence of the Emperor, or of his
+agents, and that the Emperor should have the right to invest them with
+the scepter, i.e., with their dignity as princes of the Empire. Henry,
+on his side, agrees to give up investiture with the ring and staff,
+i.e., with spiritual functions, to allow free elections, and to aid in
+the restoration of church property which had been confiscated during
+the long struggle now drawing to a close. The settlement was in the
+nature of a compromise; but on the whole the papacy came off the
+better. In its largest aspects the great fifty-year struggle over the
+question of investiture was ended, though minor features of it
+remained to trouble all parties concerned for a long time to come.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., pp. 75-76.
+
+     (b) Text in Michael Doeberl, _Monumenta Germaniae Historica
+     Selecta_, Vol. III., p. 60.
+
+     [Sidenote: The provision for elections]
+
+   (a)
+
+   I, Bishop Calixtus, servant of the servants of God, do grant to
+   thee, by the grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, the right
+   to hold the elections of the bishops and abbots of the German realm
+   who belong to the kingdom, in thy presence, without simony, and
+   without any resort to violence; it being agreed that, if any
+   dispute arise among those concerned, thou, by the counsel and
+   judgment of the metropolitan [i.e., the archbishop] and the
+   suffragan bishops, shalt extend favor and support to the party
+   which shall seem to you to have the better case. Moreover, the
+   person elected may receive from thee the _regalia_ through the
+   scepter, without any exaction being levied;[393] and he shall
+   discharge his rightful obligations to thee for them.[394]
+
+     [Sidenote: Investiture with the scepter]
+
+   He who is consecrated in other parts of the Empire[395] shall
+   receive the _regalia_ from thee through the scepter, within six
+   months, and without any exaction, and shall discharge his rightful
+   obligations to thee for them; those rights being excepted, however,
+   which are known to belong to the Roman Church. In whatever cases
+   thou shalt make complaint to me and ask my aid I will support thee
+   according as my office requires. To thee, and to all those who are
+   on thy side, or have been, in this period of strife, I grant a true
+   peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: Investiture with ring and staff]
+
+   (b)
+
+   In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, I, Henry, by the
+   grace of God august Emperor of the Romans, for the love of God and
+   of the holy Roman Church and of our lord Pope Calixtus, and for the
+   saving of my soul, do give over to God, and to the holy apostles of
+   God, Peter and Paul, and the holy Catholic Church, all investiture
+   through ring and staff; and do concede that in all the churches
+   that are in my kingdom or empire there shall be canonical election
+   and free consecration.
+
+     [Sidenote: Restoration of confiscated property]
+
+   All the property and _regalia_ of St. Peter which, from the
+   beginning of this conflict until the present time, whether in the
+   days of my father or in my own, have been confiscated, and which I
+   now hold, I restore to the holy Roman Church. And as for those
+   things which I do not now hold, I will faithfully aid in their
+   restoration. The property also of all other churches and princes
+   and of every one, whether lay or ecclesiastical, which has been
+   lost in the struggle, I will restore as far as I hold it, according
+   to the counsel of the princes, or according to considerations of
+   justice. I will also faithfully aid in the restoration of those
+   things which I do not hold.
+
+   And I grant a true peace to our lord Pope Calixtus, and to the holy
+   Roman Church, and to all those who are, or have been, on its side.
+   In matters where the holy Roman Church shall seek assistance, I
+   will faithfully render it, and when it shall make complaint to me I
+   will see that justice is done.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[375] The incumbent of the papal office was at the same time bishop of
+Rome, temporal sovereign of the papal lands, and head of the church
+universal. In earlier times there was always danger that the third of
+these functions be lost and that the papacy revert to a purely local
+institution, but by Gregory VII.'s day the universal headship was
+clearly recognized throughout the West as inherent in the office. It
+was only when there arose the question as to how far this headship
+justified the Pope in attempting to control the affairs of the world
+that serious disagreement manifested itself.
+
+[376] That is, without giving them a hearing at a later date.
+
+[377] On the basis of the forged Donation of Constantine the Pope
+claimed the right here mentioned. There was no proper warrant for it.
+
+[378] "This is the first distinct assertion of the exclusive right of
+the bishop of Rome to the title of pope, once applied to all bishops."
+Robinson, _Readings in European History_, Vol. I., p. 274. The word
+pope is derived from _papa_ (father). It is still used as the common
+title of all priests in the Greek Church.
+
+[379] This, with the letter given on page 265, sets forth succinctly
+the papacy's absolute claim of authority as against the highest
+temporal power in Europe.
+
+[380] That is, pronounced by the canons of the Church to be divinely
+inspired.
+
+[381] This is, of course, not a claim of _papal_ infallibility. The
+assertion is merely that in the domain of faith and morals the Roman
+church, judged by Scriptural principles, has never pursued a course
+either improper or unwarranted.
+
+[382] It did not occur until 1084. Henry had inherited the office at
+the death of his father, Henry III., in 1056.
+
+[383] The sin of simony comprised the employment of any corrupt means
+to obtain appointment or election to an ecclesiastical office. For the
+origin of the term see the incident recorded in Acts, viii. 18-24. The
+five councilors had been condemned by a synod at Rome in February,
+1075.
+
+[384] The five condemned councillors.
+
+[385] This portion of the letter comprises a clear assertion of the
+"Petrine Supremacy," i.e., the theory that Peter, as the first bishop
+of Rome, transmitted his superiority over all other bishops to his
+successors in the Roman see, who in due time came to constitute the
+line of popes [see p. 78].
+
+[386] This refers to a decree of a Roman synod in 1074 against simony
+and the marriage of the clergy.
+
+[387] In the battle on the Unstrutt, June 8, 1075.
+
+[388] Julian succeeded Constantine's son Constantius as head of the
+Roman Empire in 361. He was known as "the Apostate" because of his
+efforts to displace the Christian religion and to restore the old
+pagan worship. He died in battle with the Persians in 363.
+
+[389] Henry III., emperor from 1039 to 1056.
+
+[390] The castle of Canossa stood on one of the northern spurs of the
+Apennines, about ten miles southwest of Reggio. Some remains of it may
+yet be seen.
+
+[391] The German princes who were hostile to Henry had kept in close
+touch with the Pope. In the Council of Tribur a legate of Gregory took
+the most prominent part, and the members of that body had invited the
+Pope to come to Augsburg and aid in the settling of Henry's crown upon
+a successor.
+
+[392] Revoked the ban of excommunication. The anathema was a solemn
+curse by an ecclesiastical authority.
+
+[393] That is, the Emperor was to be allowed to invest the new bishop
+or abbot with the fiefs and secular powers by a touch of the scepter,
+but his old claim to the right of investment with the spiritual
+emblems of ring and crozier was denied.
+
+[394] This means that the ecclesiastical prince--the bishop or
+abbot--in the capacity of a landholder was to render the ordinary
+feudal obligations to the Emperor.
+
+[395] Burgundy and Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE CRUSADES
+
+
+51. Speech of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont (1095)
+
+Within a short time after the death of Mohammed (632) the whole
+country of Syria, including Palestine, was overrun by the Arabs, and
+the Holy City of Jerusalem passed out of Christian hands into the
+control of the infidels. The Arabs, however, shared the veneration of
+the Christians for the places associated with the life of Christ and
+did not greatly interfere with the pilgrims who flocked thither from
+all parts of the Christian world. In the tenth century the strong
+emperors of the Macedonian dynasty at Constantinople succeeded in
+winning back all of Syria except the extreme south, and the prospect
+seemed fair for the permanent possession by a Christian power of all
+those portions of the Holy Land which were regarded as having
+associations peculiarly sacred. This prospect might have been realized
+but for the invasions and conquests of the Seljuk Turks in the latter
+part of the eleventh century. These Turks came from central Asia and
+are to be carefully distinguished from the Ottoman Turks of more
+modern times. They had recently been converted to Mohammedanism and
+were now the fiercest and most formidable champions of that faith in
+its conflict with the Christian East. In 1071 Emperor Romanus Diogenes
+was defeated at Manzikert, in Armenia, and taken prisoner by the
+sultan Alp Arslan, and as a result not only Asia Minor, but also
+Syria, was forever lost to the Empire. The Holy City of Jerusalem was
+definitely occupied in 1076. The invaders established a stronghold at
+Nicaea, less than a hundred miles across the Sea of Marmora from
+Constantinople, and even threatened the capital itself, although they
+did not finally succeed in taking it until 1453.
+
+No sooner were the Turks in possession of Jerusalem and the approaches
+thither, than pilgrims returning to western Europe began to tell
+tales, not infrequently as true as they were terrifying, regarding
+insults and tortures suffered at the hand of the pitiless conquerors.
+The Emperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) put forth every effort to
+expel the intruders from Asia Minor, hoping to be able to regain the
+territories, including Syria, which they had stripped from the Empire;
+but his strength proved unequal to the task. Accordingly, in 1095, he
+sent an appeal to Pope Urban II. to enlist the Christian world in a
+united effort to save both the Empire and the Eastern Church. It used
+to be thought that Pope Sylvester II., about the year 1000, had
+suggested a crusade against the Mohammedans of the East, but it now
+appears that the first pope to advance such an idea was Gregory VII.
+(1073-1085), who in response to an appeal of Alexius's predecessor in
+1074, had actually assembled an army of 50,000 men for the aid of the
+Emperor and had been prevented from carrying out the project only by
+the severity of the investiture controversy with Henry IV. of Germany.
+At any rate, it was not a difficult task for the ambassadors of
+Alexius to convince Pope Urban that he ought to execute the plan of
+Gregory. The plea for aid was made at the Council of Piacenza in
+March, 1095, and during the next few months Urban thought out the best
+method of procedure.
+
+At the Council of Clermont, held in November, 1095, the crusade was
+formally proclaimed through the famous speech which the Pope himself
+delivered after the regular business of the assembly had been
+transacted. Urban was a Frenchman and he knew how to appeal to the
+emotions and sympathies of his hearers. For the purpose of stirring up
+interest in the enterprise he dropped the Latin in which the work of
+the Council had been transacted and broke forth in his native tongue,
+much to the delight of his countrymen. There are four early versions
+of the speech, differing widely in contents, and none, of course,
+reproducing the exact words used by the speaker. The version given by
+Robert the Monk, a resident of Rheims, in the opening chapter of his
+history of the first crusade seems in most respects superior to the
+others. It was written nearly a quarter of a century after the Council
+of Clermont, but the writer in all probability had at least heard the
+speech which he was trying to reproduce; in any event we may take his
+version of it as a very satisfactory representation of the aspirations
+and spirit which impelled the first crusaders to their great
+enterprise. It has been well said that "many orations have been
+delivered with as much eloquence, and in as fiery words as the Pope
+used, but no other oration has ever been able to boast of as wonderful
+results."
+
+     Source--Robertus Monachus, _Historia Iherosolimitana_ [Robert
+     the Monk, "History of the Crusade to Jerusalem"], Bk. I.,
+     Chap. 1. Reprinted in _Recueildes Historiens des Croisades:
+     Historiens Occidentaux_ (Paris, 1866), Vol. III., pp. 727-728.
+     Adapted from translation by Dana C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa.
+     Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I., No. 2, pp. 5-8.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Council of Clermont]
+
+   In the year of our Lord's Incarnation one thousand and ninety-five,
+   a great council was convened within the bounds of Gaul, in
+   Auvergne, in the city which is called Clermont. Over this Pope
+   Urban II. presided, with the Roman bishops and cardinals. This
+   council was a famous one on account of the concourse of both French
+   and German bishops, and of princes as well. Having arranged the
+   matters relating to the Church, the lord Pope went forth into a
+   certain spacious plain, for no building was large enough to hold
+   all the people. The Pope then, with sweet and persuasive eloquence,
+   addressed those present in words something like the following,
+   saying:
+
+     [Sidenote: Pope Urban appeals to the French]
+
+   "Oh, race of Franks, race beyond the mountains [the Alps], race
+   beloved and chosen by God (as is clear from many of your works),
+   set apart from all other nations by the situation of your country,
+   as well as by your Catholic faith and the honor you render to the
+   holy Church: to you our discourse is addressed, and for you our
+   exhortations are intended. We wish you to know what a serious
+   matter has led us to your country, for it is the imminent peril
+   threatening you and all the faithful that has brought us hither.
+
+     [Sidenote: The ravages of the Turks]
+
+   "From the confines of Jerusalem and from the city of Constantinople
+   a grievous report has gone forth and has been brought repeatedly to
+   our ears; namely, that a race from the kingdom of the Persians, an
+   accursed race, a race wholly alienated from God, 'a generation that
+   set not their heart aright, and whose spirit was not steadfast with
+   God' [Ps., lxxviii. 8], has violently invaded the lands of those
+   Christians and has depopulated them by pillage and fire. They have
+   led away a part of the captives into their own country, and a part
+   they have killed by cruel tortures. They have either destroyed the
+   churches of God or appropriated them for the rites of their own
+   religion. They destroy the altars, after having defiled them with
+   their uncleanness.... The kingdom of the Greeks [the Eastern
+   Empire] is now dismembered by them and has been deprived of
+   territory so vast in extent that it could not be traversed in two
+   months' time.
+
+     [Sidenote: Urban recalls the zeal and valor of the earlier Franks]
+
+   "On whom, therefore, rests the labor of avenging these wrongs and
+   of recovering this territory, if not upon you--you, upon whom,
+   above all other nations, God has conferred remarkable glory in
+   arms, great courage, bodily activity, and strength to humble the
+   heads of those who resist you? Let the deeds of your ancestors
+   encourage you and incite your minds to manly achievements--the
+   glory and greatness of King Charlemagne, and of his son Louis [the
+   Pious], and of your other monarchs, who have destroyed the kingdoms
+   of the Turks[396] and have extended the sway of the holy Church
+   over lands previously pagan. Let the holy sepulcher of our Lord and
+   Saviour, which is possessed by the unclean nations, especially
+   arouse you, and the holy places which are now treated with ignominy
+   and irreverently polluted with the filth of the unclean. Oh most
+   valiant soldiers and descendants of invincible ancestors, do not
+   degenerate, but recall the valor of your ancestors.
+
+     [Sidenote: The crusade as a desirable remedy for over population]
+
+   "But if you are hindered by love of children, parents, or wife,
+   remember what the Lord says in the Gospel, 'He that loveth father
+   or mother more than me is not worthy of me' [Matt., x. 37]. 'Every
+   one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or sisters, or father,
+   or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my name's sake,
+   shall receive an hundred-fold, and shall inherit everlasting life'
+   [Matt., xix. 29]. Let none of your possessions restrain you, nor
+   anxiety for your family affairs. For this land which you inhabit,
+   shut in on all sides by the seas and surrounded by the mountain
+   peaks, is too narrow for your large population; nor does it abound
+   in wealth; and it furnishes scarcely food enough for its
+   cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another,
+   that you wage war, and that very many among you perish in civil
+   strife.[397]
+
+     [Sidenote: Syria, a rich country]
+
+   "Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels
+   end; let wars cease; and let all dissensions and controversies
+   slumber. Enter upon the road of the Holy Sepulcher; wrest that land
+   from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves. That land
+   which, as the Scripture says, 'floweth with milk and honey' [Num.,
+   xiii. 27] was given by God into the power of the children of
+   Israel. Jerusalem is the center of the earth; the land is fruitful
+   above all others, like another paradise of delights. This spot the
+   Redeemer of mankind has made illustrious by His advent, has
+   beautified by His sojourn, has consecrated by His passion, has
+   redeemed by His death, has glorified by His burial.
+
+   "This royal city, however, situated at the center of the earth, is
+   now held captive by the enemies of Christ and is subjected, by
+   those who do not know God, to the worship of the heathen. She
+   seeks, therefore, and desires to be liberated, and ceases not to
+   implore you to come to her aid. From you especially she asks
+   succor, because, as we have already said, God has conferred upon
+   you, above all other nations, great glory in arms. Accordingly,
+   undertake this journey eagerly for the remission of your sins, with
+   the assurance of the reward of imperishable glory in the kingdom of
+   heaven."
+
+     [Sidenote: Response to the appeal]
+
+   When Pope Urban had skilfully said these and very many similar
+   things, he so centered in one purpose the desires of all who were
+   present that all cried out, "It is the will of God! It is the will
+   of God!" When the venerable Roman pontiff heard that, with eyes
+   uplifted to heaven, he gave thanks to God and, commanding silence
+   with his hand, said:
+
+     [Sidenote: "Deus vult," the war cry]
+
+   "Most beloved brethren, to-day is manifest in you what the Lord
+   says in the Gospel, 'Where two or three are gathered together in my
+   name, there am I in the midst of them' [Matt., xviii. 20]. For
+   unless God had been present in your spirits, all of you would not
+   have uttered the same cry; since, although the cry issued from
+   numerous mouths, yet the origin of the cry was one. Therefore I say
+   to you that God, who implanted this in your breasts, has drawn it
+   forth from you. Let that, then, be your war cry in battle, because
+   it is given to you by God. When an armed attack is made upon the
+   enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of God: 'It
+   is the will of God! It is the will of God!'
+
+     [Sidenote: Who should go and who should remain]
+
+   "And we neither command nor advise that the old or feeble, or those
+   incapable of bearing arms, undertake this journey. Nor ought women
+   to set out at all without their husbands, or brothers, or legal
+   guardians. For such are more of a hindrance than aid, more of a
+   burden than an advantage. Let the rich aid the needy; and according
+   to their wealth let them take with them experienced soldiers. The
+   priests and other clerks [clergy], whether secular or regular, are
+   not to go without the consent of their bishop; for this journey
+   would profit them nothing if they went without permission. Also, it
+   is not fitting that laymen should enter upon the pilgrimage without
+   the blessing of their priests.
+
+   "Whoever, therefore, shall decide upon this holy pilgrimage, and
+   shall make his vow to God to that effect, and shall offer himself
+   to Him for sacrifice, as a living victim, holy and acceptable to
+   God, shall wear the sign of the cross of the Lord on his forehead
+   or on his breast. When he shall return from his journey, having
+   fulfilled his vow, let him place the cross on his back between his
+   shoulders. Thus shall ye, indeed, by this twofold action, fulfill
+   the precept of the Lord, as He commands in the Gospel, 'He that
+   taketh not his cross, and followeth after me, is not worthy of me'"
+   [Luke, xiv. 27].
+
+
+52. The Starting of the Crusaders (1096)
+
+The appeals of Pope Urban at Clermont and elsewhere met with ready
+response, especially among the French, but also to a considerable
+extent among Italians, Germans, and even English. A great variety of
+people were attracted by the enterprise, and from an equal variety of
+motives. Men whose lives had been evil saw in the crusade an
+opportunity of doing penance; criminals who perhaps cared little for
+penance but much for their own personal safety saw in it an avenue of
+escape from justice; merchants discovered in it a chance to open up
+new and valuable trade; knights hailed it as an invitation to deeds of
+valor and glory surpassing any Europe had yet known; ordinary
+malcontents regarded it as a chance to mend their fortunes; and a very
+large number of people looked upon it as a great spiritual obligation
+laid upon them and necessary to be performed in order to insure
+salvation in the world to come. By reason of all these incentives,
+some of them weighing much more in the mediaeval mind than we can
+understand to-day, the crusade brought together men, women, and
+children from every part of Christendom. Both of the accounts given
+below of the assembling and starting of the crusaders are doubtless
+more or less exaggerated at certain points, yet in substance they
+represent what must have been pretty nearly the actual facts.
+
+William of Malmesbury was an English monk who lived in the first half
+of the twelfth century and wrote a very valuable _Chronicle of the
+Kings of England_, which reached the opening of the reign of Stephen
+(1135). He thus had abundant opportunity to learn of the first
+crusade from people who had actually participated in it. His rather
+humorous picture of the effects of Pope Urban's call is thus well
+worth reading. Better than it, however, is the account by the priest
+Fulcher of Chartres (1058-1124)--better because the writer himself
+took part in the crusade and so was a personal observer of most of the
+things he undertook to describe. Fulcher, in 1096, set out upon the
+crusade in the company of his lord, Etienne, count of Blois and
+Chartres, who was a man of importance in the army of Robert of
+Normandy. With the rest of Robert's crusaders he spent the winter in
+Italy and arrived at Durazzo in the spring of 1097. He had a part in
+the siege of Nicaea and in the battle of Dorylaeum, but not in the siege
+of Antioch. Before reaching Jerusalem, in 1099, he became chaplain to
+a brother of Godfrey of Bouillon and was already making progress on
+his "history of the army of God."
+
+     Sources--(a) Guilielmus Monachi Malmesburiensis, _De gestis
+     regum Anglorum_ [William of Malmesbury, "Chronicle of the
+     Kings of England"], Bk. IV., Chap. 2. Adapted from translation
+     by John Sharpe (London, 1815), p. 416.
+
+     (b) Fulcherius Carnotensis, _Historia Iherosolimitana: gesta
+     Francorum Iherusalem peregrinantium_ [Fulcher of Chartres,
+     "History of the Crusade to Jerusalem: the Deeds of the French
+     Journeying Thither"], Chap. 6. Text in _Recueil des Historiens
+     des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux_ (Paris, 1866), Vol.
+     III., p. 328.
+
+     [Sidenote: Universal interest in the crusade]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Immediately the fame of this great event,[398] being spread through
+   the universe, penetrated the minds of Christians with its mild
+   breath, and wherever it blew there was no nation, however distant
+   and obscure, that did not send some of its people. This zeal
+   animated not only the provinces bordering on the Mediterranean, but
+   all who had ever even heard of the name Christian in the most
+   remote isles, and among barbarous nations. Then the Welshman
+   abandoned his forests and neglected his hunting; the Scotchman
+   deserted the fleas with which he is so familiar; the Dane ceased to
+   swallow his intoxicating draughts; and the Norwegian turned his
+   back upon his raw fish. The fields were left by the cultivators,
+   and the houses by their inhabitants; all the cities were deserted.
+   People were restrained neither by the ties of blood nor the love of
+   country; they saw nothing but God. All that was in the granaries,
+   or was destined for food, was left under the guardianship of the
+   greedy agriculturist. The journey to Jerusalem was the only thing
+   hoped for or thought of. Joy animated the hearts of all who set
+   out; grief dwelt in the hearts of all who remained. Why do I say
+   "of those who remained"? You might have seen the husband setting
+   forth with his wife, with all his family; you would have laughed to
+   see all the _penates_[399] put in motion and loaded upon wagons.
+   The road was too narrow for the passengers, and more room was
+   wanted for the travelers, so great and numerous was the crowd.[400]
+
+     [Sidenote: The multitude of crusaders]
+
+   (b)
+
+   Such, then, was the immense assemblage which set out from the West.
+   Gradually along the march, and from day to day, the army grew by
+   the addition of other armies, coming from every direction and
+   composed of innumerable people. Thus one saw an infinite multitude,
+   speaking different languages and coming from divers countries. All
+   did not, however, come together into a single army until we had
+   reached the city of Nicaea.[401] What shall I add? The isles of the
+   sea and the kingdoms of the whole earth were moved by God, so that
+   one might believe fulfilled the prophecy of David, who said in his
+   Psalm: "All nations whom Thou hast made shall come and worship
+   before Thee, O Lord, and shall glorify Thy name;" and so that those
+   who reached the holy places afterwards said justly: "We will
+   worship where His feet have stood." Concerning this journey we
+   read very many other predictions in the prophets, which it would be
+   tedious to recall.
+
+     [Sidenote: Mingled sorrow and joy of the crusaders]
+
+   Oh, how great was the grief, how deep the sighs, what weeping, what
+   lamentations among the friends, when the husband left the wife so
+   dear to him, his children also, and all his possessions of any
+   kind, father, mother, brethren, or kindred! And yet in spite of the
+   floods of tears which those who remained shed for their friends
+   about to depart, and in their very presence, the latter did not
+   suffer their courage to fail, and, out of love for the Lord, in no
+   way hesitated to leave all that they held most precious, believing
+   without doubt that they would gain an hundred-fold in receiving the
+   recompense which God has promised to those who love Him.
+
+   Then the husband confided to his wife the time of his return and
+   assured her that, if he lived, by God's grace he would return to
+   her. He commended her to the Lord, gave her a kiss, and, weeping,
+   promised to return. But the latter, who feared that she would never
+   see him again, overcome with grief, was unable to stand, fell as if
+   lifeless to the ground, and wept over her dear one whom she was
+   losing in life, as if he were already dead. He, then, as if he had
+   no pity (nevertheless he was filled with pity) and was not moved by
+   the grief of his friends (and yet he was secretly moved), departed
+   with a firm purpose. The sadness was for those who remained, and
+   the joy for those who departed. What more can we say? "This is the
+   Lord's doings, and it is marvelous in our eyes."
+
+
+53. A Letter from a Crusader to his Wife
+
+One of the most important groups of sources on the crusades is the
+large body of letters which has come down to us, written by men who
+had an actual part in the various expeditions. These letters,
+addressed to parents, wives, children, vassals, or friends, are
+valuable alike for the facts which they contain and for the revelation
+they give of the spirit and motives of the crusaders. A considerable
+collection of the letters, in English translation, may be found in
+Roger de Hoveden's _Annals of English History_, Roger of Wendover's
+_Flowers of History_, and Matthew Paris's _English History_ (all in
+the Bohn Library); also in Michaud's _History of the Crusades_, Vol.
+III., Appendix. In many respects the letter given below, written at
+Antioch by Count Stephen of Blois to his wife Adele, under date of
+March 29, 1098, is unexcelled in all the records of mediaeval
+letter-writing. Count Stephen (a brother-in-law of Robert of Normandy,
+who was a son of William the Conqueror) was one of the wealthiest and
+most popular French noblemen who responded to Pope Urban's summons at
+Clermont. At least three of his letters to his wife survive, of which
+the one here given is the third in order of time. It discloses the
+ordinary human sentiments of the crusader and makes us feel that,
+unlike the modern man as he was, he yet had very much in common with
+the people of to-day and of all ages. He was at the same time a bold
+fighter and a tender husband, a religious enthusiast and a practical
+man of affairs. When the letter was written, the siege of Antioch had
+been in progress somewhat more than five months; it continued until
+the following June, when it ended in the capture of the city by the
+crusaders. Count Stephen was slain in the battle of Ramleh in 1102.
+
+     Source--D'Achery, _Spicilegium_ ["Gleanings"], 2d edition,
+     Vol. III., pp. 430-433. Adapted from translation by Dana C.
+     Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I.,
+     No. 4, pp. 5-8.
+
+   Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, to his
+   dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks,--his greeting
+   and blessing.
+
+     [Sidenote: Count Stephen reports prosperity]
+
+   You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I sent to
+   give you pleasure left me before Antioch safe and unharmed and,
+   through God's grace, in the greatest prosperity. And already at
+   that time, together with all the chosen army of Christ, endowed
+   with great valor by Him, we have been continually advancing for
+   twenty-three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You may know
+   for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many other kind
+   of riches I now have twice as much as your love had assigned to me
+   when I left you. For all our princes, with the common consent of
+   the whole army, though against my own wishes, have made me up to
+   the present time the leader, chief, and director of their whole
+   expedition.
+
+     [Sidenote: Early achievements of the crusaders]
+
+   Doubtless you have heard that after the capture of the city of
+   Nicaea we fought a great battle with the treacherous Turks and, by
+   God's aid, conquered them.[402] Next we conquered for the Lord all
+   Romania, and afterwards Cappadocia.[403] We had learned that there
+   was a certain Turkish prince, Assam, dwelling in Cappadocia; so we
+   directed our course thither. We conquered all his castles by force
+   and compelled him to flee to a certain very strong castle situated
+   on a high rock. We also gave the land of that Assam to one of our
+   chiefs, and in order that he might conquer the prince we left there
+   with him many soldiers of Christ. Thence, continually following the
+   wicked Turks, we drove them through the midst of Armenia,[404] as
+   far as the great river Euphrates. Having left all their baggage and
+   beasts of burden on the bank, they fled across the river into
+   Arabia.
+
+     [Sidenote: The arrival at Antioch (1097)]
+
+   The bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria,
+   hastened by forced marches night and day, in order to be able to
+   enter the royal city of Antioch before our approach.[405] Hearing
+   of this, the whole army of God gave due praise and thanks to the
+   all-powerful Lord. Hastening with great joy to this chief city of
+   Antioch, we besieged it and there had a great number of conflicts
+   with the Turks; and seven times we fought with the citizens of the
+   city and with the innumerable troops all the time coming to their
+   aid. The latter we rushed out to meet and fought with the fiercest
+   courage under the leadership of Christ. And in all these seven
+   battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered and most
+   assuredly killed an innumerable host of them. In those battles,
+   indeed, and in very many attacks made upon the city, many of our
+   brethren and followers were killed and their souls were borne to
+   the joys of paradise.
+
+     [Sidenote: The beginning of the siege]
+
+   We found the city of Antioch very extensive, fortified with the
+   greatest strength and almost impossible to be taken. In addition,
+   more than 5,000 bold Turkish soldiers had entered the city, not
+   counting the Saracens, Publicans, Arabs, Turcopolitans, Syrians,
+   Armenians, and other different races of whom an infinite multitude
+   had gathered together there. In fighting against these enemies of
+   God and of us we have, by God's grace, endured many sufferings and
+   innumerable hardships up to the present time. Many also have
+   already exhausted all their means in this most holy enterprise.
+   Very many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a bodily death from
+   starvation, if the mercy of God and our money had not come to their
+   rescue. Lying before the city of Antioch, indeed, throughout the
+   whole winter we suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold
+   and enormous torrents of rain. What some say about the
+   impossibility of bearing the heat of the sun in Syria is untrue,
+   for the winter there is very similar to our winter in the West.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Christians defeated near the seashore]
+
+   I delight to tell you, dearest, what happened to us during Lent.
+   Our princes had caused a fortress to be built before a certain gate
+   which was between our camp and the sea. For the Turks, coming out
+   of this gate daily, killed some of our men on their way to the sea.
+   The city of Antioch is about five leagues distant from the sea. For
+   this purpose they sent the excellent Bohemond and Raymond, count of
+   St. Gilles,[406] to the sea with only sixty horsemen, in order
+   that they might bring mariners to aid in this work. When, however,
+   they were returning to us with these mariners, the Turks collected
+   an army, fell suddenly upon our two leaders, and forced them to a
+   perilous flight. In that unexpected fight we lost more than 500 of
+   our foot-soldiers--to the glory of God. Of our horsemen, however,
+   we lost only two, for certain.
+
+   On that same day, in order to receive our brethren with joy, and
+   entirely ignorant of their misfortunes, we went out to meet them.
+   When, however, we approached the above-mentioned gate of the city,
+   a mob of foot-soldiers and horsemen from Antioch, elated by the
+   victory which they had won, rushed upon us in the same manner.
+   Seeing these, our leaders went to the camp of the Christians to
+   order all to be ready to follow us into battle. In the meantime our
+   men gathered together and the scattered leaders, namely, Bohemond
+   and Raymond, with the remainder of their army came up and told of
+   the great misfortune which they had suffered.
+
+     [Sidenote: A notable victory over the Turks]
+
+   Our men, full of fury at these most evil tidings, prepared to die
+   for Christ and, deeply grieved for their brethren, rushed upon the
+   wicked Turks. They, enemies of God and of us, hastily fled before
+   us and attempted to enter the city. But by God's grace the affair
+   turned out very differently; for, when they tried to cross a bridge
+   built over the great river Moscholum,[407] we followed them as
+   closely as possible, killed many before they reached the bridge,
+   forced many into the river, all of whom were killed, and we also
+   slew many upon the bridge and very many at the narrow entrance to
+   the gate. I am telling you the truth, my beloved, and you may be
+   assured that in this battle we killed thirty emirs, that is,
+   princes, and three hundred other Turkish nobles, not counting the
+   remaining Turks and pagans. Indeed the number of Turks and
+   Saracens killed is reckoned at 1230, but of ours we did not lose a
+   single man.
+
+   On the following day (Easter), while my chaplain Alexander was
+   writing this letter in great haste, a party of our men lying in
+   wait for the Turks fought a successful battle with them and killed
+   sixty horsemen, whose heads they brought to the army.
+
+   These which I write to you are only a few things, dearest, of the
+   many which we have done; and because I am not able to tell you,
+   dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to watch
+   carefully over your land, and to do your duty as you ought to your
+   children and your vassals. You will certainly see me just as soon
+   as I can possibly return to you. Farewell.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[396] The term Turks is here used loosely and inaccurately for Asiatic
+pagan invaders in general. The French had never destroyed any
+"kingdoms of the Turks" in the proper sense of the word, though from
+time to time they had made successful resistance to Saracens, Avars
+and Hungarians.
+
+[397] Among the acts of the Council of Clermont had been a solemn
+confirmation of the Truce of God, with the purpose of restraining
+feudal warfare [see p. 228]. In the version of Urban's speech given by
+Fulcher of Chartres, the Pope is reported as saying that in some parts
+of France "hardly any one can venture to travel upon the highways, by
+night or day, without danger of attack by thieves or robbers; and no
+one is sure that his property at home or abroad will not be taken from
+him by the violence or craft of the wicked."
+
+[398] Pope Urban's appeal at the Council of Clermont.
+
+[399] The _penates_ of the Romans were household gods. William of
+Malmesbury here uses the term half-humorously to designate the various
+sorts of household articles which the crusaders thought they could not
+do without on the expedition, and hence undertook to carry with them.
+
+[400] This was in the summer of 1097. The whole body of crusaders,
+including monks, women, children, and hangers-on, may then have
+numbered three or four hundred thousand, but the effective fighting
+force was not likely over one hundred thousand men.
+
+[401] The crusaders reached Nicaea May 6, 1097. After a long siege the
+city surrendered, although to the Emperor Alexius rather than to the
+French.
+
+[402] This battle--the first pitched contest between the crusader and
+the Turk--was fought at Dorylaeum, southeast of Nicaea.
+
+[403] Romania (or the sultanate of Roum) and Cappadocia were regions
+in northern Asia Minor.
+
+[404] The country immediately southeast of the Black Sea.
+
+[405] Antioch was one of the largest and most important cities of the
+East. It had been girdled with enormous walls by Justinian and was a
+strategic position of the greatest value to any power which would
+possess Syria and Palestine. The siege of the city by the crusaders
+began October 21, 1097.
+
+[406] Bohemond of Tarentum was the son of Robert Guiscard and the
+leader of the Norman contingent from Italy. Raymond of St. Gilles,
+count of Toulouse, was leader of the men from Languedoc in south
+France.
+
+[407] The modern Orontes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE GREAT CHARTER
+
+
+54. The Winning of the Charter
+
+The reign of King John (1199-1216) was an era of humiliation, though
+in the end one of triumph, for all classes of the English people. The
+king himself was perhaps the most unworthy sovereign who has ever
+occupied the English throne and one after another of his deeds and
+policies brought deep shame to every patriotic Englishman. His
+surrender to the papacy (1213) and his loss of the English possessions
+on the continent (1214) were only two of the most conspicuous results
+of his weakness and mismanagement. Indeed it was not these that
+touched the English people most closely, for after all it was rather
+their pride than their real interests that suffered by the king's
+homage to Innocent III. and his bitter defeat at Bouvines. Worse than
+these things were the heavy taxes and the illegal extortions of money,
+in which John went far beyond even his unscrupulous brother and
+predecessor, Richard. The king's expenses were very heavy, the more so
+by reason of his French wars, and to meet them he devised all manner
+of schemes for wringing money from his unwilling subjects. Land taxes
+were increased, scutage (payments in lieu of military service) was
+nearly doubled, levies of a thirteenth, a seventh, and other large
+fractions of the movable property of the realm were made, excessive
+fines were imposed, old feudal rights were revived and exercised in an
+arbitrary fashion, and property was confiscated on the shallowest of
+pretenses. Even the Church was by no means immune from the king's
+rapacity. The result of these high-handed measures was that all
+classes of the people--barons, clergy, and commons--were driven into
+an attitude of open protest. The leadership against the king fell
+naturally to the barons and it was directly in consequence of their
+action that John was brought, in 1215, to grant the Great Charter and
+to pledge himself to govern thereafter according to the ancient and
+just laws of the kingdom.
+
+The account of the winning of the Charter given below comes from the
+hand of Roger of Wendover, a monk of St. Albans, a monastery in
+Hertfordshire which was famous in the thirteenth century for its group
+of historians and annalists. It begins with the meeting of the barons
+at St. Edmunds in Suffolk late in November, 1214, and tells the story
+to the granting of the Charter at Runnymede, June 15, 1215. On this
+subject, as well as on the entire period of English history from 1189
+to 1235, Roger of Wendover is our principal contemporary authority.
+
+     Source--Rogerus de Wendover, _Chronica Majora, sive Liber qui
+     dicitur Flores Historiarum_ [Roger of Wendover, "Greater
+     Chronicle, or the Book which is called the Flowers of
+     History"]. Translated by J. A. Giles (London, 1849), Vol. II.,
+     pp. 303-324 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: A conference held by the barons against King John]
+
+   About this time the earls and barons of England assembled at St.
+   Edmunds, as if for religious duties, although it was for another
+   reason;[408] for after they had discoursed together secretly for a
+   time, there was placed before them the charter of King Henry the
+   First, which they had received, as mentioned before, in the city of
+   London from Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury.[409] This charter
+   contained certain liberties and laws granted to the holy Church as
+   well as to the nobles of the kingdom, besides some liberties which
+   the king added of his own accord. All therefore assembled in the
+   church of St. Edmund, the king and martyr, and, commencing with
+   those of the highest rank, they all swore on the great altar that,
+   if the king refused to grant these liberties and laws, they
+   themselves would withdraw from their allegiance to him, and make
+   war on him until he should, by a charter under his own seal,
+   confirm to them everything that they required; and finally it was
+   unanimously agreed that, after Christmas, they should all go
+   together to the king and demand the confirmation of the aforesaid
+   liberties to them, and that they should in the meantime provide
+   themselves with horses and arms, so that if the king should
+   endeavor to depart from his oath they might, by taking his castles,
+   compel him to satisfy their demands; and having arranged this, each
+   man returned home....
+
+     [Sidenote: They demand a confirmation of the old liberties]
+
+     [Sidenote: A truce arranged]
+
+   In the year of our Lord 1215, which was the seventeenth year of the
+   reign of King John, he held his court at Winchester at Christmas
+   for one day, after which he hurried to London, and took up his
+   abode at the New Temple;[410] and at that place the above-mentioned
+   nobles came to him in gay military array, and demanded the
+   confirmation of the liberties and laws of King Edward, with other
+   liberties granted to them and to the kingdom and church of England,
+   as were contained in the charter, and above-mentioned laws of Henry
+   the First. They also asserted that, at the time of his absolution
+   at Winchester,[411] he had promised to restore those laws and
+   ancient liberties, and was bound by his own oath to observe them.
+   The king, hearing the bold tone of the barons in making this
+   demand, much feared an attack from them, as he saw that they were
+   prepared for battle. He, however, made answer that their demands
+   were a matter of importance and difficulty, and he therefore asked
+   a truce until the end of Easter, that, after due deliberation, he
+   might be able to satisfy them as well as the dignity of his crown.
+   After much discussion on both sides, the king at length, although
+   unwillingly, procured the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of
+   Ely, and William Marshal, as his sureties that on the day agreed
+   upon he would, in all reason, satisfy them all; on which the nobles
+   returned to their homes. The king, however, wishing to take
+   precautions against the future, caused all the nobles throughout
+   England to swear fealty to him alone against all men, and to renew
+   their homage to him; and, the better to take care of himself, on
+   the day of St. Mary's purification, he assumed the cross of our
+   Lord, being induced to this more by fear than devotion....[412]
+
+     [Sidenote: The truce at an end]
+
+     [Sidenote: The preliminary demands of the barons]
+
+   In Easter week of this same year, the above-mentioned nobles
+   assembled at Stamford,[413] with horses and arms. They had now
+   induced almost all the nobility of the whole kingdom to join them,
+   and constituted a very large army; for in their army there were
+   computed to be two thousand knights, besides horse-soldiers,
+   attendants, and foot-soldiers, who were variously equipped.... The
+   king at this time was awaiting the arrival of his nobles at
+   Oxford.[414] On the Monday next after the octave of Easter,[415]
+   the said barons assembled in the town of Brackley.[416] And when
+   the king learned this, he sent the archbishop of Canterbury and
+   William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, with some other prudent men, to
+   them to inquire what the laws and liberties were which they
+   demanded. The barons then delivered to the messengers a paper,
+   containing in great measure the laws and ancient customs of the
+   kingdom, and declared that, unless the king immediately granted
+   them and confirmed them under his own seal, they, by taking
+   possession of his fortresses, would force him to give them
+   sufficient satisfaction as to their before-named demands. The
+   archbishop, with his fellow messengers, then carried the paper to
+   the king, and read to him the heads of the paper one by one
+   throughout. The king, when he heard the purport of these heads,
+   said derisively, with the greatest indignation, "Why, amongst these
+   unjust demands, did not the barons ask for my kingdom also? Their
+   demands are vain and visionary, and are unsupported by any plea of
+   reason whatever." And at length he angrily declared with an oath
+   that he would never grant them such liberties as would render him
+   their slave. The principal of these laws and liberties which the
+   nobles required to be confirmed to them are partly described above
+   in the charter of King Henry,[417] and partly are extracted from
+   the old laws of King Edward,[418] as the following history will
+   show in due time.
+
+     [Sidenote: The castle of Northampton besieged by the barons]
+
+   As the archbishop and William Marshal could not by any persuasion
+   induce the king to agree to their demands, they returned by the
+   king's order to the barons, and duly reported to them all that they
+   had heard from the king. And when the nobles heard what John said,
+   they appointed Robert Fitz-Walter commander of their soldiers,
+   giving him the title of "Marshal of the Army of God and the Holy
+   Church," and then, one and all flying to arms, they directed their
+   forces toward Northampton.[419] On their arrival there they at once
+   laid siege to the castle, but after having stayed there for fifteen
+   days, and having gained little or no advantage, they determined to
+   move their camp. Having come without _petrariae_[420] and other
+   engines of war, they, without accomplishing their purpose,
+   proceeded in confusion to the castle of Bedford....[421]
+
+     [Sidenote: The city of London given over to the barons]
+
+   When the army of the barons arrived at Bedford, they were received
+   with all respect by William de Beauchamp.[422] Messengers from the
+   city of London also came to them there, secretly telling them, if
+   they wished to get into that city, to come there immediately. The
+   barons, encouraged by the arrival of this agreeable message,
+   immediately moved their camp and arrived at Ware. After this they
+   marched the whole night and arrived early in the morning at the
+   city of London, and, finding the gates open, on the 24th of May
+   (which was the Sunday next before our Lord's ascension) they
+   entered the city without any tumult while the inhabitants were
+   performing divine service; for the rich citizens were favorable to
+   the barons, and the poor ones were afraid to murmur against them.
+   The barons, having thus got into the city, placed their own guards
+   in charge of each of the gates, and then arranged all matters in
+   the city at will.[423] They then took security from the citizens,
+   and sent letters through England to those earls, barons, and
+   knights who appeared to be still faithful to the king (though they
+   only pretended to be so) and advised them with threats, as they had
+   regard for the safety of all their property and possessions, to
+   abandon a king who was perjured and who made war against his
+   barons, and together with them to stand firm and fight against the
+   king for their rights and for peace; and that, if they refused to
+   do this, they, the barons, would make war against them all, as
+   against open enemies, and would destroy their castles, burn their
+   houses and other buildings, and pillage their warrens, parks, and
+   orchards.... The greatest part of these, on receiving the message
+   of the barons, set out to London and joined them, abandoning the
+   king entirely....
+
+     [Sidenote: The conference between the king and the barons]
+
+     [Sidenote: The charter granted at Runnymede]
+
+   King John, when he saw that he was deserted by almost all, so that
+   out of his regal superabundance of followers he retained scarcely
+   seven knights, was much alarmed lest the barons should attack his
+   castles and reduce them without difficulty, as they would find no
+   obstacle to their so doing. He deceitfully pretended to make peace
+   for a time with the aforesaid barons, and sent William Marshal,
+   earl of Pembroke, with other trustworthy messengers, to them, and
+   told them that, for the sake of peace and for the exaltation and
+   honor of the kingdom, he would willingly grant them the laws and
+   liberties they demanded. He sent also a request to the barons by
+   these same messengers that they appoint a suitable day and place to
+   meet and carry all these matters into effect. The king's messengers
+   then came in all haste to London, and without deceit, reported to
+   the barons all that had been deceitfully imposed on them. They in
+   their great joy appointed the fifteenth of June for the king to
+   meet them, at a field lying between Staines and Windsor.[424]
+   Accordingly, at the time and place agreed upon the king and nobles
+   came to the appointed conference, and when each party had stationed
+   itself some distance from the other, they began a long discussion
+   about terms of peace and the aforesaid liberties.... At length,
+   after various points on both sides had been discussed, King John,
+   seeing that he was inferior in strength to the barons, without
+   raising any difficulty, granted the underwritten laws and
+   liberties, and confirmed them by his charter as follows:--
+
+   [Here ensues the Charter.]
+
+
+55. Extracts from the Charter
+
+No document in the history of any nation is more important than the
+Great Charter; in the words of Bishop Stubbs, the whole of the
+constitutional history of England is only one long commentary upon it.
+Its importance lay not merely in the fact that it was won from an
+unwilling sovereign by the united action of nobles, clergy, and
+people, but also in the admirable summary which it embodies of the
+fundamental principles of English government, so far as they had
+ripened by the early years of the thirteenth century. The charter
+contained almost nothing that was not old. It was not even an
+instrument, like the Constitution of the United States, providing for
+the creation of a new government. It merely sought to gather up within
+a single reasonably brief document all the important principles which
+the best of the English sovereigns had recognized, but which such
+rulers as Richard and John had lately been improving every opportunity
+to evade. The primary purpose of the barons in forcing the king to
+grant the charter was not to get a new form of government or code of
+laws, but simply to obtain a remedy for certain concrete abuses, to
+resist the encroachments of the crown upon the traditional liberties
+of Englishmen, and to get a full and definite confirmation of these
+liberties in black and white. Not a new constitution was wanted, but
+good government in conformity with the old one. Naturally enough,
+therefore, the charter of 1215 was based in most of its important
+provisions upon that granted by Henry I. in 1100, even as this one was
+based on the righteous laws of the good Edward the Confessor. And
+after the same manner the charter of King John, in its turn, became
+the foundation for all future resistance of Englishmen to the evils of
+misgovernment, so that very soon it came naturally to be called _Magna
+Charta_--the Great Charter--by which designation it is known to this
+day.
+
+King John was in no true sense the author of the charter. Many weeks
+before the meeting at Runnymede the barons had drawn up their demands
+in written form, and when that meeting occurred they were ready to lay
+before the sovereign a formal document, in forty-nine chapters, to
+which they simply requested his assent. This preliminary document was
+discussed and worked over, the number of chapters being increased to
+sixty-two, but the charter as finally agreed upon differed from it
+only in minor details. It is a mistake to think of John as "signing"
+the charter after the fashion of modern sovereigns. There is no
+evidence that he could write, and at any rate he acquiesced in the
+terms of the charter only by having his seal affixed to the paper. The
+original "Articles of the Barons" is still preserved in the British
+Museum, but there is no _one_ original Magna Charta in existence.
+Duplicate copies of the document were made for distribution among the
+barons, and papers which are generally supposed to represent four of
+these still exist, two being in the British Museum.
+
+The charter makes a lengthy document and many parts of it are too
+technical to be of service in this book; hence only a few of the most
+important chapters are here given. Translations of the entire document
+from the original Latin may be found in many places, among them the
+University of Pennsylvania _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I., No.
+6; Lee, _Source Book of English History_, 169-180; Adams and Stephens,
+_Select Documents Illustrative of English Constitutional History_, pp.
+42-52; and the _Old South Leaflets_, No. 5.
+
+     Source--Text in William Stubbs, _Select Charters Illustrative
+     of English Constitutional History_ (8th ed., Oxford, 1895),
+     pp. 296-306. Adapted from translation in Sheldon Amos, _Primer
+     of the English Constitution and Government_ (London, 1895),
+     pp. 189-201 _passim_.
+
+   John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke
+   of Normandy, Aquitane, and count of Anjou, to his archbishops,
+   bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciaries, foresters, sheriffs,
+   governors, officers, and to all bailiffs, and his faithful
+   subjects, greeting. Know ye, that we, in the presence of God, and
+   for the salvation of our soul, and the souls of all our ancestors
+   and heirs, and unto the honor of God and the advancement of Holy
+   Church, and amendment of our Realm, ... have, in the first place,
+   granted to God, and by this our present Charter confirmed, for us
+   and our heirs forever:
+
+     [Sidenote: Liberties of the English Church guaranteed]
+
+   =1.= That the Church of England shall be free, and have her whole
+   rights, and her liberties inviolable; and we will have them so
+   observed that it may appear thence that the freedom of elections,
+   which is reckoned chief and indispensable to the English Church,
+   and which we granted and confirmed by our Charter, and obtained the
+   confirmation of the same from our Lord Pope Innocent III., before
+   the discord between us and our barons, was granted of mere free
+   will; which Charter we shall observe, and we do desire it to be
+   faithfully observed by our heirs forever.[425]
+
+     [Sidenote: The rate of reliefs]
+
+   =2.= We also have granted to all the freemen of our kingdom, for us
+   and for our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties, to be
+   had and holden by them and their heirs, of us and our heirs
+   forever. If any of our earls, or barons, or others who hold of us
+   in chief by military service,[426] shall die, and at the time of
+   his death his heir shall be of full age, and owe a relief, he shall
+   have his inheritance by the ancient relief--that is to say, the
+   heir or heirs of an earl, for a whole earldom, by a hundred pounds;
+   the heir or heirs of a knight, for a whole knight's fee, by a
+   hundred shillings at most; and whoever oweth less shall give less,
+   according to the ancient custom of fees.[427]
+
+   =3.= But if the heir of any such shall be under age, and shall be
+   in ward, when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance without
+   relief and without fine.[428]
+
+     [Sidenote: The three aids]
+
+   =12.= No scutage[429] or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom,
+   unless by the general council of our kingdom;[430] except for
+   ransoming our person, making our eldest son a knight, and once for
+   marrying our eldest daughter; and for these there shall be paid no
+   more than a reasonable aid. In like manner it shall be concerning
+   the aids of the City of London.[431]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Great Council]
+
+   =14.= And for holding the general council of the kingdom concerning
+   the assessment of aids, except in the three cases aforesaid, and
+   for the assessing of scutage, we shall cause to be summoned the
+   archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons of the
+   realm, singly by our letters. And furthermore, we shall cause to be
+   summoned generally, by our sheriffs and bailiffs, all others who
+   hold of us in chief, for a certain day, that is to say, forty days
+   before their meeting at least, and to a certain place. And in all
+   letters of such summons we will declare the cause of such summons.
+   And summons being thus made, the business shall proceed on the day
+   appointed, according to the advice of such as shall be present,
+   although all that were summoned come not.[432]
+
+   =15.= We will not in the future grant to any one that he may take
+   aid of his own free tenants, except to ransom his body, and to make
+   his eldest son a knight, and once to marry his eldest daughter; and
+   for this there shall be paid only a reasonable aid.[433]
+
+   =36.= Nothing from henceforth shall be given or taken for a writ of
+   inquisition of life or limb, but it shall be granted freely, and
+   not denied.[434]
+
+   =39.= No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseised,[435]
+   or outlawed,[436] or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we
+   pass upon him, nor will we send upon him,[437] unless by the lawful
+   judgment of his peers,[438] or by the law of the land.[439]
+
+   =40.= We will sell to no man, we will not deny to any man, either
+   justice or right.[440]
+
+     [Sidenote: Freedom of commercial intercourse]
+
+   =41.= All merchants shall have safe and secure conduct to go out
+   of, and to come into, England, and to stay there and to pass as
+   well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient and
+   allowed customs, without any unjust tolls, except in time of war,
+   or when they are of any nation at war with us. And if there be
+   found any such in our land, in the beginning of the war, they shall
+   be detained, without damage to their bodies or goods, until it be
+   known to us, or to our chief justiciary, how our merchants be
+   treated in the nation at war with us; and if ours be safe there,
+   the others shall be safe in our dominions.[441]
+
+   =42.= It shall be lawful, for the time to come, for any one to go
+   out of our kingdom and return safely and securely by land or by
+   water, saving his allegiance to us (unless in time of war, by some
+   short space, for the common benefit of the realm), except prisoners
+   and outlaws, according to the law of the land, and people in war
+   with us, and merchants who shall be treated as is above
+   mentioned.[442]
+
+   =51.= As soon as peace is restored, we will send out of the kingdom
+   all foreign knights, cross-bowmen, and stipendiaries, who are come
+   with horses and arms to the molestation of our people.[443]
+
+   =60.= All the aforesaid customs and liberties, which we have
+   granted to be holden in our kingdom, as much as it belongs to us,
+   all people of our kingdom, as well clergy as laity, shall observe,
+   as far as they are concerned, towards their dependents.[444]
+
+     [Sidenote: How the charter was to be enforced]
+
+   =61.= And whereas, for the honor of God and the amendment of our
+   kingdom, and for the better quieting the discord that has arisen
+   between us and our barons, we have granted all these things
+   aforesaid. Willing to render them firm and lasting, we do give and
+   grant our subjects the underwritten security, namely, that the
+   barons may choose five and twenty barons of the kingdom, whom they
+   think convenient, who shall take care, with all their might, to
+   hold and observe, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties
+   we have granted them, and by this our present Charter
+   confirmed....[445]
+
+   =63.= ... It is also sworn, as well on our part as on the part of
+   the barons, that all the things aforesaid shall be observed in good
+   faith, and without evil duplicity. Given under our hand, in the
+   presence of the witnesses above named, and many others, in the
+   meadow called Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, the 15th day
+   of June, in the 17th year of our reign.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[408] The barons attended the meeting under the pretense of making a
+religious pilgrimage.
+
+[409] This charter, granted at the coronation of Henry I. in 1100,
+contained a renunciation of the evil practices which had marked the
+government of William the Conqueror and William Rufus. It was from
+this document mainly that the barons in 1215 drew their constitutional
+programme.
+
+[410] The Knights Templars, having purchased all that part of the
+banks of the Thames lying between Whitefriars and Essex Street,
+erected on it a magnificent structure which was known as the New
+Temple, in distinction from the Old Temple on the south side of
+Holborn. Meetings of Parliament and of the king's council were
+frequently held in the New Temple; here also were kept the crown
+jewels. Ultimately, after the suppression of the Templars by Edward
+II., the Temple became one of England's most celebrated schools of
+law.
+
+[411] This refers to the king's absolution at the hands of Stephen
+Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, July 20, 1213, after his submission
+to the papacy. At that time John took an oath on the Bible to the
+effect that he would restore the good laws of his forefathers and
+render to all men their rights.
+
+[412] The exact day upon which John took the crusader's vow is
+uncertain. It was probably Ash Wednesday (March 4), 1215. The king's
+object was in part to get the personal protection which the sanctity
+of the vow carried with it and in part to enlist the sympathies of the
+Pope and make it appear that the barons were guilty of interfering
+with a crusade.
+
+[413] On the southern border of Lincolnshire.
+
+[414] On the Thames in Oxfordshire. This statement of the chronicler
+is incorrect. John was yet in London.
+
+[415] Octave means the period of eight days following a religious
+festival. This Monday was April 27.
+
+[416] Brackley is about twenty-two miles north of Oxford.
+
+[417] Henry I.'s charter, 1100.
+
+[418] Edward the Confessor, king from 1042 to 1066.
+
+[419] In the county of Northampton, in central England.
+
+[420] Engines for hurling stones.
+
+[421] About twenty miles southeast of Northampton.
+
+[422] The commander of Bedford Castle.
+
+[423] The loss of London by the king was a turning point in the
+contest. Thereafter the barons' party gained rapidly and its complete
+success was only a question of time.
+
+[424] Runnymede, on the Thames.
+
+[425] The charter referred to, in which the liberties of the Church
+were confirmed, was granted in November, 1214, and renewed in
+January, 1215. It was in the nature of a bribe offered the clergy by
+the king in the hope of winning their support in his struggle with the
+barons. The liberty granted was particularly that of "canonical
+election," i.e., the privilege of the cathedral chapters to elect
+bishops without being dominated in their choice by the king. Henry
+I.'s charter (1100) contained a similar provision, but it had not been
+observed in practice.
+
+[426] Tenants _in capite_, i.e., men holding land directly from the
+king on condition of military service.
+
+[427] The object of this chapter is, in general, to prevent the
+exaction of excessive reliefs. The provision of Henry I.'s charter
+that reliefs should be just and reasonable had become a dead letter.
+
+[428] During the heir's minority the king received the profits of the
+estate; in consequence of this the payment of relief by such an heir
+was to be remitted.
+
+[429] Scutage (from _scutum_, shield) was payment made to the king by
+persons who owed military service but preferred to give money instead.
+Scutage levied by John had been excessively heavy.
+
+[430] The General, or Great, Council was a feudal body made up of the
+king's tenants-in-chief, both greater and lesser lords. This chapter
+puts a definite, even though not very far-reaching, limitation upon
+the royal power of taxation, and so looks forward in a way to the
+later regime of taxation by Parliament.
+
+[431] London had helped the barons secure the charter and was rewarded
+by being specifically included in its provisions.
+
+[432] Here we have a definite statement as to the composition of the
+Great Council. The distinction between greater and lesser barons is
+mentioned as early as the times of Henry I. (1100-1135). In a general
+way it may be said that the greater barons (together with the greater
+clergy) developed into the House of Lords and the lesser ones, along
+with the ordinary free-holders, became the "knights of the shire," who
+so long made up the backbone of the Commons. In the thirteenth century
+comparatively few of the lesser barons attended the meetings of the
+Council. Attendance was expensive and they were not greatly interested
+in the body's proceedings. It should be noted that the Great Council
+was in no sense a legislative assembly.
+
+[433] It is significant that the provisions of the charter which
+prohibit feudal exactions were made by the barons to apply to
+themselves as well as to the king.
+
+[434] This is an important legal enactment whose purpose is to prevent
+prolonged imprisonment, without trial, of persons accused of serious
+crime. A person accused of murder, for example, could not be set at
+liberty under bail, but he could apply for a writ _de odio et atia_
+("concerning hatred and malice") which directed the sheriff to make
+inquest by jury as to whether the accusation had been brought by
+reason of hatred and malice. If the jury decided that the accusation
+had been so brought, the accused person could be admitted to bail
+until the time for his regular trial. This will occur to one as being
+very similar to the principle of _habeas corpus_. John had been
+charging heavy fees for these writs _de odio et atia_, or "writs of
+inquisition of life and limb," as they are called in the charter;
+henceforth they were to be issued freely.
+
+[435] To disseise a person is to dispossess him of his freehold
+rights.
+
+[436] Henceforth a person could be outlawed, i.e., declared out of the
+protection of the law, only by the regular courts.
+
+[437] That is, use force upon him, as John had frequently done.
+
+[438] The term "peers," as here used, means simply equals in rank. The
+present clause does not yet imply trial by jury in the modern sense.
+It comprises simply a narrow, feudal demand of the nobles to be judged
+by other nobles, rather than by lawyers or clerks. Jury trial was
+increasingly common in the thirteenth century, but it was not
+guaranteed in the Great Charter.
+
+[439] This chapter is commonly regarded as the most important in the
+charter. It undertakes to prevent arbitrary imprisonment and to
+protect private property by laying down a fundamental principle of
+government which John had been constantly violating and which very
+clearly marked the line of distinction between a limited and an
+absolute monarchy.
+
+[440] The principle is here asserted that justice in the courts should
+be open to all, and without the payment of money to get judgment
+hastened or delayed. Extortions of this character did not cease in
+1215, but they became less exorbitant and arbitrary.
+
+[441] The object of this chapter is to encourage commerce by
+guaranteeing foreign merchants the same treatment that English
+merchants received in foreign countries. The tolls imposed on traders
+by the cities, however, were not affected and they continued a serious
+obstacle for some centuries.
+
+[442] This chapter provides that, except under the special
+circumstances of war, any law-abiding Englishman might go abroad
+freely, provided only he should remain loyal to the English crown. The
+rule thus established continued in effect until 1382, when it was
+enacted that such privileges should belong only to lords, merchants,
+and soldiers.
+
+[443] During the struggle with the barons, John had brought in a
+number of foreign mercenary soldiers or "stipendiaries." All classes
+of Englishmen resented this policy and the barons improved the
+opportunity offered by the charter to get a promise from the king to
+dispense with his continental mercenaries as quickly as possible.
+
+[444] This chapter provides that the charter's regulation of feudal
+customs should apply to the barons just as to the king. The barons'
+tenants were to be protected from oppression precisely as were the
+barons themselves. These tenants had helped in the winning of the
+charter and were thus rewarded for their services.
+
+[445] The chapter goes on at considerable length to specify the manner
+in which, if the king should violate the terms of the charter, the
+commission of twenty-five barons should proceed to bring him to
+account. Even the right of making war was given them, in case it
+should become necessary to resort to such an extreme measure.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS
+
+
+56. The Character and Deeds of the King as Described by Joinville
+
+Louis IX., or St. Louis, as he is commonly called, was the eldest son
+of Louis VIII. and a grandson of Philip Augustus. He was born in 1214
+and upon the death of his father in 1226 he succeeded to the throne of
+France while yet but a boy of twelve. The recent reign of Philip
+Augustus (1180-1223) had been a period marked by a great increase in
+the royal power and by a corresponding lessening of the independent
+authority of the feudal magnates. The accession of a boy-king was
+therefore hailed by the discontented nobles as an opportunity to
+recover something at least of their lost privileges. It would
+doubtless have been such but for the vigilance, ability, and masculine
+aggressiveness of the young king's mother, Blanche of Castile. Aided
+by the clergy and the loyal party among the nobles, she, in the
+capacity of regent, successfully defended her son's interests against
+a succession of plots and uprisings, with the result that when Louis
+gradually assumed control of affairs in his own name, about 1236, the
+realm was in good order and the dangers which once had been so
+threatening had all but disappeared. The king's education and moral
+training had been well attended to, and he arrived at manhood with
+an equipment quite unusual among princes of his day. His reign
+extended to 1270 and became in some respects the most notable in all
+French history. In fact, whether viewed from the standpoint of his
+personal character or his practical achievements, St. Louis is
+generally admitted to have been one of the most remarkable sovereigns
+of mediaeval Europe. He was famous throughout Christendom for his
+piety, justice, wisdom, and ability, being recognized as at once a
+devoted monk, a brave knight, and a capable king. In him were blended
+two qualities--vigorous activity and proneness to austere
+meditation--rarely combined in such measure in one person. His
+character may be summed up by saying that he had all the virtues of
+his age and few of its vices. No less cynical a critic than Voltaire
+has declared that he went as far in goodness as it is possible for a
+man to go.
+
+Saint Louis being thus so interesting a character in himself, it is
+very fortunate that we have an excellent contemporary biography of
+him, from the hand of a friend and companion who knew him well. Sire
+de Joinville's _Histoire de Saint Louis_ is a classic of French
+literature and in most respects the best piece of biographical writing
+that has come down to us from the Middle Ages. Joinville, or more
+properly John, lord of Joinville, was born in Champagne, in northern
+France, probably in 1225. His family was one of the most distinguished
+in Champagne and he himself had all the advantages that could come
+from being brought up at the refined court of the count of this
+favored district. In 1248, when St. Louis set out on his first
+crusading expedition, Joinville, only recently become of age, took the
+cross and became a follower of the king, joining him in Cyprus and
+there first definitely entering his service. During the next six years
+the two were inseparable companions, and even after Joinville, in
+1254, retired from the king's service in order to manage his estates
+in Champagne he long continued to make frequent visits of a social
+character to the court.
+
+Joinville's memoirs of St. Louis were completed about 1309--probably
+nine years before the death of the author--and they were first
+published soon after the death of Philip the Fair in 1314. They
+constitute by far the most important source of information on the
+history of France in the middle portion of the thirteenth century.
+Joinville had the great advantage of intimate acquaintance and long
+association with King Louis and, what is equally important, he seems
+to have tried to write in a spirit of perfect fairness and justice. He
+was an ardent admirer of Louis, but his biography did not fall into
+the tempting channel of mere fulsome and indiscriminate praise.
+Moreover, the work is a biography of the only really satisfactory
+type; it is not taken up with a bare recital of events in the life of
+the individual under consideration, but it has a broad background
+drawn from the general historical movements and conditions of the
+time. Its most obvious defects arise from the fact that it comprises
+largely the reminiscences of an old man, which are never likely to be
+entirely accurate or well-balanced. In his dedication of the treatise
+to Louis, eldest son of Philip IV., the author relates that it had
+been written at the urgent solicitation of the deceased king's widow.
+
+The biography in print makes a good-sized volume and it is possible,
+of course, to reproduce here but a few significant passages from it.
+But these are perhaps sufficient to show what sort of man the
+saint-king really was, and it is just this insight into the character
+of the men of the Middle Ages that is most worth getting--and the
+hardest thing, as a rule, to get. Incidentally, the extract throws
+some light on the methods of warfare employed by the crusaders and the
+Turks.
+
+     Source--Jean, Sire de Joinville, _Histoire de Saint Louis_.
+     Text edited by M. Joseph Noel (Natalis de Wailly) and
+     published by the Societe de l'Histoire de France (Paris,
+     1868). Translated by James Hutton under title of _Saint Louis,
+     King of France_ (London, 1868), _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The king's birth]
+
+   As I have heard him say, he [Saint Louis] was born on the day of
+   St. Mark the Evangelist,[446] shortly after Easter. On that day the
+   cross is carried in procession in many places, and in France they
+   are called black crosses. It was therefore a sort of prophecy of
+   the great numbers of people who perished in those two crusades,
+   i.e., in that to Egypt, and in that other, in the course of which
+   he died at Carthage;[447] for many great sorrows were there on that
+   account in this world, and many great joys are there now in
+   Paradise on the part of those who in those two pilgrimages died
+   true crusaders.
+
+     [Sidenote: His early training]
+
+   God, in whom he put his trust, preserved him ever from his infancy
+   to the very last; and especially in his infancy did He preserve him
+   when he stood in need of help, as you will presently hear. As for
+   his soul, God preserved it through the pious instructions of his
+   mother, who taught him to believe in God and to love Him, and
+   placed about him none but ministers of religion. And she made him,
+   while he was yet a child, attend to all his prayers and listen to
+   the sermons on saints' days. He remembered that his mother used
+   sometimes to tell him that she would rather he were dead than that
+   he should commit a deadly sin.
+
+     [Sidenote: Difficulties at the beginning of his reign]
+
+   Sore need of God's help had he in his youth, for his mother, who
+   came out of Spain, had neither relatives nor friends in all the
+   realm of France. And because the barons of France saw that the king
+   was an infant, and the queen, his mother, a foreigner, they made
+   the count of Boulogne, the king's uncle, their chief, and looked up
+   to him as their lord.[448] After the king was crowned, some of the
+   barons asked of the queen to bestow upon them large domains; and
+   because she would do nothing of the kind all the barons assembled
+   at Corbei.[449] And the sainted king related to me how neither he
+   nor his mother, who were at Montlheri,[450] dared to return to
+   Paris, until the citizens of Paris came, with arms in their hands,
+   to escort them. He told me, too, that from Montlheri to Paris the
+   road was filled with people, some with and some without weapons,
+   and that all cried unto our Lord to give him a long and happy life,
+   and to defend and preserve him from his enemies....
+
+     [Sidenote: Louis takes the cross]
+
+   After these things it chanced, as it pleased God, that great
+   illness fell upon the king at Paris, by which he was brought to
+   such extremity that one of the women who watched by his side wanted
+   to draw the sheet over his face, saying that he was dead; but
+   another woman, who was on the other side of the bed, would not
+   suffer it, for the soul, she said, had not yet left the body. While
+   he was listening to the dispute between these two, our Lord wrought
+   upon him and quickly sent him health; for before that he was dumb,
+   and could not speak. He demanded that the cross should be given to
+   him, and it was done. When the queen, his mother, heard that he had
+   recovered his speech, she exhibited as much joy as could be; but
+   when she was told by himself that he had taken the cross, she
+   displayed as much grief as if she had seen him dead.
+
+     [Sidenote: Prominent Frenchmen who followed his example]
+
+   After the king put on the cross, Robert, count of Artois, Alphonse,
+   count of Poitiers, Charles, count of Anjou, who was afterwards king
+   of Sicily--all three brothers of the king--also took the cross; as
+   likewise did Hugh, duke of Burgundy, William, count of Flanders
+   (brother to Count Guy of Flanders, the last who died), the good
+   Hugh, count of Saint Pol, and Monseigneur Walter, his nephew, who
+   bore himself right manfully beyond seas, and would have been of
+   great worth had he lived. There was also the count of La Marche,
+   and Monseigneur Hugh le Brun, his son; the count of Sarrebourg, and
+   Monseigneur d'Apremont, his brother, in whose company I myself,
+   John, Seigneur de Joinville, crossed the sea in a ship we
+   chartered, because we were cousins; and we crossed over in all
+   twenty knights, nine of whom followed the count of Sarrebourg, and
+   nine were with me....
+
+   The king summoned his barons to Paris, and made them swear to keep
+   faith and loyalty towards his children if anything happened to
+   himself on the voyage. He asked the same of me, but I refused to
+   take any oath, because I was not his vassal....
+
+     [Sidenote: Embarking on the Mediterranean]
+
+   In the month of August we went on board our ships at the Rock of
+   Marseilles. The day we embarked the door of the vessel was opened,
+   and the horses that we were to take with us were led inside. Then
+   they fastened the door and closed it up tightly, as when one sinks
+   a cask, because when the ship is at sea the whole of the door is
+   under water. When the horses were in, our sailing-master called out
+   to his mariners who were at the prow: "Are you all ready?" And they
+   replied: "Sir, let the clerks and priests come forward." As soon
+   as they had come nigh, he shouted to them; "Chant, in God's name!"
+   And they with one voice chanted, "_Veni, Creator Spiritus._" Then
+   the master called out to his men: "Set sail, in God's name!" And
+   they did so. And in a little time the wind struck the sails and
+   carried us out of sight of land, so that we saw nothing but sea and
+   sky; and every day the wind bore us farther away from the land
+   where we were born. And thereby I show you how foolhardy he must be
+   who would venture to put himself in such peril with other people's
+   property in his possession, or while in deadly sin; for when you
+   fall asleep at night you know not but that ere the morning you may
+   be at the bottom of the sea.
+
+     [Sidenote: Preparations made in Cyprus]
+
+   When we reached Cyprus, the king was already there, and we found an
+   immense supply of stores for him, i.e., wine-stores and granaries.
+   The king's wine-stores consisted of great piles of casks of wine,
+   which his people had purchased two years before the king's arrival
+   and placed in an open field near the seashore. They had piled them
+   one upon the other, so that when seen from the front they looked
+   like a farmhouse. The wheat and barley had been heaped up in the
+   middle of the field, and at first sight looked like hills; for the
+   rain, which had long beaten upon the corn, had caused it to sprout,
+   so that nothing was seen but green herbage. But when it was desired
+   to transport it to Egypt, they broke off the outer coating with the
+   green herbage, and the wheat and barley within were found as fresh
+   as if they had only just been threshed out.
+
+     [Sidenote: An embassy from the Khan]
+
+   The king, as I have heard him say, would gladly have pushed on to
+   Egypt without stopping, had not his barons advised him to wait for
+   his army, which had not all arrived. While the king was sojourning
+   in Cyprus, the great Khan of Tartary[451] sent envoys to him, the
+   bearers of very courteous messages. Among other things, he told him
+   that he was ready to aid him in conquering the Holy Land and in
+   delivering Jerusalem out of the hands of the Saracens. The king
+   received the messengers very graciously, and sent some to the Khan,
+   who were two years absent before they could return. And with his
+   messengers the king sent to the Khan a tent fashioned like a
+   chapel, which cost a large sum of money, for it was made of fine
+   rich scarlet cloth. And the king, in the hope of drawing the Khan's
+   people to our faith, caused to be embroidered inside the chapel,
+   pictures representing the Annunciation of Our Lady, and other
+   articles of faith. And he sent these things to them by the hands of
+   two friars, who spoke the Saracen language, to teach and point out
+   to them what they ought to believe....
+
+     [Sidenote: The departure from Cyprus]
+
+   As soon as March came round, the king, and, by his command, the
+   barons and other pilgrims, gave orders that the ships should be
+   laden with wine and provisions, to be ready to sail when the king
+   should give the signal. It happened that when everything was ready,
+   the king and queen withdrew on board their ship on the Friday
+   before Whitsunday, and the king desired his barons to follow in his
+   wake straight towards Egypt. On Saturday[452] the king set sail,
+   and all the other vessels at the same time, which was a fine sight
+   to behold, for it seemed as if the whole sea, as far as the eye
+   could reach, was covered with sails, and the number of ships,
+   great and small, was reckoned at 1,800....[453]
+
+     [Sidenote: Decision to proceed against Cairo]
+
+   Upon the arrival of the count of Poitiers, the king summoned all
+   the barons of the army to decide in what direction he should march,
+   whether towards Alexandria, or towards Babylon.[454] It resulted
+   that the good Count Peter of Brittany, and most of the barons of
+   the army, were of the opinion that the king should lay siege to
+   Alexandria, because that city is possessed of a good port where the
+   vessels could lie that should bring provisions for the army. To
+   this the count of Artois was opposed. He said that he could not
+   advise going anywhere except to Babylon, because that was the chief
+   town in all the realm of Egypt; he added, that whosoever wished to
+   kill a serpent outright should crush its head. The king set aside
+   the advice of his barons, and held to that of his brother.
+
+   At the beginning of Advent, the king set out with his army to march
+   against Babylon, as the count of Artois had counseled him. Not far
+   from Damietta we came upon a stream of water which issued from the
+   great river [Nile], and it was resolved that the army should halt
+   for a day to dam up this branch, so that it might be crossed. The
+   thing was done easily enough, for the arm was dammed up close to
+   the great river. At the passage of this stream the sultan sent 500
+   of his knights, the best mounted in his whole army, to harass the
+   king's troops, and retard our march.
+
+     [Sidenote: A skirmish between the Saracens and the Templars]
+
+   On St. Nicholas's day[455] the king gave the order to march and
+   forbade that any one should be so bold as to sally out upon the
+   Saracens who were before us. So it chanced that when the army was
+   in motion to resume the march and the Turks saw that no one would
+   sally out against them, and learned from their spies that the king
+   had forbidden it, they became emboldened and attacked the
+   Templars,[456] who formed the advance-guard. And one of the Turks
+   hurled to the ground one of the knights of the Temple, right before
+   the feet of the horse of Reginald de Bichiers, who was at that time
+   Marshal of the Temple. When the latter saw this, he shouted to the
+   other brethren: "Have at them, in God's name! I cannot suffer any
+   more of this." He dashed in his spurs, and all the army did
+   likewise. Our people's horses were fresh, while those of the Turks
+   were already worn out. Whence it happened, as I have heard, that
+   not a Turk escaped, but all perished, several of them having
+   plunged into the river, where they were drowned....[457]
+
+   One evening when we were on duty near the cat castles, they brought
+   against us an engine called _pierriere_,[458] which they had never
+   done before, and they placed Greek fire[459] in the sling of the
+   engine. When Monseigneur Walter de Cureil, the good knight, who
+   was with me, saw that, he said to us: "Sirs, we are in the greatest
+   peril we have yet been in; for if they set fire to our towers, and
+   we remain here, we are dead men, and if we leave our posts which
+   have been intrusted to us, we are put to shame; and no one can
+   rescue us from this peril save God. It is therefore my opinion and
+   my advice to you that each time they discharge the fire at us we
+   should throw ourselves upon our elbows and knees, and pray our Lord
+   to bring us out of this danger."
+
+     [Sidenote: The Saracens make use of Greek fire]
+
+   As soon as they fired we threw ourselves upon our elbows and knees,
+   as he had counseled us. The first shot they fired came between our
+   two cat castles, and fell in front of us on the open place which
+   the army had made for the purpose of damming the river. Our men
+   whose duty it was to extinguish fires were all ready for it; and
+   because the Saracens could not aim at them on account of the two
+   wings of the sheds which the king had erected there, they fired
+   straight up towards the clouds, so that their darts came down from
+   above upon the men. The nature of the Greek fire was in this wise,
+   that it rushed forward as large around as a cask of verjuice,[460]
+   and the tail of the fire which issued from it was as big as a
+   large-sized spear. It made such a noise in coming that it seemed as
+   if it were a thunderbolt from heaven and looked like a dragon
+   flying through the air. It cast such a brilliant light that in the
+   camp they could see as clearly as if it were daytime, because of
+   the light diffused by such a bulk of fire. Three times that night
+   they discharged the Greek fire at us, and four times they sent it
+   from the fixed cross-bows. Each time that Our sainted king heard
+   that they had discharged the Greek fire at us, he dressed himself
+   on his bed and stretched out his hands towards our Lord, and prayed
+   with tears: "Fair Sire God, preserve me my people!" And I verily
+   believe that his prayers stood us in good stead in our hour of
+   need. That evening, every time the fire fell, he sent one of his
+   chamberlains to inquire in what state we were and if the fire had
+   done us any damage. One time when they threw it, it fell close to
+   the cat castle which Monseigneur de Courtenay's people were
+   guarding, and struck on the river-bank. Then a knight named
+   Aubigoiz called to me and said: "Sir, if you do not help us we are
+   all burnt, for the Saracens have discharged so many of their darts
+   dipped in Greek fire that there is of them, as it were, a great
+   blazing hedge coming towards our tower."
+
+   We ran forward and hastened thither and found that he spoke the
+   truth. We extinguished the fire, but before we had done so the
+   Saracens covered us with the darts they discharged from the other
+   side of the river.
+
+     [Sidenote: Progress of the conflict]
+
+   The king's brothers mounted guard on the roof of the cat castles to
+   fire bolts from cross-bows against the Saracens, and which fell
+   into their camp. The king had commanded that when the king of
+   Sicily[461] mounted guard in the daytime at the cat castles, we
+   were to do so at night. One day when the king of Sicily was keeping
+   watch, which we should have to do at night, we were in much trouble
+   of mind because the Saracens had shattered our cat castles. The
+   Saracens brought out the _pierriere_ in the daytime, which they had
+   hitherto done only at night, and discharged the Greek fire at our
+   towers. They had advanced their engines so near to the causeway
+   which the army had constructed to dam the river that no one dared
+   to go to the towers, because of the huge stones which the engines
+   flung upon the road. The consequence was that our two towers were
+   burned, and the king of Sicily was so enraged about it that he came
+   near flinging himself into the fire to extinguish it. But if he
+   were wrathful, I and my knights, for our part, gave thanks to God;
+   for if we had mounted guard at night, we should all have been
+   burned....[462]
+
+   It came to pass that the sainted king labored so much that the
+   king of England, his wife, and children, came to France to treat
+   with him about peace between him and them. The members of his
+   council were strongly opposed to this peace, and said to him:
+
+     [Sidenote: The treaty of Paris, 1259]
+
+   "Sire, we greatly marvel that it should be your pleasure to yield
+   to the king of England such a large portion of your land, which you
+   and your predecessors have won from him, and obtained through
+   forfeiture. It seems to us that if you believe you have no right to
+   it, you do not make fitting restitution to the king of England
+   unless you restore to him all the conquests which you and your
+   predecessors have made; but if you believe that you have a right to
+   it, it seems to us that you are throwing away all that you yield to
+   him."
+
+   To this the sainted king replied after this fashion: "Sirs, I am
+   certain that the king of England's predecessors lost most justly
+   the conquests I hold; and the land which I give up to him I do not
+   give because I am bound either towards himself or his heirs, but to
+   create love between his children and mine, who are first cousins.
+   And it seems to me that I am making a good use of what I give to
+   him, because before he was not my vassal, but now he has to render
+   homage to me."...[463]
+
+   After the king's return from beyond sea, he lived so devoutly that
+   he never afterwards wore furs of different colors, nor
+   minnever,[464] nor scarlet cloth, nor gilt stirrups or spurs. His
+   dress was of camlet[465] and of a dark blue cloth; the linings of
+   his coverlets and garments were of doeskin or hare-legs.
+
+     [Sidenote: The king's personal traits]
+
+   When rich men's minstrels entered the hall after the repast,
+   bringing with them their viols, he waited to hear grace until the
+   minstrel had finished his chant; then he rose and the priests who
+   said grace stood before him. When we were at his court in a private
+   way,[466] he used to sit at the foot of his bed, and when the
+   Franciscans and Dominicans[467] who were there spoke of a book that
+   would give him pleasure, he would say to them: "You shall not read
+   to me, for, after eating, there is no book so pleasant as
+   _quolibets_,"--that is, that every one should say what he likes.
+   When men of quality dined with him, he made himself agreeable to
+   them....
+
+     [Sidenote: His primitive method of dispensing justice]
+
+   Many a time it happened that in the summer he would go and sit down
+   in the wood at Vincennes,[468] with his back to an oak, and make us
+   take our seats around him. And all those who had complaints to make
+   came to him, without hindrance from ushers or other folk. Then he
+   asked them with his own lips: "Is there any one here who has a
+   cause?"[469] Those who had a cause stood up, when he would say to
+   them: "Silence all, and you shall be dispatched one after the
+   other." Then he would call Monseigneur de Fontaines, or Monseigneur
+   Geoffrey de Villette, and would say to one of them: "Dispose of
+   this case for me." When he saw anything to amend in the words of
+   those who spoke for others, he would correct it with his own lips.
+   Sometimes in summer I have seen him, in order to administer justice
+   to the people, come into the garden of Paris dressed in a camlet
+   coat, a surcoat of woollen stuff, without sleeves, a mantle of
+   black taffety around his neck, his hair well combed and without
+   coif, a hat with white peacock's feathers on his head. Carpets were
+   spread for us to sit down upon around him, and all the people who
+   had business to dispatch stood about in front of him. Then he would
+   have it dispatched in the same manner as I have already described
+   in the wood of Vincennes.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[446] April 25, 1215.
+
+[447] Louis started on his first crusade in August, 1248. After a
+series of disasters in Egypt he managed to reach the Holy Land, where
+he spent nearly four years fortifying the great seaports. He returned
+to France in July, 1254. Sixteen years later, in July, 1270, he
+started on his second crusade. He had but reached Carthage when he was
+suddenly taken ill and compelled to halt the expedition. He died there
+August 25, 1270. Louis was as typical a crusader as ever lived, but in
+his day men of his kind were few; the great era of crusading
+enterprise was past.
+
+[448] This was Philip, son of Philip Augustus. The lands of the count
+of Boulogne lay on the coast of the English Channel north of the
+Somme.
+
+[449] An important church center about seventy miles north of Paris.
+
+[450] A town a few miles south of Paris.
+
+[451] In the early years of the thirteenth century, an Asiatic
+chieftain by the name of Genghis Khan built up a vast empire of Mongol
+or Tartar peoples, which for a time stretched all the way from China
+to eastern Germany. The rise and westward expansion of this barbarian
+power spread alarm throughout Christendom, and with good reason, for
+it was with great difficulty that the Tartar sovereigns were prevented
+from extending their dominion over Germany and perhaps over all
+western Europe. After the first feeling of terror had passed, however,
+it began to be considered that possibly the Asiatic conquerors might
+yet be made to serve the interests of Christendom. They were not
+Mohammedans, and Christian leaders saw an opportunity to turn them
+against the Saracen master of the coveted Holy Land. Louis IX.'s
+reception of an embassy from Ilchikadai, one of the Tartar khans, or
+sovereigns, was only one of several incidents which illustrate the
+efforts made in this direction. After this episode the Tartars
+advanced rapidly into Syria, taking the important cities of Damascus
+and Aleppo; but a great defeat, September 3, 1260, by the sultan Kutuz
+at Ain Talut stemmed the tide of invasion and compelled the Tartars to
+retire to their northern dominions.
+
+[452] May 21, 1249.
+
+[453] Joinville here gives an account of the first important
+undertaking of the crusaders--the capture of Damietta. After this
+achievement the king resolved to await the arrival of his brother, the
+count of Poitiers, with additional troops. The delay thus occasioned
+was nearly half a year in length, i.e., until October.
+
+[454] This was a common designation of Cairo, the Saracen capital of
+Egypt.
+
+[455] December 6.
+
+[456] The order of the Templars was founded in 1119 to afford
+protection to pilgrims in Palestine. The name was taken from the
+temple of Solomon, in Jerusalem, near which the organization's
+headquarters were at first established. The Templars, in their early
+history, were a military order and they had a prominent part in most
+of the crusading movements after their foundation.
+
+[457] At this point Joinville gives an extended description of the
+Nile and its numerous mouths. King Louis found himself on the bank of
+one of the streams composing the delta, with the sultan's army drawn
+up on the other side to prevent the Christians from crossing. Louis
+determined to construct an embankment across the stream, so that his
+troops might cross and engage in battle with the enemy. To protect the
+men engaged in building the embankment, two towers, called cat castles
+(because they were in front of two cats, or covered galleries) were
+erected. Under cover of these, the work of constructing a passageway
+went on, though the Saracens did not cease to shower missiles upon the
+laborers.
+
+[458] An instrument intended primarily for the hurling of stones.
+
+[459] Greek fire was made in various ways, but its main ingredients
+were sulphur, Persian gum, pitch, petroleum, and oil. It was a highly
+inflammable substance and when once ignited could be extinguished only
+by the use of vinegar or sand. It was used quite extensively by the
+Saracens in their battles with the crusaders, being usually projected
+in the form of fire-balls from hollow tubes.
+
+[460] An acid liquor made from sour apples or grapes.
+
+[461] Charles, count of Anjou--a brother of Saint Louis.
+
+[462] Joinville's story of the remainder of the campaign in Egypt is a
+long one. Enough has been given to show something of the character of
+the conflicts between Saracen and crusader. In the end Louis was
+compelled to withdraw his shattered army. He then made his way to the
+Holy Land in the hope of better success, but the four years he spent
+there were likewise a period of disappointment.
+
+[463] The treaty here referred to is that of Paris, negotiated by
+Louis IX. and Henry III. in 1259. By it the English king renounced his
+claim to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou, while Louis IX.
+ceded to Henry the Limousin, Perigord, and part of Saintonge, besides
+the reversion of Agenais and Quercy. The territories thus abandoned by
+the French were to be annexed to the duchy of Guienne, for which Henry
+III. was to render homage to the French king, just as had been
+rendered by the English sovereigns before the conquests of Philip
+Augustus. Manifestly Louis IX.'s chief motive in yielding possession
+of lands he regarded as properly his was to secure peace with England
+and to get the homage of the English king for Guienne. For upwards of
+half a century the relations of England and France had been strained
+by reason of the refusal of Henry III. to recognize the conquests of
+Philip Augustus and to render the accustomed homage. The treaty of
+Paris was important because it regulated the relations of France and
+England to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War. It undertook to
+perpetuate the old division of French soil between the English and
+French monarchs--an arrangement always fruitful of discord and
+destined, more than anything else, to bring on the great struggle of
+the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries between the two nations [see p.
+417 ff.].
+
+[464] A fur much esteemed in the Middle Ages. It is not known whether
+it was the fur of a single animal or of several kinds combined.
+
+[465] A woven fabric made of camel's hair.
+
+[466] After his retirement from the royal service in 1254 Joinville
+frequently made social visits at Louis's court.
+
+[467] On the Franciscans and Dominicans [see p. 360].
+
+[468] To the east from Paris--now a suburb of that city. The chateau
+of Vincennes was one of the favorite royal residences.
+
+[469] That is, a case in law.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITY
+
+
+57. Some Twelfth Century Town Charters
+
+In the times of the Carolingians the small and scattered towns and
+villages of western Europe, particularly of France, were inhabited
+mainly by serfs and villeins, i.e., by a dependent rather than an
+independent population. With scarcely an exception, these urban
+centers belonged to the lords of the neighboring lands, who
+administered their affairs through mayors, provosts, bailiffs, or
+other agents, collected from them seigniorial dues as from the rural
+peasantry, and, in short, took entire charge of matters of justice,
+finance, military obligations, and industrial arrangements. There was
+no local self-government, nothing in the way of municipal organization
+separate from the feudal regime, and no important burgher class as
+distinguished from the agricultural laborers. By the twelfth century a
+great transformation is apparent. France has come to be dotted with
+strong and often largely independent municipalities, and a powerful
+class of bourgeoisie, essentially anti-feudal in character, has risen
+to play an increasing part in the nation's political and economic
+life. In these new municipalities there is a larger measure of freedom
+of person, security of property, and rights of self-government than
+Europe had known since the days of Charlemagne, perhaps even since the
+best period of the Roman Empire.
+
+The reason for this transformation--in other words, the origin of
+these new municipal centers--has been variously explained. One theory
+is that the municipal system of the Middle Ages was essentially a
+survival of that which prevailed in western Europe under the fostering
+influence of Rome. The best authorities now reject this view, for
+there is every reason to believe that, speaking generally, the
+barbarian invasions and feudalism practically crushed out the
+municipal institutions of the Empire. Another theory ascribes the
+origin of mediaeval municipal government to the merchant and craft
+guilds, particularly the former; but there is little evidence to
+support the view. Undeniably the guild was an important factor in
+drawing groups of burghers together and forming centers of combination
+against local lords, but it was at best only one of several forces
+tending to the growth of municipal life. Other factors of larger
+importance were the military and the commercial. On the one hand, the
+need of protection led people to flock to fortified places--castles or
+monasteries--and settle in the neighborhood; on the other, the growth
+of commerce and industry, especially after the eleventh century,
+caused strategic places like the intersection of great highways and
+rivers to become seats of permanent and growing population. The towns
+which thus sprang up in response to new conditions and necessities in
+time took on a political as well as a commercial and industrial
+character, principally through the obtaining of charters from the
+neighboring lords, defining the measure of independence to be enjoyed
+and the respective rights of lord and town. Charters of the sort were
+usually granted by the lord, not merely because requested by the
+burghers, but because they were paid for and constituted a valuable
+source of revenue. Not infrequently, however, a charter was wrested
+from an unwilling lord through open warfare. It was in the first half
+of the twelfth century that town charters became common. As a rule
+they were obtained by the larger towns (it should be borne in mind
+that a population of 10,000 was large in the twelfth century), but not
+necessarily so, for many villages of two or three hundred people
+secured them also.
+
+The two great classes of towns were the _villes libres_ (free towns)
+and the _villes franches_, or _villes de bourgeoisie_ (franchise, or
+chartered, towns). The free towns enjoyed a large measure of
+independence. In relation to their lords they occupied essentially the
+position of vassals, with the legislative, financial, and judicial
+privileges which by the twelfth century all great vassals had come to
+have. The burghers elected their own officers, constituted their own
+courts, made their own laws, levied taxes, and even waged war. The
+leading types of free cities were the communes of northern France
+(governed by a provost and one or more councils, often essentially
+oligarchical) and the consulates of southern France and northern Italy
+(distinguished from the communes by the fact that the executive was
+made up of "consuls," and by the greater participation of the local
+nobility in town affairs). A typical free town of the commune type,
+was Laon, in the region of northern Champagne. In 1109 the bishop of
+Laon, who was lord of the city, consented to the establishment of a
+communal government. Three years later he sought to abolish it, with
+the result that an insurrection was stirred up in which he lost his
+life. King Louis VI. intervened and the citizens were obliged to
+submit to the authority of the new bishop, though in 1328 fear of
+another uprising led this official to renew the old grant. The act was
+ratified by Louis VI. in the text (a) given below.
+
+The other great class of towns--the franchise towns--differed from the
+free towns in having a much more limited measure of political and
+economic independence. They received grants of privileges, or
+"franchises," from their lord, especially in the way of restrictions
+of rights of the latter over the persons and property of the
+inhabitants, but they remained politically subject to the lord and
+their government was partly or wholly under his control. Their
+charters set a limit to the lord's arbitrary authority, emancipated
+such inhabitants as were not already free, gave the citizens the right
+to move about and to alienate property, substituted money payments for
+the corvee, and in general made old regulations less burdensome; but
+as a rule no political rights were conferred. Paris, Tours, Orleans,
+and other more important cities on the royal domain belonged to this
+class. The town of Lorris, on the royal domain a short distance east
+of Orleans, became the common model for the type. Its charter,
+received from Louis VII. in 1155, is given in the second selection (b)
+below.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in Vilevault and Brequigny, _Ordonnances des
+     Rois de France de la Troisieme Race_ ["Ordinances of the Kings
+     of France of the Third Dynasty"], Paris, 1769, Vol. XI., pp.
+     185-187.
+
+     (b) Text in Maurice Prou, _Les Coutumes de Lorris et leur
+     Propagation aux XIIe et XIIIe Siecles_ ["The Customs of
+     Lorris and their Spread in the Twelfth and Thirteenth
+     Centuries"], Paris, 1884, pp. 129-141.
+
+   (a)
+
+   =1.= Let no one arrest any freeman or serf for any offense without
+   due process of law.[470]
+
+     [Sidenote: Provisions of the charter of Laon]
+
+   =2.= But if any one do injury to a clerk, soldier, or merchant,
+   native or foreign, provided he who does the injury belongs to the
+   same city as the injured person, let him, summoned after the fourth
+   day, come for justice before the mayor and jurats.[471]
+
+   =7.= If a thief is arrested, let him be brought to him on whose
+   land he has been arrested; but if justice is not done by the lord,
+   let it be done by the jurats.[472]
+
+   =12.= We entirely abolish mortmain.[473]
+
+   =18.= The customary tallages we have so reformed that every man
+   owing such tallages, at the time when they are due, must pay four
+   pence, and beyond that no more.[474]
+
+   =19.= Let men of the peace not be compelled to resort to courts
+   outside the city.[475]
+
+   (b)
+
+   =1.= Every one who has a house in the parish of Lorris shall pay as
+   _cens_ sixpence only for his house, and for each acre of land that
+   he possesses in the parish.[476]
+
+   =2.= No inhabitant of the parish of Lorris shall be required to pay
+   a toll or any other tax on his provisions; and let him not be made
+   to pay any measurage fee on the grain which he has raised by his
+   own labor.[477]
+
+   =3.= No burgher shall go on an expedition, on foot or on horseback,
+   from which he cannot return the same day to his home if he
+   desires.[478]
+
+   =4.= No burgher shall pay toll on the road to Etampes, to Orleans,
+   to Milly (which is in the Gatinais), or to Melun.[479]
+
+     [Sidenote: The charter of Lorris]
+
+   =5.= No one who has property in the parish of Lorris shall forfeit
+   it for any offense whatsoever, unless the offense shall have been
+   committed against us or any of our _hotes_.[480]
+
+   =6.= No person while on his way to the fairs and markets of Lorris,
+   or returning, shall be arrested or disturbed, unless he shall have
+   committed an offense on the same day.[481]
+
+   =9.= No one, neither we nor any other, shall exact from the
+   burghers of Lorris any tallage, tax, or subsidy.[482]
+
+   =12.= If a man shall have had a quarrel with another, but without
+   breaking into a fortified house, and if the parties shall have
+   reached an agreement without bringing a suit before the provost, no
+   fine shall be due to us or our provost on account of the
+   affair.[483]
+
+   =15.= No inhabitant of Lorris is to render us the obligation of
+   _corvee_, except twice a year, when our wine is to be carried to
+   Orleans, and not elsewhere.[484]
+
+   =16.= No one shall be detained in prison if he can furnish surety
+   that he will present himself for judgment.
+
+   =17.= Any burgher who wishes to sell his property shall have the
+   privilege of doing so; and, having received the price of the sale,
+   he shall have the right to go from the town freely and without
+   molestation, if he so desires, unless he has committed some offense
+   in it.
+
+   =18.= Any one who shall dwell a year and a day in the parish of
+   Lorris, without any claim having pursued him there, and without
+   having refused to lay his case before us or our provost, shall
+   abide there freely and without molestation.[485]
+
+   =35.= We ordain that every time there shall be a change of provosts
+   in the town the new provost shall take an oath faithfully to
+   observe these regulations; and the same thing shall be done by new
+   sergeants[486] every time that they are installed.
+
+
+58. The Colonization of Eastern Germany
+
+In the time of Charlemagne the Elbe River marked a pretty clear
+boundary between the Slavic population to the east and the Germanic to
+the west. There were many Slavs west of the Elbe, but no Germans east
+of it. There had been a time when Germans occupied large portions of
+eastern Europe, but for one reason or another they gradually became
+concentrated toward the west, while Slavic peoples pushed in to fill
+the vacated territory. Under Charlemagne and his successors we can
+discern the earlier stages of a movement of reaction which has gone on
+in later times until the political map of all north central Europe has
+been remodeled. During the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries large
+portions of the "sphere of influence" (to use a modern phrase) which
+Charlemagne had created eastward from the Elbe were converted into
+German principalities and dependencies. German colonists pushed down
+the Danube, well toward the Black Sea, along the Baltic, past the Oder
+and toward the Vistula, and up the Oder into the heart of modern
+Poland. The Slavic population was slowly brought under subjection,
+Christianized, and to a certain extent Germanized. In the tenth
+century Henry I. (919-936) began a fresh forward movement against the
+Slavs, or Wends, as the Germans called them. Magdeburg, on the Elbe,
+was established as the chief base of operations. The work was kept up
+by Henry's son, Otto I. (936-973), but under his grandson, Otto II.
+(973-983), a large part of what had been gained was lost for a time
+through a Slavic revolt called out by the Emperor's preoccupation with
+affairs in Italy. Thereafter for a century the Slavs were allowed
+perforce to enjoy their earlier independence, and upon more than one
+occasion they were able to assume the aggressive against their
+would-be conquerors. In 1066 the city of Hamburg, on the lower Elbe,
+was attacked and almost totally destroyed. The imperial power was fast
+declining and the Franconian sovereigns had little time left from
+their domestic conflicts and quarrels with the papacy to carry on a
+contest on the east.
+
+The renewed advance which the Germans made against the Slavs in the
+later eleventh and earlier twelfth centuries was due primarily to the
+energy of the able princes of Saxony and to the pressure for
+colonization, which increased in spite of small encouragement from any
+except the local authorities. The document given below is a typical
+charter of the period, authorizing the establishment of a colony of
+Germans eastward from Hamburg, on the border of Brandenburg. It was
+granted in 1106 by the bishop of Hamburg, who as lord of the region in
+which the proposed settlement was to be made exercised the right not
+merely of giving consent to the undertaking, but also of prescribing
+the terms and conditions by which the colonists were to be bound. As
+appears from the charter, the colony was expected to be a source of
+profit to the bishop; and indeed it was financial considerations on
+the part of lords, lay and spiritual, who had stretches of unoccupied
+land at their disposal, almost as much as regard for safety in numbers
+and the absolute dominance of Germanic peoples, that prompted these
+local magnates of eastern Germany so ardently to promote the work of
+colonization.
+
+     Source--Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim,
+     _Ausgewaehlte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der
+     Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter_ ["Select
+     Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional History of
+     Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, 1904, pp.
+     159-160. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, _A Source Book for
+     Mediaeval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 572-573.
+
+   =1.= In the name of the holy and undivided Trinity. Frederick, by
+   the grace of God bishop of Hamburg, to all the faithful in Christ,
+   gives a perpetual benediction. We wish to make known to all the
+   agreement which certain people living this side of the Rhine, who
+   are called Hollanders,[487] have made with us.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Hollanders ask land for a colony]
+
+   =2.= These men came to us and earnestly begged us to grant them
+   certain lands in our bishopric, which are uncultivated, swampy, and
+   useless to our people. We have consulted our subjects about this
+   and, feeling that this would be profitable to us and to our
+   successors, have granted their request.
+
+   =3.= The agreement was made that they should pay us every year one
+   _denarius_ for every hide of land. We have thought it necessary to
+   determine the dimensions of the hide, in order that no quarrel may
+   thereafter arise about it. The hide shall be 720 royal rods long
+   and thirty royal rods wide. We also grant them the streams which
+   flow through this land.
+
+   =4.= They agreed to give the tithe according to our decree, that
+   is, every eleventh sheaf of grain, every tenth lamb, every tenth
+   pig, every tenth goat, every tenth goose, and a tenth of the honey
+   and of the flax. For every colt they shall pay a _denarius_ on St.
+   Martin's day [Nov. 11], and for every calf an obol [penny].
+
+     [Sidenote: Obedience promised to the bishop of Hamburg]
+
+   =5.= They promised to obey me in all ecclesiastical matters,
+   according to the decrees of the holy fathers, the canonical law,
+   and the practice in the diocese of Utrecht.[488]
+
+     [Sidenote: Judicial immunity]
+
+   =6.= They agreed to pay every year two marks for every 100 hides
+   for the privilege of holding their own courts for the settlement of
+   all their differences about secular matters. They did this because
+   they feared they would suffer from the injustice of foreign
+   judges.[489] If they cannot settle the more important cases, they
+   shall refer them to the bishop. And if they take the bishop with
+   them for the purpose of deciding one of their trials,[490] they
+   shall provide for his support as long as he remains there by
+   granting him one third of all the fees arising from the trial; and
+   they shall keep the other two thirds.
+
+   =7.= We have given them permission to found churches wherever they
+   may wish on these lands. For the support of the priests who shall
+   serve God in these churches we grant a tithe of our tithes from
+   these parish churches. They promised that the congregation of each
+   of these churches should endow their church with a hide for the
+   support of their priest.[491] The names of the men who made this
+   agreement with us are: Henry, the priest, to whom we have granted
+   the aforesaid churches for life; and the others are laymen,
+   Helikin, Arnold, Hiko, Fordalt, and Referic. To them and to their
+   heirs after them we have granted the aforesaid land according to
+   the secular laws and to the terms of this agreement.
+
+
+59. The League of Rhenish Cities (1254)
+
+About the middle of the thirteenth century the central authority of
+the Holy Roman Empire was for a time practically dissolved. Frederick
+II., the last strong ruler of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, died in 1250,
+and even he was so largely Italian in character and interests that he
+could bring himself to give little attention to German affairs. During
+the stormy period of the Interregnum (1254-1273) there was no
+universally recognized emperor at all. Germany had reached an advanced
+stage of political disintegration and it is scarcely conceivable that
+even a Henry IV. or a Frederick Barbarossa could have made the
+imperial power much more than a shadow and a name. But while the
+Empire was broken up into scores of principalities, independent
+cities, and other political fragments, its people were enjoying a
+vigorous and progressive life. The period was one of great growth of
+industry in the towns, and especially of commerce. The one serious
+disadvantage was the lack of a central police authority to preserve
+order and insure the safety of person and property. Warfare was all
+but ceaseless, robber-bands infested the rivers and highways, and all
+manner of vexatious conditions were imposed upon trade by the various
+local authorities. The natural result was the formation of numerous
+leagues and confederacies for the suppression of anarchy and the
+protection of trade and industry. The greatest of these was the
+Hanseatic League, which came to comprise one hundred and seventy-two
+cities, and the history of whose operations runs through more than
+three centuries. An earlier organization, which may be considered in a
+way a forerunner of the Hansa, was the Rhine League, established in
+1254. At this earlier date Conrad IV., son of Frederick II., was
+fighting his half-brother Manfred for their common Sicilian heritage;
+William of Holland, who claimed the imperial title, was recognized in
+only a small territory and was quite powerless to affect conditions of
+disorder outside; the other princes, great and small, were generally
+engaged in private warfare; and the difficulties and dangers of trade
+and industry were at their maximum. To establish a power strong
+enough, and with the requisite disposition, to suppress the robbers
+and pirates who were ruining commerce, the leading cities of the Rhine
+valley--Mainz, Cologne, Worms, Speyer, Strassburg, Basel, Trier, Metz,
+and others--entered into a "league of holy peace," to endure for a
+period of ten years, dating from July 13, 1254. The more significant
+terms of the compact are set forth in the selection below.
+
+     Source--Text in Wilhelm Altmann and Ernst Bernheim,
+     _Ausgewaehlte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der
+     Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter_ ["Select
+     Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional History of
+     Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, 1904, pp.
+     251-254. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, _A Source Book for
+     Mediaeval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 606-609.
+
+     [Sidenote: The league formed at Worms]
+
+   In the name of the Lord, amen. In the year of our Lord 1254, on the
+   octave of St. Michael's day [a week after Sept. 29] we, the cities
+   of the upper and lower Rhine, leagued together for the preservation
+   of peace, met in the city of Worms. We held a conference there and
+   carefully discussed everything pertaining to a general peace. To
+   the honor of God, and of the holy mother Church, and of the holy
+   Empire, which is now governed by our lord, William, king of the
+   Romans,[492] and to the common advantage of all, both rich and poor
+   alike, we made the following laws. They are for the benefit of all,
+   both poor and great, the secular clergy, monks, laymen, and Jews.
+   To secure these things, which are for the public good, we will
+   spare neither ourselves nor our possessions. The princes and lords
+   who take the oath are joined with us.
+
+   =1.= We decree that we will make no warlike expeditions, except
+   those that are absolutely necessary and determined on by the wise
+   counsel of the cities and communes. We will mutually aid each other
+   with all our strength in securing redress for our grievances.
+
+     [Sidenote: No dealings to be had with enemies of the league]
+
+   =2.= We decree that no member of the league, whether city or lord,
+   Christian or Jew, shall furnish food, arms, or aid of any kind, to
+   any one who opposes us or the peace.
+
+   =3.= And no one in our cities shall give credit, or make a loan, to
+   them.
+
+   =4.= No citizen of any of the cities in the league shall associate
+   with such, or give them counsel, aid, or support. If any one is
+   convicted of doing so, he shall be expelled from the city and
+   punished so severely in his property that he will be a warning to
+   others not to do such things.
+
+     [Sidenote: A warning to enemies]
+
+   =5.= If any knight, in trying to aid his lord who is at war with
+   us, attacks or molests us anywhere outside of the walled towns of
+   his lord, he is breaking the peace, and we will in some way inflict
+   due punishment on him and his possessions, no matter who he is. If
+   he is caught in any of the cities, he shall be held as a prisoner
+   until he makes proper satisfaction. We wish to be protectors of the
+   peasants, and we will protect them against all violence if they
+   will observe the peace with us. But if they make war on us, we will
+   punish them, and if we catch them in any of the cities, we will
+   punish them as malefactors.
+
+   =6.= We wish the cities to destroy all the ferries except those in
+   their immediate neighborhood, so that there shall be no ferries
+   except those near the cities which are in the league. This is to be
+   done in order that the enemies of the peace may be deprived of all
+   means of crossing the Rhine.
+
+   =7.= We decree that if any lord or knight aids us in promoting the
+   peace, we will do all we can to protect him. Whoever does not swear
+   to keep the peace with us, shall be excluded from the general
+   peace.
+
+   =10.= Above all, we wish to affirm that we desire to live in mutual
+   peace with the lords and all the people of the province, and we
+   desire that each should preserve all his rights.
+
+   =11.= Under threat of punishment we forbid any citizen to revile
+   the lords, although they may be our enemies. For although we wish
+   to punish them for the violence they have done us, yet before
+   making war on them we will first warn them to cease from injuring
+   us.
+
+     [Sidenote: Mainz and Worms to be the capitals of the league]
+
+   =12.= We decree that all correspondence about this matter with the
+   cities of the lower Rhine shall be conducted from Mainz, and from
+   Worms with the cities of the upper Rhine. From these two cities all
+   our correspondence shall be carried on and all who have done us
+   injury shall be warned. Those who have suffered injury shall send
+   their messengers at their own expense.
+
+     [Sidenote: The governing body of the league]
+
+   =13.= We also promise, both lords and cities, to send four official
+   representatives to whatever place a conference is to be held, and
+   they shall have full authority from their cities to decide on all
+   matters. They shall report to their cities all the decisions of the
+   meeting. All who come with the representatives of the cities, or
+   who come to them while in session, shall have peace, and no
+   judgment shall be enforced against them.
+
+   =14.= No city shall receive non-residents, who are commonly called
+   "pfahlburgers," as citizens.[493]
+
+   =15.= We firmly declare that if any member of the league breaks the
+   peace, we will proceed against him at once as if he were not a
+   member, and compel him to make proper satisfaction.
+
+   =16.= We promise that we will faithfully keep each other informed
+   by letter about our enemies and all others who may be able to do us
+   damage, in order that we may take timely counsel to protect
+   ourselves against them.
+
+   =17.= We decree that no one shall violently enter the house of
+   monks or nuns, of whatever order they may be, or quarter themselves
+   upon them, or demand or extort food or any kind of service from
+   them, contrary to their will. If any one does this, he shall be
+   held as a violator of the peace.
+
+     [Sidenote: The league to be enlarged]
+
+   =18.= We decree that each city shall try to persuade each of its
+   neighboring cities to swear to keep the peace. If they do not do
+   so, they shall be entirely cut off from the peace, so that if any
+   one does them an injury, either in their persons or their property,
+   he shall not thereby break the peace.
+
+   =19.= We wish all members of the league, cities, lords, and all
+   others, to arm themselves properly and prepare for war, so that
+   whenever we call upon them we shall find them ready.
+
+     [Sidenote: Military preparations of the league]
+
+   =20.= We decree that the cities between the Moselle and Basel shall
+   prepare 100 war boats, and the cities below the Moselle shall
+   prepare 500, well equipped with bowmen, and each city shall prepare
+   herself as well as she can and supply herself with arms for knights
+   and foot-soldiers.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[470] Such guarantees of personal liberty were not peculiar to the
+charters of communes; they are often found in those of franchise
+towns.
+
+[471] The chief magistrate of Laon was a mayor, elected by the
+citizens. In judicial matters he was assisted by twelve "jurats."
+
+[472] This is intended to preserve the judicial privileges of lords of
+manors.
+
+[473] The citizens of the town were to have freedom to dispose of
+their property as they chose.
+
+[474] This provision was intended to put an end to arbitrary taxation
+by the bishop. In the earlier twelfth century serfs were subject to
+the arbitrary levy of the taille (tallage) and this indeed constituted
+one of their most grievous burdens. Arbitrary tallage was almost
+invariably abolished by the town charters.
+
+[475] By "men of the peace" is meant the citizens of the commune. The
+term "commune" is scrupulously avoided in the charter because of its
+odious character in the eyes of the bishop. Suits were to be tried at
+home in the burgesses' own courts, to save time and expense and insure
+better justice.
+
+[476] This trifling payment of sixpence a year was made in recognition
+of the lordship of the king, the grantor of the charter. Aside from
+it, the burgher had full rights over his land.
+
+[477] The burghers, who were often engaged in agriculture as well as
+commerce, are to be exempt from tolls on commodities bought for their
+own sustenance and from the ordinary fees due the lord for each
+measure of grain harvested.
+
+[478] The object of this provision is to restrict the amount of
+military service due the king. The burghers of small places like
+Lorris were farmers and traders who made poor soldiers and who were
+ordinarily exempted from service by their lords. The provision for
+Lorris practically amounted to an exemption, for such service as was
+permissible under chapter 3 of the charter was not worth much.
+
+[479] The Gatinais was the region in which Lorris was situated.
+Etampes, Milly, and Melun all lay to the north of Lorris, in the
+direction of Paris. Orleans lay to the west. The king's object in
+granting the burghers the right to carry goods to the towns specified
+without payment of tolls was to encourage commercial intercourse.
+
+[480] This protects the landed property of the burghers against the
+crown and crown officials. With two exceptions, fine or imprisonment,
+not confiscation of land, is to be the penalty for crime. _Hotes_
+denotes persons receiving land from the king and under his direct
+protection.
+
+[481] This provision is intended to attract merchants to Lorris by
+placing them under the king's protection and assuring them that they
+would not be molested on account of old offenses.
+
+[482] This chapter safeguards the personal property of the burghers,
+as chapter 5 safeguards their land. Arbitrary imposts are forbidden
+and any of the inhabitants who as serfs had been paying arbitrary
+tallage are relieved of the burden. The nominal _cens_ (Chap. 1) was
+to be the only regular payment due the king.
+
+[483] An agreement outside of court was allowable in all cases except
+when there was a serious breach of the public peace. The provost was
+the chief officer of the town. He was appointed the crown and was
+charged chiefly with the administration of justice and the collection
+of revenues. All suits of the burghers were tried in his court. They
+had no active part in their own government, as was generally true of
+the franchise towns.
+
+[484] Another part of the charter specifies that only those burghers
+who owned horses and carts were expected to render the king even this
+service.
+
+[485] This clause, which is very common in the town charters of the
+twelfth century (especially in the case of towns on the royal domain)
+is intended to attract serfs from other regions and so to build up
+population. As a rule the towns were places of refuge from seigniorial
+oppression and the present charter undertakes to limit the time within
+which the lord might recover his serf who had fled to Lorris to a year
+and a day--except in cases where the serf should refuse to recognize
+the jurisdiction of the provost's court in the matter of the lord's
+claim.
+
+[486] The sergeants were deputies of the provost, somewhat on the
+order of town constables.
+
+[487] These "Hollanders" inhabited substantially the portion of Europe
+now designated by their name.
+
+[488] This was the diocese from which the colonists proposed to
+remove.
+
+[489] That is, judges representing any outside authority.
+
+[490] In other words, if the bishop should go from his seat at Hamburg
+to the colony.
+
+[491] In each parish of the colony, therefore, the priest would be
+supported by the income of the hide of land set apart for his use and
+by the tenth of the regular church tithes which the bishop conceded
+for the purpose.
+
+[492] All that this means is that the members of the Rhine League
+recognized William of Holland as emperor. Most of the Empire did not
+so recognize him. He died in 1256, two years after the league was
+formed.
+
+[493] These "pfahlburgers" were subjects of ecclesiastical or secular
+princes who, in order to escape the burdens of this relation,
+contrived to get themselves enrolled as citizens of neighboring
+cities. While continuing to dwell in regions subject to the
+jurisdiction of their lords, they claimed to enjoy immunity from that
+jurisdiction, because of their citizenship in those outside cities.
+The pfahlburgers were a constant source of friction between the towns
+and the territorial princes. The Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV.
+(1356) decreed that pfahlburgers should not enjoy the rights and
+privileges of the cities unless they became actual residents of them
+and discharged their full obligations as citizens.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+UNIVERSITIES AND STUDENT LIFE
+
+
+The modern university is essentially a product of the Middle Ages. The
+Greeks and Romans had provisions for higher education, but nothing
+that can properly be termed universities, with faculties, courses of
+study, examinations, and degrees. The word "universitas" in the
+earlier mediaeval period was applied indiscriminately to any group or
+body of people, as a guild of artisans or an organization of the
+clergy, and only very gradually did it come to be restricted to an
+association of teachers and students--the so-called _universitas
+societas magistrorum discipulorumque_. The origins of mediaeval
+universities are, in most cases, rather obscure. In the earlier Middle
+Ages the interests of learning were generally in the keeping of the
+monks and the work of education was carried on chiefly in monastic
+schools, where the subjects of study were commonly the seven liberal
+arts inherited from Roman days.[494] By the twelfth century there was
+a relative decline of these monastic schools, accompanied by a marked
+development of cathedral schools in which not only the seven liberal
+arts but also new subjects like law and theology were taught. The
+twelfth century renaissance brought a notable revival of Roman law,
+medicine, astronomy, and philosophy; by 1200 the whole of Aristotle's
+writings had become known; and the general awakening produced
+immediate results in the larger numbers of students who flocked to
+places like Paris and Bologna where exceptional teachers were to be
+found.
+
+Out of these conditions grew the earliest of the universities. No
+definite dates for the beginnings of Paris, Bologna, Oxford, etc., can
+be assigned, but the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are to be
+considered their great formative period. Bologna was specifically the
+creation of the revived study of the Roman law and of the fame of the
+great law teacher Irnerius. The university sprang from a series of
+organizations effected first by the students and later by the
+masters, or teachers, and modeled after the guilds of workmen. It
+became the pattern for most of the later Italian and Spanish
+universities. Paris arose in a different way. It grew directly out of
+the great cathedral school of Notre Dame and, unlike Bologna, was an
+organization at the outset of masters rather than of students. It was
+presided over by the chancellor, who had had charge of education in
+the cathedral and who retained the exclusive privilege of granting
+licenses to teach (the _licentia docendi_), or, in other words,
+degrees.[495] Rising to prominence in the twelfth century, especially
+by virtue of the teaching of Abelard (1079-1142), Paris became in time
+the greatest university of the Middle Ages, exerting profound
+influence not only on learning, but also on the Church and even at
+times on political affairs. The universities of the rest of France, as
+well as the German universities and Oxford and Cambridge in England,
+were copied pretty closely after Paris.
+
+
+60. Privileges Granted to Students and Masters
+
+Throughout the Middle Ages numerous special favors were showered upon
+the universities and their students by the Church. Patronage and
+protection from the secular authorities were less to be depended on,
+though the courts of kings were not infrequently the rendezvous of
+scholars, and the greater seats of learning after the eleventh century
+generally owed their prosperity, if not their origin, to the
+liberality of monarchs such as Frederick Barbarossa or Philip
+Augustus. The recognition of the universities by the temporal powers
+came as a rule earlier than that by the Church. The edict of the
+Emperor Frederick I., which comprises selection (a) below, was issued
+in 1158 and is not to be considered as limited in its application to
+the students of any particular university, though many writers have
+associated it solely with the University of Bologna. That the statute
+was decreed at the solicitation of the Bologna doctors of law admits
+of little doubt, but, as Rashdall observes, it was "a general
+privilege conferred on the student class throughout the Lombard
+kingdom."[496] By some writers it is said to have been the earliest
+formal grant of privileges for university students, but this cannot be
+true as Salerno (notable chiefly for medical studies) received such
+grants from Robert Guiscard and his son Roger before the close of the
+eleventh century.
+
+Until the year 1200 the students of Paris enjoyed no privileges such
+as those conferred upon the Italian institutions by Frederick. In that
+year a tavern brawl occurred between some German students and Parisian
+townspeople, in which five of the students lost their lives. The
+provost of the city, instead of attempting to repress the disorder,
+took sides against the students and encouraged the populace. Such
+laxity stirred the king, Philip Augustus, to action. Fearing that the
+students would decamp _en masse_, he hastened to comply with their
+appeal for redress. The provost and his lieutenants were arrested and
+a decree was issued [given, in part, in selection (b)] exempting the
+scholars from the operation of the municipal law in criminal cases.
+Pope Innocent III. at once confirmed the privileges and on his part
+relaxed somewhat the vigilance of the Church. Such liberal measures,
+however, did not insure permanent peace. In less than three decades
+another conflict with the provost occurred which was so serious as to
+result in a total suspension of the university's activities for more
+than two years.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges_
+     (Pertz ed.), Vol. II., p. 114. Adapted from translation by
+     Dana C. Munro in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_,
+     Vol. II., No. 3, pp. 2-4.
+
+     (b) Text in _Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis_
+     ["Cartulary of the University of Paris"], No. 1., p. 59.
+     Adapted from translation in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and
+     Reprints_, _ibid._, pp. 4-7.
+
+     [Sidenote: Security of travel and residence for scholars]
+
+   (a)
+
+   After a careful consideration of this subject by the bishops,
+   abbots, dukes, counts, judges, and other nobles of our sacred
+   palace, we, from our piety, have granted this privilege to all
+   scholars who travel for the sake of study, and especially to the
+   professors of divine and sacred laws,[497] namely, that they may go
+   in safety to the places in which the studies are carried on, both
+   they themselves and their messengers, and may dwell there in
+   security. For we think it fitting that, during good behavior, those
+   should enjoy our praise and protection, by whose learning the world
+   is enlightened to the obedience of God and of us, his ministers,
+   and the life of the subject is molded; and by a special
+   consideration we defend them from all injuries.
+
+     [Sidenote: Regulation concerning the collection of debts]
+
+   For who does not pity those who exile themselves through love for
+   learning, who wear themselves out in poverty in place of riches,
+   who expose their lives to all perils and often suffer bodily injury
+   from the vilest men? This must be endured with vexation. Therefore,
+   we declare by this general and perpetual law, that in the future no
+   one shall be so rash as to venture to inflict any injury on
+   scholars, or to occasion any loss to them on account of a debt owed
+   by an inhabitant of their province--a thing which we have learned
+   is sometimes done by an evil custom.[498] And let it be known to
+   the violators of this constitution, and also to those who shall at
+   the time be the rulers of the places, that a fourfold restitution
+   of property shall be exacted from all and that, the mark of infamy
+   being affixed to them by the law itself, they shall lose their
+   office forever.
+
+     [Sidenote: Judicial privileges of scholars]
+
+   Moreover, if any one shall presume to bring a suit against them on
+   account of any business, the choice in this matter shall be given
+   to the scholars, who may summon the accusers to appear before their
+   professors or the bishop of the city, to whom we have given
+   jurisdiction in this matter.[499] But if, indeed, the accuser shall
+   attempt to drag the scholar before another judge, even if his
+   cause is a very just one, he shall lose his suit for such an
+   attempt.
+
+   (b)
+
+   Concerning the safety of the students at Paris in the future, by
+   the advice of our subjects we have ordained as follows:
+
+     [Sidenote: Protection for scholars against crimes of violence]
+
+   We will cause all the citizens of Paris to swear that if any one
+   sees an injury done to any student by any layman,[500] he will
+   testify truthfully to this, nor will any one withdraw in order not
+   to see [the act]. And if it shall happen that any one strikes a
+   student, except in self-defense, especially if he strikes the
+   student with a weapon, a club, or a stone, all laymen who see [the
+   act] shall in good faith seize the malefactor, or malefactors, and
+   deliver them to our judge; nor shall they run away in order not to
+   see the act, or seize the malefactor, or testify to the truth.
+   Also, whether the malefactor is seized in open crime or not, we
+   will make a legal and full examination through clerks, or laymen,
+   or certain lawful persons; and our count and our judges shall do
+   the same. And if by a full examination we, or our judges, are able
+   to learn that he who is accused, is guilty of the crime, then we,
+   or our judges, shall immediately inflict a penalty, according to
+   the quality and nature of the crime; notwithstanding the fact that
+   the criminal may deny the deed and say that he is ready to defend
+   himself in single combat, or to purge himself by the ordeal by
+   water.[501]
+
+     [Sidenote: Scholars to be tried and punished under ecclesiastical
+   authority]
+
+   Also, neither our provost nor our judges shall lay hands on a
+   student for any offense whatever; nor shall they place him in our
+   prison, unless such a crime has been committed by the student, that
+   he ought to be arrested. And in that case, our judge shall arrest
+   him on the spot, without striking him at all, unless he resists,
+   and shall hand him over to the ecclesiastical judge,[502] who ought
+   to guard him in order to satisfy us and the one suffering the
+   injury. And if a serious crime has been committed, our judge shall
+   go or shall send to see what is done with the student. If, indeed,
+   the student does not resist arrest and yet suffers any injury, we
+   will exact satisfaction for it, according to the aforesaid
+   examination and the aforesaid oath. Also our judges shall not lay
+   hands on the chattels of the students of Paris for any crime
+   whatever. But if it shall seem that these ought to be sequestrated,
+   they shall be sequestrated and guarded after sequestration by the
+   ecclesiastical judge, in order that whatever is judged legal by the
+   Church may be done with the chattels.[503] But if students are
+   arrested by our count at such an hour that the ecclesiastical judge
+   cannot be found and be present at once, our provost shall cause the
+   culprits to be guarded in some student's house without any
+   ill-treatment, as is said above, until they are delivered to the
+   ecclesiastical judge.
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath required of the provost and people of Paris]
+
+   In order, moreover, that these [decrees] may be kept more carefully
+   and may be established forever by a fixed law, we have decided that
+   our present provost and the people of Paris shall affirm by an
+   oath, in the presence of the scholars, that they will carry out in
+   good faith all the above-mentioned [regulations]. And always in the
+   future, whosoever receives from us the office of provost in Paris,
+   among the inaugural acts of his office, namely, on the first or
+   second Sunday, in one of the churches of Paris--after he has been
+   summoned for the purpose--shall affirm by an oath, publicly in the
+   presence of the scholars, that he will keep in good faith all the
+   above-mentioned [regulations].[504] And that these decrees may be
+   valid forever, we have ordered this document to be confirmed by the
+   authority of our seal and by the characters of the royal name
+   signed below.
+
+
+61. The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg (1386)
+
+Until the middle of the fourteenth century Germany possessed no
+university. In the earlier mediaeval period, when palace and monastic
+schools were multiplying in France, Italy, and England, German culture
+was too backward to permit of a similar movement beyond the Rhine; and
+later, when in other countries universities were springing into
+prosperity, political dissensions long continued to thwart such
+enterprises among the Germans. Germany was not untouched by the
+intellectual movements of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but
+her young men were obliged to seek their learning at Oxford or Paris
+or Bologna. The first German university was that of Prague, in
+Bohemia, founded by Emperor Charles IV., a contemporary of Petrarch,
+and chartered in 1348. Once begun, the work of establishing such
+institutions went on rapidly, until ere long every principality of
+note had its own university. Vienna was founded in 1365, Erfurt was
+given papal sanction in 1379, Heidelberg was established in 1386, and
+Cologne followed in 1388. The document given below is the charter of
+privileges issued for Heidelberg in October, 1386, by the founder,
+Rupert I., Count Palatine of the Rhine. Marsilius Inghen became the
+first rector of the university. He and two other masters began
+lecturing October 19, 1386--one on logic, another on the epistle to
+Titus, the third on the philosophy of Aristotle. Within four years
+over a thousand students had been in attendance at the university.
+
+     Source--Text in Edward Winkelmann, _Urkundenbuch der
+     Universitaet Heidelberg_ ["Cartulary of the University of
+     Heidelberg"], Heidelberg, 1886, Vol. I., pp. 5-6. Translated
+     in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical Documents of the
+     Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 262-266.
+
+     [Sidenote: The university to be organized on the model of
+     Paris]
+
+   =1.= We, Rupert the elder, by the grace of God count palatine of
+   the Rhine, elector of the Holy Empire,[505] and duke of
+   Bavaria,--lest we seem to abuse the privilege conceded to us by
+   the apostolic see of founding a place of study at Heidelberg
+   similar to that at Paris, and lest, for this reason, being
+   subjected to the divine judgment, we should deserve to be deprived
+   of the privilege granted--do decree, with provident counsel (which
+   decree is to be observed unto all time), that the University of
+   Heidelberg shall be ruled, disposed, and regulated according to the
+   modes and manners accustomed to be observed in the University of
+   Paris.[506] Also that, as a handmaid of Paris--a worthy one let us
+   hope--the latter's steps shall be imitated in every way possible;
+   so that, namely, there shall be four faculties in it: the first, of
+   sacred theology and divinity; the second, of canon and civil law,
+   which, by reason of their similarity, we think best to comprise
+   under one faculty; the third, of medicine; the fourth, of liberal
+   arts--of the three-fold philosophy, namely, primal, natural, and
+   moral, three mutually subservient daughters.[507] We wish this
+   institution to be divided and marked out into four nations, as it
+   is at Paris;[508] and that all these faculties shall make one
+   university, and that to it the individual students, in whatever of
+   the said faculties they are, shall unitedly belong like lawful sons
+   to one mother.
+
+     [Sidenote: The obligations of the masters]
+
+   Likewise [we desire] that this university shall be governed by one
+   rector,[509] and that the various masters and teachers, before they
+   are admitted to the common pursuits of our institution, shall
+   swear to observe the statutes, laws, privileges, liberties, and
+   franchises of the same, and not reveal its secrets, to whatever
+   grade they may rise. Also that they will uphold the honor of the
+   rector and the rectorship of our university, and will obey the
+   rector in all things lawful and honest, whatever be the grade to
+   which they may afterwards happen to be promoted. Moreover, that the
+   various masters and bachelors shall read their lectures and
+   exercise their scholastic functions and go about in caps and gowns
+   of a uniform and similar nature, according as has been observed at
+   Paris up to this time in the different faculties.
+
+     [Sidenote: Internal government of the university further provided
+   for]
+
+   And we will that if any faculty, nation, or person shall oppose the
+   aforesaid regulations, or stubbornly refuse to obey them, or any
+   one of them--which God forbid--from that time forward that same
+   faculty, nation, or person, if it do not desist upon being warned,
+   shall be deprived of all connection with our aforesaid institution,
+   and shall not have the benefit of our defense or protection.
+   Moreover, we will and ordain that as the university as a whole may
+   do for those assembled here and subject to it, so each faculty,
+   nation, or province of it may enact lawful statutes, such as are
+   suitable to its needs, provided that through them, or any one of
+   them, no prejudice is done to the above regulations and to our
+   institution, and that no kind of impediment arise from them. And we
+   will that when the separate bodies shall have passed the statutes
+   for their own observance, they may make them perpetually binding on
+   those subject to them and on their successors. And as in the
+   University of Paris the various servants of the institution have
+   the benefit of the various privileges which its masters and
+   scholars enjoy, so in starting our institution in Heidelberg, we
+   grant, with even greater liberality, through these presents, that
+   all the servants, i.e., its pedells,[510] librarians, lower
+   officials, preparers of parchment, scribes, illuminators and
+   others who serve it, may each and all, without fraud, enjoy in it
+   the same privileges, franchises, immunities and liberties with
+   which its masters or scholars are now or shall hereafter be
+   endowed.
+
+     [Sidenote: The jurisdiction of the bishop of Worms]
+
+     [Sidenote: Conditions of imprisonment]
+
+   =2.= Lest in the new community of the city of Heidelberg, their
+   misdeeds being unpunished, there be an incentive to the scholars of
+   doing wrong, we ordain, with provident counsel, by these presents,
+   that the bishop of Worms, as judge ordinary of the clerks of our
+   institution, shall have and possess, now and hereafter while our
+   institution shall last, prisons, and an office in our town of
+   Heidelberg for the detention of criminal clerks. These things we
+   have seen fit to grant to him and his successors, adding these
+   conditions: that he shall permit no clerk to be arrested unless for
+   a misdemeanor; that he shall restore any one detained for such
+   fault, or for any light offense, to his master, or to the rector if
+   the latter asks for him, a promise having been given that the
+   culprit will appear in court and that the rector or master will
+   answer for him if the injured parties should go to law about the
+   matter. Furthermore, that, on being requested, he will restore a
+   clerk arrested for a crime on slight evidence, upon receiving a
+   sufficient pledge--sponsors if the prisoner can obtain them,
+   otherwise an oath if he cannot obtain sponsors--to the effect that
+   he will answer in court the charges against him; and in all these
+   things there shall be no pecuniary exactions, except that the clerk
+   shall give satisfaction, reasonably and according to the rule of
+   the aforementioned town, for the expenses which he incurred while
+   in prison. And we desire that he will detain honestly and without
+   serious injury a criminal clerk thus arrested for a crime where the
+   suspicion is grave and strong, until the truth can be found out
+   concerning the deed of which he is suspected. And he shall not for
+   any cause, moreover, take away any clerk from our aforesaid town,
+   or permit him to be taken away, unless the proper observances have
+   been followed, and he has been condemned by judicial sentence to
+   perpetual imprisonment for a crime.
+
+     [Sidenote: Limitations upon power to arrest students]
+
+   We command our advocate and bailiff and their servants in our
+   aforesaid town, under pain of losing their offices and our favor,
+   not to lay a detaining hand on any master or scholar of our said
+   institution, nor to arrest him or allow him to be arrested, unless
+   the deed be such that that master or scholar ought rightly to be
+   detained. He shall be restored to his rector or master, if he is
+   held for a slight cause, provided he will swear and promise to
+   appear in court concerning the matter; and we decree that a slight
+   fault is one for which a layman, if he had committed it, ought to
+   have been condemned to a light pecuniary fine. Likewise, if the
+   master or scholar detained be found gravely or strongly suspected
+   of the crime, we command that he be handed over by our officials to
+   the bishop or to his representative in our said town, to be kept in
+   custody.
+
+     [Sidenote: Students exempted from various imposts]
+
+   =3.= By the tenor of these presents we grant to each and all the
+   masters and scholars that, when they come to the said institution,
+   while they remain there, and also when they return from it to their
+   homes, they may freely carry with them, both coming and going,
+   throughout all the lands subject to us, all things which they need
+   while pursuing their studies, and all the goods necessary for their
+   support, without any duty, levy, imposts, tolls, excises, or other
+   exactions whatever. And we wish them and each one of them, to be
+   free from the aforesaid imposts when purchasing corn, wines, meat,
+   fish, clothes and all things necessary for their living and for
+   their rank. And we decree that the scholars from their stock in
+   hand of provisions, if there remain over one or two wagonloads of
+   wine without their having practised deception, may, after the
+   feast of Easter of that year, sell it at wholesale without paying
+   impost. We grant to them, moreover, that each day the scholars, of
+   themselves or through their servants, may be allowed to buy in the
+   town of Heidelberg, at the accustomed hour, freely and without
+   impediment or hurtful delay, any eatables or other necessaries of
+   life.
+
+     [Sidenote: How rates for lodging should be fixed]
+
+   4. Lest the masters and scholars of our institution of Heidelberg
+   may be oppressed by the citizens, moved by avarice, through
+   extortionate prices of lodgings, we have seen fit to decree that
+   henceforth each year, after Christmas, one expert from the
+   university on the part of the scholars, and one prudent, pious, and
+   circumspect citizen on the part of the citizens, shall be
+   authorized to determine the price of the students' lodgings.
+   Moreover, we will and decree that the various masters and scholars
+   shall, through our bailiff, our judge and the officials subject to
+   us, be defended and maintained in the quiet possession of the
+   lodgings given to them free or of those for which they pay rent.
+   Moreover, by the tenor of these presents, we grant to the rector
+   and the university, or to those designated by them, entire
+   jurisdiction concerning the payment of rents for the lodgings
+   occupied by the students, concerning the making and buying of
+   books, and the borrowing of money for other purposes by the
+   scholars of our institution; also concerning the payment of
+   assessments, together with everything that arises from, depends
+   upon, and is connected with these.
+
+   In addition, we command our officials that, when the rector
+   requires our and their aid and assistance for carrying out his
+   sentences against scholars who try to rebel, they shall assist our
+   clients and servants in this matter; first, however, obtaining
+   lawful permission to proceed against clerks from the lord bishop of
+   Worms, or from one deputed by him for this purpose.
+
+
+62. Mediaeval Students' Songs
+
+"When we try to picture to ourselves," says Mr. Symonds in one of his
+felicitous passages, "the intellectual and moral state of Europe in
+the Middle Ages, some fixed and almost stereotyped ideas immediately
+suggest themselves. We think of the nations immersed in a gross mental
+lethargy; passively witnessing the gradual extinction of arts and
+sciences which Greece and Rome had splendidly inaugurated; allowing
+libraries and monuments of antique civilization to crumble into dust;
+while they trembled under a dull and brooding terror of coming
+judgment, shrank from natural enjoyment as from deadly sin, or yielded
+themselves with brutal eagerness to the satisfaction of vulgar
+appetites. Preoccupation with the other world in this long period
+weakens man's hold upon the things that make his life desirable....
+Prolonged habits of extra-mundane contemplation, combined with the
+decay of real knowledge, volatilize the thoughts and aspirations of
+the best and wisest into dreamy unrealities, giving a false air of
+mysticism to love, shrouding art in allegory, reducing the
+interpretation of texts to an exercise of idle ingenuity, and the
+study of nature to an insane system of grotesque and pious quibbling.
+The conception of man's fall and of the incurable badness of this
+world bears poisonous fruit of cynicism and asceticism, that two-fold
+bitter almond hidden in the harsh monastic shell. Nature is regarded
+with suspicion and aversion; the flesh, with shame and loathing,
+broken by spasmodic outbursts of lawless self-indulgence."[511]
+
+All of these ideas are properly to be associated with the Middle Ages,
+but it must be borne in mind that they represent only one side of the
+picture. They are drawn very largely from the study of monastic
+literature and produce a somewhat distorted impression. Though many
+conditions prevailing in mediaeval times operated strongly to paralyze
+the intellects and consciences of men, the fundamental manifestations
+and expressions of human instinct and vitality were far from crushed
+out. The life of many people was full and varied and positive--not so
+different, after all, from that of men and women to-day. That this was
+true is demonstrated by a wealth of literature reflecting the jovial
+and exuberant aspects of mediaeval life, which has come down to us
+chiefly in two great groups--the poetry of the troubadours and the
+songs of the wandering students. "That so bold, so fresh, so natural,
+so pagan a view of life," continues Mr. Symonds in the passage quoted,
+"as the Latin songs of the Wandering Students exhibit, should have
+found clear and artistic utterance in the epoch of the Crusades, is
+indeed enough to bid us pause and reconsider the justice of our
+stereotyped ideas about that period. This literature makes it manifest
+that the ineradicable appetites and natural instincts of men and women
+were no less vigorous in fact, though less articulate and
+self-assertive, than they had been in the age of Greece and Rome, and
+than they afterwards displayed themselves in what is known as the
+Renaissance. The songs of the Wandering Students were composed for the
+most part in the twelfth century. Uttering the unrestrained emotions
+of men attached by a slender tie to the dominant clerical class and
+diffused over all countries, they bring us face to face with a body of
+opinion which finds in studied chronicle or labored dissertation of
+the period no echo. On the one side, they express that delight in life
+and physical enjoyment which was a main characteristic of the
+Renaissance; on the other, they proclaim that revolt against the
+corruption of Papal Rome which was the motive force of the
+Reformation. Who were these Wandering Students? As their name implies,
+they were men, and for the most part young men, traveling from
+university to university in search of knowledge. Far from their homes,
+without responsibilities, light of purse and light of heart, careless
+and pleasure-seeking, they ran a free, disreputable course,
+frequenting taverns at least as much as lecture-rooms, more capable of
+pronouncing judgment upon wine or woman than upon a problem of
+divinity or logic. These pilgrims to the shrines of knowledge formed a
+class apart. According to tendencies prevalent in the Middle Ages,
+they became a sort of guild, and with pride proclaimed themselves an
+Order."[512]
+
+Our knowledge of the mediaeval students' songs is derived from two
+principal sources: (1) a richly illuminated thirteenth-century
+manuscript now preserved at Munich and edited in 1847 under the title
+_Carmina Burana_; and (2) another thirteenth-century manuscript
+published (with other materials) in 1841 under the title _Latin Poems
+commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_. Many songs occur in both
+collections. The half-dozen given in translation below very well
+illustrate the subjects, tone, and style of these interesting bits of
+literature.
+
+     Source--Texts in Edelestand du Meril, _Poesies Populaires
+     Latines du Moyen Age_ ["Popular Latin Poetry of the Middle
+     Ages"], Paris, 1847, _passim_. Translated in John Addington
+     Symonds, _Wine, Women, and Song: Mediaeval Latin Students'
+     Songs_ (London, 1884), pp. 12-136, _passim_.
+
+The first is a tenth century piece, marked by an element of tenderness
+in sentiment which is essentially modern. It is the invitation of a
+young man to his mistress, bidding her to a little supper at his home.
+
+     "Come therefore now, my gentle fere,
+     Whom as my heart I hold full dear;
+     Enter my little room, which is
+     Adorned with quaintest rarities:
+     There are the seats with cushions spread,
+     The roof with curtains overhead:
+     The house with flowers of sweetest scent
+     And scattered herbs is redolent:
+     A table there is deftly dight
+     With meats and drinks of rare delight;
+     There too the wine flows, sparkling, free;
+     And all, my love, to pleasure thee.
+     There sound enchanting symphonies;
+     The clear high notes of flutes arise;
+     A singing girl and artful boy
+     Are chanting for thee strains of joy;
+     He touches with his quill the wire,
+     She tunes her note unto the lyre:
+     The servants carry to and fro
+     Dishes and cups of ruddy glow;
+     But these delights, I will confess,
+     Than pleasant converse charm me less;
+     Nor is the feast so sweet to me
+     As dear familiarity.
+     Then come now, sister of my heart,
+     That dearer than all others art,
+     Unto mine eyes thou shining sun,
+     Soul of my soul, thou only one!
+     I dwelt alone in the wild woods,
+     And loved all secret solitudes;
+     Oft would I fly from tumults far,
+     And shunned where crowds of people are.
+     O dearest, do not longer stay!
+     Seek we to live and love to-day!
+     I cannot live without thee, sweet!
+     Time bids us now our love complete."
+
+The next is a begging petition, addressed by a student on the road to
+some resident of the place where he was temporarily staying. The
+supplication for alms, in the name of learning, is cast in the form of
+a sing-song doggerel.
+
+     I, a wandering scholar lad,
+       Born for toil and sadness,
+     Oftentimes am driven by
+       Poverty to madness.
+
+     Literature and knowledge I
+       Fain would still be earning,
+     Were it not that want of pelf
+       Makes me cease from learning.
+
+     These torn clothes that cover me
+       Are too thin and rotten;
+     Oft I have to suffer cold,
+       By the warmth forgotten.
+
+     Scarce I can attend at church,
+       Sing God's praises duly;
+     Mass and vespers both I miss,
+       Though I love them truly.
+
+     Oh, thou pride of N----,[513]
+       By thy worth I pray thee
+     Give the suppliant help in need,
+       Heaven will sure repay thee.
+
+     Take a mind unto thee now
+       Like unto St. Martin;[514]
+     Clothe the pilgrim's nakedness
+       Wish him well at parting.
+
+     So may God translate your soul
+       Into peace eternal,
+     And the bliss of saints be yours
+       In His realm supernal.
+
+The following jovial _Song of the Open Road_ throbs with exhilaration
+and even impudence. Two vagabond students are drinking together before
+they part. One of them undertakes to expound the laws of the
+brotherhood which bind them together. The refrain is intended
+apparently to imitate a bugle call.
+
+     We in our wandering,
+     Blithesome and squandering,
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Eat to satiety,
+     Drink to propriety;
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Laugh till our sides we split,
+     Rags on our hides we fit;
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Jesting eternally,
+     Quaffing infernally.
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Craft's in the bone of us,
+     Fear 'tis unknown of us;
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     When we're in neediness,
+     Thieve we with greediness:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Brother catholical,
+     Man apostolical,
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Say what you will have done,
+     What you ask 'twill be done!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Folk, fear the toss of the
+     Horns of philosophy!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Here comes a quadruple
+     Spoiler and prodigal![515]
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     License and vanity
+     Pamper insanity:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     As the Pope bade us do,
+     Brother to brother's true:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Brother, best friend, adieu!
+     Now, I must part from you!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     When will our meeting be?
+     Glad shall our greeting be!
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Vows valedictory
+     Now have the victory:
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+     Clasped on each other's breast,
+     Brother to brother pressed,
+         Tara, tantara, teino!
+
+Here is a song entitled _The Vow to Cupid_.
+
+     Winter, now thy spite is spent,
+     Frost and ice and branches bent!
+     Fogs and furious storms are o'er,
+     Sloth and torpor, sorrow frore,
+     Pallid wrath, lean discontent.
+
+     Comes the graceful band of May!
+     Cloudless shines the limpid day,
+     Shine by night the Pleiades;
+     While a grateful summer breeze
+     Makes the season soft and gay.
+
+     Golden Love! shine forth to view!
+     Souls of stubborn men subdue!
+     See me bend! what is thy mind?
+     Make the girl thou givest kind,
+     And a leaping ram's thy due![516]
+
+     O the jocund face of earth,
+     Breathing with young grassy birth!
+     Every tree with foliage clad,
+     Singing birds in greenwood glad,
+     Flowering fields for lovers' mirth!
+
+Here is another song of exceedingly delicate sentiment. It is entitled
+_The Love-Letter in Spring_.
+
+     Now the sun is streaming,
+       Clear and pure his ray;
+     April's glad face beaming
+       On our earth to-day.
+     Unto love returneth
+       Every gentle mind;
+     And the boy-god burneth
+       Jocund hearts to bind.
+
+     All this budding beauty,
+       Festival array,
+     Lays on us the duty
+       To be blithe and gay.
+     Trodden ways are known, love!
+       And in this thy youth,
+     To retain thy own love
+       Were but faith and truth.
+
+     In faith love me solely,
+       Mark the faith of me,
+     From thy whole heart wholly,
+       From the soul of thee.
+     At this time of bliss, dear,
+       I am far away;
+     Those who love like this, dear,
+       Suffer every day!
+
+Next to love and the springtime, the average student set his
+affections principally on the tavern and the wine-bowl. From his
+proneness to frequent the tavern's jovial company of topers and
+gamesters naturally sprang a liberal supply of drinking songs. Here is
+a fragment from one of them.
+
+     Some are gaming, some are drinking,
+     Some are living without thinking;
+     And of those who make the racket,
+     Some are stripped of coat and jacket;
+     Some get clothes of finer feather,
+     Some are cleaned out altogether;
+     No one there dreads death's invasion,
+     But all drink in emulation.
+
+Finally may be given, in the original Latin, a stanza of a drinking
+song which fell to such depths of irreverence as to comprise a parody
+of Thomas Aquinas's hymn on the Lord's Supper.
+
+     _Bibit hera, bibit herus,
+     Bibit miles, bibit clerus,
+     Bibit ille, bibit illa,
+     Bibit servus cum ancilla,
+     Bibit velox, bibit piger,
+     Bibit albus, bibit niger,
+     Bibit constans, bibit vagus,
+     Bibit rudis, bibit magus._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[494] That is, the _trivium_ (Latin grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and
+the _quadrivium_ (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music).
+
+[495] The earliest degrees granted at Bologna, Paris, etc., were those
+of master of arts and doctor of philosophy. "Master" and "Doctor" were
+practically equivalent terms and both signified simply that the
+bearer, after suitable examinations, had been recognized as
+sufficiently proficient to be admitted to the guild of teachers. The
+bachelor's degree grew up more obscurely. It might be taken somewhere
+on the road to the master's degree, but was merely an incidental stamp
+of proficiency up to a certain stage of advancement. Throughout
+mediaeval times the master's, or doctor's, degree, which carried the
+right to become a teacher, was the normal goal and few stopped short
+of its attainment.
+
+[496] Hastings Rashdall, _The Universities of Europe in the Middle
+Ages_ (Oxford, 1895), Vol. I., p. 146.
+
+[497] Evidently, from other passages, including students of law as
+well as teachers.
+
+[498] Greedy creditors sometimes compelled students to pay debts owed
+by the fellow-countrymen of the latter--a very thinly disguised form
+of robbery. This abuse was now to be abolished.
+
+[499] That is, in any legal proceedings against a scholar the
+defendant was to choose whether he would be tried before his own
+master or before the bishop. In later times this right of choice
+passed generally to the plaintiff.
+
+[500] The students of the French universities were regarded as, for
+all practical purposes, members of the clergy (_clerici_) and thus to
+be distinguished from laymen. They were not clergy in the full sense,
+but were subject to a special sort of jurisdiction closely akin to
+that applying to the clergy.
+
+[501] The law on this point was exceptionally severe. The privilege of
+establishing innocence by combat or the ordeal by water was denied,
+though even the provost and his subordinates who had played false in
+the riot of 1200 had been given the opportunity of clearing themselves
+by such means if they chose and could do so.
+
+[502] A further recognition of the clerical character of the students.
+
+[503] The property, as the persons, of the scholars was protected from
+seizure except by the church authorities.
+
+[504] In this capacity the provost of Paris came to be known as the
+"Conservator of the Royal Privileges of the University."
+
+[505] For an explanation of the phrase "elector of the Holy Empire"
+see p. 409.
+
+[506] Rupert had sent sums of money to Rome to induce Pope Urban VI.
+to approve the foundation of the university. The papal bull of 1385,
+which was the reward of his effort, specifically enjoined that the
+university be modeled closely after that of Paris.
+
+[507] The mediaeval "three philosophies" were introduced by the
+rediscovery of some of Aristotle's writings in the twelfth century.
+Primal philosophy was what we now know as metaphysics; natural
+philosophy meant the sciences of physics, botany, etc.; and moral
+philosophy denoted ethics and politics.
+
+[508] At Paris the students were divided into four groups, named from
+the nationality which predominated in each of them at the time of its
+formation--the French, the Normans, the Picards, and the English.
+
+[509] The rector at Paris was head of the faculty of arts.
+
+[510] Equivalent to bedel. All mediaeval universities had their bedels,
+who bore the mace of authority before the rectors on public occasions,
+made announcements of lectures, book sales, etc., and exercised many
+of the functions of the modern bedel of European universities.
+
+[511] John Addington Symonds, _Wine, Women and Song: Mediaeval Latin
+Students' Songs_ (London, 1884), pp. 1-3.
+
+[512] Symonds, _Wine, Women, and Song_, pp. 5-20 _passim_.
+
+[513] This is the only indication of the name of the place where the
+suppliant student was supposed to be making his petition.
+
+[514] St. Martin was the founder of the monastery at Tours [see p.
+48].
+
+[515] "Honest folk are jeeringly bidden to beware of the _quadrivium_
+[see p. 339], which is apt to form a fourfold rogue instead of a
+scholar in four branches of knowledge."--Symonds, _Wine, Women, and
+Song_, p. 57.
+
+[516] That is, as a sacrifice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE FRIARS
+
+
+From the twelfth century onwards one of the most conspicuous features
+of the internal development of the mediaeval Church was the struggle
+to combat worldliness among ecclesiastics and to preserve the purity
+of doctrine and uprightness of living which had characterized the
+primitive Christian clergy. As the Middle Ages advanced to their close,
+unimpeachable evidence accumulates that the Church was increasingly
+menaced by grave abuses. This evidence appears not only in contemporary
+records and chronicles but even more strikingly in the great
+protesting movements which spring up in rapid succession--particularly
+the rise of heretical sects, such as the Waldenses and the Albigenses,
+and the inauguration of systematic efforts to regenerate the church
+body without disrupting its unity. These latter efforts at first took
+the form of repeated revivals of monastic enthusiasm and self-denial,
+marked by the founding of a series of new orders on the basis of the
+Benedictine Rule--the Cluniacs, the Carthusians, the Cistercians, and
+others of their kind [see p. 245]. This resource proving ineffective,
+the movement eventually came to comprise the establishment of wholly
+new and independent organizations--the mendicant orders--on principles
+better adapted than were those of monasticism to the successful
+propagation of simplicity and purity of Christian living. The chief of
+these new orders were the Franciscans, known also as Gray Friars and
+as Minorites, and the Dominicans, sometimes called Black Friars or
+Preaching Friars. Both were founded in the first quarter of the
+thirteenth century, the one by St. Francis of Assisi; the other by the
+Spanish nobleman, St. Dominic.
+
+The friars, of whatsoever type, are clearly to be distinguished from
+the monks. In the first place, their aims were different. The monks,
+in so far as they were true to their principles, lived in more or less
+seclusion from the rest of the world and gave themselves up largely
+to prayer and meditation; the fundamental purpose of the friars, on
+the other hand, was to mingle with their fellow-men and to spend their
+lives in active religious work among them. Whereas the old monasticism
+had been essentially selfish, the new movement was above all of a
+missionary and philanthropic character. In the second place, the
+friars were even more strongly committed to a life of poverty than
+were the monks, for they renounced not only individual property, as
+did the monks, but also collective property, as the monks did not.
+They were expected to get their living either by their own labor or by
+begging. They did not dwell in fixed abodes, but wandered hither and
+thither as inclination and duty led. Their particular sphere of
+activity was the populous towns; unlike the monks, they had no liking
+for rural solitudes. As one writer has put it, "their houses were
+built in or near the great towns; and to the majority of the brethren
+the houses of the orders were mere temporary resting-places from which
+they issued to make their journeys through town and country, preaching
+in the parish churches, or from the steps of the market-crosses, and
+carrying their ministrations to every castle and every cottage."
+
+Both the Franciscans and the Dominicans were exempt from control by
+the bishops in the various dioceses and were ardent supporters of the
+papacy, which showered privileges upon them and secured in them two of
+its strongest allies. The organization of each order was elaborate and
+centralized. At the head was a master, or general, who resided at Rome
+and was assisted by a "chapter." All Christendom was divided into
+provinces, each of which was directed by a prior and provincial
+chapter. And over each individual "house" was placed a prior, or
+warden, appointed by the provincial chapter. In their earlier history
+the zeal and achievements of the friars were remarkable. Nearly all of
+the greatest men of the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries--as
+Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Dun Scotus, and Albertus Magnus--were
+members of one of the mendicant orders. Unfortunately, with the friars
+as with the monks, prosperity brought decadence; and by the middle of
+the fourteenth century their ardor had cooled and their boasted
+self-denial had pretty largely given place to self-indulgence.
+
+
+63. The Life of St. Francis
+
+Saint Francis, the founder of the Franciscan order, was born, probably
+in 1182, at Assisi, a small town in central Italy. His boyhood was
+unpromising, but when he was about twenty years of age a great change
+came over him, the final result of which was the making of one of the
+most splendid and altogether lovable characters of the entire Middle
+Ages. From a wild, reckless, although cultured, youth he developed
+into a sympathetic, self-denying, sweet-spirited saint. Finding
+himself, after his conversion, possessed of a natural loathing for the
+destitute and diseased, especially lepers, he disciplined himself
+until he could actually take a certain sort of pleasure in associating
+with these outcasts of society. When his father, a wealthy and
+aristocratic cloth-merchant, protested against this sort of conduct,
+the young man promptly cast aside his gentlemanly raiment, clad
+himself in the worn-out garments of a gardener, and adopted the life
+of the wandering hermit. In 1209, in obedience to what he conceived to
+be a direct commission from heaven, he began definitely to imitate the
+early apostles in his manner of living and to preach the gospel of the
+older and purer Christianity. By 1210 he had a small body of
+followers, and in that year he sought and obtained Pope Innocent
+III.'s sanction of his work, though the papal approval was expressed
+only orally and more than a decade was to elapse before the movement
+received formal recognition. About 1217 Francis and his companions
+took up missionary work on a large scale. Members of the brotherhood
+were dispatched to England, Germany, France, Spain, Hungary, and
+several other countries, with instructions to spread the principles
+which by this time were coming to be recognized as peculiarly
+Franciscan. The success of these efforts was considerable, though in
+some places the brethren were ill treated and an appeal had to be made
+to the Pope for protection.
+
+The several selections given below have been chosen to illustrate the
+principal features of the life and character of St. Francis. We are
+fortunate in possessing a considerable amount of literature,
+contemporary or nearly so, relating to the personal career of this
+noteworthy man. In the first place, we have some writings of St.
+Francis himself--the Rule (p. 373), the Will (p. 376), some poems,
+some reported sermons, and fragments of a few letters. Then we have
+several biographies, of which the most valuable, because not only the
+earliest but also the least conventional, are the _Mirror of
+Perfection_ and the _Legend of the Three Companions_. These were
+written by men who knew St. Francis intimately and who could avow "we
+who were with him have heard him say" or "we who were with him have
+seen," such and such things. The "three companions" were Brothers Leo,
+Rufinus, and Angelo--all men of noble birth, the last-named being the
+first soldier to be identified with the order. The _Mirror of
+Perfection_ was written in 1227 by Brother Leo, who of all men
+probably knew St. Francis best. It is a vivid and fascinating portrait
+drawn from life. The _Legend of the Three Companions_ was written in
+1246. The later biographies, such as the official _Life_ by St.
+Bonaventura (1261) and the _Little Flowers of St. Francis_ (written
+probably in the fourteenth century), though until recently the best
+known of the group, are relatively inferior in value. In them the real
+St. Francis is conventionalized and much obscured.
+
+The first passage here reproduced (a) comes from the _Legend of the
+Three Companions_; the others (b) are taken from the _Mirror of
+Perfection_.
+
+     Sources--(a) _Legenda S. Francisci Assisiensis quae dicitur
+     Legenda trium sociorum._ Adapted from translation by E. G.
+     Salter, under title of "The Legend of the Three Companions,"
+     in the Temple Classics (London, 1902), pp. 8-24, _passim_.
+
+     (b) _Speculum Perfectionis._ Translated by Constance, Countess
+     de la Warr, under title of "The Mirror of Perfection,"
+     (London, 1902), _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: His youthful vanities and waywardness]
+
+   (a)
+
+   Francis, born in the city of Assisi, which lies in the confines of
+   the Vale of Spoleto, was at first named John by his mother. Then,
+   when his father, in whose absence he had been born, returned from
+   France, he was afterward named Francis[517]. After he was grown up,
+   and had become of a subtle wit, he practiced the art of his father,
+   that is, trade. But [he did so] in a very different manner, for he
+   was a merrier man than was his father, and more generous, given to
+   jests and songs, going about the city of Assisi day and night in
+   company with his kind, most free-handed in spending; insomuch that
+   he consumed all his income and his profits in banquets and other
+   matters. On this account he was often rebuked by his parents, who
+   told him he ran into so great expense on himself and on others that
+   he seemed to be no son of theirs, but rather of some mighty prince.
+   Nevertheless, because his parents were rich and loved him most
+   tenderly, they bore with him in such matters, not being disposed to
+   chastise him. Indeed, his mother, when gossip arose among the
+   neighbors concerning his prodigal ways, made answer: "What think ye
+   of my son? He shall yet be the son of God by grace." But he himself
+   was free-handed, or rather prodigal, not only in these things, but
+   even in his clothes he was beyond measure sumptuous, using stuffs
+   more costly than it befitted him to wear. So wayward was his fancy
+   that at times on the same coat he would cause a costly cloth to be
+   matched with one of the meanest sort.
+
+     [Sidenote: His redeeming qualities]
+
+     [Sidenote: A lesson in charity]
+
+   Yet he was naturally courteous, in manner and word, after the
+   purpose of his heart, never speaking a harmful or shameful word to
+   any one. Nay, indeed, although he was so gay and wanton a youth,
+   yet of set purpose would he make no reply to those who said
+   shameful things to him. And hence was his fame so spread abroad
+   throughout the whole neighborhood that it was said by many who knew
+   him that he would do something great. By these steps of godliness
+   he progressed to such grace that he would say in communing with
+   himself: "Seeing that thou art bountiful and courteous toward men,
+   from whom thou receivest naught save a passing and empty favor, it
+   is just that thou shouldst be courteous and bountiful toward God,
+   who is Himself most bountiful in rewarding His poor." Wherefore
+   thenceforward did he look with goodwill upon the poor, bestowing
+   alms upon them abundantly. And although he was a merchant, yet was
+   he a most lavish dispenser of this world's riches. One day, when he
+   was standing in the warehouse in which he sold goods, and was
+   intent on business, a certain poor man came to him asking alms for
+   the love of God. Nevertheless, he was held back by the covetousness
+   of wealth and the cares of merchandise, and denied him the alms.
+   But forthwith, being looked upon by the divine grace, he rebuked
+   himself of great churlishness, saying, "Had this poor man asked
+   thee aught in the name of a great count or baron, assuredly thou
+   wouldst have given him what he had asked. How much more then
+   oughtest thou to have done it for the King of Kings and Lord of
+   all?" By reason whereof he thenceforth determined in his heart
+   never again to deny anything asked in the name of so great a
+   Lord....
+
+     [Sidenote: A vision in the midst of revelry]
+
+   Now, not many days after he returned to Assisi,[518] he was chosen
+   one evening by his comrades as their master of the revels, to spend
+   the money collected from the company after his own fancy. So he
+   caused a sumptuous banquet to be made ready, as he had often done
+   before. And when they came forth from the house, and his comrades
+   together went before him, going through the city singing while he
+   carried a wand in his hand as their master, he was walking behind
+   them, not singing, but meditating very earnestly. And lo! suddenly
+   he was visited by the Lord, and his heart was filled with such
+   sweetness that he could neither speak nor move; nor was he able to
+   feel and hear anything except that sweetness only, which so
+   separated him from his physical senses that--as he himself
+   afterward said--had he then been pricked with knives all over at
+   once, he could not have moved from the spot. But when his comrades
+   looked back and saw him thus far off from them, they returned to
+   him in fear, staring at him as one changed into another man. And
+   they asked him, "What were you thinking about, that you did not
+   come along with us? Perchance you were thinking of taking a wife."
+   To them he replied with a loud voice: "Truly have you spoken, for I
+   thought of taking to myself a bride nobler and richer and fairer
+   than ever you have seen." And they mocked at him. But this he said
+   not of his own accord, but inspired of God; for the bride herself
+   was true Religion, whom he took unto him, nobler, richer, and
+   fairer than others in her poverty.
+
+     [Sidenote: His increasing zeal in charity]
+
+   And so from that hour he began to grow worthless in his own eyes,
+   and to despise those things he had formerly loved, although not
+   wholly so at once, for he was not yet entirely freed from the
+   vanity of the world. Nevertheless, withdrawing himself little by
+   little from the tumult of the world, he made it his study to
+   treasure up Jesus Christ in his inner man, and, hiding from the
+   eyes of mockers the pearl that he would fain buy at the price of
+   selling his all, he went oftentimes, and as it were in secret,
+   daily to prayer, being urged thereto by the foretaste of that
+   sweetness that had visited him more and more often, and compelled
+   him to come from the streets and other public places to prayer.
+   Although he had long done good unto the poor, yet from this time
+   forth he determined still more firmly in his heart never again to
+   deny alms to any poor man who should ask it for the love of God,
+   but to give alms more willingly and bountifully than had been his
+   practice. Whenever, therefore, any poor man asked of him an alms
+   out of doors, he would supply him with money if he could; if he had
+   no ready money, he would give him his cap or girdle rather than
+   send the poor man away empty. And if it happened that he had
+   nothing of this kind, he would go to some hidden place, and strip
+   off his shirt, and send the poor man thither that he might take it,
+   for the sake of God. He also would buy vessels for the adornment
+   of churches, and would send them in all secrecy to poor priests....
+
+     [Sidenote: He begs alms at Rome]
+
+   So changed, then, was he by divine grace (although still in the
+   secular garb) that he desired to be in some city where he might, as
+   one unknown, strip off his own clothes and exchange them for those
+   of some beggar, so that he might wear his instead and make trial of
+   himself by asking alms for the love of God. Now it happened that at
+   that time he had gone to Rome on a pilgrimage. And entering the
+   church of St. Peter, he reflected on the offerings of certain
+   people, seeing that they were small, and spoke within himself:
+   "Since the Prince of the Apostles should of right be magnificently
+   honored, why do these folk make such sorry offerings in the church
+   wherein his body rests?" And so in great fervency he put his hand
+   into his purse and drew it forth full of money, and flung it
+   through the grating of the altar with such a crash that all who
+   were standing by marveled greatly at so splendid an offering. Then,
+   going forth in front of the doors of the church, where many beggars
+   were gathered to ask alms, he secretly borrowed the rags of one
+   among the neediest and donned them, laying aside his own clothing.
+   Then, standing on the church steps with the other beggars, he asked
+   an alms in French, for he loved to speak the French tongue,
+   although he did not speak it correctly. Thereafter, putting off the
+   rags, and taking again his own clothes, he returned to Assisi, and
+   began to pray the Lord to direct his way. For he revealed unto none
+   his secret, nor took counsel of any in this matter, save only of
+   God (who had begun to direct his way) and at times of the bishop of
+   Assisi. For at that time no true Poverty was to be found anywhere,
+   and she it was that he desired above all things of this world,
+   being minded in her to live--yea, and to die....
+
+     [Sidenote: Francis and the leper]
+
+   Now when on a certain day he was praying fervently unto the Lord,
+   answer was made unto him: "Francis, all those things that thou hast
+   loved after the flesh, and hast desired to have, thou must needs
+   despise and hate, if thou wouldst do My will, and after thou shalt
+   have begun to do this the things that aforetime seemed sweet unto
+   thee and delightful shall be unbearable unto thee and bitter, and
+   from those that aforetime thou didst loathe thou shalt drink great
+   sweetness and delight unmeasured." Rejoicing at these words, and
+   consoled in the Lord, when he had ridden nigh unto Assisi, he met
+   one that was a leper. And because he had been accustomed greatly to
+   loathe lepers, he did violence to himself, and dismounted from his
+   horse, gave him money, and kissed his hand. And receiving from him
+   the kiss of peace, he remounted his horse and continued his
+   journey. Thenceforth he began more and more to despise himself,
+   until by the grace of God he had attained perfect mastery over
+   himself.
+
+   A few days later, he took much money and went to the quarter of the
+   lepers, and, gathering all together, gave to each an alms, kissing
+   his hand. As he departed, in very truth that which had aforetime
+   been bitter to him, that is, the sight and touch of lepers, was
+   changed into sweetness. For, as he confessed, the sight of lepers
+   had been so grievous to him that he had been accustomed to avoid
+   not only seeing them, but even going near their dwellings. And if
+   at any time he happened to pass their abodes, or to see them,
+   although he was moved by compassion to give them an alms through
+   another person, yet always would he turn aside his face, stopping
+   his nostrils with his hand. But, through the grace of God, he
+   became so intimate a friend of the lepers that, even as he recorded
+   in his Will,[519] he lived with them and did humbly serve them.
+
+     [Sidenote: How St. Francis would not dwell in an adorned cell]
+
+     [Sidenote: Or in a cell called his own]
+
+   (b)
+
+   A very spiritual friar, who was familiar with Blessed Francis,
+   erected at the hermitage where he lived a little cell in a solitary
+   spot, where Blessed Francis could retire and pray when he came
+   thither. When he arrived at this place the friar took him to the
+   cell, and Blessed Francis said, "This cell is too splendid"--it
+   was, indeed, built only of wood, and smoothed with a hatchet--"if
+   you wish me to remain here, make it within and without of branches
+   of trees and clay." For the poorer the house or cell, the more was
+   he pleased to live therein. When the friar had done this, Blessed
+   Francis remained there several days. One day he was out of the cell
+   when a friar came to see him, who, coming thereafter to the place
+   where Blessed Francis was, was asked, "Whence came you, Brother?"
+   He answered, "I come from your cell." Then said Blessed Francis:
+   "Since you have called it mine, let another dwell there and not I."
+   And, in truth, we who were with him often heard him say: "The foxes
+   have holes, and the birds of the air have their nests, but the Son
+   of Man hath not where to lay His head." And again he would say:
+   "When the Lord remained in the desert, and fasted forty days and
+   forty nights, He did not make for Himself a cell or a house, but
+   found shelter amongst the rocks of the mountain." For this reason,
+   and to follow His example, he would not have it said that a cell or
+   house was his, nor would he allow such to be constructed.... When
+   he was nigh unto death he caused it to be written in his
+   Testament[520] that all the cells and houses of the friars should
+   be of wood and clay, the better to safeguard poverty and humility.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: A lazy friar]
+
+   At the beginning of the Order, when the friars were at
+   Rivo-Torto,[521] near Assisi, there was among them one friar who
+   would not pray, work, nor ask for alms, but only eat. Considering
+   this, Blessed Francis knew by the Holy Spirit that he was a carnal
+   man, and said to him, "Brother Fly, go your way, since you consume
+   the labor of the brethren, and are slothful in the work of the
+   Lord, like the idle and barren drone who earns nothing and does not
+   work, but consumes the labor and earnings of the working bee." He,
+   therefore, went his way, and as he was a carnally-minded man he
+   neither sought for mercy nor obtained it.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: Public humiliation inflicted upon himself]
+
+   Having at a time suffered greatly from one of his serious attacks
+   of illness, when he felt a little better he began to think that
+   during his sickness he had exceeded his usual allowance of food,
+   whereas he had really eaten very little. Though not quite recovered
+   from the ague, he caused the people of Assisi to be called together
+   in the public square to listen to a sermon. When he had finished
+   preaching, he told the people to remain where they were until he
+   came back to them, and entered the cathedral of St. Rufinus with
+   many friars and Brother Peter of Catana, who had been a canon of
+   that church, and was now the first Minister-General[522] appointed
+   by Blessed Francis. To Brother Peter Francis spoke, enjoining him
+   under obedience not to contradict what he was about to say. Brother
+   Peter replied: "Brother, neither is it possible, as between you and
+   me, nor do I wish to do anything save what is pleasing to you."
+   Then, taking off his tunic, Blessed Francis bade him place a rope
+   around his neck and drag him thus before the people to the place
+   where he had preached. At the same time he ordered another friar to
+   carry a bowlful of ashes to the place, and when he got there to
+   throw the ashes into his face. But this order was not obeyed by
+   the friar out of the pity and compassion he felt for him.
+
+   Brother Peter, taking the rope, did as he had been told; but he and
+   all the other friars shed tears of compassion and bitterness. When
+   he [Francis] stood thus bared before the people in the place where
+   he had preached, he cried: "You, and all those who by my example
+   have been induced to abandon the world and enter Religion to lead
+   the lives of friars, I confess before God and you that in my
+   illness I have eaten meat and broths made of meat." And all the
+   people could not refrain from weeping, especially as at that time
+   it was very cold and he had scarcely recovered from the fever.
+   Beating their breasts where they stood, they exclaimed, "If this
+   saint, for just and manifest necessity, with shame of body thus
+   accuses himself, whose life we know to be holy, and who has imposed
+   on himself such great abstinence and austerity since his first
+   conversion to Christ (whom we here, as it were, see in the flesh),
+   what will become of us sinners who all our lifetime seek to follow
+   our carnal appetites?"
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: St. Francis and the larks]
+
+   Blessed Francis, wholly wrapped up in the love of God, discerned
+   perfectly the goodness of God not only in his own soul, now adorned
+   with the perfection of virtue, but in every creature. On account of
+   which he had a singular and intimate love of creatures, especially
+   of those in which was figured anything pertaining to God or the
+   Order. Wherefore above all other birds he loved a certain little
+   bird which is called the lark, or by the people, the cowled lark.
+   And he used to say of it: "Sister Lark hath a cowl like a
+   Religious; and she is a humble bird, because she goes willingly by
+   the road to find there any food. And if she comes upon it in
+   foulness, she draws it out and eats it. But, flying, she praises
+   God very sweetly, like a good Religious, despising earthly things,
+   whose conversation is always in the heavens, and whose intent is
+   always to the praise of God. Her clothes (that is, her feathers),
+   are like to the earth and she gives an example to Religious that
+   they should not have delicate and colored garments, but common in
+   price and color, as earth is commoner than the other elements." And
+   because he perceived this in them, he looked on them most
+   willingly. Therefore it pleased the Lord, that these most holy
+   little birds should show some sign of affection towards him in the
+   hour of his death. For late in the Sabbath day after vespers,
+   before the night in which he passed away to the Lord, a great
+   multitude of that kind of birds called larks came on the roof of
+   the house where he was lying, and, flying about, made a wheel like
+   a circle around the roof, and, sweetly singing, seemed likewise to
+   praise the Lord.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: His desire that birds and animals be fed on Christmas
+   day]
+
+   We who were with Blessed Francis and write these things, testify
+   that many times we heard him say: "If I could speak with the
+   Emperor,[523] I would supplicate and persuade him that, for the
+   love of God and me, he would make a special law that no man should
+   snare or kill our sisters, the larks, nor do them any harm. Also,
+   that all chief magistrates of cities and lords of castles and
+   villages should, every year, on the day of the Lord's Nativity,
+   compel men to scatter wheat and other grain on the roads outside
+   cities and castles, that our Sister Larks and all other birds might
+   have to eat on that most solemn day; and that, out of reverence for
+   the Son of God, who on that night was laid by the most Blessed
+   Virgin Mary in a manger between an ox and an ass, all who have oxen
+   and asses should be obliged on that night to provide them with
+   abundant and good fodder; and also that on that day the poor should
+   be most bountifully fed by the rich."
+
+   For Blessed Francis held in higher reverence than any other the
+   Feast of the Lord's Nativity, saying, "After the Lord was born, our
+   salvation became a necessity." Therefore he desired that on this
+   day all Christians should rejoice in the Lord, and, for the love
+   of Him who gave Himself for us, should generously provide not only
+   for the poor, but also for the beasts and birds.
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+     [Sidenote: His regard for trees, stones, and all created things]
+
+   Next to fire he most loved water, which is the symbol of holy
+   penance and tribulation, whereby the stains are washed from the
+   soul, and by which the first cleansing of the soul takes place in
+   holy baptism. Hence, when he washed his hands, he would select a
+   place where he would not tread the water underfoot. When he walked
+   over stones he would tread on them with fear and reverence, for the
+   love of Him who is called the Rock, and when reciting the words of
+   the Psalm, _Thou hast exalted me on a rock_, would add with great
+   reverence and devotion, "beneath the foot of the rock hast thou
+   exalted me."
+
+   In the same way he would tell the friars who cut and prepared the
+   wood not to cut down the whole tree, but only such branches as
+   would leave the tree standing, for love of Him who died for us on
+   the wood of the Cross. So, also, he would tell the friar who was
+   the gardener not to cultivate all the ground for vegetables and
+   herbs for food, but to set aside some part to produce green plants
+   which should in their time bear flowers for the friars, for love of
+   Him who was called "The Flower of the Field," and "The Lily of the
+   Valley." Indeed he would say the Brother Gardener should always
+   make a beautiful little garden in some part of the land, and plant
+   it with sweet-scented herbs bearing lovely flowers, which in the
+   time of their blossoming invited men to praise Him who made all
+   herbs and flowers. For every creature cries aloud: "God has made me
+   for thee, O man!"
+
+
+64. The Rule of St. Francis
+
+There is every reason for believing that St. Francis set out upon his
+mission with no idea whatever of founding a new religious order. His
+fundamental purpose was to revive what he conceived to be the purer
+Christianity of the apostolic age, and so far as this involved the
+announcement of any definite principles or rules he was quite content
+to draw them solely from the Scriptures. We have record, for example,
+of how when (in 1209) St. Francis had yet but two followers, he led
+them to the steps of the church of St. Nicholas at Assisi and there
+read to them three times the words of Jesus sending forth his
+disciples,[524] adding, "This, brethren, is our life and our rule, and
+that of all who may join us. Go, then, and do as you have heard." As
+his field of labor expanded, however, and the number of the friars
+increased, St. Francis decided to write out a definite Rule for the
+brotherhood and go to Rome to procure its approval by the Pope. The
+Rule as thus formulated, in 1210, has not come down to us. We know
+only that it was extremely simple and that it was composed almost
+wholly of passages from the Bible (doubtless those read to the
+companions at Assisi), with a few precepts about the occupations and
+manner of living of the brethren. This first Rule indeed proved too
+simple and brief to satisfy the demands of the growing order. A
+general injunction, such as "be poor," was harder to apply and to live
+up to than a more specific set of instructions explaining just what
+was to be considered poverty and what was not. The brethren, moreover,
+were soon preaching and laboring in all the countries of western
+Europe and questions were continually coming up regarding their
+relations with the temporal powers in those countries, with the local
+clergy, with the papal government, and also among themselves.
+
+Reluctantly, and with a heart-felt warning against the insidious
+influences of ambition and organization, the founder finally brought
+himself to the task of drawing up a constitution for the order which
+had surprised him, and in a certain sense grieved him, by the very
+elaborateness of its development. During the winter of 1220-21, when
+physical infirmities were foreshadowing the end, Francis worked out
+the document generally known as the Rule of 1221, which became the
+basis for the Rule of 1223, quoted in part below. Before the Rule took
+its final form, the influence of the Church was brought to bear
+through the papacy, with the result that most of the freshness and
+vigor that St. Francis put into the earlier effort was crushed out in
+the interest of ecclesiastical regularity. Only a small portion of the
+document can be reproduced here, but enough, perhaps, to show
+something as to what the manner of life of the Franciscan friar was
+expected to be. The extract may profitably be compared with the
+Benedictine Rule governing the monks [see p. 83].
+
+     Source--_Bullarium Romanum_ ["Collection of Papal Bulls"],
+     editio Taurinensis, Vol. III., p. 394. Adapted from
+     translation in Ernest F. Henderson, _Select Historical
+     Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1896), pp. 344-349
+     _passim_.
+
+   =1.= This is the rule and way of living of the Minorite brothers,
+   namely, to observe the holy Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, living
+   in obedience, without personal possessions, and in chastity.
+   Brother Francis promises obedience and reverence to our lord Pope
+   Honorius,[525] and to his successors who canonically enter upon
+   their office, and to the Roman Church. And the other brothers shall
+   be bound to obey Brother Francis and his successors.
+
+     [Sidenote: Money in no case to be received by the brothers]
+
+   =4.= I firmly command all the brothers by no means to receive coin
+   or money, of themselves or through an intervening person. But for
+   the needs of the sick and for clothing the other brothers, the
+   ministers alone and the guardians shall provide through spiritual
+   friends, as it may seem to them that necessity demands, according
+   to time, place and the coldness of the temperature. This one thing
+   being always borne in mind, that, as has been said, they receive
+   neither coin nor money.
+
+     [Sidenote: The obligation to labor]
+
+   =5.= Those brothers to whom God has given the ability to labor
+   shall labor faithfully and devoutly, in such manner that idleness,
+   the enemy of the soul, being averted, they may not extinguish the
+   spirit of holy prayer and devotion, to which other temporal things
+   should be subservient. As a reward, moreover, for their labor, they
+   may receive for themselves and their brothers the necessities of
+   life, but not coin or money; and this humbly, as becomes the
+   servants of God and the followers of most holy poverty.
+
+   =6.= The brothers shall appropriate nothing to themselves, neither
+   a house, nor a place, nor anything; but as pilgrims and strangers
+   in this world, in poverty and humility serving God, they shall
+   confidently go seeking for alms. Nor need they be ashamed, for the
+   Lord made Himself poor for us in this world.
+
+
+65. The Will of St. Francis
+
+The will which St. Francis prepared just before his death (1226)
+contains an admirable statement of the principles for which he
+labored, as well as a notable warning to his successors not to allow
+the order to fall away from its original high ideals. Among the later
+Franciscans the Will acquired a moral authority superior even to that
+of the Rule.
+
+     Source--Text in Amoni, _Legenda Trium Sociorum_ ["Legend of
+     the Three Companions"], Appendix, p. 110. Translation adapted
+     from Paul Sabatier, _Life of St. Francis of Assisi_ (New York,
+     1894), pp. 337-339.
+
+   God gave it to me, Brother Francis, to begin to do penance in the
+   following manner: when I was yet in my sins it seemed to me too
+   painful to look upon the lepers, but the Lord Himself led me among
+   them, and I had compassion upon them. When I left them, that which
+   had seemed to me bitter had become sweet and easy. A little while
+   after, I left the world,[526] and God gave me such faith that I
+   would kneel down with simplicity in any of his churches, and I
+   would say, "We adore thee, Lord Jesus Christ, here and in all thy
+   churches which are in the world, and we bless thee that by Thy holy
+   cross Thou hast ransomed the world."
+
+     [Sidenote: St. Francis not hostile to the existing Church]
+
+   Afterward the Lord gave me, and still gives me, so great a faith in
+   priests who live according to the form of the holy Roman Church,
+   because of their sacerdotal character, that even if they
+   persecuted me I would have recourse to them, and even though I had
+   all the wisdom of Solomon, if I should find poor secular priests, I
+   would not preach in their parishes against their will.[527] I
+   desire to respect them like all the others, to love them and honor
+   them as my lords. I will not consider their sins, for in them I see
+   the Son of God, and they are my lords. I do this because here below
+   I see nothing, I perceive nothing physically of the most high Son
+   of God, except His most holy body and blood, which the priests
+   receive and alone distribute to others.[528]
+
+   I desire above all things to honor and venerate all these most holy
+   mysteries and to keep them precious. Wherever I find the sacred
+   name of Jesus, or his words, in unsuitable places, I desire to take
+   them away and put them in some decent place; and I pray that others
+   may do the same. We ought to honor and revere all the theologians
+   and those who preach the most holy word of God, as dispensing to us
+   spirit and life.
+
+   When the Lord gave me the care of some brothers, no one showed me
+   what I ought to do, but the Most High himself revealed to me that I
+   ought to live according to the model of the holy gospel. I caused a
+   short and simple formula to be written and the lord Pope confirmed
+   it for me.[529]
+
+     [Sidenote: Poverty and labor enjoined]
+
+   Those who volunteered to follow this kind of life distributed all
+   they had to the poor. They contented themselves with one tunic,
+   patched within and without, with the cord and breeches, and we
+   desired to have nothing more.... We loved to live in poor and
+   abandoned churches, and we were ignorant and were submissive to
+   all. I worked with my hands and would still do so, and I firmly
+   desire also that all the other brothers work, for this makes for
+   goodness. Let those who know no trade learn one, not for the
+   purpose of receiving wages for their toil, but for their good
+   example and to escape idleness. And when we are not given the price
+   of our work, let us resort to the table of the Lord, begging our
+   bread from door to door. The Lord revealed to me the salutation
+   which we ought to give: "God give you peace!"
+
+     [Sidenote: No further privileges to be sought from the Pope]
+
+   Let the brothers take great care not to accept churches, dwellings,
+   or any buildings erected for them, except as all is in accordance
+   with the holy poverty which we have vowed in the Rule; and let them
+   not live in them except as strangers and pilgrims. I absolutely
+   forbid all the brothers, in whatsoever place they may be found, to
+   ask any bull from the court of Rome, whether directly or
+   indirectly, in the interest of church or convent, or under pretext
+   of preaching, or even for the protection of their bodies. If they
+   are not received anywhere, let them go of themselves elsewhere,
+   thus doing penance with the benediction of God....
+
+   And let the brothers not say, "This is a new Rule"; for this is
+   only a reminder, a warning, an exhortation. It is my last will and
+   testament, that I, little Brother Francis, make for you, my blessed
+   brothers, in order that we may observe in a more Catholic way the
+   Rule which we promised the Lord to keep.
+
+     [Sidenote: No additions to be made to the Rule or the Will]
+
+   Let the ministers-general, all the other ministers, and the
+   custodians be held by obedience to add nothing to and take nothing
+   away from these words. Let them always keep this writing near them
+   beside the Rule; and in all the assemblies which shall be held,
+   when the Rule is read, let these words be read also.
+
+   I absolutely forbid all the brothers, clerics and laymen, to
+   introduce comments in the Rule, or in this Will, under pretext of
+   explaining it. But since the Lord has given me to speak and to
+   write the Rule and these words in a clear and simple manner, so do
+   you understand them in the same way without commentary, and put
+   them in practice until the end.
+
+   And whoever shall have observed these things, may he be crowned in
+   heaven with the blessings of the heavenly Father, and on earth with
+   those of his well-beloved Son and of the Holy Spirit, the Consoler,
+   with the assistance of all the heavenly virtues and all the saints.
+
+   And I, little Brother Francis, your servant, confirm to you, so far
+   as I am able, this most holy benediction. Amen.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[517] The father's name was Pietro Bernardone. As a cloth-merchant he
+was probably accustomed to make frequent journeys to northern France,
+particularly Champagne, which was the principal seat of commercial
+exchange between northern and southern Europe.
+
+[518] Aspiring to become a knight and to win distinction on the field
+of battle, Francis had gone to Spoleto with the intention of joining
+an expedition about to set out for Apulia. While there he was stricken
+with fever and compelled to abandon his purpose. Returning to Assisi,
+he redoubled his works of charity and sought to keep aloof from the
+people of the town. His old companions, however, flocked around him,
+expecting still to profit by his prodigality, and for a time, being
+himself uncertain as to the course he would take, he acceded to their
+desires.
+
+[519] See p. 376.
+
+[520] Brief portions of this testament, or will, are given on p. 376.
+
+[521] This was in the latter part of 1210 and the early part of 1211.
+Rivo-Torto was an abandoned cottage in the plain of Assisi, an hour's
+walk from the town and near the highway between Perugia and Rome. The
+building had once served as a leper hospital. Francis and his
+companions selected it as a temporary place of abode, probably because
+of its proximity to the _carceri_, or natural grottoes, of Mount
+Subasio to which the friars resorted for solitude, and because it was
+at the same time sufficiently near the Umbrian towns to permit of
+frequent trips thither for preaching and charity.
+
+[522] Practically, St. Francis's successor in the headship of the
+order. With the idea of realizing entire humility in his own life, St.
+Francis had resigned his position of authority into the hands of
+Brother Peter and had pledged the implicit obedience of himself and
+the others to the new prelate.
+
+[523] That is, the sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+[524] The passage (Luke ix. 1-6) is as follows: "Jesus, having called
+to Him the Twelve, gave them power and authority over all devils and
+to cure diseases. And He sent them to preach the Kingdom of God and to
+heal the sick. And He said unto them, Take nothing for your journey,
+neither staves, nor scrip, neither bread, neither money; neither have
+two coats apiece. And whatsoever house ye enter into, there abide, and
+thence depart. And whosoever will not receive you, when ye go out of
+that city shake off the very dust from your feet for a testimony
+against them. And they departed and went through the towns, preaching
+the gospel and healing everywhere."
+
+[525] Honorius III., 1216-1227.
+
+[526] That is, abandoned the worldly manner of living.
+
+[527] Despite the willingness of St. Francis here expressed to get on
+peaceably with the secular clergy, i.e., the bishops and priests, the
+history of the mendicant orders is filled with the records of strife
+between the seculars and friars. This was inevitable, since such
+friars as had taken priestly orders were accustomed to hear
+confessions, preside at masses, preach in parish churchyards, bury the
+dead, and collect alms--all the proper functions of the parish priests
+but permitted to the friars by special papal dispensations. The
+priests very naturally regarded the friars as usurpers.
+
+[528] That is, in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
+
+[529] The Rule of 1210, approved by Innocent III., is here meant [see
+p. 374].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+THE PAPACY AND THE TEMPORAL POWERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES
+
+
+66. The Interdict Laid on France by Innocent III. (1200)
+
+Two of the most effective weapons at the service of the mediaeval
+Church were excommunication and the interdict. By the ban of
+excommunication the proper ecclesiastical authorities could exclude a
+heretic or otherwise objectionable person from all religious
+privileges, thereby cutting him off from association with the faithful
+and consigning him irrevocably (unless he repented) to Satan. The
+interdict differed from excommunication in being less sweeping in its
+condemnatory character, and also in being applied to towns, provinces,
+or countries rather than to individuals. As a rule the interdict
+undertook to deprive the inhabitants of a specified region of the use
+of certain of the sacraments, of participation in the usual religious
+services, and of the right of Christian burial. It did not expel men
+from church membership, as did excommunication, but it suspended most
+of the privileges and rights flowing from such membership. The
+interdict was first employed by the clergy of north France in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries. In the twelfth it was adopted by the
+papacy on account of its obvious value as a means of disciplining the
+monarchs of western Europe. Because of its effectiveness in stirring
+up popular indignation against sovereigns who incurred the papal
+displeasure, by the time of Innocent III. (1198-1216) it had come to
+be employed for political as well as for purely religious purposes,
+though generally the two considerations were closely intertwined. A
+famous and typical instance of its use was that of the year 1200,
+described below.
+
+In August, 1193, Philip Augustus, king of France, married Ingeborg,
+second sister of King Knut VI. of Denmark. At the time Philip was
+contemplating an invasion of England and hoped through the marriage to
+assure himself of Danish aid. Circumstances soon changed his plans,
+however, and almost immediately he began to treat his new wife coldly,
+with the obvious purpose of forcing her to return to her brother's
+court. Failing in this, he convened his nobles and bishops at
+Compiegne and got from them a decree of divorce, on the flimsy pretext
+that the marriage with Ingeborg had been illegal on account of the
+latter's distant relationship to Elizabeth of Hainault, Philip's first
+wife. Ingeborg and her brother appealed to Rome, and Pope Celestine
+III. dispatched letter after letter and legate after legate to the
+French court, but without result. Indeed, after three years, Philip,
+to clinch the matter, as he thought, married Agnes of Meran, daughter
+of a Bavarian nobleman, and shut up Ingeborg in a convent at Soissons.
+In 1198, while the affair stood thus, Celestine died and was succeeded
+by Innocent III., under whom the papal power was destined to attain a
+height hitherto unknown. Innocent flatly refused to sanction the
+divorce or to recognize the second marriage, although he was not pope,
+of course, until some years after both had occurred. On the ground
+that the whole subject of marriage lay properly within the
+jurisdiction of the Church, Innocent demanded that Philip cast off the
+beautiful Agnes and restore Ingeborg to her rightful place. This
+Philip promptly refused to do.
+
+The threat of an interdict failing to move him, the Pope proceeded to
+put his threat into execution. In January, 1200, the interdict was
+pronounced and, though the king's power over the French clergy was so
+strong that many refused to heed the voice from Rome, gradually the
+discontent and indignation of the people grew until after nine months
+it became apparent that the king must yield. He did so as gracefully
+as he could, promising to take back Ingeborg and submit the question
+of a divorce to a council presided over by the papal legate. This
+council, convened in 1201 at Soissons, decided against the king and in
+favor of Ingeborg; but Philip had no intention to submit in good faith
+and, until the death of Agnes in 1204, he maintained his policy of
+procrastination and double-dealing. Even in the later years of the
+reign the unfortunate Ingeborg had frequent cause to complain of
+harshness and neglect at the hand of her royal husband.
+
+The following are the principal portions of Innocent's interdict.
+
+     Source--Martene, Edmond, and Durand, Ursin, _Thesaurus novus
+     Anecdotorum_ ["New Collection of Unpublished Documents"],
+     Paris, 1717, Vol. IV., p. 147. Adapted from translation by
+     Arthur C. Howland in _Univ. of Pa. Translations and Reprints_,
+     Vol. IV., No. 4, pp. 29-30.
+
+     [Sidenote: Partial suspension of the services and offices of
+     the Church]
+
+   Let all the churches be closed; let no one be admitted to them,
+   except to baptize infants; let them not be otherwise opened, except
+   for the purpose of lighting the lamps, or when the priest shall
+   come for the Eucharist and holy water for the use of the sick. We
+   permit Mass to be celebrated once a week, on Friday, early in the
+   morning, to consecrate the Host[530] for the use of the sick, but
+   only one clerk is to be admitted to assist the priest. Let the
+   clergy preach on Sunday in the vestibules of the churches, and in
+   place of the Mass let them deliver the word of God. Let them recite
+   the canonical hours[531] outside the churches, where the people do
+   not hear them; if they recite an epistle or a gospel, let them
+   beware lest the laity hear them; and let them not permit the dead
+   to be interred, nor their bodies to be placed unburied in the
+   cemeteries. Let them, moreover, say to the laity that they sin and
+   transgress grievously by burying bodies in the earth, even in
+   unconsecrated ground, for in so doing they assume to themselves an
+   office pertaining to others.
+
+     [Sidenote: How Easter should be observed]
+
+     [Sidenote: Arrangements for confession]
+
+   Let them forbid their parishioners to enter churches that may be
+   open in the king's territory, and let them not bless the wallets of
+   pilgrims, except outside the churches. Let them not celebrate the
+   offices in Passion week, but refrain even until Easter day, and
+   then let them celebrate in private, no one being admitted except
+   the assisting priest, as above directed; let no one communicate,
+   even at Easter, unless he be sick and in danger of death. During
+   the same week, or on Palm Sunday, let them announce to their
+   parishioners that they may assemble on Easter morning before the
+   church and there have permission to eat flesh and consecrated
+   bread.... Let the priest confess all who desire it in the portico
+   of the church; if the church have no portico, we direct that in bad
+   or rainy weather, and not otherwise, the nearest door of the church
+   may be opened and confessions heard on its threshold (all being
+   excluded except the one who is to confess), so that the priest and
+   the penitent can be heard by those who are outside the church. If,
+   however, the weather be fair, let the confession be heard in front
+   of the closed doors. Let no vessels of holy water be placed outside
+   the church, nor shall the priests carry them anywhere; for all the
+   sacraments of the Church beyond these two which are reserved[532]
+   are absolutely prohibited. Extreme unction, which is a holy
+   sacrament, may not be given.[533]
+
+
+67. The Bull "Unam Sanctam" of Boniface VIII. (1302)
+
+In the history of the mediaeval Church at least three great periods of
+conflict between the papacy and the temporal powers can be
+distinguished. The first was the era of Gregory VII. and Henry IV. of
+Germany [see p. 261]; the second was that of Innocent III. and John of
+England and Philip Augustus of France [see p. 380]; the third was that
+of Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France. In many respects the
+most significant document pertaining to the last of these struggles is
+the papal bull, given below, commonly designated by its opening words,
+_Unam Sanctam_.
+
+The question at issue in the conflict of Boniface VIII. and Philip the
+Fair was the old one as to whether the papacy should be allowed to
+dominate European states in temporal as well as in spiritual matters.
+The Franconian emperors, in the eleventh century, made stubborn
+resistance to such domination, but the immediate result was only
+partial success, while later efforts to keep up the contest
+practically ruined the power of the house of Hohenstaufen. Even Philip
+Augustus, at the opening of the thirteenth century, had been compelled
+to yield, at least outwardly, to the demands of the papacy respecting
+his marriages and his national policies. With the revival of the issue
+under Boniface and Philip, however, the tide turned, for at last there
+had arisen a nation whose sovereign had so firm a grip upon the
+loyalty of his subjects that he could defy even the power of Rome with
+impunity.
+
+The quarrel between Boniface and Philip first assumed importance in
+1296--two years after the accession of the former and eleven after
+that of the latter. The immediate subject of dispute was the heavy
+taxes which Philip was levying upon the clergy of France and the
+revenues from which he was using in the prosecution of his wars with
+Edward I. of England; but royal and papal interests were fundamentally
+at variance and as both king and pope were of a combative temper, a
+conflict was inevitable, irrespective of taxes or any other particular
+cause of controversy. In 1096 Boniface issued the famous bull
+_Clericis Laicos_, forbidding laymen (including monarchs) to levy
+subsidies on the clergy without papal consent and prohibiting the
+clergy to pay subsidies so levied. Philip the Fair was not mentioned
+in the bull, but the measure was clearly directed primarily at him. He
+retaliated by prohibiting the export of money, plate, etc., from the
+realm, thereby cutting off the accustomed papal revenues from France.
+In 1297 an apparent reconciliation was effected, the Pope practically
+suspending the bull so far as France was concerned, though only to
+secure relief from the conflict with Philip while engaged in a
+struggle with the rival Colonna family at Rome.
+
+In 1301 the contest was renewed, mainly because of the indiscretion of
+a papal legate, Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who vilified the
+king and was promptly imprisoned for his violent language. Boniface
+took up the cause of Saisset and called an ecclesiastical council to
+regulate the affairs of church and state in France and to rectify the
+injuries wrought by King Philip. The claim to papal supremacy in
+temporal as well as spiritual affairs, which Boniface proposed thus to
+make good, was boldly stated in a new bull--that of _Ausculta
+Fili_--in 1301. At the same time the bull _Clericis Laicos_ was
+renewed for France. Philip knew that the Franconians and his own
+Capetian predecessors had failed in their struggles with Rome chiefly
+for the reason that they had been lacking in consistent popular
+support. National feeling was unquestionably stronger in the France of
+1301 than in the Germany of 1077, or even in the France of 1200; but
+to make doubly sure, Philip, in 1302, caused the first meeting of a
+complete States General to be held, and from this body, representing
+the various elements of the French people, he got reliable pledges of
+support in his efforts to resist the temporal aggressions of the
+papacy. It was at this juncture that Boniface issued the bull _Unam
+Sanctam_, which has well been termed the classic mediaeval expression
+of the papal claims to universal temporal sovereignty.
+
+In 1303 an assembly of French prelates and magnates, under the
+inspiration of Philip, brought charges of heresy and misconduct
+against Boniface and called for a meeting of a general ecclesiastical
+council to depose him. Boniface decided to issue a bull
+excommunicating and deposing Philip. But before the date set for this
+step (September, 1303) a catastrophe befell the papacy which resulted
+in an unexpected termination of the episode. On the day before the
+bull of deposition was to be issued William of Nogaret, whom Philip
+had sent to Rome to force Boniface to call a general council to try
+the charges against himself, led a band of troops to Anagni and took
+the Pope prisoner with the intention of carrying him to France for
+trial. After three days the inhabitants of Anagni attacked the
+Frenchmen and drove them out and Boniface, who had barely escaped
+death, returned to Rome. The unfortunate Pope never recovered,
+however, from the effects of the outrage and his death in October
+(1303) left Philip, by however unworthy means, a victor. From this
+point the papacy passes under the domination of the French court and
+in 1309 began the dark period of the so-called Babylonian Captivity,
+during most of which the popes dwelt at Avignon under conditions
+precisely the reverse of the ideal which Boniface so clearly asserted
+in _Unam Sanctam_.
+
+     Source--Text based upon the papal register published by P.
+     Mury in _Revue des Questions Historiques_, Vol. XLVI. (July,
+     1889), pp. 255-256. Translated in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar
+     H. McNeal, _Source Book for Mediaeval History_ (New York),
+     1905, pp. 314-317.
+
+     [Sidenote: An assertion of the unity of the Church]
+
+   The true faith compels us to believe that there is one holy
+   Catholic Apostolic Church, and this we firmly believe and plainly
+   confess. And outside of her there is no salvation or remission of
+   sins, as the Bridegroom says in the Song of Solomon: "My dove, my
+   undefiled, is but one; she is the only one of her mother, she is
+   the choice one of her that bare her" [Song of Sol., vi. 9]; which
+   represents the one mystical body, whose head is Christ, but the
+   head of Christ is God [1 Cor., xi. 3]. In this Church there is "one
+   Lord, one faith, one baptism" [Eph., iv. 5]. For in the time of the
+   flood there was only one ark, that of Noah, prefiguring the one
+   Church, and it was "finished above in one cubit" [Gen., vi. 16],
+   and had but one helmsman and master, namely, Noah. And we read that
+   all things on the earth outside of this ark were destroyed. This
+   Church we venerate as the only one, since the Lord said by the
+   prophet: "Deliver my soul from the sword; my darling from the power
+   of the dog" [Ps., xxii. 20]. He prayed for his soul, that is, for
+   himself, the head; and at the same time for the body, and he named
+   his body, that is, the one Church, because there is but one
+   Bridegroom [John, iii. 29], and because of the unity of the faith,
+   of the sacraments, and of his love for the Church. This is the
+   seamless robe of the Lord which was not rent but parted by lot
+   [John, xix. 23].
+
+     [Sidenote: An allusion to the Petrine Supremacy]
+
+     [Sidenote: The proper relation of spiritual and temporal powers]
+
+   Therefore there is one body of the one and only Church, and one
+   head, not two heads, as if the Church were a monster. And this head
+   is Christ, and his vicar, Peter and his successor; for the Lord
+   himself said to Peter: "Feed my sheep" [John, xxi. 16]. And he said
+   "my sheep," in general, not these or those sheep in particular;
+   from which it is clear that all were committed to him. If,
+   therefore, Greeks [i.e., the Greek Church] or any one else say that
+   they are not subject to Peter and his successors, they thereby
+   necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. For
+   the Lord says, in the Gospel of John, that there is one fold and
+   only one shepherd [John, x. 16]. By the words of the gospel we are
+   taught that the two swords, namely, the spiritual authority and the
+   temporal, are in the power of the Church. For when the apostles
+   said "Here are two swords" [Luke, xxii. 38]--that is, in the
+   Church, since it was the apostles who were speaking--the Lord did
+   not answer, "It is too much," but "It is enough." Whoever denies
+   that the temporal sword is in the power of Peter does not properly
+   understand the word of the Lord when He said: "Put up thy sword
+   into the sheath" [John, xviii. 11]. Both swords, therefore, the
+   spiritual and the temporal, are in the power of the Church. The
+   former is to be used by the Church, the latter for the Church; the
+   one by the hand of the priest, the other by the hand of kings and
+   knights, but at the command and permission of the priest. Moreover,
+   it is necessary for one sword to be under the other, and the
+   temporal authority to be subjected to the spiritual; for the
+   apostle says, "For there is no power but of God: and the powers
+   that be are ordained of God" [Rom., xiii. 1]; but they would not be
+   ordained unless one were subjected to the other, and, as it were,
+   the lower made the higher by the other.
+
+     [Sidenote: The superiority of the spiritual]
+
+   For, according to St. Dionysius,[534] it is a law of divinity that
+   the lowest is made the highest through the intermediate. According
+   to the law of the universe all things are not equally and directly
+   reduced to order, but the lowest are fitted into their order
+   through the intermediate, and the lower through the higher. And we
+   must necessarily admit that the spiritual power surpasses any
+   earthly power in dignity and honor, because spiritual things
+   surpass temporal things. We clearly see that this is true from the
+   paying of tithes, from the benediction, from the sanctification,
+   from the receiving of the power, and from the governing of these
+   things. For the truth itself declares that the spiritual power must
+   establish the temporal power and pass judgment on it if it is not
+   good. Thus the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning the Church and the
+   ecclesiastical power is fulfilled: "See, I have this day set thee
+   over the nations and over the kingdoms, to root out, and to pull
+   down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to plant"
+   [Jer., i. 10].
+
+     [Sidenote: The highest spiritual power (the papacy) responsible to
+   God alone]
+
+   Therefore if the temporal power errs, it will be judged by the
+   spiritual power, and if the lower spiritual power errs, it will be
+   judged by its superior. But if the highest spiritual power errs, it
+   cannot be judged by men, but by God alone. For the apostle says:
+   "But he that is spiritual judgeth all things, yet he himself is
+   judged of no man" [1 Cor., ii. 15]. Now this authority, although it
+   is given to man and exercised through man, is not human, but
+   divine. For it was given by the word of the Lord to Peter, and the
+   rock was made firm to him and his successors, in Christ himself,
+   whom he had confessed. For the Lord said to Peter: "Whatsoever thou
+   shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou
+   shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19].
+
+     [Sidenote: Submission to the papacy essential to salvation]
+
+   Therefore, whosoever resisteth this power thus ordained of God
+   resisteth the ordinance of God [Rom., xiii. 2], unless there are
+   two principles [beginnings], as Manichaeus[535] pretends there are.
+   But this we judge to be false and heretical. For Moses says that,
+   not in the beginnings, but in the beginning, God created the heaven
+   and the earth [Gen., i. 1]. We therefore declare, say, and affirm
+   that submission on the part of every man to the bishop of Rome is
+   altogether necessary for his salvation.
+
+
+68. The Great Schism and the Councils of Pisa and Constance
+
+The "Babylonian Captivity"--begun in 1305, or perhaps more properly in
+1309, when the French Pope, Clement V., took up his residence
+regularly at Avignon--lasted until 1377. During these sixty or seventy
+years the College of Cardinals consisted chiefly of Frenchmen, all of
+the seven popes were of French nationality, and for the most part the
+papal authority was little more than a tool in the hands of the
+aggressive French sovereigns. In 1377, at the solicitation of the
+Italian clergy and people, Pope Gregory XI. removed to Rome, where he
+died in 1378. In the election that followed the Roman populace,
+determined to bring the residence of the popes at Avignon to an end
+once for all, demanded a Roman, or at least an Italian, pope. The
+majority of the cardinals were French, but they could not agree upon a
+French candidate and, intimidated by the threats of the mob, they at
+last chose a Neapolitan who took the name Urban VI. A few months of
+Urban's obstinate administration convinced the cardinals that they had
+made a serious mistake, and, on the ground that their choice had been
+unduly influenced by popular clamor, they sought to nullify the
+election and to replace Urban by a Genevan who took the title Clement
+VII. Urban utterly refused thus to be put aside, so that there were
+now two popes, each duly elected by the College of Cardinals and each
+claiming the undivided allegiance of Christendom. This was the
+beginning of the Great Schism, destined to work havoc in the Church
+for a full generation, or until finally ended in 1417. Clement VII.
+fixed his abode at Avignon and French influence secured for him the
+support of Spain, Scotland, and Sicily. The rest of Europe, displeased
+with the subordination of the papacy to France and French interests,
+declared for Urban, who was pledged to maintain the papal capital at
+Rome.
+
+France must be held responsible in the main for the evils of the Great
+Schism--a breach in the Church which she deliberately created and for
+many years maintained; but she herself suffered by it more than any
+other nation of Europe because of the annates,[536] the _decime_,[537]
+and other taxes which were imposed upon the French clergy and people
+to support the luxurious and at times extravagant papal court at
+Avignon, or which were exacted by ambitious monarchs under the cover
+of papal license. In the course of time the impossible situation
+created by the Schism demanded a remedy and in fairness it should be
+observed that in the work of adjustment the leading part was taken by
+the French. After the death of Clement VII., in 1394, the French court
+sincerely desired to bring the Schism to an end on terms that would be
+fair to all. Already in 1393 King Charles VI. had laid the case before
+the University of Paris and asked for an opinion as to the best course
+to be pursued. The authorities of the university requested each member
+of the various faculties to submit his idea of a solution of the
+problem and from the mass of suggestions thus brought together a
+committee of fifty-four professors, masters, and doctors worked out
+the three lines of action set forth in selection (a) below. The first
+plan, i.e., that both popes should resign as a means of restoring
+harmony, was accepted as the proper one by an assembly of the French
+clergy convened in 1395. It was doomed to defeat, however, by the
+vacillation of both Benedict XIII. at Avignon and Boniface IX. at
+Rome, and in the end it was agreed to fall back upon the third plan
+which the University of Paris had proposed, i.e., the convening of a
+general council. There was no doubt that such a council could legally
+be summoned only by the pope, but finally the cardinals attached to
+both popes deserted them and united in issuing the call in their own
+name.
+
+The council met at Pisa in 1409 and proceeded to clear up the question
+of its own legality and authority by issuing the unequivocal
+declaration comprised in (b) below. It furthermore declared both popes
+deposed and elected a new one, who took the name Alexander V. Neither
+of the previous popes, however, recognized the council's action, so
+now there were three rivals instead of two and the situation was only
+so much worse than before. In 1410 Alexander V. died and the cardinals
+chose as his successor John XXIII., a man whose life was notoriously
+wicked, but who was far from lacking in political sagacity. Three
+years later the capture of Rome by the king of Naples forced John to
+appeal for assistance to the Emperor Sigismund; and Sigismund
+demanded, before extending the desired aid, that a general church
+council be summoned to meet on German soil for the adjustment of the
+tangled papal situation. The result was the Council of Constance,
+whose sessions extended from November, 1414, to April, 1418, and
+which, because of its general European character, was able to succeed
+where the Council of Pisa had failed. In the decree _Sacrosancta_
+given below (c), issued in April, 1415, we have the council's notable
+assertion of its supreme authority in ecclesiastical matters, even as
+against the pope himself. The Schism was healed with comparative
+facility. Gregory XII., who had been the pope at Rome, but who was now
+in exile, sent envoys to offer his abdication. Benedict XIII.,
+likewise a fugitive, was deposed and found himself without supporters.
+John XXIII. was deposed for his unworthy character and had no means of
+offering resistance. The cardinals, together with representatives of
+the five "nations" into which the council was divided, harmoniously
+selected for pope a Roman cardinal, who assumed the name of Martin V.
+This was in 1417. The Schism was at an end, though the work of
+combating heresy and of propagating reform within the Church went on
+in successive councils, notably that of Basel (1431-1449).
+
+     Sources--(a) Lucae d'Achery, _Spicilegium, sive Collectio
+     veterum aliquot Scriptorum qui in Galliae Bibliothecis
+     Delituerant_ ["Gleanings, or a Collection of some Early
+     Writings, which survive in Gallic Libraries"], Paris, 1723,
+     Vol. I., p. 777. Translated in Thatcher and McNeal, _Source
+     Book for Mediaeval History_ (New York, 1905), pp. 326-327.
+
+     (b) Raynaldus, _Annales, anno 1409_ ["Annals, year 1409"],
+     Sec. 71.
+
+     (c) Von der Hardt, _Magnum Constantiense Concilium_ ["Great
+     Council of Constance"], Vol. II., p. 98.
+
+   (a)
+
+   _The first way._ Now the first way to end the Schism is that both
+   parties should entirely renounce and resign all rights which they
+   may have, or claim to have, to the papal office.
+
+     [Sidenote: Three possible solutions of the Schism offered by the
+   University of Paris]
+
+   _The second way._ But if both cling tenaciously to their rights and
+   refuse to resign, as they have thus far done, we would propose a
+   resort to arbitration. That is, that they should together choose
+   worthy and suitable men, or permit such to be chosen in a regular
+   and canonical way, and these should have full power and authority
+   to discuss the case and decide it, and if necessary and expedient
+   and approved by those who, according to the canon law, have the
+   authority [i.e., the cardinals], they might also have the right to
+   proceed to the election of a pope.
+
+   _The third way._ If the rival popes, after being urged in a
+   brotherly and friendly manner, will not accept either of the above
+   ways, there is a third way which we propose as an excellent remedy
+   for this sacrilegious schism. We mean that the matter should be
+   left to a general council. This general council might be composed,
+   according to canon law, only of prelates; or, since many of them
+   are very illiterate, and many of them are bitter partisans of one
+   or the other pope, there might be joined with the prelates an equal
+   number of masters and doctors of theology and law from the
+   faculties of approved universities. Or, if this does not seem
+   sufficient to any one, there might be added, besides, one or more
+   representatives from cathedral chapters and the chief monastic
+   orders, to the end that all decisions might be rendered only after
+   most careful examination and mature deliberation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Declarations of the Council of Pisa (1409)]
+
+   (b)
+
+   This holy and general council, representing the universal Church,
+   decrees and declares that the united college of cardinals was
+   empowered to call the council, and that the power to call such a
+   council belongs of right to the aforesaid holy college of
+   cardinals, especially now when there is a detestable schism. The
+   council further declares that this holy council, representing the
+   universal Church, caused both claimants of the papal throne to be
+   cited in the gates and doors of the churches of Pisa to come and
+   hear the final decision [in the matter of the Schism] pronounced,
+   or to give a good and sufficient reason why such sentence should
+   not be rendered.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Council of Constance asserts its superiority to even
+   the papacy]
+
+   (c)
+
+   This holy synod of Constance, being a general council, and legally
+   assembled in the Holy Spirit for the praise of God and for ending
+   the present schism, and for the union and reformation of the Church
+   of God in its head and in its members, in order more easily, more
+   securely, more completely, and more fully to bring about the union
+   and reformation of the Church of God, ordains, declares, and
+   decrees as follows: First it declares that this synod, legally
+   assembled, is a general council, and represents the Catholic church
+   militant and has its authority directly from Christ; and everybody,
+   of whatever rank or dignity, including also the pope, is bound to
+   obey this council in those things which pertain to the faith, to
+   the ending of this schism, and to a general reformation of the
+   Church in its head and members. Likewise it declares that if any
+   one, of whatever rank, condition, or dignity, including also the
+   pope, shall refuse to obey the commands, statutes, ordinances, or
+   orders of this holy council, or of any other holy council properly
+   assembled, in regard to the ending of the Schism and to the
+   reformation of the Church, he shall be subject to the proper
+   punishment, and, unless he repents, he shall be duly punished, and,
+   if necessary, recourse shall be had to other aids of justice.
+
+
+69. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)
+
+The Council of Basel, convened in 1431, had for its object a
+thoroughgoing reformation of the Church, "in its head and its
+members," from papacy to parish priest. Like all of the councils of
+the period, its spirit was distinctly anti-papal and for this reason
+Pope Eugene IV. sought to bring it under his control by transferring
+it to Bologna and, failing in this, to turn its deliberations into
+channels other than criticism of the papacy. While the negotiations of
+Eugene and the council were in progress a step fraught with great
+significance was taken in France in the promulgation of the Pragmatic
+Sanction of Bourges.[538] France was the only country in which the
+principles laid down by the councils--Pisa, Constance, Basel, and the
+rest--had taken firm hold. In 1438 Charles VII. convened at Bourges an
+assembly composed of leading prelates, councillors, and princes of the
+royal blood, to which the Pope and the Council of Basel both sent
+delegates. This assembly proceeded to adapt the decrees of the council
+to the conditions and needs of France, on the evident assumption that
+the will of the French magnates in such matters was superior to that
+of both pope and council, so far as France was concerned. The action
+at Bourges well illustrates the growing spirit of French nationality
+which had sprung up since the recent achievements of Joan of Arc.
+
+The Pragmatic Sanction dealt in the main with four subjects--the
+authority of church councils, the diminishing of papal patronage, the
+restriction of papal taxation, and the limitation of appeals to Rome.
+Together these matters are commonly spoken of as the "Gallican
+liberties," i.e., the liberties of the Gallic or French church, and
+they implied the right of the national church to administer its own
+affairs with only the slightest interference from the pope or other
+outside powers; in other words, they were essentially anti-papal.
+Louis XI., the successor of Charles VII., for diplomatic reasons,
+sought to revoke the Pragmatic Sanction, but the Parlement of Paris
+refused to register the ordinance and for all practical purposes the
+Pragmatic was maintained until 1516. In that year Francis I.
+established the relations of the papacy and the French clergy on the
+basis of a new "concordat," which, however, was not very unlike the
+Pragmatic. The Pragmatic is of interest to the student of French
+history mainly because of the degree in which it enhanced the power of
+the crown, particularly in respect to the ecclesiastical affairs of
+the realm, and because of the testimony it bears to the declining
+influence of the papacy in the stronger nations like France and
+England. The text printed below represents only an abstract of the
+document, which in all included thirty-three chapters.
+
+     Source.--Text in Vilevault et Brequigny, _Ordonnances des Rois
+     de France de la Troisieme Race_ (Paris, 1772), Vol. XIII., pp.
+     267-291.
+
+     [Sidenote: Charles VII. recognizes the obligations of the king
+     to the Church]
+
+     [Sidenote: Abuses prevalent in the French church]
+
+   The king declares that, according to the oath taken at their
+   coronation, kings are bound to defend and protect the holy Church,
+   its ministers and its sacred offices, and zealously to guard in
+   their kingdoms the decrees of the holy fathers. The general council
+   assembled at Basel to continue the work begun by the councils of
+   Constance and Siena,[539] and to labor for the reform of the
+   Church, in both its head and members, having had presented to it
+   numerous decrees and regulations, with the request that it accept
+   them and cause them to be observed in the kingdom, the king has
+   convened an assembly composed of prelates and other ecclesiastics
+   representing the clergy of France and of the Dauphine.[540] He has
+   presided in person over its deliberations, surrounded by his son,
+   the princes of the blood, and the principal lords of the realm. He
+   has listened to the ambassadors of the Pope and the council. From
+   the examination of prelates and the most renowned doctors, and from
+   the thoroughgoing discussions of the assembly, it appears that,
+   from the falling into decay of the early discipline, the churches
+   of the kingdom have been made to suffer from all sorts of
+   insatiable greed; that the _reserve_ and the _grace_
+   _expectative_[541] have given rise to grievous abuses and
+   unbearable burdens; that the most notable and best endowed
+   benefices have fallen into the hands of unknown men, who do not
+   conform at all to the requirement of residence and who do not
+   understand the speech of the people committed to their care, and
+   consequently are neglectful of the needs of their souls, like
+   mercenaries who dream of nothing whatever but temporal gain; that
+   thus the worship of Christ is declining, piety is enfeebled, the
+   laws of the Church are violated, and buildings for religious uses
+   are falling in ruin. The clergy abandon their theological studies,
+   because there is no hope of advancement. Conflicts without number
+   rage over the possession of benefices, plurality of which is
+   coveted by an execrable ambition. Simony is everywhere glaring; the
+   prelates and other collators[542] are pillaged of their rights and
+   their ministry; the rights of patrons are impaired; and the wealth
+   of the kingdom goes into the hands of foreigners, to the detriment
+   of the clergy.
+
+     [Sidenote: The decrees of Basel accepted with some modifications]
+
+   Since, in the judgment of the prelates and other ecclesiastics, the
+   decrees of the holy council of Basel seemed to afford a suitable
+   remedy for all these evils, after mature deliberation, we have
+   decided to accept them--some without change, others with certain
+   modifications--without wishing to cast doubt upon the power and
+   authority of the council, but at the same time taking account of
+   the necessities of the occasion and of the customs of the nation.
+
+   =1.= General councils shall be held every ten years, in places to
+   be designated by the pope.
+
+   =2.= The authority of the general council is superior to that of
+   the pope in all that pertains to the faith, the extirpation of
+   schism, and the reform of the Church in both head and members.[543]
+
+   =3.= Election is reestablished for ecclesiastical offices; but the
+   king, or the princes of his kingdom, without violating the
+   canonical rules, may make recommendations when elections are to
+   occur in the chapters or the monasteries.[544]
+
+   =4.= The popes shall not have the right to reserve the collation of
+   benefices, or to bestow any benefice before it becomes vacant.
+
+   =5.= All grants of benefices made by the pope in virtue of the
+   _droit d'expectative_ are hereby declared null. Those who shall
+   have received such benefices shall be punished by the secular
+   power. The popes shall not have the right to interfere by the
+   creation of canonships.[545]
+
+   =6.= Appeals to Rome are prohibited until every other grade of
+   jurisdiction shall have been exhausted.
+
+   =7.= Annates are prohibited.[546]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[530] The consecrated wafer, believed to be the body of Christ, which
+in the Mass is offered as a sacrifice; also the bread before
+consecration.
+
+[531] Certain periods of the day, set apart by the laws of the Church,
+for the duties of prayer and devotion; also certain portions of the
+Breviary to be used at stated hours. The seven canonical hours are
+matins and lauds, the first, third, sixth, and ninth hours, vespers,
+and compline.
+
+[532] That is, infant baptism and the _viaticum_ (the Lord's Supper
+when administered to persons in immediate danger of death).
+
+[533] Extreme unction is the sacrament of anointing in the last
+hours,--the application of consecrated oil by a priest to all the
+senses, i.e., to eyes, ears, nostrils, etc., of a person when in
+immediate danger of death. The sacrament is performed for the
+remission of sins.
+
+[534] St. Dionysius was bishop of Alexandria about the middle of the
+third century. He was a pupil of the great theologian Origen and
+himself a writer of no small ability on the doctrinal questions which
+vexed the early Church.
+
+[535] Manichaeus was a learned Persian who, in the third century,
+worked out a system of doctrine which sought to combine the principles
+of Christianity with others taken over from the Persian and kindred
+Oriental religions. The most prominent feature of the resulting creed
+was the conception of an absolute dualism running throughout the
+universe--light and darkness, good and evil, soul and body--which
+existed from the beginning and should exist forever. The Manichaean
+sect spread from Persia into Asia Minor North Africa, Sicily, and
+Italy. Though persecuted by Diocletian, and afterwards by some of the
+Christian emperors, it had many adherents as late as the sixth
+century, and certain of its ideas appeared under new names at still
+later times, notably among the Albigenses in southern France in the
+twelfth century.
+
+[536] Annates were payments made to the pope by newly elected or
+appointed ecclesiastical officials of the higher sort. They were
+supposed to comprise the first year's income from the bishop's or
+abbot's benefice.
+
+[537] The _decime_ was an extraordinary royal revenue derived from the
+payment by the clergy of a tenth of the annual income from their
+benefices. Its prototype was the Saladin tithe, imposed by Philip
+Augustus (1180-1223) for the financing of his crusade. In the latter
+half of the thirteenth century, and throughout the fourteenth, the
+_decime_ was called for by the kings with considerable frequency,
+often ostensibly for crusading purposes, and it was generally obtained
+by a more or less compulsory vote of the clergy, or without their
+consent at all.
+
+[538] Pragmatic, in the general sense, means any sort of decree of
+public importance; in its more special usage it denotes an ordinance
+of the crown regulating the relations of the national clergy with the
+papacy. The modern equivalent is "concordat."
+
+[539] When the Council of Constance came to an end, in April, 1418, it
+was agreed between this body and Pope Martin V. that a similar council
+should be convened at Pavia in 1423. When the time arrived, conditions
+were far from favorable, but the University of Paris pressed the Pope
+to observe his pledge in the matter and the council was duly convened.
+Very few members appeared at Pavia, and, the plague soon breaking out
+there, the meeting was transferred to Siena. Even there only five
+German prelates were present, six French, and not one Spanish. Small
+though it was, the council entered upon a course so independent and
+self-assertive that in the following year the Pope was glad to take
+advantage of its paucity of numbers to declare it dissolved.
+
+[540] The Dauphine was a region on the east side of the Rhone which,
+in 1349, was purchased of Humbert, Dauphin of Vienne, by Philip VI.,
+and ceded by the latter to his grandson Charles, the later Charles V.
+(1364-1380). Charles assumed the title of "the Dauphin," which became
+the established designation of the heir-apparent to the French throne.
+
+[541] Under the _grace expectative_ the pope conferred upon a prelate
+a benefice which at the time was filled, to be assumed as soon as it
+should fall vacant. Benefices of larger importance, such as the
+offices of bishop and abbot, were often subject to the _reserve_; that
+is, the pope regularly reserved to himself the right of filling them,
+sometimes before, sometimes after, the vacancy occurred. These acts
+constituted clear assumptions by the popes of power which under the
+law of the Church was not theirs, and, though the framers of the
+Pragmatic Sanction had motives which were more or less selfish for
+combatting the _reserve_ and the _grace expectative_, there can be no
+question that the abuses aimed at were as real as they were
+represented to be.
+
+[542] Those who presented and installed men in benefices.
+
+[543] These first two chapters reproduce without change the decrees of
+the Council of Basel. The second reiterates, in substance, the
+declaration of the Council of Constance [see p. 393].
+
+[544] That is, the "canonical" system of election of bishops by the
+chapters and of abbots by the monks. The Pragmatic differs in this
+clause from the decree of the Council of Basel in allowing temporal
+princes to recommend persons for election.
+
+[545] This means that the pope is not to add to the number of canons
+in any cathedral chapter as a means of influencing the composition and
+deliberations of that body.
+
+[546] Annates were ordinarily the first year's revenues of a benefice
+which, under the prevailing system, were supposed to be paid by the
+incumbent to the pope. The Pragmatic goes on to provide that during
+the lifetime of Pope Eugene one-fifth of the accustomed annates should
+continue to be paid.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+THE EMPIRE IN THE TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH, AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+70. The Peace of Constance (1183)
+
+With the election of Frederick Barbarossa as emperor, in 1152, a new
+stage of the great papal-imperial combat was entered upon, though
+under conditions quite different from those surrounding the contest in
+the preceding century [see Chap. XVI]. The Empire was destined to
+succumb in the end to the papacy, but with a sovereign of Frederick's
+energy and ability at its head it was able at least to make a stubborn
+fight and to meet defeat with honor. The new reign was inaugurated by
+a definite announcement of the Emperor's intention to consolidate and
+strengthen the imperial government throughout all Germany and Italy.
+The task in Germany was far from simple; in Italy it was the most
+formidable that could have been conceived, and this for the reason
+that the Italian population was largely gathered in cities with strong
+political and military organization, with all the traditions of
+practical independence, and with no thought of submitting to the
+government of an emperor or any other claimant to more than merely
+nominal sovereignty.
+
+Trouble began almost at once between Frederick and the free commune of
+Milan, though war was averted for a time by the oaths taken to the
+Emperor on the occasion of his first expedition across the Alps in
+1154. Between that date and 1158 the consuls of the city were detected
+in treacherous conduct and, the people refusing to disavow them, in
+the latter year the Emperor again crossed the Alps, bent on nothing
+less than the annihilation of the commune and the dispersion of its
+inhabitants. He carried with him a larger army than a head of the Holy
+Roman Empire had ever led into Italy. The Milanese submitted, under
+conditions extremely humiliating, and Frederick, after being assured
+by the doctors of law at the new university of Bologna that he was
+acting quite within the letter of the Roman law, proceeded to lay
+claim to the _regalia_ (royal rights, such as tolls from roads and
+rivers, products of mines, and the estates of criminals), to the right
+to levy an extraordinary war tax, and to that of appointing the chief
+civic magistrates. Disaffection broke out at once in many of the
+communes, but chiefly at Milan; whereupon Frederick came promptly to
+the conclusion that the time had arrived to rid himself of this
+irreconcilable opponent of his measures. The city was besieged and,
+after its inhabitants had been starved into surrender, almost
+completely destroyed (1162).
+
+Only temporarily did the barbarous act have its intended effect; the
+net result was a widespread revival of the communal spirit, which
+expressed itself in the formation of a sturdy confederacy known as the
+Lombard League. One of the League's first acts was to rebuild Milan,
+under whose leadership the struggle with the Emperor was actively
+renewed. In 1168 a new city was founded at the foot of the Alps near
+Pavia to serve as a base of operations in the campaign which the
+League proposed to wage against the common enemy. It was given the
+name Alessandria (or Alexandria) in honor of Pope Alexander III., who
+was friendly to the cause of the cities. In 1174 Frederick began an
+open attack on the League, but in 1176, at Legnano, he suffered an
+overwhelming defeat, due largely to his failure to receive
+reinforcements from Germany. The adjustment of peace was intrusted to
+an assembly at Venice in which all parties were represented. The
+result was the treaty of Venice (1177), the advantages of which were
+wholly against the Empire. A truce of six years was granted the
+cities, with the understanding that all details were to be arranged
+within, or at the expiration of, that time.
+
+When the close of the period arrived, in 1183, Frederick no longer
+dreamed of subduing and punishing the rebellious Italians, but instead
+was quite ready to agree to a permanent peace. The result was the
+Peace of Constance, which has been described as the earliest
+international agreement of the kind in modern history. By this
+instrument the theoretical overlordship of the Emperor in Italy was
+reasserted, though in fact it had never been denied. Beyond this,
+however, the communes were recognized as essentially independent.
+Those who had enjoyed the right to choose their own magistrates
+retained it; their financial obligations to the Emperor were clearly
+defined; and the League was conceded to be a legitimate and permanent
+organization. By yielding on numerous vital points the Empire had
+vindicated its right to exist, but its administrative machinery, so
+far as Italy was concerned, was still further impaired. This
+machinery, it must be said, had never been conspicuously effective
+south of the Alps. As for Frederick, he set out in 1189 upon the Third
+Crusade, during the course of which he met his death in Asia Minor
+without being permitted to see the Holy Land.
+
+     Source--Text in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_, Legum Sectio
+     IV. (Weiland ed.), Vol. I., pp. 411-418. Adapted from
+     translation in Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, _Source
+     Book for Mediaeval History_ (New York, 1905,) pp. 199-202.
+
+     [Sidenote: Concessions to the cities of the League]
+
+   =1.= We, Frederick, emperor of the Romans, and our son Henry, king
+   of the Romans,[547] hereby grant to you, the cities, territories,
+   and persons of the League, the _regalia_ and other rights within
+   and without the cities, as you have been accustomed to hold them;
+   that is, each member of the League shall have the same rights as
+   the city of Verona has had in the past, or has now.
+
+   =2.= The members of the League shall exercise freely and without
+   interference from us all the rights which they have exercised of
+   old.
+
+   =3.= These are the rights which are guaranteed to you: the
+   _fodrum_,[548] forests, pastures, bridges, streams, mills,
+   fortifications of the cities, criminal and civil jurisdiction, and
+   all other rights which concern the welfare of the city.
+
+     [Sidenote: How the regalia remaining to the Emperor were to be
+   determined]
+
+   =4.= The _regalia_ which are not to be granted to the members of
+   the League shall be determined in the following manner: in the case
+   of each city, certain men shall be chosen for this purpose from
+   both the bishopric and the city; these men shall be of good repute,
+   capable of deciding these questions, and such as are not prejudiced
+   against either party. Acting with the bishop of the diocese, they
+   shall swear to inquire into the questions of the _regalia_ and to
+   set aside those that by right belong to us. If, however, the cities
+   do not wish to submit to this inquisition, they shall pay to us an
+   annual tribute of 2,000 marks in silver as compensation for our
+   _regalia_. If this sum seems excessive, it may be reduced.
+
+   =5.= If anyone appeals to us in regard to matters which are by this
+   treaty admitted to be under your jurisdiction, we agree not to hear
+   such an appeal.
+
+   =8.= All privileges, gifts, and concessions made in the time of the
+   war by us or our representatives to the prejudice or injury of the
+   cities, territories, or members of the League are to be null and
+   void.
+
+     [Sidenote: The consuls]
+
+   =9.= Consuls[549] of cities where the bishop holds the position of
+   count from the king or emperor shall receive their office from the
+   bishop, if this has been the custom before. In all other cities the
+   consuls shall receive their office from us, in the following
+   manner: after they have been elected by the city they shall be
+   invested with office by our representative in the city or
+   bishopric, unless we are ourselves in Lombardy, in which case they
+   shall be invested by us. At the end of every five years each city
+   shall send its representative to us to receive the investiture.
+
+   =10.= This arrangement shall be observed by our successor, and all
+   such investitures shall be free.
+
+   =11.= After our death, the cities shall receive investiture in the
+   same way from our son and from his successors.
+
+     [Sidenote: Appeals to the Emperor]
+
+   =12.= The Emperor shall have the right of hearing appeals in cases
+   involving more than 25 pounds, saving the right of the church of
+   Brescia to hear appeals. The appellant shall not, however, be
+   compelled to come to Germany, but he shall appeal to the
+   representative of the Emperor in the city or bishopric. This
+   representative shall examine the case fairly and shall give
+   judgment according to the laws and customs of that city. The
+   decision shall be given within two months from the time of appeal,
+   unless the case shall have been deferred by reason of some legal
+   hindrance or by the consent of both parties.
+
+   =13.= The consuls of cities shall take the oath of allegiance to
+   the Emperor before they are invested with office.
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath of fidelity]
+
+   =14.= Our vassals shall receive investiture from us and shall take
+   the vassal's oath of fidelity. All other persons between the ages
+   of 15 and 70 shall take the ordinary oath of fidelity to the
+   Emperor unless there be some good reason why this oath should be
+   omitted.
+
+   =17.= All injuries, losses, and damages which we or our followers
+   have sustained from the League, or any of its members or allies,
+   are hereby pardoned, and all such transgressors are hereby received
+   back into our favor.
+
+   =18.= We will not remain longer than is necessary in any city or
+   bishopric.
+
+   =19.= It shall be permitted to the cities to erect fortifications
+   within or without their boundaries.
+
+     [Sidenote: Recognition of the League's right to exist]
+
+   =20.= It shall be permitted to the League to maintain its
+   organization as it now is, or to renew it as often as it desires.
+
+
+71. Current Rumors Concerning the Life and Character of Frederick II.
+
+Frederick II. (1194-1250), king of Naples and Sicily and emperor of
+the Holy Roman Empire, was a son of Emperor Henry VI. and a grandson
+of Frederick Barbarossa. When his father died (1197) it was intended
+that the young child's uncle, Philip of Hohenstaufen, should occupy
+the imperial throne temporarily as regent. Philip, however, proceeded
+to assume the position as if in his own right and became engaged in a
+deadly conflict with a rival claimant, Otto IV., during which the
+Pope, Innocent III., fanned the flames of civil war and made the
+situation contribute chiefly to the aggrandizement of papal authority
+in temporal affairs. In 1208 Philip was assassinated and in the
+following year Otto received the imperial crown at Rome. Almost
+immediately, however, disagreement broke out between the Pope and the
+new Emperor, chiefly because of the latter's ambition to become king
+of Sicily. Repenting that he had befriended Otto, Innocent promptly
+excommunicated him and set on foot a movement--in which he enlisted
+the services of Philip Augustus of France--to supplant the obnoxious
+Emperor by Frederick of Sicily (the later Frederick II.). Otto was a
+nephew of Richard I. and John of England and the latter was easily
+persuaded to enter into an alliance with him against the
+papal-French-Sicilian combination. The result was the battle of
+Bouvines [see p. 297], in 1214, in which John and Otto were hopelessly
+defeated. Meanwhile, in 1212, Frederick had received a secret embassy
+from Otto's discontented subjects in Germany, offering him the
+imperial crown if he would come and claim it. In response he had
+gathered an army and, with the approval of Innocent and of Philip
+Augustus, had crossed the Alps for the purpose of winning over the
+German people from Otto to himself. The battle of Bouvines (in which
+Frederick was not engaged, but from which he profited immensely) was
+the death-blow to Otto's cause and Frederick was soon recognized
+universally as head of the Empire.
+
+The reign of Frederick II. (1212-1250) was a period of large
+importance in European history. The Emperor's efforts and
+achievements--his crusade, his great quarrel with Gregory IX. and
+Innocent IV., his legislation, his struggles with the Lombard
+League--were full of interest and significance, but, after all, not
+more so than the purely personal aspects of his career. Mr. Bryce has
+a passage which states admirably the position of Frederick with
+reference to his age and its problems. A portion of it is as follows:
+"Out of the long array of the Germanic successors of Charles
+[Charlemagne], he is, with Otto III.,[550] the only one who comes
+before us with a genius and a frame of character that are not those of
+a Northern or a Teuton. There dwelt in him, it is true, all the energy
+and knightly valor of his father Henry and his grandfather Frederick
+I. But along with these, and changing their direction, were other
+gifts, inherited perhaps from his half Norman, half Italian mother and
+fostered by his education in Sicily, where Mussulman and Byzantine
+influences were still potent, a love of luxury and beauty, an
+intellect refined, subtle, philosophical. Through the mist of calumny
+and legend it is but dimly that the truth of the man can be discerned,
+and the outlines that appear serve to quicken rather than appease the
+curiosity with which we regard one of the most extraordinary
+personages in history. A sensualist, yet also a warrior and a
+politician; a profound law-giver and an impassioned poet; in his youth
+fired by crusading fervor, in later life persecuting heretics while
+himself accused of blasphemy and unbelief; of winning manners and
+ardently beloved by his followers, but with the stain of more than one
+cruel deed upon his name, he was the marvel of his own generation, and
+succeeding ages looked back with awe, not unmingled with pity, upon
+the inscrutable figure of the last emperor who had braved all the
+terrors of the Church and died beneath her ban, the last who had ruled
+from the sands of the ocean to the shores of the Ionian Sea. But while
+they pitied they condemned. The undying hatred of the papacy threw
+round his memory a lurid light; him and him alone of all the imperial
+line, Dante, the worshipper of the empire, must perforce deliver to
+the flames of hell."[551]
+
+The following selections from the _Greater Chronicle_ of Matthew Paris
+comprise some of the stories which were current in Frederick's day
+regarding his manners, ideas, and deeds. Frederick was far ahead of
+his age and it was inevitable that the qualities in him which men
+could not understand or appreciate should become the grounds for dark
+rumors and unsavory suspicions. Matthew Paris was an English monk of
+St. Albans. It is thought that he was called _Parisiensis_, "the
+Parisian," because of having been born or educated in the capital of
+France. He seems to have confined his attention wholly to the study of
+history, and mainly to the history of his own country. His _Chronicle_
+takes up the story of English and continental affairs in detail with
+the year 1235 (where Roger of Wendover had stopped in his _Flowers of
+History_) and continues to the year 1259. His book has been described
+as "probably the most generally useful historical production of the
+thirteenth century."[552]
+
+     Source--Matthaeus Parisiensis, _Chronica Majora_ [Matthew
+     Paris, "Greater Chronicle"]. Adapted from translation by J. A.
+     Giles (London, 1852), Vol. I., pp. 157-158, 166-167, 169-170;
+     Vol. II., pp. 84-85, 103.
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick suspected of heresy]
+
+     [Sidenote: Accusation of friendly relations with the Saracens]
+
+   In the course of the same year [1238] the fame of the Emperor
+   Frederick was clouded and marred by his jealous enemies and rivals;
+   for it was imputed to him that he was wavering in the Catholic
+   faith, or wandering from the right way, and had given utterance to
+   some speeches, from which it could be inferred and suspected that
+   he was not only weak in the Catholic faith, but--what was a much
+   greater and more serious crime--that there was in him an enormity
+   of heresy, and the most dreadful blasphemy, to be detested and
+   execrated by all Christians. For it was reported that the Emperor
+   Frederick had said (although it may not be proper to mention it)
+   that three imposters had so craftily deceived their contemporaries
+   as to gain for themselves the mastery of the world: these were
+   Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet [Mohammed]; and that he had impiously
+   given expression to some wicked and incredible ravings and
+   blasphemies respecting the most holy Eucharist. Far be it from any
+   discreet man, much less a Christian, to employ his tongue in such
+   raving blasphemy. It was also said by his rivals that the Emperor
+   agreed with and believed in the law of Mahomet more than that of
+   Jesus Christ. A rumor also crept amongst the people (which God
+   forbid to be true of such a great prince) that he had been for a
+   long time past in alliance with the Saracens, and was more friendly
+   to them than to the Christians; and his rivals, who were
+   endeavoring to blacken his fame, attempted to establish this by
+   many proofs. Whether they sinned or not, He alone knows who is
+   ignorant of nothing....
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick's seizure of the lands belonging to a bishop]
+
+     [Sidenote: Refusing to restore them, he is excommunicated]
+
+   In Lent, of the same year [1239], seeing the rash proceedings of
+   the Emperor, and that his words pleaded excuse for his
+   sins,--namely, that by the assistance of some of the nobles and
+   judges of Sardinia he had taken into his own possession, and still
+   held, the land and castles of the bishop of Sardinia, and
+   constantly declared that they were a portion of the Empire, and
+   that he by his first and chief oath would preserve the rights of
+   the Empire to the utmost of his power, and would also collect the
+   scattered portions of it,--the Pope[553] was excited to the most
+   violent anger against him. He set forth some very serious
+   complaints and claims against the Emperor and wrote often boldly
+   and carefully to him, advising him repeatedly by many special
+   messengers, whose authority ought to have obtained from him the
+   greatest attention, to restore the possessions he had seized, and
+   to desist from depriving the Church of her possessions, of which
+   she was endowed by long prescription. And, like a skilful
+   physician, who at one time makes use of medicines, at another of
+   the knife, and at another of the cauterizing instrument, he mixed
+   threats with entreaties, friendly messages with fearful
+   denunciations. As the Emperor, however, scornfully rejected his
+   requests, and excused his actions by arguments founded on reason,
+   his holiness the Pope, on Palm Sunday, in the presence of a great
+   many of the cardinals, in the spirit of glowing anger, solemnly
+   excommunicated the said Emperor Frederick, as though he would at
+   once have hurled him from his imperial dignity, consigning him with
+   terrible denunciations to the possession of Satan at his death;
+   and, as it were, thundering forth the fury of his anger, he excited
+   terror in all his hearers....[554]
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick accuses the Pope of ingratitude and jealousy]
+
+   The Emperor, on hearing of this, was inflamed with violent anger,
+   and with oft-repeated reproaches accused the Church and its rulers
+   of ingratitude to him, and of returning evil for good. He recalled
+   to their recollection how he had exposed himself and his property
+   to the billows and to a thousand kinds of danger for the
+   advancement of the Church's welfare and the increase of the
+   Catholic faith, and affirmed that whatever honors the Church
+   possessed in the Holy Land had been acquired by his toil and
+   industry. "But," said he, "the Pope, jealous at such a happy
+   increase being acquired for the Church by a layman, and who desires
+   gold and silver rather than an increase of the faith (as witness
+   his proceedings), and who extorts money from all Christendom in the
+   name of tithes, has, by all the means in his power, done his best
+   to supplant me, and has endeavored to disinherit me while fighting
+   for God, exposing my body to the weapons of war, to sickness, and
+   to the snares of his enemies, after encountering the dangers of the
+   unsparing billows. See what sort of protection is this of our
+   father's! What kind of assistance in difficulties is this afforded
+   by the vicar of Jesus Christ"!...[555]
+
+     [Sidenote: Further accusation of an alliance with the Saracens]
+
+     [Sidenote: His neglect of pious and charitable works]
+
+   "Besides, he is united by a detestable alliance with the
+   Saracens,--has ofttimes sent messages and presents to them, and in
+   turn received the same from them with respect and alacrity...; and
+   what is a more execrable offense, he, when formerly in the country
+   beyond sea, made a kind of arrangement, or rather collusion, with
+   the sultan, and allowed the name of Mahomet to be publicly
+   proclaimed in the temple of the Lord day and night; and lately, in
+   the case of the sultan of Babylon [Cairo], who, by his own hands,
+   and through his agents, had done irreparable mischief and injury to
+   the Holy Land and its Christian inhabitants, he caused that
+   sultan's ambassadors, in compliment to their master, as is
+   reported, to be honorably received and nobly entertained in his
+   kingdom of Sicily. He also, in opposition to the Christians, abuses
+   the pernicious and horrid rites of other infidels, and, entering
+   into an alliance of friendship with those who wickedly pay little
+   respect to and despise the Apostolic See, and have seceded from
+   the unity of the Church, he, laying aside all respect for the
+   Christian religion, caused, as is positively asserted, the duke of
+   Bavaria, of illustrious memory, a special and devoted ally of the
+   Roman Church, to be murdered by the assassins. He has also given
+   his daughter in marriage to Battacius, an enemy of God and the
+   Church, who, together with his aiders, counsellors, and abettors,
+   was solemnly expelled from the communion of the Christians by
+   sentence of excommunication. Rejecting the proceedings and customs
+   of Catholic princes, neglecting his own salvation and the purity of
+   his fame, he does not employ himself in works of piety; and what is
+   more (to be silent on his wicked and dissolute practices), although
+   he has learned to practice oppression to such a degree, he does not
+   trouble himself to relieve those oppressed by injuries, by
+   extending his hand, as a Christian prince ought, to bestow alms,
+   although he has been eagerly aiming at the destruction of the
+   churches, and has crushed religious men and other ecclesiastical
+   persons with the burden and persecution of his yoke. And it is not
+   known that he ever built or founded either churches, monasteries,
+   hospitals, or other pious places. Now these are not light, but
+   convincing, grounds for suspicions of heresy being entertained
+   against him."...
+
+     [Sidenote: Frederick's wrath at his excommunication]
+
+   When the Emperor Frederick was made fully aware of all these
+   proceedings [i.e., his excommunication at Lyons] he could not
+   contain himself, but burst into a violent rage and, darting a
+   scowling look on those who sat around him, he thundered forth: "The
+   Pope in his synod has disgraced me by depriving me of my crown.
+   Whence arises such great audacity? Whence proceeds such rash
+   presumption? Where are my chests which contain my treasures?" And
+   on their being brought and unlocked before him, by his order, he
+   said, "See if my crowns are lost now;" then finding one, he placed
+   it on his head and, being thus crowned, he stood up, and, with
+   threatening eyes and a dreadful voice, unrestrainable from
+   passion, he said aloud, "I have not yet lost my crown, nor will I
+   be deprived of it by any attacks of the Pope or the council,
+   without a bloody struggle. Does his vulgar pride raise him to such
+   heights as to enable him to hurl from the imperial dignity me, the
+   chief prince of the world, than whom none is greater--yea, who am
+   without an equal? In this matter my condition is made better: in
+   some things I _was_ bound to obey, at least to respect, him; but
+   now I am released from all ties of affection and veneration, and
+   also from the obligation of any kind of peace with him." From that
+   time forth, therefore, he, in order to injure the Pope more
+   effectually and perseveringly, did all kinds of harm to his
+   Holiness, in his money, as well as in his friends and relatives.
+
+
+72. The Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356)
+
+The century following the death of Frederick II. (1250) was a period
+of unrest and turbulence in German history, the net result of which
+politically was the almost complete triumph of the princes, lay and
+clerical, over the imperial power. By 1350 the local magnates had come
+to be virtually sovereign throughout their own territories. They
+enjoyed the right of legislation and the privileges of coining money
+and levying taxes, and in many cases they had scarcely so much as a
+feudal bond to remind them of their theoretical allegiance to the
+Empire. The one principle of action upon which they could agree was
+that the central monarchy should be kept permanently in the state of
+helplessness to which it had been reduced. The power of choosing a
+successor when a vacancy arose in the imperial office had fallen
+gradually into the hands of seven men, who were known as the
+"electors" and who were recognized in the fourteenth century as
+possessing collective importance far greater than that of the emperor.
+Three of these seven--the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and
+Cologne--were great ecclesiastics; the other four--the king of
+Bohemia, the margrave of Brandenburg, the duke of Saxony, and the
+count palatine of the Rhine--were equally influential laymen. This
+electoral college first came into prominence at the election of
+Rudolph I. (of the House of Hapsburg) at the end of the Interregnum in
+1273. From that time until the termination of the Holy Roman Empire
+in 1806 these seven men (eight after 1648 and nine after 1692) played
+a part in German history not inferior to that of the emperors. They
+imposed upon their candidates such conditions as they chose, and when
+the bearer of the imperial title grew restive and difficult to control
+they did not hesitate to make war upon him, or even in extreme cases
+to depose him. It has been well said that never in all history have
+worse scandals been connected with any sort of elections than were
+associated repeatedly with the actions of these German electors.
+
+The central document in German constitutional history in the Middle
+Ages is the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. (1347-1378),
+promulgated in 1356. For a century prior to the reign of Charles the
+question of the imperial succession had been one of extreme
+perplexity. The electoral college had grown up to assume the
+responsibility, but this body rested on no solid legal basis and its
+acts were usually regarded as null by all whom they displeased, with
+the result that a civil war succeeded pretty nearly every election.
+Charles was shrewd enough to see that the existing system could not be
+set aside; the electors were entirely too powerful to permit of that.
+But he also saw that it might at least be improved by giving it the
+quality of legality which it had hitherto lacked. The result of his
+efforts in this direction was the Golden Bull, issued and confirmed at
+the diets of Nuernberg (Nuremberg) and Metz in 1356. The document,
+thenceforth regarded as the fundamental law of the Empire, dealt with
+a wide variety of subjects. It confirmed the electorship in the person
+of the king of Bohemia which had long been disputed by a rival branch
+of the family;[556] it made elaborate provision for the election of
+the emperor by the seven magnates; it defined the social and political
+prerogatives of these men and prescribed the relations which they
+should bear to their subjects, to other princes, and to the emperor;
+and it made numerous regulations regarding conspiracies, coinage,
+immunities, the forfeiture of fiefs, the succession of electoral
+princes, etc. In a word, as Mr. Bryce has put it, the document
+"confessed and legalized the independence of the Electors and the
+powerlessness of the crown."[557] Only a few selections from it can be
+given here, particularly those bearing on the methods of electing the
+emperor.
+
+     Source--Text in Wilhelm Altmann und Ernst Bernheim,
+     _Ausgewaehlte Urkunden zur Erlaeuterung der
+     Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter_ ["Select
+     Documents Illustrative of the Constitutional History of
+     Germany in the Middle Ages"], 3rd ed., Berlin, 1904, pp.
+     54-83. Adapted from translation in Oliver J. Thatcher and
+     Edgar H. McNeal, _Source Book for Mediaeval History_ (New York,
+     1905), pp. 284-295 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Guarantee of safety of travel for the electors]
+
+   I. =1.= We decree and determine by this imperial edict that,
+   whenever the electoral princes are summoned according to the
+   ancient and praiseworthy custom to meet and elect a king of the
+   Romans and future emperor, each one of them shall be bound to
+   furnish on demand an escort and safe-conduct to his fellow electors
+   or their representatives, within his own lands and as much farther
+   as he can, for the journey to and from the city where the election
+   is to be held. Any electoral prince who refuses to furnish escort
+   and safe-conduct shall be liable to the penalties for perjury and
+   to the loss of his electoral vote for that occasion.
+
+     [Sidenote: Penalties for violation of the safe-conduct of the
+   electors]
+
+   =2.= We decree and command also that all other princes who hold
+   fiefs from the Empire, by whatever title, and all counts, barons,
+   knights, clients, nobles, commoners, citizens, and all corporations
+   of towns, cities, and territories of the Empire, shall furnish
+   escort and safe-conduct for this occasion to every electoral prince
+   or his representatives, on demand, within their own lands and as
+   much farther as they can. Violators of this decree shall be
+   punished as follows: princes, counts, barons, knights, clients, and
+   all others of noble rank, shall suffer the penalties of perjury,
+   and shall lose the fiefs which they hold of the emperor or any
+   other lord, and all their possessions; citizens and corporations
+   shall also suffer the penalty for perjury, shall be deprived of all
+   the rights, liberties, privileges, and graces which they have
+   received from the Empire, and shall incur the ban of the Empire
+   against their persons and property. Those whom we deprive of their
+   rights for this offense may be attacked by any man without
+   appealing to a magistrate, and without danger of reprisal; for they
+   are rebels against the state and the Empire, and have attacked the
+   honor and security of the prince, and are convicted of
+   faithlessness and perfidy.
+
+     [Sidenote: Supplies for the use of the electors]
+
+   =3.= We also command that the citizens and corporations of cities
+   shall furnish supplies to the electoral princes and their
+   representatives on demand at the regular price and without fraud,
+   whenever they arrive at, or depart from, the city on their way to
+   or from the election. Those who violate this decree shall suffer
+   the penalties described in the preceding paragraph for citizens and
+   corporations. If any prince, count, baron, knight, client, noble,
+   commoner, citizen, or city shall attack or molest in person or
+   goods any of the electoral princes or their representatives, on
+   their way to or from an election, whether they have safe-conduct or
+   not, he and his accomplices shall incur the penalties above
+   described, according to his position and rank.
+
+     [Sidenote: The electors to be summoned by the archbishop of Mainz]
+
+   =16.= When the news of the death of the king of the Romans has been
+   received at Mainz, within one month from the date of receiving it
+   the archbishop of Mainz shall send notices of the death and the
+   approaching election to all the electoral princes. But if the
+   archbishop neglects or refuses to send such notices, the electoral
+   princes are commanded on their fidelity to assemble on their own
+   motion and without summons at the city of Frankfort,[558] within
+   three months from the death of the emperor, for the purpose of
+   electing a king of the Romans and future emperor.
+
+   =17.= Each electoral prince or his representatives may bring with
+   him to Frankfort at the time of the election a retinue of 200
+   horsemen, of whom not more than 50 shall be armed.
+
+     [Sidenote: How a vote might be forfeited]
+
+   =18.= If any electoral prince, duly summoned to the election, fails
+   to come, or to send representatives with credentials containing
+   full authority, or if he (or his representatives) withdraws from
+   the place of the election before the election has been completed,
+   without leaving behind substitutes fully accredited and empowered,
+   he shall lose his vote in that election.
+
+     [Sidenote: The oath taken by the electors]
+
+   II. =2.=[559] "I, archbishop of Mainz, archchancellor of the Empire
+   for Germany,[560] electoral prince, swear on the holy gospels here
+   before me, and by the faith which I owe to God and to the Holy
+   Roman Empire, that with the aid of God, and according to my best
+   judgment and knowledge, I will cast my vote, in this election of
+   the king of the Romans and future emperor, for a person fitted to
+   rule the Christian people. I will give my voice and vote freely,
+   uninfluenced by any agreement, price, bribe, promise, or anything
+   of the sort, by whatever name it may be called. So help me God and
+   all the saints."
+
+     [Sidenote: Provision to ensure an election]
+
+   =3.= After the electors have taken this oath, they shall proceed to
+   the election, and shall not depart from Frankfort until the
+   majority have elected a king of the Romans and future emperor, to
+   be ruler of the world and of the Christian people. If they have not
+   come to a decision within thirty days from the day on which they
+   took the above oath, after that they shall live upon bread and
+   water and shall not leave the city until the election has been
+   decided.
+
+     [Sidenote: Order of precedence of the three archbishops]
+
+   III. =1.= To prevent any dispute arising between the archbishops of
+   Trier, Mainz, and Cologne, electoral princes of the Empire, as to
+   their priority and rank in the diet,[561] it has been decided and
+   is hereby decreed, with the advice and consent of all the electoral
+   princes, ecclesiastical and secular, that the archbishop of Trier
+   shall have the seat directly opposite and facing the emperor; that
+   the archbishop of Mainz shall have the seat at the right of the
+   emperor when the diet is held in the diocese or province of Mainz,
+   or anywhere in Germany except in the diocese of Cologne; that the
+   archbishop of Cologne shall have the seat at the right of the
+   emperor when the diet is held in the diocese or province of
+   Cologne, or anywhere in Gaul or Italy. This applies to all public
+   ceremonies--court sessions, conferring of fiefs, banquets,
+   councils, and all occasions on which the princes meet with the
+   emperor for the transaction of imperial business. This order of
+   seating shall be observed by the successors of the present
+   archbishops of Cologne, Trier, and Mainz, and shall never be
+   questioned.
+
+     [Sidenote: Seating arrangement at table]
+
+   IV. =1.= In the imperial diet, at the council-board, table, and all
+   other places where the emperor or king of the Romans meets with the
+   electoral princes, the seats shall be arranged as follows: On the
+   right of the emperor, first, the archbishop of Mainz, or of
+   Cologne, according to the province in which the meeting is held, as
+   arranged above; second, the king of Bohemia, because he is a
+   crowned and anointed prince; third, the count palatine of the
+   Rhine; on the left of the emperor, first, the archbishop of
+   Cologne, or of Mainz; second, the duke of Saxony; third, the
+   margrave of Brandenburg.
+
+     [Sidenote: The order of voting]
+
+   =2.= When the imperial throne becomes vacant, the archbishop of
+   Mainz shall have the authority, which he has had from of old, to
+   call the other electors together for the election. It shall be his
+   peculiar right also, when the electors have convened for the
+   election, to collect the votes, asking each of the electors
+   separately in the following order: first, the archbishop of Trier,
+   who shall have the right to the first vote, as he has had from of
+   old; then the archbishop of Cologne, who has the office of first
+   placing the crown upon the head of the king of the Romans; then the
+   king of Bohemia, who has the priority among the secular princes
+   because of his royal title; fourth, the count palatine of the
+   Rhine; fifth, the duke of Saxony; sixth, the margrave of
+   Brandenburg. Then the princes shall ask the archbishop of Mainz in
+   turn to declare his choice and vote. At the diet, the margrave of
+   Brandenburg shall offer water to the emperor or king, to wash his
+   hands; the king of Bohemia shall have the right to offer him the
+   cup first, although, by reason of his royal dignity, he shall not
+   be bound to do this unless he desires; the count palatine of the
+   Rhine shall offer him food; and the duke of Saxony shall act as his
+   marshal in the accustomed manner.
+
+     [Sidenote: Judicial privileges of the electors confirmed and
+   enlarged]
+
+   XI. =1.= We decree also that no count, baron, noble, vassal,
+   burggrave,[562] knight, client, citizen, burgher, or other subject
+   of the churches of Cologne, Mainz, or Trier, of whatever status,
+   condition, or rank, shall be cited, haled, or summoned to any
+   authority before any tribunal outside of the territories,
+   boundaries, and limits of these churches and their dependencies, or
+   before any judge, except the archbishop and their judges.... We
+   refuse to hear appeals based upon the authority of others over the
+   subjects of these princes; if these princes are accused by their
+   subjects of injustice, appeal shall lie to the imperial diet, and
+   shall be heard there and nowhere else.
+
+   =2.= We extend this right by the present law to the secular
+   electoral princes, the count palatine of the Rhine; the duke of
+   Saxony, and the margrave of Brandenburg, and to their heirs,
+   successors, and subjects forever.
+
+     [Sidenote: The electors to meet annually]
+
+   XII. =1.= It has been decided in the general diet held at
+   Nuernberg[563] with the electoral princes, ecclesiastical and
+   secular, and other princes and magnates, by their advice and with
+   their consent, that in the future, the electoral princes shall meet
+   every year in some city of the Empire four weeks after Easter. This
+   year they are to meet at that date in the imperial city of
+   Metz.[564] On that occasion, and on every meeting thereafter, the
+   place of assembling for the following year shall be fixed by us,
+   with the advice and consent of the princes. This ordinance shall
+   remain in force as long as it shall be pleasing to us and to the
+   princes; and as long as it is in effect, we shall furnish the
+   princes with safe-conduct for that assembly, going, staying, and
+   returning.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[547] Henry VI. succeeded his father as emperor, reigning from 1190 to
+1197.
+
+[548] The term (meaning literally "fodder") designates the obligation
+to furnish provisions for the royal army. The right of demanding such
+provisions was now given up by the Emperor.
+
+[549] The consuls--often twelve in number--were the chief magistrates
+of the typical Italian commune.
+
+[550] Otto III., emperor 983-1002. Otto is noted chiefly for his
+visionary project of renewing the imperial splendor of Rome and making
+her again the capital of a world-wide empire.
+
+[551] James Bryce, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904),
+pp. 207-208. For the reference to Dante see the _Inferno_, Canto X.
+
+[552] James H. Robinson, _Readings in European History_ (Boston,
+1904), Vol. I., p. 244.
+
+[553] Gregory IX., (1227-1241).
+
+[554] Frederick was excommunicated and anathematized on sixteen
+different charges, which the Pope carefully enumerated. All who were
+bound to him by oath of fealty were declared to be absolved from their
+allegiance.
+
+[555] At the Council of Lyons, in 1245, the Emperor was again
+excommunicated. The ensuing paragraph comprises a portion of Pope
+Innocent IV.'s denunciation of him upon that occasion.
+
+[556] Charles IV. was himself king of Bohemia, so that for the present
+the Emperor was also one of the seven imperial electors.
+
+[557] James Bryce, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904),
+p. 234.
+
+[558] Frankfort lay on the river Main, a short distance east of Mainz.
+"It was fixed as the place of election, as a tradition dating from
+East Frankish days preserved the feeling that both election and
+coronation ought to take place on Frankish soil."--James Bryce, _The
+Holy Roman Empire_ (new ed., New York, 1904), p. 243.
+
+[559] The preceding section specifies that Mass should be celebrated
+the day following the arrival of the electors at Frankfort, and that
+the archbishop of Mainz should administer to his six colleagues the
+oath which he himself has taken, as specified in section 2.
+
+[560] The three archbishops were "archchancellors" of the Empire for
+Germany, Gaul and Burgundy, and Italy respectively. The king of
+Bohemia was designated as cupbearer, the margrave of Brandenburg as
+chamberlain, the count palatine as seneschal, and the duke of Saxony
+as marshal.
+
+[561] The diet was the Empire's nearest approach to a national
+assembly. It was made up of three orders--the electors, the princes,
+and the representatives of the cities.
+
+[562] An official representative of a king or overlord in a city.
+
+[563] Nuernberg (or Nuremberg) is situated in Bavaria, in south central
+Germany.
+
+[564] Metz lay on the Moselle, above Trier. Apparently this clause
+providing for a regular annual meeting of the electors was inserted by
+Charles in the hope that he might be able to make use of the body as
+an advisory council in the affairs of the Empire. The provision
+remained a dead letter, for the reason that the electors were
+indifferent to the Emperor's purposes in the matter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
+
+
+Our chief contemporary source of information on the history of the
+Hundred Years' War is Jean Froissart's _Chronicles of England, France,
+and the Adjoining Countries, from the Latter Part of the Reign of
+Edward II. to the Coronation of Henry IV._,[565] and it is from this
+important work that all of the extracts (except texts of treaties)
+which are included in this chapter have been selected. Froissart was a
+French poet and historian, born at Beaumont, near Valenciennes in
+Hainault, in 1337, when the Hundred Years' War was just beginning. He
+lived until the early part of the fifteenth century, 1410 being one of
+the conjectural dates of his death. He was a man of keen mental
+faculties and had enjoyed the advantages of an unusually thorough
+education during boyhood. This native ability and training, together
+with his active public life and admirable opportunities for
+observation, constituted his special qualification for the writing of
+a history of his times. Froissart represents a type of mediaeval
+chronicler which was quite rare, in that he was not a monk living in
+seclusion but a practical man of affairs, accustomed to travel and
+intercourse with leading men in all the important countries of western
+Europe. He lived for five years at the English court as clerk of the
+Queen's Chamber; many times he was sent by the French king on
+diplomatic missions to Scotland, Italy, and other countries; and he
+made several private trips to various parts of Europe for the sole
+purpose of acquiring information. Always and everywhere he was
+observant and quick to take advantage of opportunities to ascertain
+facts which he could use, and we are told that after it came to be
+generally known that he was preparing to write an extended history of
+his times not a few kings and princes took pains to send him details
+regarding events which they desired to have recorded. The writing of
+the _Chronicles_ was a life work. When only twenty years of age
+Froissart submitted to Isabella, wife of King Edward III. of England,
+an account of the battle of Poitiers, in which the queen's son, the
+famous Black Prince, had won distinction in the previous year.
+Thereafter the larger history was published book by book, until by
+1373 it was complete to date. Subsequently it was extended to the year
+1400 (it had begun with the events of 1326), while the earlier
+portions were rewritten and considerably revised. And, in deed, when
+death came to the author he was still working at his arduous but
+congenial task. "As long as I live," he wrote upon one occasion, "by
+the grace of God I shall continue it; for the more I follow it and
+labor thereon, the more it pleases me. Even as a gentle knight or
+esquire who loves arms, while persevering and continuing develops
+himself therein, thus do I, laboring and striving with this matter,
+improve and delight myself."
+
+The _Chronicles_ as they have come down to us are written in a lively
+and pleasing style. It need hardly be said that they are not wholly
+accurate; indeed, on the whole, they are quite inaccurate, measured
+even by mediaeval standards. Froissart was obliged to rely for a large
+portion of his information upon older chronicles and especially upon
+conversations and interviews with people in various parts of Europe.
+Such sources are never wholly trustworthy and it must be admitted that
+our author was not as careful to sift error from truth as he should
+have been. His credulity betrayed him often into accepting what a
+little investigation would have shown to be false, and only very
+rarely did he make any attempt, as a modern historian would do, to
+increase and verify his knowledge by a study of documents. Still, the
+_Chronicles_ constitute an invaluable history of the period they
+cover. The facts they record, the events they explain, the vivid
+descriptions they contain, and the side-lights they throw upon the
+life and manners of an interesting age unite to give them a place of
+peculiar importance among works of their kind. And, wholly aside from
+their historical value, they constitute one of the monuments of
+mediaeval French literature.
+
+
+73. An Occasion of War between the Kings of England and France
+
+The causes, general and specific, of the Hundred Years' War were
+numerous. The most important were: (1) The long-standing bad feeling
+between the French and English regarding the possession of Normandy
+and Guienne. England had lost the former to France and she had never
+ceased to hope for its recovery; on the other hand, the French were
+resolved upon the eventual conquest of the remaining English
+continental possession of Guienne and were constantly asserting
+themselves there in a fashion highly irritating to the English; (2)
+the assistance and general encouragement given the rebellious Scots by
+the French; (3) the pressure brought to bear upon the English crown by
+the popular party in Flanders to claim the French throne and to resort
+to war to obtain it. The Flemish wool trade was a very important item
+in England's economic prosperity and it was felt to be essential at
+all hazards to prevent the extension of French influence in Flanders,
+which would inevitably mean the checking, if not the ruin, of the
+commercial relations of the Flemish and the English; and (4) the claim
+to the throne of France which Edward III., king of England, set up and
+prepared to defend. It is this last occasion of war that Froissart
+describes in the passage below.
+
+     Source--Text in Simeon Luce (ed.), _Chroniques de Jean
+     Froissart_ [published for the Societe de l'Histoire de
+     France], Paris, 1869, Chap. I. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_ (London, 1803), Vol. I., pp. 6-7.
+
+     [Sidenote: The succession to the French throne in 1328]
+
+   History tells us that Philip, king of France, surnamed the
+   Fair,[566] had three sons, besides his beautiful daughter
+   Isabella, married to the king of England.[567] These three sons
+   were very handsome. The eldest, Louis, king of Navarre, during
+   the lifetime of his father, was called Louis Hutin; the second
+   was named Philip the Great, or the Long; and the third, Charles.
+   All these were kings of France, after their father Philip, by
+   legitimate succession, one after the other, without having by
+   marriage any male heirs.[568] Yet on the death of the last king,
+   Charles, the twelve peers and barons of France[569] did not give
+   the kingdom to Isabella, the sister, who was queen of England,
+   because they said and maintained, and still insist, that the
+   kingdom of France is so noble that it ought not to go to a
+   woman; consequently neither to Isabella nor to her son, the king
+   of England; for they held that the son of a woman cannot claim
+   any right of succession where that woman has none herself.[570]
+   For these reasons the twelve peers and barons of France
+   unanimously gave the kingdom of France to the lord Philip of
+   Valois, nephew of King Philip,[571] and thus put aside the queen
+   of England (who was sister to Charles, the late king of France)
+   and her son. Thus, as it seemed to many people, the succession
+   went out of the right line, which has been the occasion of the
+   most destructive wars and devastations of countries, as well in
+   France as elsewhere, as you will learn hereafter; the real
+   object of this history being to relate the great enterprises and
+   deeds of arms achieved in these wars, for from the time of good
+   Charlemagne, king of France, never were such feats performed.
+
+
+74. Edward III. Assumes the Arms and Title of the King of France
+
+Due to causes which have been mentioned, the relations of England and
+France at the accession of Philip VI. in 1328 were so strained that
+only a slight fanning of the flames was necessary to bring on an open
+conflict. Edward III.'s persistent demand to be recognized as king of
+France sufficed to accomplish this result. The war did not come at
+once, for neither king felt himself ready for it; but it was
+inevitable and preparations for it were steadily pushed on both sides
+from 1328 until its formal declaration by Edward nine years later.
+These preparations were not merely military and naval but also
+diplomatic. The primary object of both sovereigns was to secure as
+many and as strong foreign alliances as possible. In pursuit of this
+policy Philip soon assured himself of the support of Louis de Nevers,
+count of Flanders, King John of Bohemia, Alphonso XI. of Castile, and
+a number of lesser princes of the north. Edward was even more
+successful. In Spain and the Scandinavian countries many local powers
+allied themselves with him; in the Low Countries, especially Flanders
+and Brabant, the people and the princes chose generally to identify
+themselves with his cause; and the climax came in July, 1337, when a
+treaty of alliance was concluded with the Emperor, Louis of Bavaria.
+War was begun in this same year, and in 1338 Edward went himself to
+the continent to undertake a direct attack on France from Flanders as
+a base. The years 1338 and 1339 were consumed with ineffective
+operations against the walled cities of the French frontier, Philip
+steadily refusing to be drawn into an open battle such as Edward
+desired. The following year the English king resolved to declare
+himself sovereign of France. The circumstances attending this
+important step are detailed in the passage from Froissart given below.
+
+Heretofore Edward had merely protested that by reason of his being a
+grandson of Philip the Fair he should have been awarded the throne by
+the French barons in 1328; now, at the instigation of his German and
+Flemish allies, he flatly announces that he _is_ of right the king
+and that Philip VI. is to be deposed as an usurper. Of course this
+was a declaration which Edward could make good only by victory in the
+war upon which he had entered. But the claim thus set up rendered it
+inevitable that the war should be waged to the bitter end on both
+sides.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Societe de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. XXXI. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. I., pp. 110-112.
+
+     [Sidenote: The conference at Brussels]
+
+   When King Edward had departed from Flanders and arrived at Brabant
+   he set out straight for Brussels, whither he was attended by the
+   duke of Gueldres, the duke of Juliers, the marquis of Blanckenburg,
+   the earl of Mons, the lord John of Hainault, the lord of
+   Fauquemont, and all the barons of the Empire who were allied to
+   him, as they wished to consider what was next to be done in this
+   war which they had begun. For greater expedition, they ordered a
+   conference to be held in the city of Brussels, and invited James
+   van Arteveld[572] to attend it, who came thither in great array,
+   and brought with him all the councils from the principal towns of
+   Flanders.
+
+   At this parliament the king of England was advised by his allies of
+   the Empire to solicit the Flemings to give him their aid and
+   assistance in this war, to challenge the king of France, and to
+   follow King Edward wherever he should lead them, and in return he
+   would assist them in the recovery of Lisle, Douay, and
+   Bethune.[573] The Flemings heard this proposal with pleasure; but
+   they requested of the king that they might consider it among
+   themselves and in a short time they would give their answer.
+
+     [Sidenote: Proposition made by the Flemings to King Edward]
+
+   The king consented and soon after they made this reply: "Beloved
+   sire, you formerly made us a similar request; and we are willing to
+   do everything in reason for you without prejudice to our honor and
+   faith. But we are pledged by promise on oath, under a penalty of
+   two millions of florins, to the apostolical chamber,[574] not to
+   act offensively against the king of France in any way, whoever he
+   may be, without forfeiting this sum, and incurring the sentence of
+   excommunication. But if you will do what we will tell you, you will
+   find a remedy, which is, that you take the arms of France, quarter
+   them with those of England, and call yourself king of France. We
+   will acknowledge your title as good, and we will demand of you
+   quittance for the above sum, which you will grant us as king of
+   France. Thus we shall be absolved and at liberty to go with you
+   wherever it pleases you."
+
+     [Sidenote: The agreement concluded]
+
+   The king summoned his council, for he was loath to take the title
+   and arms of France, seeing that at present he had not conquered any
+   part of that kingdom and that it was uncertain whether he ever
+   should. On the other hand, he was unwilling to lose the aid and
+   assistance of the Flemings, who could be of greater service to him
+   than any others at that period. He consulted, therefore, with the
+   lords of the Empire, the lord Robert d'Artois,[575] and his most
+   privy councilors, who, after having duly weighed the good and bad,
+   advised him to make for answer to the Flemings, that if they would
+   bind themselves under their seals, to an agreement to aid him in
+   carrying on the war, he would willingly comply with their
+   conditions, and would swear to assist them in the recovery of
+   Lisle, Douay, and Bethune. To this they willingly consented. A day
+   was fixed for them to meet at Ghent,[576] where the king and the
+   greater part of the lords of the Empire, and in general the
+   councils from the different towns in Flanders, assembled. The
+   above-mentioned proposals and answers were then repeated, sworn to,
+   and sealed; and the king of England bore the arms of France,
+   quartering them with those of England. He also took the title of
+   king of France from that day forward.
+
+
+75. The Naval Battle of Sluys (1340)
+
+In the spring of 1340 Edward returned to England to secure money and
+supplies with which to prosecute the war. The French king thought he
+saw in this temporary withdrawal of his enemy an opportunity to strike
+him a deadly blow. A fleet of nearly two hundred vessels was gathered
+in the harbor of Sluys, on the Flemish coast, with a view to attacking
+the English king on his return to the continent and preventing him
+from again securing a foothold in Flanders. Edward, however, accepted
+the situation and made ready to fight his way back to the country of
+his allies. June 24, 1340, he boldly attacked the French at Sluys. The
+sharp conflict which ensued resulted in a brilliant victory for the
+English. Philip's fleet found itself shut up in the harbor and utterly
+unable to withstand the showers of arrows shot by the thousands of
+archers who crowded the English ships. The French navy was
+annihilated, England was relieved from the fear of invasion, and the
+whole French coast was laid open to attack.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Societe de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. XXXVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. I., pp. 141-143.
+
+   He [King Edward] and his whole navy sailed from the Thames the day
+   before the eve of St. John the Baptist, 1340,[577] and made
+   straight for Sluys.
+
+   Sir Hugh Quiriel, Sir Peter Bahucet, and Barbenoir, were at that
+   time lying between Blankenburg and Sluys with upwards of one
+   hundred and twenty large vessels, without counting others. These
+   were manned with about forty thousand men, Genoese and Picards,
+   including mariners. By the orders of the king of France, they were
+   there at anchor, awaiting the return of the king of England, to
+   dispute his passage.
+
+     [Sidenote: Edward determines to fight at Sluys]
+
+   When the king's fleet had almost reached Sluys, they saw so many
+   masts standing before it that they looked like a wood. The king
+   asked the commander of his ship what they could be. The latter
+   replied that he imagined they must be that armament of Normans
+   which the king of France kept at sea, and which had so frequently
+   done him much damage, had burned his good town of Southampton and
+   taken his large ship the _Christopher_. The king replied, "I have
+   for a long time desired to meet them, and now, please God and St.
+   George, we will fight with them; for, in truth, they have done me
+   so much mischief that I will be revenged on them if it be
+   possible."
+
+   The king then drew up all his vessels, placing the strongest in
+   front, and his archers on the wings. Between every two vessels with
+   archers there was one of men-at-arms. He stationed some detached
+   vessels as a reserve, full of archers, to assist and help such as
+   might be damaged. There were in this fleet a great many ladies from
+   England, countesses, baronesses, and knights' and gentlemen's
+   wives, who were going to attend on the queen at Ghent.[578] These
+   the king had guarded most carefully by three hundred men-at-arms
+   and five hundred archers.
+
+     [Sidenote: The French make ready]
+
+   When the king of England and his marshals had properly divided the
+   fleet, they hoisted their sails to have the wind on their quarter,
+   as the sun shone full in their faces (which they considered might
+   be of disadvantage to them) and stretched out a little, so that at
+   last they got the wind as they wished. The Normans, who saw them
+   tack, could not help wondering why they did so, and remarked that
+   they took good care to turn about because they were afraid of
+   meddling with them. They perceived, however, by his banner, that
+   the king was on board, which gave them great joy, as they were
+   eager to fight with him. So they put their vessels in proper order,
+   for they were expert and gallant men on the seas. They filled the
+   _Christopher_, the large ship which they had taken the year before
+   from the English, with trumpets and other warlike instruments, and
+   ordered her to fall upon the English.
+
+     [Sidenote: The battle rages]
+
+   The battle then began very fiercely. Archers and cross-bowmen shot
+   with all their might at each other, and the men-at-arms engaged
+   hand to hand. In order to be more successful, they had large
+   grapnels and iron hooks with chains, which they flung from ship to
+   ship to moor them to each other. There were many valiant deeds
+   performed, many prisoners made, and many rescues. The
+   _Christopher_, which led the van, was recaptured by the English,
+   and all in her taken or killed. There were then great shouts and
+   cries, and the English manned her again with archers, and sent her
+   to fight against the Genoese.
+
+   This battle was very murderous and horrible. Combats at sea are
+   more destructive and obstinate than upon land, for it is not
+   possible to retreat or flee--every one must abide his fortune, and
+   exert his prowess and valor. Sir Hugh Quiriel and his companions
+   were bold and determined men; they had done much mischief to the
+   English at sea and destroyed many of their ships. The combat,
+   therefore, lasted from early in the morning until noon,[579] and
+   the English were hard pressed, for their enemies were four to one,
+   and the greater part men who had been used to the sea.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English triumph]
+
+   The king, who was in the flower of his youth, showed himself on
+   that day a gallant knight, as did the earls of Derby, Pembroke,
+   Hereford, Huntingdon, Northampton, and Gloucester; the lord
+   Reginald Cobham, lord Felton, lord Bradestan, sir Richard Stafford,
+   the lord Percy, sir Walter Manny, sir Henry de Flanders, sir John
+   Beauchamp, sir John Chandos, the lord Delaware, Lucie lord Malton,
+   and the lord Robert d'Artois, now called earl of Richmond. I cannot
+   remember the names of all those who behaved so valiantly in the
+   combat. But they did so well that, with some assistance from Bruges
+   and those parts of the country, the French were completely
+   defeated, and all the Normans and the others were killed or
+   drowned, so that not one of them escaped.[580]
+
+   After the king had gained this victory, which was on the eve of St.
+   John's day,[581] he remained all that night on board his ship
+   before Sluys, and there were great noises with trumpets and all
+   kinds of other instruments.
+
+
+76. The Battle of Crecy (1346)
+
+In July, 1346, Edward III. landed on the northwest coast of Normandy
+with a splendid army of English, Irish, and Welsh, including ten
+thousand men skilled in the use of the long bow. He advanced eastward,
+plundering and devastating as he went, probably with the ultimate
+intention of besieging Calais. Finding the passage of the Seine
+impossible at Rouen, he ascended the river until he came into the
+vicinity of Paris, only to learn that Philip with an army twice the
+size of that of the English had taken up a position on the Seine to
+turn back the invasion. The French king allowed himself to be
+outwitted, however, and Edward got out of the trap into which he had
+fallen by marching northward to the village of Crecy in Ponthieu. With
+an army that had grown to outnumber the English three to one Philip
+advanced in the path of the enemy, first to Abbeville on the Somme,
+and later to Crecy, slightly to the east of which Edward had taken his
+stand for battle. The English arrived at Crecy about noon on Friday,
+August 25. The French were nearly a day behind, having spent the night
+at Abbeville and set out thence over the roads to Crecy before sunrise
+Saturday morning. The army of the English numbered probably about
+14,000, besides an uncertain reserve of Welsh and Irish troops; that
+of the French numbered about 70,000, including 15,000 Genoese
+cross-bowmen. The course of the battle is well described by Froissart
+in the passage below. Doubtless the account is not accurate in every
+particular, yet it must be correct in the main and it shows very
+vividly the character of French and English warfare in this period.
+Despite the superior numbers of the French, the English had small
+difficulty in winning a decisive victory. This was due to several
+things. In the first place, the French army was a typical feudal levy
+and as such was sadly lacking in discipline and order, while the
+English troops were under perfect control. In the next place, the use
+of the long-bow gave the English infantry a great advantage over the
+French knights, and even over the Genoese mercenaries, who could shoot
+just once while an English long-bowman was shooting twelve times. In
+the third place, Philip's troops were exhausted before entering the
+battle and it was a grievous error on the part of the king to allow
+the conflict to begin before his men had an opportunity for rest.[582]
+The greatest significance of the English victory lay in the blow it
+struck at feudalism, and especially the feudal type of warfare. It
+showed very clearly that the armored knight was no match for the
+common foot-soldier, armed simply with his long-bow, and that feudal
+methods and ideals had come to be inconsistent with success in war.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Societe de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. LX. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. I., pp. 320-329 _passim_.
+
+   The king of England, as I have mentioned before, encamped this
+   Friday in the plain,[583] for he found the country abounding in
+   provisions; but if they should have failed, he had an abundance in
+   the carriages which attended him. The army set about furbishing and
+   repairing their armor; and the king gave a supper that evening to
+   the earls and barons of his army, where they made good cheer. On
+   their taking leave, the king remained alone with the lord of his
+   bed-chamber. He retired into his oratory and, falling on his knees
+   before the altar, prayed to God, that if he should fight his
+   enemies on the morrow he might come off with honor. About midnight
+   he went to his bed and, rising early the next day, he and the
+   Prince of Wales[584] heard Mass and communicated. The greater part
+   of his army did the same, confessed, and made proper preparations.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English prepare for battle]
+
+   After Mass the king ordered his men to arm themselves and assemble
+   on the ground he had before fixed on. He had enclosed a large park
+   near a wood, on the rear of his army, in which he placed all his
+   baggage-wagons and horses; and this park had but one entrance. His
+   men-at-arms and archers remained on foot. The king afterwards
+   ordered, through his constable and his two marshals, that the army
+   should be divided into three battalions....
+
+   The king then mounted a small palfrey, having a white wand in his
+   hand and, attended by his two marshals on each side of him, he rode
+   through all the ranks, encouraging and entreating the army, that
+   they should guard his honor. He spoke this so gently, and with such
+   a cheerful countenance, that all who had been dejected were
+   immediately comforted by seeing and hearing him.
+
+   When he had thus visited all the battalions, it was near ten
+   o'clock. He retired to his own division and ordered them all to eat
+   heartily afterwards and drink a glass. They ate and drank at their
+   ease; and, having packed up pots, barrels, etc., in the carts, they
+   returned to their battalions, according to the marshals' orders,
+   and seated themselves on the ground, placing their helmets and bows
+   before them, that they might be the fresher when their enemies
+   should arrive.
+
+     [Sidenote: The French advance from Abbeville to Crecy]
+
+     [Sidenote: Philip's knights advise delay]
+
+   That same Saturday, the king of France arose betimes and heard Mass
+   in the monastery of St. Peter's in Abbeville,[585] where he was
+   lodged. Having ordered his army to do the same, he left that town
+   after sunrise. When he had marched about two leagues from Abbeville
+   and was approaching the enemy, he was advised to form his army in
+   order of battle, and to let those on foot march forward, that they
+   might not be trampled on by the horses. The king, upon this, sent
+   off four knights--the lord Moyne of Bastleberg, the lord of Noyers,
+   the lord of Beaujeu, and the lord of Aubigny--who rode so near to
+   the English that they could clearly distinguish their position. The
+   English plainly perceived that they were come to reconnoitre.
+   However, they took no notice of it, but suffered them to return
+   unmolested. When the king of France saw them coming back, he halted
+   his army, and the knights, pushing through the crowds, came near
+   the king, who said to them, "My lords, what news?" They looked at
+   each other, without opening their mouths; for no one chose to speak
+   first. At last the king addressed himself to the lord Moyne, who
+   was attached to the king of Bohemia, and had performed very many
+   gallant deeds, so that he was esteemed one of the most valiant
+   knights in Christendom. The lord Moyne said, "Sir, I will speak,
+   since it pleases you to order me, but with the assistance of my
+   companions. We have advanced far enough to reconnoitre your
+   enemies. Know, then, that they are drawn up in three battalions and
+   are awaiting you. I would advise, for my part (submitting, however,
+   to better counsel), that you halt your army here and quarter them
+   for the night; for before the rear shall come up and the army be
+   properly drawn out, it will be very late. Your men will be tired
+   and in disorder, while they will find your enemies fresh and
+   properly arrayed. On the morrow, you may draw up your army more at
+   your ease and may reconnoitre at leisure on what part it will be
+   most advantageous to begin the attack; for, be assured, they will
+   wait for you."
+
+     [Sidenote: Confusion in the French ranks]
+
+   The king commanded that it should be so done; and the two marshals
+   rode, one towards the front, and the other to the rear, crying out,
+   "Halt banners, in the name of God and St. Denis." Those that were
+   in the front halted; but those behind said they would not halt
+   until they were as far forward as the front. When the front
+   perceived the rear pushing on, they pushed forward; and neither the
+   king nor the marshals could stop them, but they marched on without
+   any order until they came in sight of their enemies.[586] As soon
+   as the foremost rank saw them, they fell back at once in great
+   disorder, which alarmed those in the rear, who thought they had
+   been fighting. There was then space and room enough for them to
+   have passed forward, had they been willing to do so. Some did so,
+   but others remained behind.
+
+   All the roads between Abbeville and Crecy were covered with common
+   people, who, when they had come within three leagues of their
+   enemies, drew their swords, crying out, "Kill, kill;" and with them
+   were many great lords who were eager to make show of their courage.
+   There is no man, unless he had been present, who can imagine, or
+   describe truly, the confusion of that day; especially the bad
+   management and disorder of the French, whose troops were beyond
+   number.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English prepare for battle]
+
+   The English, who were drawn up in three divisions and seated on the
+   ground, on seeing their enemies advance, arose boldly and fell into
+   their ranks. That of the prince[587] was the first to do so, whose
+   archers were formed in the manner of a portcullis, or harrow, and
+   the men-at-arms in the rear. The earls of Northampton and Arundel,
+   who commanded the second division, had posted themselves in good
+   order on his wing to assist and succor the prince, if necessary.
+
+   You must know that these kings, dukes, earls, barons, and lords of
+   France did not advance in any regular order, but one after the
+   other, or in any way most pleasing to themselves. As soon as the
+   king of France came in sight of the English his blood began to
+   boil, and he cried out to his marshals, "Order the Genoese forward,
+   and begin the battle, in the name of God and St. Denis."
+
+   There were about fifteen thousand Genoese cross-bowmen; but they
+   were quite fatigued, having marched on foot that day six leagues,
+   completely armed, and with their cross-bows. They told the
+   constable that they were not in a fit condition to do any great
+   things that day in battle. The earl of Alencon, hearing this, said,
+   "This is what one gets by employing such scoundrels, who fail when
+   there is any need for them."
+
+   During this time a heavy rain fell, accompanied by thunder and a
+   very terrible eclipse of the sun; and before this rain a great
+   flight of crows hovered in the air over all those battalions,
+   making a loud noise. Shortly afterwards it cleared up and the sun
+   shone very brightly; but the Frenchmen had it in their faces, and
+   the English at their backs.
+
+   When the Genoese were somewhat in order they approached the English
+   and set up a loud shout in order to frighten them; but the latter
+   remained quite still and did not seem to hear it. They then set up
+   a second shout and advanced a little forward; but the English did
+   not move. They hooted a third time, advancing with their cross-bows
+   presented, and began to shoot. The English archers then advanced
+   one step forward and shot their arrows with such force and
+   quickness that it seemed as if it snowed.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Genoese mercenaries repulsed]
+
+   When the Genoese felt these arrows, which pierced their arms,
+   heads, and through their armor, some of them cut the strings of
+   their cross-bows, others flung them on the ground, and all turned
+   about and retreated, quite discomfited. The French had a large body
+   of men-at-arms on horseback, richly dressed, to support the
+   Genoese. The king of France, seeing them thus fall back, cried out,
+   "Kill me those scoundrels; for they stop up our road, without any
+   reason." You would then have seen the above-mentioned men-at-arms
+   lay about them, killing all that they could of these runaways.
+
+     [Sidenote: Slaughter by the Cornish and Welsh]
+
+   The English continued shooting as vigorously and quickly as before.
+   Some of their arrows fell among the horsemen, who were sumptuously
+   equipped and, killing and wounding many, made them caper and fall
+   among the Genoese, so that they were in such confusion they could
+   never rally again. In the English army there were some Cornish and
+   Welshmen on foot who had armed themselves with large knives. These,
+   advancing through the ranks of the men-at-arms and archers, who
+   made way for them, came upon the French when they were in this
+   danger and, falling upon earls, barons, knights and squires, slew
+   many, at which the king of England was afterwards much exasperated.
+
+     [Sidenote: Death of the king of Bohemia]
+
+   The valiant king of Bohemia was slain there. He was called Charles
+   of Luxemburg, for he was the son of the gallant king and emperor,
+   Henry of Luxemburg.[588] Having heard the order of the battle, he
+   inquired where his son, the lord Charles, was. His attendants
+   answered that they did not know, but believed that he was fighting.
+   The king said to them: "Sirs, you are all my people, my friends and
+   brethren at arms this day; therefore, as I am blind, I request of
+   you to lead me so far into the engagement that I may strike one
+   stroke with my sword." The knights replied that they would lead him
+   forward immediately; and, in order that they might not lose him in
+   the crowd, they fastened the reins of all their horses together,
+   and put the king at their head, that he might gratify his wish,
+   and advanced towards the enemy. The king rode in among the enemy,
+   and made good use of his sword; for he and his companions fought
+   most gallantly. They advanced so far that they were all slain; and
+   on the morrow they were found on the ground, with their horses all
+   tied together.
+
+   Early in the day, some French, Germans, and Savoyards had broken
+   through the archers of the prince's battalion, and had engaged with
+   the men-at-arms, upon which the second battalion came to his aid;
+   and it was time, for otherwise he would have been hard pressed. The
+   first division, seeing the danger they were in, sent a knight[589]
+   in great haste to the king of England, who was posted upon an
+   eminence, near a windmill. On the knight's arrival, he said, "Sir,
+   the earl of Warwick, the lord Stafford, the lord Reginald Cobham,
+   and the others who are about your son are vigorously attacked by
+   the French; and they entreat that you come to their assistance with
+   your battalion for, if the number of the French should increase,
+   they fear he will have too much to do."
+
+     [Sidenote: Edward gives the Black Prince a chance to win his spurs]
+
+   The king replied: "Is my son dead, unhorsed, or so badly wounded
+   that he cannot support himself?" "Nothing of the sort, thank God,"
+   rejoined the knight; "but he is in so hot an engagement that he has
+   great need of your help." The king answered, "Now, Sir Thomas,
+   return to those who sent you and tell them from me not to send
+   again for me this day, or expect that I shall come, let what will
+   happen, as long as my son has life; and say that I command them to
+   let the boy win his spurs; for I am determined, if it please God,
+   that all the glory and honor of this day shall be given to him, and
+   to those into whose care I have entrusted him." The knight returned
+   to his lords and related the king's answer, which greatly
+   encouraged them and made them regret that they had ever sent such a
+   message.
+
+     [Sidenote: King Philip abandons the field of battle]
+
+   Late after vespers, the king of France had not more about him than
+   sixty men, every one included. Sir John of Hainault, who was of the
+   number, had once remounted the king; for the latter's horse had
+   been killed under him by an arrow. He said to the king, "Sir,
+   retreat while you have an opportunity, and do not expose yourself
+   so needlessly. If you have lost this battle, another time you will
+   be the conqueror." After he had said this, he took the bridle of
+   the king's horse and led him off by force; for he had before
+   entreated him to retire.
+
+   The king rode on until he came to the castle of La Broyes, where he
+   found the gates shut, for it was very dark. The king ordered the
+   governor of it to be summoned. He came upon the battlements and
+   asked who it was that called at such an hour. The king answered,
+   "Open, open, governor; it is the fortune of France." The governor,
+   hearing the king's voice, immediately descended, opened the gate,
+   and let down the bridge. The king and his company entered the
+   castle; but he had with him only five barons--Sir John of Hainault,
+   the lord Charles of Montmorency, the lord of Beaujeu, the lord of
+   Aubigny, and the lord of Montfort. The king would not bury himself
+   in such a place as that, but, having taken some refreshments, set
+   out again with his attendants about midnight, and rode on, under
+   the direction of guides who were well acquainted with the country,
+   until, about daybreak, he came to Amiens, where he halted.
+
+     [Sidenote: The English after the battle]
+
+   This Saturday the English never quitted their ranks in pursuit of
+   any one, but remained on the field, guarding their position and
+   defending themselves against all who attacked them. The battle was
+   ended at the hour of vespers. When, on this Saturday night, the
+   English heard no more hooting or shouting, nor any more crying out
+   to particular lords, or their banners, they looked upon the field
+   as their own and their enemies as beaten.
+
+   They made great fires and lighted torches because of the darkness
+   of the night. King Edward then came down from his post, who all
+   that day had not put on his helmet, and, with his whole battalion,
+   advanced to the Prince of Wales, whom he embraced in his arms and
+   kissed, and said, "Sweet son, God give you good preference. You are
+   my son, for most loyally have you acquitted yourself this day. You
+   are worthy to be a sovereign." The prince bowed down very low and
+   humbled himself, giving all honor to the king his father.
+
+   The English, during the night, made frequent thanksgivings to the
+   Lord for the happy outcome of the day, and without rioting; for the
+   king had forbidden all riot or noise.
+
+
+77. The Sack of Limoges (1370)
+
+As a single illustration of the devastation wrought by the Hundred
+Years' War, and of the barbarity of the commanders and troops engaged
+in it, Froissart's well-known description of the sack of Limoges in
+1370 by the army of the Black Prince is of no small interest. In some
+respects, of course, circumstances in connection with this episode
+were exceptional, and we are not to imagine that such heartless and
+indiscriminate massacres were common. Yet the evidence which has
+survived all goes to show that the long course of the war was filled
+with cruelty and destruction in a measure almost inconceivable among
+civilized peoples in more modern times.
+
+     Source--_Chroniques de Jean Froissart_ (Societe de l'Histoire
+     de France edition), Chap. XCVII. Translated in Thomas Johnes,
+     _Froissart's Chronicles_, Vol. II., pp. 61-68 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Black Prince resolves to retake Limoges]
+
+   When word was brought to the prince that the city of Limoges[590]
+   had become French, that the bishop, who had been his companion and
+   one in whom he had formerly placed great confidence, was a party
+   to all the treaties and had greatly aided and assisted in the
+   surrender, he was in a violent passion and held the bishop and all
+   other churchmen in very low estimation, in whom formerly he had put
+   great trust. He swore by the soul of his father, which he had never
+   perjured, that he would have it back again, that he would not
+   attend to anything before he had done this, and that he would make
+   the inhabitants pay dearly for their treachery....[591]
+
+   All these men-at-arms were drawn out in battle-array and took the
+   field, when the whole country began to tremble for the
+   consequences. At that time the Prince of Wales was not able to
+   mount his horse, but was, for his greater ease, carried in a
+   litter. They followed the road to the Limousin,[592] in order to
+   get to Limoges, where in due time they arrived and encamped all
+   around it. The prince swore he would never leave the place until he
+   had regained it.
+
+     [Sidenote: The town to be undermined]
+
+   The bishop of the place and the inhabitants found that they had
+   acted wickedly and had greatly incensed the prince, for which they
+   were very repentant, but that was now of no avail, as they were not
+   the masters of the town.[593] When the prince and his marshals had
+   well considered the strength and force of Limoges, and knew the
+   number of people that were in it, they agreed that they could never
+   take it by assault, but said they would attempt it by another
+   manner. The prince was always accustomed to carry with him on his
+   expeditions a large body of miners. These were immediately set to
+   work and made great progress. The knights who were in the town
+   soon perceived that they were undermining them, and on that
+   account began to countermine to prevent the effect....
+
+   The Prince of Wales remained about a month, and not more, before
+   the city of Limoges. He would not allow any assaults or
+   skirmishing, but kept his miners steadily at work. The knights in
+   the town perceived what they were about and made countermines to
+   destroy them, but they failed in their attempt. When the miners of
+   the prince (who, as they found themselves countermined, kept
+   changing the line of direction of their own mine) had finished
+   their business, they came to the prince and said, "My lord, we are
+   ready, and will throw down, whenever it pleases you, a very large
+   part of the wall into the ditch, through the breach of which you
+   may enter the town at your ease and without danger."
+
+     [Sidenote: The English assault]
+
+   This news was very agreeable to the prince, who replied: "I desire,
+   then, that you prove your words to-morrow morning at six o'clock."
+   The miners set fire to the combustibles in the mine, and on the
+   morrow morning, as they had foretold the prince, they flung down a
+   great piece of wall which filled the ditches. The English saw this
+   with pleasure, for they were armed and prepared to enter the town.
+   Those on foot did so and ran to the gate, which they destroyed, as
+   well as the barriers, for there were no other defenses; and all
+   this was done so suddenly that the inhabitants had not time to
+   prevent it.
+
+     [Sidenote: Barbarity of the sack]
+
+   The prince, the duke of Lancaster, the earls of Cambridge and of
+   Pembroke, sir Guiscard d'Angle and the others, with their men,
+   rushed into the town. You would then have seen pillagers, active to
+   do mischief, running through the town, slaying men, women, and
+   children, according to their orders. It was a most melancholy
+   business; for all ranks, ages, and sexes cast themselves on their
+   knees before the prince, begging for mercy; but he was so inflamed
+   with passion and revenge that he listened to none. But all were put
+   to the sword, wherever they could be found, even those who were
+   not guilty. For I know not why the poor were not spared, who could
+   not have had any part in the treason; but they suffered for it, and
+   indeed more than those who had been the leaders of the treachery.
+
+   There was not that day in the city of Limoges any heart so
+   hardened, or that had any sense of religion, that did not deeply
+   bewail the unfortunate events passing before men's eyes; for
+   upwards of three thousand men, women, and children were put to
+   death that day. God have mercy on their souls, for they were truly
+   martyrs.... The entire town was pillaged, burned, and totally
+   destroyed. The English then departed, carrying with them their
+   booty and prisoners.
+
+
+78. The Treaties of Bretigny (1360) and Troyes (1420)
+
+The most important documents in the diplomatic history of the Hundred
+Years' War are the texts of the treaty of London (1359), the treaty of
+Bretigny (1360), the truce of Paris (1396), the treaty of Troyes
+(1420), the treaty of Arras (1435), and the truce of Tours (1444).
+Brief extracts from two of these are given below. The treaty of
+Bretigny was negotiated soon after the refusal of the French to ratify
+the treaty of London. In November, 1359, King Edward III., with his
+son, Edward, the Black Prince, and the duke of Lancaster, crossed the
+Channel, marched on Rheims, and threatened Paris. Negotiations for a
+new peace were actively opened in April, 1360, after the English had
+established themselves at Montlheri, south from Paris. The French
+king, John II., who had been taken prisoner at Poitiers (1356), gave
+full powers of negotiation to his son Charles, duke of Normandy and
+regent of the kingdom. For some time no definite conclusions were
+reached, owing chiefly to Edward's unwillingness to renounce his claim
+to the French throne. Late in April the negotiations were transferred
+to Chartres, subsequently to Bretigny. Finally, on the eighth of May,
+representatives of the two parties signed the so-called treaty of
+Bretigny. Although the instrument was promptly ratified by the French
+regent and by the Black Prince (and, if we may believe Froissart, by
+the two kings themselves), it was afterwards revised and accepted in
+a somewhat different form by the monarchs and their following
+assembled at Calais (October 24, 1360). The most important respect in
+which the second document differed from the first was the omission of
+Article 12 of the first treaty, in which Edward renounced his claim to
+the throne of France and the sovereignty of Normandy, Maine, Anjou,
+Touraine, Brittany, and Flanders; nevertheless Edward, at Calais, made
+this renunciation in a separate convention, which for all practical
+purposes was regarded as a part of the treaty. The passages printed
+below are taken from the Calais text. Most of the thirty-nine articles
+composing the document are devoted to mere details. The war was
+renewed after a few years, and within two decades the English had lost
+all the territory guaranteed to them in 1360, except a few coast
+towns.
+
+The treaty of Troyes (1420) belongs to one of the most stormy periods
+in all French history. The first two decades of the fifteenth century
+were marked by a cessation of the war with England (until its renewal
+in 1415), but also unfortunately by the outbreak of a desperate civil
+struggle between two great factions of the French people, the
+Burgundians and the Armagnacs. The Burgundians, led by Philip the Bold
+and John the Fearless (successive dukes of Burgundy), stood for a
+policy of friendship with England, while the Armagnacs, comprising the
+adherents of Charles, duke of Orleans, whose wife was a daughter of
+the count of Armagnac, advocated the continuation of the war with the
+English; though, in reality, the forces which kept the two factions
+apart were jealousy and ambition rather than any mere question of
+foreign relations. The way was prepared for a temporary Burgundian
+triumph by the notable victory of the English at Agincourt in 1415 and
+by the assassination of John the Fearless at Paris in 1419, which made
+peace impossible and drove the Burgundians openly into the arms of the
+English. Philip the Good, the new duke of Burgundy, became the avowed
+ally of the English king Henry V., who since 1417 had been slowly but
+surely conquering Normandy and now had the larger portion of it in his
+possession. Philip recognized Henry as the true heir to the French
+throne and in 1419 concluded with him two distinct treaties on that
+basis. Charles VI., the reigning king of France, was mentally
+unbalanced and the queen, who bitterly hated the Armagnacs (with whom
+her son, the Dauphin Charles, was actively identified), was easily
+persuaded by Duke Philip to acquiesce in a treaty by which the
+succession should be vested in the English king upon the death of
+Charles VI. The result was the treaty of Troyes, signed May 21, 1420.
+According to agreements already entered into by Philip and Henry, the
+latter was to marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. (the marriage
+was not mentioned in the treaty of Troyes, but it was clearly
+assumed), and he was to act as regent of France until Charles VI.'s
+death and then become king in his own name. Most of the thirty-one
+articles of the treaty were taken up with a definition of Henry's
+position and obligations as regent and prospective sovereign of
+France.
+
+In due time the marriage of Henry and Catherine took place and Henry
+assumed the regency, though the Armagnacs, led by the Dauphin, refused
+absolutely to accept the settlement. War broke out, in the course of
+which (in 1422) Henry V. died and was succeeded by his infant son,
+Henry VI. In the same year Charles VI. also died, which meant that the
+young Henry would become king of France. With such a prospect the
+future of the country looked dark. Nevertheless, the death of Charles
+VI. and of Henry V. came in reality as a double blessing. Henry V.
+might long have kept the French in subjection and his position as
+Charles VI.'s son-in-law gave him some real claim to rule in France.
+But with the field cleared, as it was in 1422, opportunity was given
+for the Dauphin Charles (Charles VII.) to retrieve the fallen fortunes
+of his country--a task which, with more or less energy and skill, he
+managed in the long run to accomplish.
+
+     Sources--(a) Text in Eugene Cosneau, _Les Grands Traites de la
+     Guerre de Cent Ans_ ["The Great Treaties of the Hundred Years'
+     War"], Paris, 1889, pp. 39-68 _passim_.
+
+     (b) Text in Cosneau, _ibid._ pp. 102-115 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Territories conceded to the English by the treaty
+     of Bretigny]
+
+   (a)
+
+   =1.= The king of England shall hold for himself and his heirs, for
+   all time to come, in addition to that which he holds in Guienne and
+   Gascony, all the possessions which are enumerated below, to be held
+   in the same manner that the king of France and his sons, or any of
+   their ancestors, have held them....[594]
+
+   =7.= And likewise the said king and his eldest son[595] shall give
+   order, by their letters patent to all archbishops and other
+   prelates of the holy Church, and also to counts, viscounts, barons,
+   nobles, citizens, and others of the cities, lands, countries,
+   islands, and places before mentioned, that they shall be obedient
+   to the king of England and to his heirs and at their ready command,
+   in the same manner in which they have been obedient to the kings
+   and to the crown of France. And by the same letters they shall
+   liberate and absolve them from all homage, pledges, oaths,
+   obligations, subjections, and promises made by any of them to the
+   kings and to the crown of France in any manner.
+
+   =13.= It is agreed that the king of France shall pay to the king of
+   England three million gold crowns, of which two are worth an obol
+   of English money.[596]
+
+     [Sidenote: Provision regarding alliances]
+
+   =30.= It is agreed that honest alliances, friendships, and
+   confederations shall be formed by the two kings of France and
+   England and their kingdoms, not repugnant to the honor or the
+   conscience of one king or the other. No alliances which they have,
+   on this side or that, with any person of Scotland or Flanders, or
+   any other country, shall be allowed to stand in the way.[597]
+
+     [Sidenote: The Treaty of Troyes fixes the succession upon Henry V]
+
+   (b)
+
+   =6.= After our death,[598] and from that time forward, the crown
+   and kingdom of France, with all their rights and appurtenances,
+   shall be vested permanently in our son [son-in-law], King Henry,
+   and his heirs.
+
+   =7.= ... The power and authority to govern and to control the
+   public affairs of the said kingdom shall, during our life-time, be
+   vested in our son, King Henry, with the advice of the nobles and
+   the wise men who are obedient to us, and who have consideration for
+   the advancement and honor of the said kingdom....
+
+     [Sidenote: Henry's title]
+
+   =22.= It is agreed that during our life-time we shall designate our
+   son, King Henry, in the French language in this fashion, _Notre
+   tres cher fils Henri, roi d'Angleterre, heritier de France_; and in
+   the Latin language in this manner, _Noster praecarissimus filius
+   Henricus, rex Angliae, heres Franciae_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Union of France and England to be through the crown
+   only]
+
+   =24.= ... [It is agreed] that the two kingdoms shall be governed
+   from the time that our said son, or any of his heirs, shall assume
+   the crown, not divided between different kings at the same time,
+   but under one person, who shall be king and sovereign lord of both
+   kingdoms, observing all pledges and all other things, to each
+   kingdom its rights, liberties or customs, usages and laws, not
+   submitting in any manner one kingdom to the other.[599]
+
+   =29.= In consideration of the frightful and astounding crimes and
+   misdeeds committed against the kingdom of France by Charles, the
+   said Dauphin, it is agreed that we, our son Henry, and also our
+   very dear son Philip, duke of Burgundy, will never treat for peace
+   or amity with the said Charles.[600]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[565] This is the title employed by Thomas Johnes in his translation
+of the work a hundred years ago. Froissart himself called his book, in
+the French of his day, _Chroniques de France, d'Engleterre, d'Escoce,
+de Bretaigne, d'Espaigne, d'Italie, de Flandres et d'Alemaigne_.
+
+[566] Philip IV., king of France, 1285-1314.
+
+[567] Isabella was the wife of Edward II., who reigned in England from
+1307 until his deposition in 1327.
+
+[568] Louis X. (the Quarrelsome) reigned 1314-1316; Philip V. (the
+Long), 1316-1322; and Charles IV. (the Fair), 1322-1328. Louis and
+Charles were very weak kings, though Philip was vigorous and able.
+
+[569] The French Court of Twelve Peers did not constitute a distinct
+organization, but was merely a high rank of baronage. In the earlier
+Middle Ages, the number of peers was generally twelve, including the
+most powerful lay vassals of the king and certain influential
+prelates. In later times the number was frequently increased by the
+creation of peers by the crown.
+
+[570] In 1317, after the accession of Philip IV., an assembly of
+French magnates (such as that which disposed of the crown in 1328)
+laid down the general rule that no woman should succeed to the throne
+of France. This rule has come to be known as the Salic Law of France,
+though it has no historical connection with the law of the Salian
+Franks against female inheritance of property, with which older
+writers have generally confused it [see p. 67, note 1]. The rule of
+1317 was based purely on grounds of political expediency. It was
+announced at this particular time because the death of Louis X. had
+left France without a male heir to the throne for the first time since
+Hugh Capet's day and the barons thought it not best for the realm that
+a woman reign over it. Between 1316 and 1328 daughters of kings were
+excluded from the succession three times, and though in 1328, when
+Charles IV. died, there had been no farther legislation on the
+subject, the principle of the misnamed Salic Law had become firmly
+established in practice. In 1328, however, when the barons selected
+Philip of Valois to be regent first and then king, they went a step
+farther and declared not only that no woman should be allowed to
+inherit the throne of France but that the inheritance could not pass
+through a woman to her son; in other words, she could not transmit to
+her descendants a right which she did not herself possess. This was
+intended to cover any future case such as that of Edward III.'s claim
+to inherit through his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. The
+action of the barons was supported by public opinion in practically
+all France--especially since it appeared that only through this
+expedient could the realm be saved from the domination of an alien
+sovereign.
+
+[571] Philip of Valois was a son of Charles of Valois, who was a
+brother of Philip IV. The line of direct Capetian descent was now
+replaced by the branch line of the Valois. The latter occupied the
+French throne until the death of Henry III. in 1589.
+
+[572] James van Arteveld, a brewer of Ghent, was the leader of the
+popular party in Flanders--the party which hated French influence,
+which had expelled the count of Flanders on account of his services to
+Philip VI., and which was the most valuable English ally on the
+continent. Arteveld was murdered in 1345 during the civil discord
+which prevailed in Flanders throughout the earlier part of the Hundred
+Years' War.
+
+[573] These were towns situated near the Franco-Flemish frontier. They
+had been lost by Flanders to France and assistance in their recovery
+was rightly considered by the German advisers of Edward as likely to
+be more tempting to the Flemish than any other offer he could make
+them.
+
+[574] That is, the papal court.
+
+[575] Robert of Artois was a prince who had not a little to do with
+the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War. After having lost a suit for
+the inheritance of the county of Artois (the region about the Somme
+River) and having been proved guilty of fabricating documents to
+support his claims, he had fled to England and there as an exile had
+employed every resource to influence Edward to claim the French throne
+and to go to war to secure it.
+
+[576] In northeastern Flanders.
+
+[577] That is, June 23. The English fleet was composed of two hundred
+and fifty vessels, carrying 11,000 archers and 4,000 men-at-arms.
+
+[578] Edward III.'s queen was Philippa, daughter of the count of
+Hainault.
+
+[579] In reality, until five o'clock in the evening, or about nine
+hours in all.
+
+[580] The tide of battle was finally turned in favor of the English by
+the arrival of reinforcements in the shape of a squadron of Flemish
+vessels. The contest was not so one-sided or the French defeat so
+complete as Froissart represents, yet it was decisive enough, as is
+indicated by the fact that only thirty of the French ships survived
+and 20,000 French and Genoese were slain or taken prisoners, as
+against an English loss of about 10,000.
+
+[581] June 24, 1340.
+
+[582] As appears from Froissart's account (see p. 431), the king, on
+the advice of some of his knights, decided at one time to postpone the
+attack until the following day; but, the army falling into hopeless
+confusion and coming up unintentionally within sight of the English,
+he recklessly gave the order to advance to immediate combat. Perhaps,
+however, it is only fair to place the blame upon the system which made
+the army so unmanageable, rather than upon the king personally.
+
+[583] That is, the plain east of the village of Crecy.
+
+[584] The king's eldest son, Edward, generally known as the Black
+Prince.
+
+[585] Abbeville was on the Somme about fifteen miles south of Crecy.
+
+[586] This incident very well illustrates the confusion and lack of
+discipline prevailing in a typical feudal army.
+
+[587] Edward, the Black Prince, eldest son of the English king.
+
+[588] The Emperor Henry VII., 1308-1314.
+
+[589] Sir Thomas Norwich.
+
+[590] Limoges, besieged by the duke of Berry and the great French
+general, Bertrand du Guesclin, had just been forced to surrender. It
+was a very important town and its capture was the occasion of much
+elation among the French. Treaties were entered into between the duke
+of Berry on the one hand and the bishop and citizens of Limoges on the
+other, whereby the inhabitants recognized the sovereignty of the
+French king. It was the news of this surrender that so angered the
+Black Prince.
+
+[591] A force of 3,200 men was led by the Black Prince from the town
+of Cognac to undertake the siege of Limoges. Froissart here enumerates
+a large number of notable knights who went with the expedition.
+
+[592] The Limousin was a district in south central France, southeast
+of Poitou.
+
+[593] Limoges was now in the hands of three commanders representing
+the French king. Their names were John de Villemur, Hugh de la Roche,
+and Roger de Beaufort.
+
+[594] Here follows a minute enumeration of the districts, towns, and
+castles conceded to the English. The most important were Poitou,
+Limousin, Rouergne, and Saintonge in the south, and Calais, Guines,
+and Ponthieu in the north.
+
+[595] That is, King John II. and the regent Charles.
+
+[596] The enormous ransom thus specified for King John was never paid.
+The three million gold crowns would have a purchasing power of perhaps
+forty or forty-five million dollars to-day. On the strength of the
+treaty provision John was immediately released from captivity. With
+curious disregard of the bad conditions prevailing in France as the
+result of foreign and civil war he began preparations for a crusade,
+which, however, he was soon forced to abandon. In 1364, attracted by
+the gayety of English life as contrasted with the wretchedness and
+gloom of his impoverished subjects, he went voluntarily to England,
+where he died before the festivities in honor of his coming were
+completed.
+
+[597] Throughout the Hundred Years' War the English had maintained
+close relations with the Flemish enemies of France, just as France, in
+defiance of English opposition, had kept up her traditional friendship
+with Scotland. The treaty of Bretigny provided for a mutual reshaping
+of foreign policy, to the end that these obstacles to peace might be
+removed.
+
+[598] That is, the death of King Charles VI.
+
+[599] France was not to be dealt with as conquered territory. This
+article comprises the only important provision in the treaty for
+safeguarding the interests of the French people.
+
+[600] Charles VI., Henry V., and Philip the Good bind themselves not
+to come to any sort of terms with the Dauphin, which compact reveals
+the irreconcilable attitude characteristic of the factional and
+dynastic struggles of the period. Chapter 6 of the treaty disinherits
+the Dauphin; chapter 29 proclaims him an enemy of France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
+
+
+The question as to when the Middle Ages came to an end cannot be
+answered with a specific date, or even with a particular century. The
+transition from the mediaeval world to the modern was gradual and was
+accomplished at a much earlier period in some lines than in others.
+Roughly speaking, the change fell within the two centuries and a half
+from 1300 to 1550. This transitional epoch is commonly designated the
+Age of the Renaissance, though if the term is taken in its most proper
+sense as denoting the flowering of an old into a new culture it
+scarcely does justice to the period, for political and religious
+developments in these centuries were not less fundamental than the
+revival and fresh stimulus of culture. But in the earlier portion of
+the period, particularly the fourteenth century, the intellectual
+awakening was the most obvious feature of the movement and, for the
+time being, the most important.
+
+The renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was not the
+first that Europe had known. There had been a notable revival of
+learning in the time of Charlemagne--the so-called Carolingian
+renaissance; another at the end of the tenth century, in the time of
+the Emperor Otto III. and Pope Sylvester II.; and a third in the
+twelfth century, with its center in northern France. The first two,
+however, had proved quite transitory, and even the third and most
+promising had dried up in the fruitless philosophy of the scholastics.
+
+Before there could be a vital and permanent intellectual revival it
+was indispensable that the mediaeval attitude of mind undergo a
+fundamental change. This attitude may be summed up in the one phrase,
+the absolute dominance of "authority"--the authority, primarily, of
+the Church, supplemented by the writings of a few ancients like
+Aristotle. The scholars of the earlier Middle Ages busied themselves,
+not with research and investigation whereby to increase knowledge, but
+rather with commenting on the Scriptures, the writings of the Church
+fathers, and Aristotle, and drawing conclusions and inferences by
+reasoning from these accepted authorities. There was no disposition to
+question what was found in the books, or to supplement it with fresh
+information. Only after about 1300 did human interests become
+sufficiently broadened to make men no longer altogether content with
+the mere process of threshing over the old straw. Gradually there
+began to appear scholars who suggested the idea, novel for the day,
+that the books did not contain all that was worth knowing, and also
+that perchance some things that had long gone unquestioned just
+because they were in the books were not true after all. In other
+words, they proposed to investigate things for themselves and to apply
+the tests of observation and impartial reason.
+
+The most influential factor in producing this change of attitude was
+the revival of classical literature and learning. The Latin classics,
+and even some of the Greek, had not been unknown in the earlier Middle
+Ages, but they had not been read widely, and when read at all they had
+been valued principally as models of rhetoric rather than as a living
+literature to be enjoyed for the ideas that were contained in it and
+the forms in which they were expressed. These ideas were, of course,
+generally pagan, and that in itself was enough to cause the Church to
+look askance at the use of classical writings, except for grammatical
+or antiquarian purposes. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
+however, due to a variety of causes, the reading of the classics
+became commoner than since Roman days, and men, bringing to them more
+open minds, were profoundly attracted by the fresh, original, human
+ideas of life and the world with which Vergil and Horace and Cicero,
+for example, overflowed. It was all a new discovery of the world and
+of man, and from the _humanitas_ which the scholars found set forth as
+the classical conception of culture they themselves took the name of
+"humanists," while the subjects of their studies came to be known as
+the _litterae humaniores_. This first great phase of the
+Renaissance--the birth of humanism--found its finest expression in
+Dante and Petrarch, and it cannot be studied with better effect than
+in certain of the writings of these two men.
+
+
+79. Dante's Defense of Italian as a Literary Language
+
+Dante Alighieri was born at Florence in 1265. Of his early life little
+is known. His family seems to have been too obscure to have much part
+in the civil struggles with which Florence, and all Italy, in that day
+were vexed. The love affair with Beatrice, whose story Boccaccio
+relates with so much zest, is the one sharply-defined feature of
+Dante's youth and early manhood. It is known that at the age of
+eighteen the young Florentine was a poet and was winning wide
+recognition for his sonnets. Much time was devoted by him to study of
+literature and the arts, but the details of his employments,
+intellectual and otherwise, are impossible to make out. In 1290
+occurred the death of Beatrice, which event marked an epoch in the
+poetical lover's life. In his sorrow he took refuge in the study of
+such books as Boethius's _Consolations of Philosophy_ and Cicero's
+_Friendship_, and became deeply interested in literary, and especially
+philosophical, problems. In 1295 he entered political life, taking
+from the outset a prominent part in the deliberations of the
+Florentine General Council and the Council of Consuls of the Arts. He
+assumed a firm attitude against all forms of lawlessness and in
+resistance to any external interference in Florentine affairs. Owing
+to conditions which he could not influence, however, his career in
+this direction was soon cut short and most of the remainder of his
+life was spent as a political exile, at Lucca, Verona, Ravenna, and
+other Italian cities, with a possible visit to Paris. He died at
+Ravenna, September 14, 1321, in his fifty-seventh year.
+
+Dante has well been called "the Janus-faced," because he stood at the
+threshold of the new era and looked both forward and backward. His
+_Divine Comedy_ admirably sums up the mediaeval spirit, and yet it
+contains many suggestions of the coming age. His method was
+essentially that of the scholastics, but he knew many of the classics
+and had a genuine respect for them as literature. He was a mediaevalist
+in his attachment to the Holy Roman Empire, yet he cherished the
+purely modern ambition of a united Italy. It is deeply significant
+that he chose to write his great poem--one of the most splendid in the
+world's literature--in the Italian tongue rather than the Latin. Aside
+from the fact that this, more than anything else, caused the Tuscan
+dialect, rather than the rival Venetian and Neapolitan dialects, to
+become the modern Italian, it evidenced the new desire for the
+popularization of literature which was a marked characteristic of the
+dawning era. Not content with putting his greatest effort in the
+vernacular, Dante undertook formally to defend the use of the popular
+tongue for literary purposes. This he did in _Il Convito_ ("The
+Banquet"), a work whose date is quite uncertain, but which was
+undoubtedly produced at some time while its author was in exile. It is
+essentially a prose commentary upon three _canzoni_ written for the
+honor and glory of the "noble, beautiful, and most compassionate lady,
+Philosophy." In it Dante sought to set philosophy free from the
+schools and from the heavy disputations of the scholars and to render
+her beauty visible even to the unlearned. It was the first important
+work on philosophy written in the Italian tongue, an innovation which
+the author rightly regarded as calling for some explanation and
+defense. The passage quoted from it below comprises this defense.
+Similar views on the nobility of the vulgar language, as compared with
+the Latin, were later set forth in fuller form in the treatise _De
+Vulgari Eloquentia_.
+
+     Source--Dante Alighieri, _Il Convito_ ["The Banquet"], Bk. I.,
+     Chaps. 5-13 _passim_. Translated by Katharine Hillard (London,
+     1889), pp. 17-47 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Reasons for using the Italian]
+
+   V. =1.= This bread being cleansed of its accidental
+   impurities,[601] we have now but to free it from one [inherent] in
+   its substance, that is, its being in the vulgar tongue, and not in
+   Latin; so that we might metaphorically call it made of oats instead
+   of wheat. And this [fault] may be briefly excused by three reasons,
+   which moved me to prefer the former rather than the latter
+   [language]. The first arises from care to avoid an unfit order of
+   things; the second, from a consummate liberality; the third, from a
+   natural love of one's own tongue. And I intend here in this manner
+   to discuss, in due order, these things and their causes, that I
+   may free myself from the reproach above named.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Latin fixed, the Italian changeable]
+
+   =3.= For, in the first place, had it [the commentary] been in
+   Latin, it would have been sovereign rather than subject, by its
+   nobility, its virtue, and its beauty. By its nobility, because
+   Latin is enduring and incorruptible, and the vulgar tongue is
+   unstable and corruptible. For we see that the ancient books of
+   Latin tragedy and comedy cannot be changed from the form we have
+   to-day, which is not the case with the vulgar tongue, as that can
+   be changed at will. For we see in the cities of Italy, if we take
+   notice of the past fifty years, how many words have been lost, or
+   invented, or altered; therefore, if a short time can work such
+   changes, how much more can a longer period effect! So that I think,
+   should they who departed this life a thousand years ago return to
+   their cities, they would believe them to be occupied by a foreign
+   people, so different would the language be from theirs. Of this I
+   shall speak elsewhere more fully, in a book which I intend to
+   write, God willing, on _Vulgar Eloquence_.[602]
+
+     [Sidenote: Translations cannot preserve the literary splendor of
+   the originals]
+
+   VII. =4.= ... The Latin could only have explained them [the
+   _canzoni_] to scholars; for the rest would not have understood it.
+   Therefore, as among those who desire to understand them there are
+   many more illiterate than learned, it follows that the Latin would
+   not have fulfilled this behest as well as the vulgar tongue, which
+   is understood both by the learned and the unlearned. Also the Latin
+   would have explained them to people of other nations, such as
+   Germans, English, and others; in doing which it would have exceeded
+   their order.[603] For it would have been against their will I say,
+   speaking generally, to have explained their meaning where their
+   beauty could not go with it. And, moreover, let all observe that
+   nothing harmonized by the laws of the Muses[604] can be changed
+   from its own tongue to another one without destroying all its
+   sweetness and harmony. And this is the reason why Homer is not
+   turned from Greek into Latin like the other writings we have of
+   theirs [the Greeks];[605] and this is why the verses of the
+   Psalter[606] lack musical sweetness and harmony; for they have been
+   translated from Hebrew to Greek, and from Greek to Latin, and in
+   the first translation all this sweetness perished.
+
+   IX. =1.= ... The Latin would not have served many; because, if we
+   recall to mind what has already been said, scholars in other
+   languages than the Italian could not have availed themselves of its
+   service.[607] And of those of this speech (if we should care to
+   observe who they are) we shall find that only to one in a thousand
+   could it really have been of use; because they would not have
+   received it, so prone are they to base desires, and thus deprived
+   of that nobility of soul which above all desires this food. And to
+   their shame I say that they are not worthy to be called scholars,
+   because they do not pursue learning for its own sake, but for the
+   money or the honors that they gain thereby; just as we should not
+   call him a lute-player who kept a lute in the house to hire out,
+   and not to play upon.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Italian of more solid excellence than other tongues]
+
+   X. =5.= Again, I am impelled to defend it [the vulgar tongue] from
+   many of its accusers, who disparage it and commend others, above
+   all the language of _Oco_,[608] saying that the latter is better
+   and more beautiful than the former, wherein they depart from the
+   truth. Wherefore by this commentary shall be seen the great
+   excellence of the vulgar tongue of _Si_,[609] because (although the
+   highest and most novel conceptions can be almost as fittingly,
+   adequately, and beautifully expressed in it as in the Latin) its
+   excellence in rhymed pieces, on account of the accidental
+   adornments connected with them, such as rhyme and rhythm, or
+   ordered numbers, cannot be perfectly shown; as it is with the
+   beauty of a woman, when the splendor of her jewels and her garments
+   draw more admiration than her person.[610] Wherefore he who would
+   judge a woman truly looks at her when, unaccompanied by any
+   accidental adornment, her natural beauty alone remains to her; so
+   shall it be with this commentary, wherein shall be seen the
+   facility of its language, the propriety of its diction, and the
+   sweet discourse it shall hold; which he who considers well shall
+   see to be full of the sweetest and most exquisite beauty. But
+   because it is most virtuous in its design to show the futility and
+   malice of its accuser, I shall tell, for the confounding of those
+   who attack the Italian language, the purpose which moves them to do
+   this; and upon this I shall now write a special chapter, that their
+   infamy may be the more notorious.
+
+     [Sidenote: Why people of Italy affect to despise their native
+   tongue]
+
+   XI. =1.= To the perpetual shame and abasement of those wicked men
+   of Italy who praise the language of others and disparage their own,
+   I would say that their motive springs from five abominable causes.
+   The first is intellectual blindness; the second, vicious excuses;
+   the third, greed of vain-glory; the fourth, an argument based on
+   envy; the fifth and last, littleness of soul, that is,
+   pusillanimity. And each of these vices has so large a following,
+   that few are they who are free from them....
+
+     [Sidenote: The unskilful attribute their faults to the language]
+
+   =3.= The second kind work against our language by vicious excuses.
+   These are they who would rather be considered masters than be such;
+   and, to avoid the reverse (that is, not to be considered masters),
+   they always lay the blame upon the materials prepared for their
+   art, or upon their tools; as the bad smith blames the iron given
+   him, and the bad lute-player blames the lute, thinking thus to lay
+   the fault of the bad knife or the bad playing upon the iron or the
+   lute, and to excuse themselves. Such are they (and they are not
+   few) who wish to be considered orators; and in order to excuse
+   themselves for not speaking, or for speaking badly, blame and
+   accuse their material, that is, their own language, and praise that
+   of others in which they are not required to work. And whoever
+   wishes to see wherein this tool [the vulgar tongue] deserves blame,
+   let him look at the work that good workmen have done with it, and
+   he will recognize the viciousness of those who, laying the blame
+   upon it, think they excuse themselves. Against such does Tullius
+   exclaim, in the beginning of one of his books called _De
+   Finibus_,[611] because in his time they blamed the Latin language
+   and commended the Greek, for the same reasons that these people
+   consider the Italian vile and the Provencal precious.
+
+     [Sidenote: People should use their own language, as being most
+   natural to them]
+
+   XII. =3.= That thing is nearest to a person which is, of all things
+   of its kind, the most closely related to himself; thus of all men
+   the son is nearest to the father, and of all arts medicine is
+   nearest to the doctor, and music to the musician, because these are
+   more closely related to them than any others; of all countries, the
+   one a man lives in is nearest to him, because it is most closely
+   related to him. And thus a man's own language is nearest to him,
+   because most closely related, being that one which comes alone and
+   before all others in his mind, and not only of itself is it thus
+   related, but by accident, inasmuch as it is connected with those
+   nearest to him, such as his kinsmen, and his fellow-citizens, and
+   his own people. And this is his own language, which is not only
+   near, but the very nearest, to every one. Because if proximity be
+   the seed of friendship, as has been stated above, it is plain that
+   it has been one of the causes of the love I bear my own language,
+   which is nearer to me than the others. The above-named reason (that
+   is, that we are most nearly related to that which is first in our
+   mind) gave rise to that custom of the people which makes the
+   firstborn inherit everything, as the nearest of kin; and, because
+   the nearest, therefore the most beloved.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Italian fulfils the highest requirement of a
+   language]
+
+   =4.= And again, its goodness makes me its friend. And here we must
+   know that every good quality properly belonging to a thing is
+   lovable in that thing; as men should have a fine beard, and women
+   should have the whole face quite free from hair; as the foxhound
+   should have a keen scent, and the greyhound great speed. And the
+   more peculiar this good quality, the more lovable it is, whence,
+   although all virtue is lovable in man, that is most so which is
+   most peculiarly human.... And we see that, of all things pertaining
+   to language, the power of adequately expressing thought is the most
+   loved and commended; therefore this is its peculiar virtue. And as
+   this belongs to our own language, as has been proved above in
+   another chapter, it is plain that this was one of the causes of my
+   love for it; since, as we have said, goodness is one of the causes
+   that engender love.
+
+
+80. Dante's Conception of the Imperial Power
+
+The best known prose work of Dante, the _De Monarchia_, is perhaps the
+most purely idealistic political treatise ever written. Its quality of
+idealism is so pronounced, in fact, that there is not even sufficient
+mention of contemporary men or events to assist in solving the wholly
+unsettled problem of the date of its composition. The _De Monarchia_
+is composed of three books, each of which is devoted to a fundamental
+question in relation to the balance of temporal and spiritual
+authority. The first question is whether the temporal monarchy is
+necessary for the well-being of the world. The answer is, that it is
+necessary for the preservation of justice, freedom, and unity and
+effectiveness of human effort. The second question is whether the
+Roman people took to itself this dignity of monarchy, or empire, by
+right. By a survey of Roman history from the days of Aeneas to those of
+Caesar it is made to appear that it was God's will that the Romans
+should rule the world. The third question is the most vital of all and
+its answer constitutes the pith of the treatise. In brief it is, does
+the authority of the Roman monarch, or emperor, who is thus by right
+the monarch of the world, depend immediately upon God, or upon some
+vicar of God, the successor of Peter? This question Dante answers
+first negatively by clearing away the familiar defenses of spiritual
+supremacy, and afterwards positively, by bringing forward specific
+arguments for the temporal superiority. The selection given below
+comprises the most suggestive portions of Dante's treatment of this
+aspect of his subject. The method, it will be observed, is quite
+thoroughly scholastic. Whenever the _De Monarchia_ was composed, it
+remained all but unknown until after the author's death (1321); but
+with the renewal of conflict between papacy and imperial power the
+imperialists were not slow to make use of the treatise, and by the
+middle of the fourteenth century it had become known throughout
+Europe, being admired by one party as much as it was abhorred by the
+other. At various times copies of it were burned as heretical and in
+the sixteenth century it was placed by the Roman authorities upon the
+Index of Prohibited Books. Few literary productions of the later
+Middle Ages exercised greater influence upon contemporary thought and
+politics.
+
+     Source--Dante Alighieri, _De Monarchia_ ["Concerning
+     Monarchy"], Bk. III., Chaps. 1-16 _passim_. Translated by
+     Aurelia Henry (Boston, 1904), pp. 137-206 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: The problem to be considered]
+
+   I. =2.= The question pending investigation, then, concerns two
+   great luminaries, the Roman Pontiff [Pope] and the Roman Prince
+   [Emperor]; and the point at issue is whether the authority of the
+   Roman monarch, who, as proved in the second book, is rightful
+   monarch of the world, is derived from God directly, or from some
+   vicar or minister of God, by whom I mean the successor of Peter,
+   indisputable keeper of the keys of the kingdom of heaven.
+
+   IV. =1.= Those men to whom the entire subsequent discussion is
+   directed assert that the authority of the Empire depends on the
+   authority of the Church, just as the inferior artisan depends on
+   the architect. They are drawn to this by divers opposing arguments,
+   some of which they take from Holy Scripture, and some from certain
+   acts performed by the chief pontiff, and by the Emperor himself;
+   and they endeavor to make their conviction reasonable.
+
+     [Sidenote: The analogy of the sun and moon]
+
+   =2.= For, first, they maintain that, according to Genesis, God made
+   two mighty luminaries, a greater and a lesser, the former to hold
+   supremacy by day and the latter by night [Gen., i. 15, 16]. These
+   they interpret allegorically to be the two rulers--spiritual and
+   temporal.[612] Whence they argue that as the lesser luminary, the
+   moon, has no light but that gained from the sun, so the temporal
+   ruler has no authority but that gained from the spiritual ruler.
+
+   =8.= I proceed to refute the above assumption that the two
+   luminaries of the world typify its two ruling powers. The whole
+   force of their argument lies in the interpretation; but this we can
+   prove indefensible in two ways. First, since these ruling powers
+   are, as it were, accidents necessitated by man himself, God would
+   seem to have used a distorted order in creating first accidents,
+   and then the subject necessitating them. It is absurd to speak thus
+   of God, but it is evident from the Word that the two lights were
+   created on the fourth day, and man on the sixth.
+
+     [Sidenote: An abstruse bit of mediaeval reasoning]
+
+   =9.= Secondly, the two ruling powers exist as the directors of men
+   toward certain ends, as will be shown further on. But had man
+   remained in the state of innocence in which God made him, he would
+   have required no such direction. These ruling powers are therefore
+   remedies against the infirmity of sin. Since on the fourth day man
+   was not only not a sinner, but was not even existent, the creation
+   of a remedy would have been purposeless, which is contrary to
+   divine goodness. Foolish indeed would be the physician who should
+   make ready a plaster for the abscess of a man not yet born.
+   Therefore it cannot be asserted that God made the two ruling powers
+   on the fourth day; and consequently the meaning of Moses cannot
+   have been what it is supposed to be.
+
+   =10.= Also, in order to be tolerant, we may refute this fallacy by
+   distinction. Refutation by distinction deals more gently with an
+   adversary, for it shows him to be not absolutely wrong, as does
+   refutation by destruction. I say, then, that although the moon may
+   have abundant light only as she receives it from the sun, it does
+   not follow on that account that the moon herself owes her existence
+   to the sun. It must be recognized that the essence of the moon, her
+   strength, and her function, are not one and the same thing. Neither
+   in her essence, her strength, nor her function taken absolutely,
+   does the moon owe her existence to the sun, for her movement is
+   impelled by her own force and her influence by her own rays.
+   Besides, she has a certain light of her own, as is shown in
+   eclipse. It is in order to fulfill her function better and more
+   potently that she borrows from the sun abundance of light, and
+   works thereby more effectively.
+
+     [Sidenote: Why the argument from the sun and moon fails]
+
+   =11.= In like manner, I say, the temporal power receives from the
+   spiritual neither its existence, nor its strength, which is its
+   authority, nor even its function, taken absolutely. But well for
+   her does she receive therefrom, through the light of grace which
+   the benediction of the chief pontiff sheds upon it in heaven and on
+   earth, strength to fulfill her function more perfectly. So the
+   argument was at fault in form, because the predicate of the
+   conclusion is not a term of the major premise, as is evident. The
+   syllogism runs thus: The moon receives light from the sun, which
+   is the spiritual power; the temporal ruling power is the moon;
+   therefore the temporal receives authority from the spiritual. They
+   introduce "light" as the term of the major, but "authority" as
+   predicate of the conclusion, which two things we have seen to be
+   diverse in subject and significance.
+
+     [Sidenote: Argument from the prerogative of the keys committed to
+   Peter]
+
+   VIII. =1.= From the same gospel they quote the saying of Christ to
+   Peter, "Whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in
+   heaven" [Matt., xvi. 19], and understand this saying to refer alike
+   to all the Apostles, according to the text of Matthew and John
+   [Matt., xviii. 18 and John, xx. 23]. They reason from this that the
+   successor of Peter has been granted of God power to bind and loose
+   all things, and then infer that he has power to loose the laws and
+   decrees of the Empire, and to bind the laws and decrees of the
+   temporal kingdom. Were this true, their inference would be correct.
+
+   =2.= But we must reply to it by making a distinction against the
+   major premise of the syllogism which they employ. Their syllogism
+   is this: Peter had power to bind and loose all things; the
+   successor of Peter has like power with him; therefore the successor
+   of Peter has power to loose and bind all things. From this they
+   infer that he has power to loose and bind the laws and decrees of
+   the Empire.
+
+   =3.= I concede the minor premise, but the major only with
+   distinction. Wherefore I say that "all," the symbol of the
+   universal which is implied in "whatsoever," is never distributed
+   beyond the scope of the distributed term. When I say, "All animals
+   run," the distribution of "all" comprehends whatever comes under
+   the genus "animal." But when I say, "All men run," the symbol of
+   the universal refers only to whatever comes under the term "man."
+   And when I say, "All grammarians run," the distribution is narrowed
+   still further.
+
+   =4.= Therefore we must always determine what it is over which the
+   symbol of the universal is distributed; then, from the recognized
+   nature and scope of the distributed term, will be easily apparent
+   the extent of the distribution. Now, were "whatsoever" to be
+   understood absolutely when it is said, "Whatsoever thou shalt
+   bind," he would certainly have the power they claim; nay, he would
+   have even greater power--he would be able to loose a wife from her
+   husband, and, while the man still lived, bind her to another--a
+   thing he can in nowise do. He would be able to absolve me, while
+   impenitent--a thing which God Himself cannot do.
+
+     [Sidenote: Dante's interpretation of the Scripture in question]
+
+   =5.= So it is evident that the distribution of the term under
+   discussion is to be taken, not absolutely, but relatively to
+   something else. A consideration of the concession to which the
+   distribution is subjoined will make manifest this related
+   something. Christ said to Peter, "I will give unto thee the keys of
+   the kingdom of heaven;" that is, I will make thee doorkeeper of the
+   kingdom of heaven. Then He adds, "and whatsoever," that is,
+   "everything which," and He means thereby, "Everything which
+   pertains to that office thou shalt have power to bind and loose."
+   And thus the symbol of the universal which is implied in
+   "whatsoever" is limited in its distribution to the prerogative of
+   the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Understood thus, the proposition
+   is true, but understood absolutely, it is obviously not. Therefore
+   I conclude that, although the successor of Peter has authority to
+   bind and loose in accordance with the requirements of the
+   prerogative granted to Peter, it does not follow, as they claim,
+   that he has authority to bind and loose the decrees or statutes of
+   empire, unless they prove that this also belongs to the office of
+   the keys. But further on we shall demonstrate that the contrary is
+   true.
+
+   XIII. =1.= Now that we have stated and rejected the errors on which
+   those chiefly rely who declare that the authority of the Roman
+   Prince is dependent on the Roman Pontiff,[613] we must return and
+   demonstrate the truth of that question which we propounded for
+   discussion at the beginning. The truth will be evident enough if it
+   can be shown, under the principle of inquiry agreed upon, that
+   imperial authority derives immediately from the summit of all
+   being, which is God. And this will be shown, whether we prove that
+   imperial authority does not derive from that of the Church (for the
+   dispute concerns no other authority), or whether we prove simply
+   that it derives immediately from God.
+
+     [Sidenote: The Church (or papacy) is not the source of imperial
+   authority]
+
+   =2.= That ecclesiastical authority is not the source of imperial
+   authority is thus verified. A thing non-existent, or devoid of
+   active force, cannot be the cause of active force in a thing
+   possessing that quality in full measure. But before the Church
+   existed, or while it lacked power to act, the Empire had active
+   force in full measure. Hence the Church is the source, neither of
+   acting power nor of authority in the Empire, where power to act and
+   authority are identical. Let A be the Church, B the Empire, and C
+   the power or authority of the Empire. If, A being non-existent, C
+   is in B, the cause of C's relation to B cannot be A, since it is
+   impossible that an effect should exist prior to its cause.
+   Moreover, if, A being inoperative, C is in B, the cause of C's
+   relation to B cannot be A, since it is indispensable for the
+   production of effect that the cause should be in operation
+   previously, especially the efficient cause which we are considering
+   here.
+
+     [Sidenote: Early Christian recognition of the authority of the
+   Emperor]
+
+   =3.= The major premise of this demonstration is intelligible from
+   its terms; the minor is confirmed by Christ and the Church. Christ
+   attests it, as we said before, in His birth and death. The Church
+   attests it in Paul's declaration to Festus in the Acts of the
+   Apostles: "I stand at Caesar's judgment seat, where I ought to be
+   judged" [Acts, xxv. 10]; and in the admonition of God's angel to
+   Paul a little later: "Fear not, Paul; thou must be brought before
+   Caesar" [Acts, xxvii. 24]; and again, still later, in Paul's words
+   to the Jews dwelling in Italy: "And when the Jews spake against it,
+   I was constrained to appeal unto Caesar; not that I had aught to
+   accuse my nation of," but "that I might deliver my soul from death"
+   [Acts, xxviii. 19]. If Caesar had not already possessed the right to
+   judge temporal matters, Christ would not have implied that he did,
+   the angel would not have uttered such words, nor would he who said,
+   "I desire to depart and be with Christ" [Phil., i. 23], have
+   appealed to an unqualified judge.
+
+   XIV. =1.= Besides, if the Church has power to confer authority on
+   the Roman Prince, she would have it either from God, or from
+   herself, or from some Emperor, or from the unanimous consent of
+   mankind, or, at least, from the consent of the most influential.
+   There is no other least crevice through which the power could have
+   diffused itself into the Church. But from none of these has it come
+   to her, and therefore the aforesaid power is not hers at all.
+
+   XVI. =1.= Although by the method of reduction to absurdity it has
+   been shown in the foregoing chapter that the authority of empire
+   has not its source in the Chief Pontiff, yet it has not been fully
+   proved, save by an inference, that its immediate source is God,
+   seeing that if the authority does not depend on the vicar of God,
+   we conclude that it depends on God Himself. For a perfect
+   demonstration of the proposition we must prove directly that the
+   Emperor, or Monarch, of the world has immediate relationship to the
+   Prince of the universe, who is God.
+
+     [Sidenote: Positive argument that the authority of the emperor is
+   derived directly from God]
+
+   =2.= In order to realize this, it must be understood that man alone
+   of all beings holds the middle place between corruptibility and
+   incorruptibility, and is therefore rightly compared by
+   philosophers to the horizon which lies between the two
+   hemispheres. Man may be considered with regard to either of his
+   essential parts, body or soul. If considered in regard to the body
+   alone, he is perishable; if in regard to the soul alone, he is
+   imperishable. So the Philosopher[614] spoke well of its
+   incorruptibility when he said in the second book, _On the Soul_,
+   "And this only can be separated as a thing eternal from that which
+   perishes."
+
+   =3.= If man holds a middle place between the perishable and the
+   imperishable, then, inasmuch as every man shares the nature of the
+   extremes, man must share both natures. And inasmuch as every nature
+   is ordained for a certain ultimate end, it follows that there
+   exists for man a two-fold end, in order that as he alone of all
+   beings partakes of the perishable and the imperishable, so he alone
+   of all beings should be ordained for two ultimate ends. One end is
+   for that in him which is perishable, the other for that which is
+   imperishable.
+
+     [Sidenote: Double aspect of human life]
+
+   =4.= Omniscient Providence has thus designed two ends to be
+   contemplated by man: first, the happiness of this life, which
+   consists in the activity of his natural powers, and is prefigured
+   by the terrestrial Paradise; and then the blessedness of life
+   everlasting, which consists in the enjoyment of the countenance of
+   God, to which man's natural powers may not obtain unless aided by
+   divine light, and which may be symbolized by the celestial
+   Paradise.[615]
+
+   =5.= To these states of blessedness, just as to diverse
+   conclusions, man must come by diverse means. To the former we come
+   by the teachings of philosophy, obeying them by acting in
+   conformity with the moral and intellectual virtues; to the latter,
+   through spiritual teachings which transcend human reason, and which
+   we obey by acting in conformity with the theological virtues,
+   faith, hope, and charity. Now the former end and means are made
+   known to us by human reason, which the philosophers have wholly
+   explained to us; and the latter by the Holy Spirit, which has
+   revealed to us supernatural but essential truth through the
+   prophets and sacred writers, through Jesus Christ, the coeternal
+   Son of God, and through His disciples. Nevertheless, human passion
+   would cast these behind, were not man, like horses astray in their
+   brutishness, held to the road by bit and rein.
+
+   =6.= Wherefore a twofold directive agent was necessary to man, in
+   accordance with the twofold end; the Supreme Pontiff to lead the
+   human race to life eternal by means of revelation, and the Emperor
+   to guide it to temporal well-being by means of philosophic
+   instruction. And since none or few--and these with exceeding
+   difficulty--could attain this port, were not the waves of seductive
+   desire calmed, and mankind made free to rest in the tranquillity of
+   peace, therefore this is the goal which he whom we call the
+   guardian of the earth and Roman Prince should most urgently seek;
+   then would it be possible for life on this mortal threshing-floor
+   to pass in freedom and peace. The order of the world follows the
+   order inherent in the revolution of the heavens. To attain this
+   order it is necessary that instruction productive of liberality and
+   peace should be applied by the guardian of the realm, in due place
+   and time, as dispensed by Him who is the ever-present Watcher of
+   the whole order of the heavens. And He alone foreordained this
+   order, that by it, in His providence, He might link together all
+   things, each in its own place.
+
+     [Sidenote: The proper functions of Pope and Emperor]
+
+   =7.= If this is so, and there is none higher than He, only God
+   elects and only God confirms. Whence we may further conclude that
+   neither those who are now, nor those who in any way whatsoever have
+   been, called electors[616] have the right to be so called; rather
+   should they be entitled heralds of Divine Providence. Whence it is
+   that those in whom is vested the dignity of proclamation suffer
+   dissension among themselves at times, when, all or part of them
+   being shadowed by the clouds of passion, they discern not the face
+   of God's dispensation.
+
+   =8.= It is established, then, that the authority of temporal
+   monarchy descends without mediation from the fountain of universal
+   authority. And this fountain, one in its purity of source, flows
+   into multifarious channels out of the abundance of its excellence.
+
+     [Sidenote: The ideal relation of the two powers]
+
+   =9.= I believe I have now approached sufficiently close to the goal
+   I had set myself, for I have taken the kernels of truth from the
+   husks of falsehood, in that question which asked whether the office
+   of monarchy was essential to the welfare of the world, and in the
+   next which made inquiry whether the Roman people rightfully
+   appropriated the empire, and in the last which sought whether the
+   authority of the monarch derived from God directly, or from some
+   other. But the truth of this final question must not be restricted
+   to mean that the Roman Prince shall not be subject in some degree
+   to the Roman Pontiff, for well-being that is mortal is ordered in a
+   measure after well-being that is immortal. Wherefore let Caesar
+   honor Peter as a first-born son should honor his father, so that,
+   brilliant with the light of paternal grace, he may illumine with
+   greater radiance the earthly sphere over which he has been set by
+   Him who alone is Ruler of all things spiritual and temporal.[617]
+
+
+81. Petrarch's Love of the Classics
+
+Francesco Petrarca was born at Arezzo in northern Italy in July, 1304.
+His father was a Florentine notary who had been banished by the same
+decree with Dante in 1302, and who finally settled at Avignon in 1313
+to practice his profession in the neighborhood of the papal court.
+Petrarch was destined by his father for the law and was sent to study
+that subject at Montpellier and subsequently at Bologna. But from the
+moment when he first got hold of the Latin classics, notably Cicero
+and Vergil, he found his interest in legal subjects absolutely at an
+end. He was charmed by the literary power of the ancients, as he
+certainly was not by the logic and learning of the jurists, and though
+his father endeavored to discourage what he regarded as a sheer waste
+of time by burning the young enthusiast's precious Latin books, the
+love of the classics, once aroused, was never crushed out and the
+literary instinct remained dominant. The beginnings of the Renaissance
+spirit, which are so discernible in Dante, become in Petrarch the full
+expression of the new age. In the words of Professor Adams, "In him we
+clearly find, as controlling personal traits, all those specific
+features of the Renaissance which give it its distinguishing character
+as an intellectual revolution, and from their strong beginning in him
+they have never ceased among men. In the first place, he felt as no
+other man had done since the ancient days the beauty of nature and the
+pleasure of mere life, its sufficiency for itself; and he had also a
+sense of ability and power, and a self-confidence which led him to
+plan great things, and to hope for an immortality of fame in this
+world. In the second place, he had a most keen sense of the unity of
+past history, of the living bond of connection between himself and men
+of like sort in the ancient world. That world was for him no dead
+antiquity, but he lived and felt in it and with its poets and
+thinkers, as if they were his neighbors. His love for it amounted
+almost, if we may call it so, to an ecstatic enthusiasm, hardly
+understood by his own time, but it kindled in many others a similar
+feeling which has come down to us. The result is easily recognized in
+him as a genuine culture, the first of modern men in whom this can be
+found.... Finally, Petrarch first put the modern spirit into conscious
+opposition to the mediaeval. The Renaissance meant rebellion and
+revolution. It meant a long and bitter struggle against the whole
+scholastic system, and all the follies and superstitions which
+flourished under its protection. Petrarch opened the attack along the
+whole line. Physicians, lawyers, astrologers, scholastic philosophers,
+the universities--all were enemies of the new learning, and so his
+enemies. And these attacks were not in set and formal polemics alone,
+his letters and almost all his writings were filled with them. It was
+the business of his life."[618]
+
+In the latter part of his life Petrarch enjoyed the highest renown
+throughout Europe. The cities of Italy, especially, vied with one
+another in showering honors upon him. A decree of the Venetian senate
+affirmed that no Christian poet or philosopher could be compared with
+him. Arezzo, the town of his birth, awarded him a triumphal
+procession. Florence bought the estates once confiscated from his
+father and begged him to accept them as a meager gift to one "who for
+centuries had no equal and could scarcely find one in the ages to
+come." The climax came in 1341 when both the University of Paris and
+the Roman Senate invited him to present himself and receive the poet's
+crown, in revival of an old and all but forgotten ceremony of special
+honor. The invitation from Rome was accepted and the celebration
+attending the coronation was one of the most splendid of the age. In
+1350 Petrarch became acquainted with Boccaccio and thenceforth there
+existed the warmest friendship between these two great exponents of
+Renaissance ideals and achievement. In 1369 he retired to Arqua, near
+Padua, where he died in 1374.
+
+Besides his poems Petrarch wrote a great number of letters, some in
+Latin and some in Italian. Letter-writing was indeed a veritable
+passion with him; and he not only wrote freely but was careful to
+preserve copies of what he wrote. His prose correspondence has been
+classified in four divisions. The largest one comprises three hundred
+forty-seven letters, written between the years 1332 and 1362, and
+given the general title of _De Rebus Familiaribus_, because in them
+only topics presumably of everyday interest were discussed and without
+particular attention to style. The second group, the so-called
+_Epistolae Variae_, numbers about seventy. The third, the _Epistolae de
+Rebus Senilibus_ ("Letters of Old Age"), includes one hundred
+twenty-four letters written during the last twelve years of the poet's
+life. The fourth, comprising about twenty letters, was made up of
+epistles containing such sharp criticism of the papal regime at
+Avignon that the author thought it best to suppress the names of those
+to whom they were addressed. Their general designation, therefore, is
+_Epistolae sine Titulo_. The following passages are taken from a letter
+found in the _Epistolae Variae_. It was written to a literary friend,
+August 18, 1360, while Petrarch was at Milan, uncertain whither the
+political storms of the period would finally drive him. In the portion
+which precedes that given below the writer has been commenting on
+various invitations which had reached him from friends in Padua,
+Florence, and even beyond the Alps. This gives him occasion to lament
+the unsettled conditions of his times and to voice the longing of the
+scholar for peace and quiet. Thence he proceeds to speak of matters
+which reveal in an interesting way his passionate love for the
+beauties of classical literature and his sympathy with its dominant
+ideas. Cicero was his favorite Latin author; after him, Vergil and
+Ovid. Greek literature, unfortunately, it was impossible for him to
+know at first hand. In spite of a lifelong desire, and at least one
+determined effort (which is referred to in the letter below), he never
+acquired even a rudimentary reading knowledge of the Greek language.
+At best he could only read fragments of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle in
+extremely faulty Latin translations.[619]
+
+     Source--Franciscus Petrarca, _Epistolae de Rebus Familiaribus
+     et Variae_ ["Letters of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous
+     Letters"], edited by J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol.
+     III., pp. 364-371. Adapted from translation in Merrick
+     Whitcomb, _Source Book of the Italian Renaissance_
+     (Philadelphia, 1903), pp. 14-21 _passim_.
+
+     [Sidenote: Petrarch's longing for peace and seclusion]
+
+   If you should ask me, in the midst of these opinions of my friends,
+   what I myself think of the matter, I can only reply that I long for
+   a place where solitude, leisure, repose, and silence reign, however
+   far from wealth and honors, power and favors. But I confess I know
+   not where to find it. My own secluded nook, where I have hoped not
+   only to live, but even to die, has lost all the advantages it once
+   possessed, even that of safety. I call to witness thirty or more
+   volumes, which I left there recently, thinking that no place could
+   be more secure, and which, a little later, having escaped from the
+   hands of robbers and returned, against all hope, to their master,
+   seem yet to blanch and tremble and show upon their foreheads the
+   troubled condition of the place whence they have escaped. Therefore
+   I have lost all hope of revisiting this charming retreat, this
+   longed-for country spot. Still, if the opportunity were offered me,
+   I should seize it with both hands and hold it fast. I do not know
+   whether I still possess a glimmer of hope, or am feigning it for
+   self-deception, and to feed my soul's desire with empty
+   expectation.
+
+     [Sidenote: Drawbacks of even Milan and Padua]
+
+   But I proceed, remembering that we had much conversation on this
+   point last year, when we lived together in the same house, in this
+   very city [Milan]; and that after having examined the matter most
+   carefully, in so far as our light permitted, we came to the
+   conclusion that while the affairs of Italy, and of Europe, remain
+   in this condition, there is no place safer and better for my needs
+   than Milan, nor any place that suits me so well. We made exception
+   only of the city of Padua, whither I went shortly after and whither
+   I shall soon return; not that I may obliterate or diminish--that I
+   should not wish--but that I may soften the regret which my absence
+   causes the citizens of both places. I know not whether you have
+   changed your opinion since that time; but for me I am convinced
+   that to exchange the tumult of this great city and its annoyances
+   for the annoyances of another city would bring me no advantage,
+   perhaps some inconvenience, and beyond a doubt, much fatigue. Ah,
+   if this tranquil solitude, which, in spite of all my seeking, I
+   never find, as I have told you, should ever show itself on any
+   side, you will hear, not that I have gone, but that I have flown,
+   to it....
+
+   In the succeeding paragraph of your letter you jest with much
+   elegance, saying that I have been wounded by Cicero without having
+   deserved it, on account of our too great intimacy.[620] "Because,"
+   you say, "those who are nearest to us most often injure us, and it
+   is extremely rare that an Indian does an injury to a Spaniard."
+   True it is. It is on this account that in reading of the wars of
+   the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, and in contemplating the troubles
+   of our own people with our neighbors, we are never struck with
+   astonishment; still less so at the sight of the civil wars and
+   domestic troubles which habit has made of so little account that
+   concord itself would more easily cause surprise. But when we read
+   that the king of Scythia has come to blows with the king of Egypt,
+   and that Alexander of Macedonia has penetrated to the ends of
+   India, we experience a sensation of astonishment which the reading
+   of our histories, filled as they are with the deeds of Roman
+   bravery in their distant expeditions, does not afford. You bring me
+   consolation, in representing me as having been wounded by Cicero,
+   to whom I am fondly attached, a thing that would probably never
+   happen to me, at the hands of either Hippocrates[621] or
+   Albumazar....[622]
+
+     [Sidenote: Common indifference to people and events near at hand]
+
+   You ask me to lend you the copy of Homer that was on sale at Padua,
+   if, as you suppose, I have purchased it (since, you say, I have for
+   a long time possessed another copy) so that our friend Leo[623] may
+   translate it from Greek into Latin for your benefit and for the
+   benefit of our other studious compatriots. I saw this book, but
+   neglected the opportunity of acquiring it, because it seemed
+   inferior to my own. It can easily be had with the aid of the person
+   to whom I owe my friendship with Leo; a letter from that source
+   would be all-powerful in the matter, and I will myself write him.
+
+     [Sidenote: A request for a copy of Homer]
+
+     [Sidenote: Fondness for Greek literature]
+
+   If by chance the book escape us, which seems to be very unlikely, I
+   will let you have mine. I have been always fond of this particular
+   translation and of Greek literature in general, and if fortune had
+   not frowned upon my beginnings, in the sad death of my excellent
+   master, I should be perhaps to-day something more than a Greek
+   still at his alphabet. I approve with all my heart and strength
+   your enterprise, for I regret and am indignant that an ancient
+   translation, presumably the work of Cicero, the commencement of
+   which Horace inserted in his _Ars Poetica_,[624] should have been
+   lost to the Latin world, together with many other works. It angers
+   me to see so much solicitude for the bad and so much neglect of the
+   good. But what is to be done? We must be resigned....
+
+     [Sidenote: Difficulty of translating works of literature]
+
+     [Sidenote: Longing for the translation of Homer]
+
+   I wish to take this opportunity of warning you of one thing, lest
+   later on I should regret having passed it over in silence. If, as
+   you say, the translation is to be made literally in prose, listen
+   for a moment to the opinion of St. Jerome as expressed in his
+   preface to the book, _De Temporibus_, by Eusebius of Caesarea, which
+   he translated into Latin.[625] Here are the very words of this
+   great man, well acquainted with these two languages, and indeed
+   with many others, and of special fame for his art of translating:
+   _If any one_, he says, _refuses to believe that translation lessens
+   the peculiar charm of the original, let him render Homer into
+   Latin, word for word; I will say further, let him translate it into
+   prose in his own tongue, and he will see a ridiculous array and the
+   most eloquent of poets transformed into a stammerer._ I tell you
+   this for your own good, while it is yet time, in order that so
+   important a work may not prove useless. As for me, I wish the work
+   to be done, whether well or ill. I am so famished for literature
+   that just as he who is ravenously hungry is not inclined to quarrel
+   with the cook's art, so I await with a lively impatience whatever
+   dishes are to be set before my soul. And in truth, the morsel in
+   which the same Leo, translating into Latin prose the beginning of
+   Homer, has given me a foretaste of the whole work, although it
+   confirms the sentiment of St. Jerome, does not displease me. It
+   possesses, in fact, a secret charm, as certain viands, which have
+   failed to take a moulded shape, although they are lacking in form,
+   preserve nevertheless their taste and odor. May he continue with
+   the aid of Heaven, and may he give us Homer, who has been lost to
+   us!
+
+     [Sidenote: A loan of a volume of Plato]
+
+   In asking of me the volume of Plato which I have with me, and which
+   escaped the fire at my transalpine country house, you give me proof
+   of your ardor, and I shall hold this book at your disposal,
+   whenever the time shall come. I wish to aid with all my power such
+   noble enterprises. But beware lest it should be unbecoming to unite
+   in one bundle these two great princes of Greece, lest the weight of
+   these two spirits should overwhelm mortal shoulders. Let your
+   messenger undertake, with God's aid, one of the two, and first him
+   who has written many centuries before the other. Farewell.
+
+
+82. Petrarch's Letter to Posterity
+
+The following is a letter of Petrarch addressed, by a curious whim, to
+Posterity. It gives an excellent idea of the poet's opinion of himself
+and reveals the sort of things that interested the typical man of
+culture in the early Renaissance period. It is supposed to have been
+written in the year 1370, when Petrarch had completed the sixty-sixth
+year of his life. The letter betrays a longing for individual fame
+which was common in classical times and during the Renaissance, but
+not in the Middle Ages.
+
+     Source--Franciscus Petrarca, _Epistolae de Rebus Familiaribus
+     et Variae_ ["Letters of Friendly Intercourse, and Miscellaneous
+     Letters"], edited by J. Fracassetti (Florence, 1869), Vol. I.,
+     pp. 1-11. Translated in James H. Robinson and Henry W. Rolfe,
+     _Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters_ (New
+     York, 1898), pp. 59-76 _passim_.
+
+   _Francis Petrarch, to Posterity, greeting_:
+
+   It is possible that some word of me may have come to you, though
+   even this is doubtful, since an insignificant and obscure name will
+   scarcely penetrate far in either time or space. If, however, you
+   should have heard of me, you may desire to know what manner of man
+   I was, or what was the outcome of my labors, especially those of
+   which some description or, at any rate, the bare titles may have
+   reached you.
+
+     [Sidenote: Petrarch's early life]
+
+   To begin, then, with myself. The utterances of men concerning me
+   will differ widely, since in passing judgment almost every one is
+   influenced not so much by truth as by preference, and good and evil
+   report alike know no bounds. I was, in truth, a poor mortal like
+   yourself, neither very exalted in my origin, nor, on the other
+   hand, of the most humble birth, but belonging, as Augustus Caesar
+   says of himself, to an ancient family. As to my disposition, I was
+   not naturally perverse or wanting in modesty, however the contagion
+   of evil associations may have corrupted me.
+
+   My youth was gone before I realized it; I was carried away by the
+   strength of manhood. But a riper age brought me to my senses and
+   taught me by experience the truth I had long before read in books,
+   that youth and pleasure are vanity--nay, that the Author of all
+   ages and times permits us miserable mortals, puffed up with
+   emptiness, thus to wander about, until finally, coming to a tardy
+   consciousness of our sins, we shall learn to know ourselves.
+
+     [Sidenote: Physical appearance]
+
+   In my prime I was blessed with a quick and active body, although
+   not exceptionally strong; and while I do not lay claim to
+   remarkable personal beauty, I was comely enough in my best days. I
+   was possessed of a clear complexion, between light and dark,
+   lively eyes, and for long years a keen vision, which, however,
+   deserted me, contrary to my hopes, after I reached my sixtieth
+   birthday, and forced me, to my great annoyance, to resort to
+   glasses.[626] Although I had previously enjoyed perfect health, old
+   age brought with it the usual array of discomforts.
+
+     [Sidenote: Preference for plain and sensible living]
+
+   My parents were honorable folk, Florentine in their origin, of
+   medium fortune, or, I may as well admit it, in a condition verging
+   upon poverty. They had been expelled from their native city,[627]
+   and consequently I was born in exile, at Arezzo, in the year 1304
+   of this latter age, which begins with Christ's birth, July the
+   20th, on a Monday, at dawn. I have always possessed an extreme
+   contempt for wealth; not that riches are not desirable in
+   themselves, but because I hate the anxiety and care which are
+   invariably associated with them. I certainly do not long to be able
+   to give gorgeous banquets. I have, on the contrary, led a happier
+   existence with plain living and ordinary fare than all the
+   followers of Apicius,[628] with their elaborate dainties. So-called
+   convivia, which are but vulgar bouts, sinning against sobriety and
+   good manners, have always been repugnant to me. I have ever felt
+   that it was irksome and profitless to invite others to such
+   affairs, and not less so to be bidden to them myself. On the other
+   hand, the pleasure of dining with one's friends is so great that
+   nothing has ever given me more delight than their unexpected
+   arrival, nor have I ever willingly sat down to table without a
+   companion. Nothing displeases me more than display, for not only is
+   it bad in itself and opposed to humility, but it is troublesome
+   and distracting.
+
+     [Sidenote: Intimacy with renowned men]
+
+   In my familiar associations with kings and princes, and in my
+   friendship with noble personages, my good fortune has been such as
+   to excite envy. But it is the cruel fate of those who are growing
+   old that they can commonly only weep for friends who have passed
+   away. The greatest kings of this age have loved and courted me.
+   They may know why; I certainly do not. With some of them I was on
+   such terms that they seemed in a certain sense my guests rather
+   than I theirs; their lofty position in no way embarrassing me, but,
+   on the contrary, bringing with it many advantages. I fled, however,
+   from many of those to whom I was greatly attached; and such was my
+   innate longing for liberty that I studiously avoided those whose
+   very name seemed incompatible with the freedom that I loved.
+
+   I possessed a well-balanced rather than a keen intellect--one prone
+   to all kinds of good and wholesome study, but especially inclined
+   to moral philosophy and the art of poetry. The latter, indeed, I
+   neglected as time went on, and took delight in sacred literature.
+   Finding in that a hidden sweetness which I had once esteemed but
+   lightly, I came to regard the works of the poets as only amenities.
+
+     [Sidenote: Admiration for antiquity]
+
+   Among the many subjects that interested me, I dwelt especially upon
+   antiquity, for our own age has always repelled me, so that, had it
+   not been for the love of those dear to me, I should have preferred
+   to have been born in any other period than our own. In order to
+   forget my own time, I have constantly striven to place myself in
+   spirit in other ages, and consequently I delighted in history. The
+   conflicting statements troubled me, but when in doubt I accepted
+   what appeared most probable, or yielded to the authority of the
+   writer.
+
+     [Sidenote: Attitude toward literary style]
+
+   My style, as many claimed, was clear and forcible; but to me it
+   seemed weak and obscure. In ordinary conversation with friends, or
+   with those about me, I never gave thought to my language, and I
+   have always wondered that Augustus Caesar should have taken such
+   pains in this respect. When, however, the subject itself, or the
+   place or the listener, seemed to demand it, I gave some attention
+   to style, with what success I cannot pretend to say; let them judge
+   in whose presence I spoke. If only I have lived well, it matters
+   little to me how I talked. Mere elegance of language can produce at
+   best but an empty renown....
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[601] Dante represents the commentaries composing the _Convito_ as in
+the nature of a banquet, the "meats" of which were to be set forth in
+fourteen courses, corresponding to the fourteen _canzoni_, or lyric
+poems, which were to be commented upon. As a matter of fact, for some
+unknown reason, the "banquet" was broken off at the end of the third
+course. "At the beginning of every well-ordered banquet" observes the
+author in an earlier passage (Bk. II., Chap. 1) "the servants are wont
+to take the bread given out for it, and cleanse it from every speck."
+Dante has just cleansed his viands from the faults of egotism and
+obscurity,--the "accidental impurities"; he now proceeds to clear them
+of a less superficial difficulty, i.e., the fact that in serving them
+use is made of the Italian rather than the Latin language.
+
+[602] The date of the composition of the _De Vulgari Eloquentia_ is
+unknown, but there are reasons for assigning the work to the same
+period in the author's life as the _Convito_. Like the _Convito_, it
+was left incomplete; four books were planned, but only the first and a
+portion of the second were written. In it an effort was made to
+establish the dominance of a perfect and imperial Italian language
+over all the dialects. The work itself was written in Latin, probably
+to command the attention of scholars whom Dante hoped to convert to
+the use of the vernacular.
+
+[603] The author conceives of the _canzoni_ as masters and the
+commentaries as servants.
+
+[604] That is, any poetical composition.
+
+[605] Some students of Dante hold that this phrase about Homer should
+be rendered "does not admit of being turned"; but others take it in
+the absolute sense and base on it an argument against Dante's
+knowledge of Greek literature.
+
+[606] The Book of Psalms.
+
+[607] The _canzoni_ were in Italian and a Latin commentary would have
+been useless to scholars of other nations, because they could not have
+understood the _canzoni_ to which it referred.
+
+[608] The Provencal language--the peculiar speech of southeastern
+France, whence comes the name Languedoc. _Oc_ is the affirmative
+particle "yes."
+
+[609] _Si_ is the Italian affirmative particle. In the _Inferno_ Dante
+refers to Italy as "that lovely country where the _si_ is sounded"
+(XXX., 80).
+
+[610] That is, prose shows the true beauty of a language more
+effectively than poetry, in which the attention is distracted by the
+ornaments of verse.
+
+[611] The author refers to Cicero's philosophical treatise _De Finibus
+Bonorum et Malorum_.
+
+[612] For example, Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254) declared: "Two
+lights, the sun and the moon, illumine the globe; two powers, the
+papal and the royal, govern it; but as the moon receives her light
+from the more brilliant star, so kings reign by the chief of the
+Church, who comes from God."
+
+[613] The arguments disposed of by the author, in addition to those
+treated in the passages here presented, are: the precedence of Levi
+over Judah (Gen., xxix. 34, 35), the election and deposition of Saul
+by Samuel (1 Sam., x. 1; xv. 23; xv. 28), the oblation of the Magi
+(Matt., ii. 11), the two swords referred to by Peter (Luke, xxii. 38),
+the donation of Constantine, the summoning of Charlemagne by Pope
+Hadrian, and finally the argument from pure reason.
+
+[614] This was the common mediaeval designation of Aristotle.
+
+[615] For Dante's conception of the terrestrial and the celestial
+paradise see the _Paradiso_ in the _Divina Commedia_.
+
+[616] These were the lay and ecclesiastical princes in whom was vested
+the right of choosing the Emperor. The electoral college was first
+clearly defined in the Golden Bull issued by Charles IV. in 1356 [see
+p. 409]. Its composition in Dante's time is uncertain.
+
+[617] Dante's ideal solution was the harmonious rule of the two powers
+by the acknowledgment of filial relationship between pope and emperor,
+on the basis of a recognition of the different and essentially
+irreconcilable character of their functions.
+
+[618] George B. Adams, _Mediaeval Civilization_ (New York, 1904), pp.
+375-377.
+
+[619] "There was no apparatus for the study of Greek at that time.
+Oral instruction from Greek or Byzantine scholars was the only
+possible means of access to the great writers of the past. Such
+instruction was difficult to secure, as Petrarch's efforts and failure
+prove."--Robinson and Rolfe, _Petrarch_, p. 237.
+
+[620] This is a humorous allusion to the fact that Petrarch had
+recently received an injury from the fall of a heavy volume of
+Cicero's _Letters_.
+
+[621] A renowned Greek physician of the fifth century B.C.
+
+[622] A famous Arabian astronomer of the ninth century A.D.
+
+[623] Leo Pilatus, a translator.
+
+[624] Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 B.C.), one of the literary lights
+of the Augustan Age, was a younger contemporary of Cicero. His _Ars
+Poetica_ was a didactic poem setting forth the correct principles of
+poetry as an art.
+
+[625] Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, is noted chiefly as
+the author of an Ecclesiastical History which is in many ways our most
+important source of information on the early Christian Church. He
+lived about 250-339. St. Jerome was a great Church father of the later
+fourth century. His name is most commonly associated with the
+translation of the Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek into the
+Latin language. The resulting form of the Scriptures was the _Editio
+Vulgata_ (the Edition Commonly Received), whence our English term
+"Vulgate."
+
+[626] Eyeglasses were but beginning to come into use in Petrarch's
+day.
+
+[627] Petrarch's father and Dante were banished from Florence upon the
+same day, January 27, 1302 [see p. 446].
+
+[628] Marcus Gavius Apicius was a celebrated epicure of the time of
+Augustus and Tiberius. He was the author of a famous cook-book
+intended for the gratification of high-livers. Though worth a fortune,
+he was haunted by a fear of starving to death and eventually poisoned
+himself to escape such a fate. There was another Apicius in the third
+century who compiled a well-known collection of recipes for cooking,
+in ten books, entitled _De Re Coquinaria_. It is not quite clear which
+Apicius Petrarch had in mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+FORESHADOWINGS OF THE REFORMATION
+
+
+83. The Reply of Wyclif to the Summons of Pope Urban VI. (1384)
+
+The fourteenth century was an era of religious decline in England, as
+indeed more or less generally throughout western Europe. The papacy
+was at its lowest ebb, unable to command either respect or obedience,
+except among the clergy and certain of the common people; bishops and
+abbots had grown wealthy and worldly and were often utterly neglectful
+of their religious obligations; and among the masses the services of
+worship had frequently become mere hollow formalities. There were
+still many good men in the Church, men who in an unpretentious way
+sought to do their duty faithfully; but of large numbers--possibly the
+majority--of both the higher and lower clergy this could not be said.
+The dissatisfaction of the people with industrial conditions which
+prompted the uprising of 1381 was accompanied by an almost equal
+discontent with the shortcomings of the selfish and avaricious clergy.
+It was harder, of course, to arouse men to an active hostility to the
+existing ecclesiastical system than to the industrial regime, because
+the Church still maintained a very close hold upon the sentiments and
+attachments of the average individual. Still, there were people here
+and there who were outspoken for reform, and chief among these was
+John Wyclif.
+
+Wyclif was born in Yorkshire about 1320 and was educated at Oxford,
+where in time he became a leading teacher. He was one of those who saw
+clearly the evils of the times and did not lack the courage to speak
+out plainly against them. As early as 1366 he had denounced the claims
+of the papacy, in a pamphlet, _De Dominio Divino_, declaring that the
+pope ought to have no authority whatsoever over states and
+governments. This position he never yielded and it became one of the
+cardinal features of his teaching. He attacked the clergy for their
+wealth, their self-seeking, and their subservience to the pope, and
+hurled denunciation at the whole body of friars and vendors of
+indulgences with whom England was thronged. He even assailed the
+doctrines of the Church, particularly as to transubstantiation, the
+efficacy of confession to priests, and the nature of the sacraments.
+His teachings were very acceptable to large numbers of people who were
+disgusted with existing conditions, and hence he soon came to have a
+considerable body of followers, known as the Lollards, who, though not
+regularly organized into a sect, carried on in later times the work
+which Wyclif and his "poor priests" had begun.
+
+In 1377 Pope Gregory XI. issued a bull in which he roundly condemned
+Wyclif and reproved the University of Oxford for not taking active
+steps to suppress the growing heresy; but it had little or no effect.
+In 1378 Gregory died and two popes were elected to succeed
+him--Clement VII. at Avignon and Urban VI. at Rome [see p. 389]. The
+Schism that resulted prevented further action for a time against
+Wyclif. In England, however, the uprising of 1381 aroused the
+government to the expediency of suppressing popular agitators, and in
+a church council at London, May 19, 1382, Wyclif's doctrines were
+formally condemned. In 1383 Oxford was compelled to banish all the
+Lollards from her walls and by the time of Wyclif's death in 1384 the
+new belief seemed to be pretty thoroughly suppressed. In reality it
+lived on by the more or less secret attachment of thousands of people
+to it, and became one of the great preparatory forces for the English
+Reformation a century and a half later. The document given below is a
+modernized version of a letter written by Wyclif to Pope Urban VI. in
+1384 in response to a summons to appear at Rome to be tried for
+heresy. The letter was written in Latin and the English translation
+(given below) prepared by the writer's followers for distribution
+among Englishmen represents somewhat of an enlargement of the original
+document. When Wyclif wrote the letter he was in the last year of his
+life and was so disabled by paralysis that a journey to Rome was quite
+impossible.
+
+     Source--Text in Thomas Arnold, _Select English Works of John
+     Wyclif_ (Oxford, 1869), Vol. III., pp. 504-506. Adapted, with
+     modernized spelling, in Guy Carleton Lee, _Source Book of
+     English History_ (New York, 1900), pp. 212-214.
+
+   I have joyfully to tell what I hold, to all true men that believe,
+   and especially to the pope; for I suppose that if my faith be
+   rightful and given of God, the pope will gladly confirm it; and if
+   my faith be error, the pope will wisely amend it.
+
+   I suppose over this that the gospel of Christ be heart of the corps
+   [body] of God's law; for I believe that Jesus Christ, that gave in
+   His own person this gospel, is very God and very man, and by this
+   heart passes all other laws.
+
+     [Sidenote: The pope's high obligation]
+
+   I suppose over this that the pope be most obliged to the keeping of
+   the gospel among all men that live here; for the pope is highest
+   vicar that Christ has here in earth. For moreness of Christ's vicar
+   is not measured by worldly moreness, but by this, that this vicar
+   follows more Christ by virtuous living; for thus teacheth the
+   gospel, that this is the sentence of Christ.
+
+     [Sidenote: Christ's earthly poverty]
+
+   And of this gospel I take as believe, that Christ for time that He
+   walked here, was most poor man of all, both in spirit and in having
+   [possessions]; for Christ says that He had nought for to rest His
+   head on. And Paul says that He was made needy for our love. And
+   more poor might no man be, neither bodily nor in spirit. And thus
+   Christ put from Him all manner of worldly lordship. For the gospel
+   of John telleth that when they would have made Christ king, He fled
+   and hid Him from them, for He would none such worldly highness.
+
+     [Sidenote: How far men ought to follow the pope]
+
+     [Sidenote: The pope exhorted to give up temporal authority]
+
+   And over this I take it as believe, that no man should follow the
+   pope, nor no saint that now is in heaven, but in as much as he [the
+   pope] follows Christ. For John and James erred when they coveted
+   worldly highness; and Peter and Paul sinned also when they denied
+   and blasphemed in Christ; but men should not follow them in this,
+   for then they went from Jesus Christ. And this I take as wholesome
+   counsel, that the pope leave his worldly lordship to worldly lords,
+   as Christ gave them,--and more speedily all his clerks [clergy] to
+   do so. For thus did Christ, and taught thus His disciples, till the
+   fiend [Satan] had blinded this world. And it seems to some men
+   that clerks that dwell lastingly in this error against God's law,
+   and flee to follow Christ in this, been open heretics, and their
+   fautors [supporters] been partners.
+
+     [Sidenote: The pope should not demand what is contrary to the
+   divine will]
+
+   And if I err in this sentence, I will meekly be amended
+   [corrected], yea, by the death, if it be skilful [necessary], for
+   that I hope were good to me. And if I might travel in mine own
+   person, I would with good will go to the pope. But God has needed
+   me to the contrary, and taught me more obedience to God than to
+   men. And I suppose of our pope that he will not be Antichrist, and
+   reverse Christ in this working, to the contrary of Christ's will;
+   for if he summon against reason, by him or by any of his, and
+   pursue this unskilful summoning, he is an open Antichrist. And
+   merciful intent excused not Peter, that Christ should not clepe
+   [call] him Satan; so blind intent and wicked counsel excuses not
+   the pope here; but if he ask of true priests that they travel more
+   than they may, he is not excused by reason of God, that he should
+   not be Antichrist. For our belief teaches us that our blessed God
+   suffers us not to be tempted more than we may; how should a man ask
+   such service? And therefore pray we to God for our Pope Urban the
+   Sixth, that his old [early] holy intent be not quenched by his
+   enemies. And Christ, that may not lie, says that the enemies of a
+   man been especially his home family; and this is sooth of men and
+   fiends.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+[Note--The numbers refer to pages.]
+
+
+     Aachen, Charlemagne's capital, 108, 110;
+       basilica at, 113;
+       assembly at, 119;
+       capitulary for the _missi_ promulgated from, 135;
+       in territory assigned to Lothair, 155.
+
+     Abbeville, English and French armies at, 427.
+
+     Abbo, account of siege of Paris, 165, 168-171.
+
+     Abbot, character and duties of, defined in Benedictine Rule,
+         84-86.
+
+     Abelard, at Paris, 340.
+
+     Abu-Bekr, Mohammed's successor, 97.
+
+     _Acta Sanctorum_, quoted, 256-258.
+
+     Adalbero, archbishop of Rheims, 177;
+       speech at Senlis, 178-179;
+       urges election as true basis of Frankish kingship, 179;
+       opposes candidacy of Charles of Lower Lorraine, 179-180;
+       speaks in behalf of Hugh Capet, 180.
+
+     Adrianople, battle of, importance, 37-38;
+       described by Ammianus Marcellinus, 38-41.
+
+     Aegidius, "king of the Romans," 50-51.
+
+     Aelfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great, 187.
+
+     Agincourt, English victory at, 440.
+
+     Agius, bishop of Orleans, 167.
+
+     Agriculture, among the early Germans, 21, 29.
+
+     Aids, nature of, 222;
+       defined by Norman custom, 222-223;
+       specified in Great Charter, 306-307.
+
+     Ain Tulut, battle of, 317.
+
+     Aix-la-Chapelle (see Aachen).
+
+     Alaf [Alavivus], a Visigothic chieftain, 34.
+
+     Alaric, king of the Visigoths, 51;
+       Syagrius takes refuge with, 51;
+       delivers Syagrius to Clovis, 51;
+       interview with Clovis, 54-55;
+       defeated and slain by Clovis near Poitiers, 56.
+
+     Albar, 201.
+
+     Alcuin, brought to Charlemagne's court, 113;
+       in the Palace School, 144.
+
+     Alemanni, defeated by Clovis at Strassburg, 53.
+
+     Alessandria, founded, 399.
+
+     Alexander II., approves William the Conqueror's project to invade
+         England, 234.
+
+     Alexander III., 399.
+
+     Alexander V., elected pope, 390.
+
+     Alexius Comnenus, appeals to Urban II., 283.
+
+     Alfonso XI., of Castile, 421.
+
+     Alfred the Great, biography by Asser, 181;
+       becomes king of the English, 182;
+       fights the Danes at Wilton, 182;
+       constructs a navy, 183;
+       defeats Danes at Swanwich, 183;
+       in refuge at Athelney, 184;
+       meets English people at Egbert's stone, 184;
+       defeats Danes at Ethandune, 184;
+       peace of Guthrum and, 185;
+       negotiates treaty of Wedmore, 185;
+       interest in education, 185;
+       literary activity, 186, 193;
+       care for his children, 187;
+       varied pursuits, 187;
+       piety, 188;
+       regret at lack of education, 189;
+       search for learned men, 190-191;
+       letter to Bishop Werfrith, 191-194;
+       laws, 194-195.
+
+     Alith, mother of St. Bernard, 251-252.
+
+     Alp Arslan, defeats Eastern emperor at Manzikert, 282.
+
+     Amalric, king of the Visigoths, 56.
+
+     Amboise, 55.
+
+     Ammianus Marcellinus, author of a Roman History, 34;
+       facts concerning life, 34;
+       quoted, 34-37, 38-41, 43-46.
+
+     Amusements, of the early Germans, 30-31.
+
+     Anagni, Boniface VIII. taken captive at, 385.
+
+     Angelo, companion of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     Angers, Northmen at, 167.
+
+     Angilbert, a Carolingian poet, 151.
+
+     Angouleme, captured by Clovis, 56-57.
+
+     _Annales Bertiniani_, scope, 165;
+       quoted, 156, 165-168.
+
+     _Annales Laureshamensis_, quoted, 132-133.
+
+     _Annales Laurissenses Minores_, quoted, 106-107.
+
+     _Annales Xantenses_, quoted, 158-163.
+
+     Annals, origin and character of, 157-158.
+
+     Annates, defined, 389.
+
+     Antioch, crusaders arrive at, 293;
+       siege and capture of, 293-296.
+
+     Apicius, Marcus Gavius, 471.
+
+     Arabs, overrun Syria, 282.
+
+     Arezzo, Petrarch born at, 461, 464, 471.
+
+     Arianism, adopted by Germans, 50;
+       refuted by ordeal of hot water, 198-200.
+
+     Aristotle, Dante cites, 460.
+
+     Arles, Council of, 72.
+
+     Armagnacs, in later Hundred Years' War, 440.
+
+     Armenia, crusaders in, 293.
+
+     Arnold Atton, forfeiture of fief, 227-228.
+
+     Arnold of Bonneval, 251.
+
+     Arpent, a land measure, 129.
+
+     Arras, treaty of, 439.
+
+     Arteveld, James van, connection with Hundred Years' War, 422.
+
+     Articles of the Barons, relation to the Great Charter, 304.
+
+     Asnapium, inventory of, 127-129.
+
+     Assam, conquered by the crusaders, 293.
+
+     Assembly, the German, 26-27;
+       the Saxon, 123.
+
+     Asser, biography of Alfred the Great, 181, 186.
+
+     Assisi, birth-place of St. Francis, 362-363.
+
+     Athanaric, a Visigothic chieftain, 33-34.
+
+     Athelney, Alfred in refuge at, 184.
+
+     Augustine, sent to Britain by Pope Gregory, 72-73;
+       constituted abbot, 74;
+       lands at Thanet, 75;
+       preaches to King Ethelbert, 76;
+       life at Canterbury, 77.
+
+     Augustus, 32.
+
+     Aurelian, cedes Dacia to the Visigoths, 33.
+
+     _Ausculta Fili_, issued by Boniface VIII., 384.
+
+     Auvillars, forfeited by Arnold Atton, 227.
+
+     Avignon, popes resident at, 389.
+
+     Aylesford, Horsa slain in battle at, 71.
+
+
+     Babylon (Cairo), St. Louis advances on, 318.
+
+     Babylonian Captivity, begins, 385, 389.
+
+     Ban, of the emperor, 138.
+
+     Basel, Council of, 391, 393.
+
+     Battle Abbey, founded by William the Conqueror, 242.
+
+     Baugulf, Charlemagne's letter to, 145-148.
+
+     Bavaria, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, 115.
+
+     Bayeux, Odo, bishop of, imprisoned, 243.
+
+     Beatrice, Dante's love affair with, 446.
+
+     Beauchamp, William de, 302.
+
+     Beaumont, birth of Froissart at, 418.
+
+     Bede, facts regarding life of, 68;
+       "Ecclesiastical History of the English People," 68;
+       account of the Saxon invasion, 69-72;
+       account of Augustine's mission to Britain, 73-77.
+
+     Bedford, castle of, English barons at, 301-302.
+
+     Bellona, Roman goddess of war, 39.
+
+     Benedict XIII., deposed from papacy, 391.
+
+     Benedictine Rule, nature and purpose, 84;
+       translation of, 84;
+       quoted, 84-90;
+       character and duties of the abbot, 84-86, 89;
+       the monks to be called in council, 87;
+       the Rule always to be obeyed, 87;
+       monks to own no property individually, 87-88;
+       daily manual labor, 88;
+       reading during Lent, 89;
+       hospitality, 89.
+
+     Benefice, origin and development, 206;
+       relation to vassalage, 207;
+       example of grant, 207-210.
+
+     Beowulf, 188.
+
+     Bernardone, Pietro, father of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     _Bernardus Claraevallensis_ (by William of St. Thierry), quoted,
+         251-256, 258-260.
+
+     Berno, abbot of Cluny, 248.
+
+     Bertha, queen of Kent, 72, 75.
+
+     Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne, 151.
+
+     Biography, character of, in Middle Ages, 108.
+
+     Blanche of Castile, mother of St. Louis, 311, 313-314.
+
+     Boccaccio, Petrarch's acquaintance with, 464.
+
+     Boethius, 186.
+
+     Bohemia, king of, an elector of the Empire, 410.
+
+     Bohemians, Louis the German makes expedition against, 160-161.
+
+     Bohemond of Tarentum, 294-295.
+
+     Bologna, University of, 340.
+
+     Boniface, anoints Pepin the Short, 107.
+
+     Boniface VIII., conflict with Philip the Fair, 383-384;
+       issues bull _Clericis Laicos_, 384;
+       issues bull _Unam Sanctam_, 385;
+       death, 385.
+
+     Boulogne, count of, uncle of St. Louis, 314.
+
+     Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of, promulgated, 394;
+       quoted, 395-397.
+
+     Bouvines, King John's defeat at, 297, 403.
+
+     Brackley, English barons meet at, 300.
+
+     Bretigny, treaty of, negotiated, 439;
+       provisions of, 441-442.
+
+     Britain, Saxon invasion of, 68-72;
+       shores infested by Angle and Saxon seafarers, 68;
+       Roman garrisons withdrawn from, 68;
+       Saxons invited into, 69;
+       Saxon settlement in, 70;
+       Saxons conquer, 71-72;
+       Christianity in, 72;
+       Augustine sent to, 73-74;
+       conversion of Saxon population begins, 75-77.
+
+     Britons, menaced by Picts and Scots, 68;
+       decide to call in the Saxons, 68-69;
+       conquered by the Saxons, 71-72;
+       early Christianization of, 72.
+
+     Brittany, Northmen in, 166.
+
+     Brussels, conference at, 422-423.
+
+     Buchonian Forest, 57, 58.
+
+     Burchard, bishop of Chartres, 167.
+
+     Burgundians, faction in Hundred Years' War, 440.
+
+
+     Caesar, Julius, describes the Germans in his "Commentaries,"
+         19-22;
+       conquest of Gaul, 19, 32.
+
+     Calais, treaty of Bretigny revised at, 439-440.
+
+     Calixtus II., concessions made by, in Concordat of Worms,
+         279-280.
+
+     Camargue, Northmen establish themselves at, 168.
+
+     Campus Martius, 52;
+       Merovingian kings at, 106-107.
+
+     Cannae, battle of, 41.
+
+     Canossa, Henry IV. arrives at, 274;
+       Henry IV.'s penance at, 276;
+       oath taken by Henry IV. at, 277-278.
+
+     Canterbury, capital of Kent, 76;
+       life of Augustine's band at, 77;
+       Plegmund archbishop of, 190;
+       Christchurch monastery built at, 242.
+
+     _Capellani_, functions of, 190.
+
+     _Capitulare Missorum Generale_, promulgated by Charlemagne, 135;
+       scope, 135;
+       translation of, 135;
+       quoted, 135-141;
+       character and functions of the _missi_, 135-137;
+       new oath to Charlemagne as emperor, 137;
+       administration of justice, 138-139;
+       obligations of the clergy, 139;
+       murder, 140.
+
+     Capitulary, Charlemagne's concerning the Saxon territory,
+         118-123;
+       nature of, 119-120;
+       Charlemagne's concerning the royal domains, 124-127;
+       Charlemagne's for the _missi_, 134-141;
+       nature of, in ninth century, 174;
+       Carloman's concerning the preservation of order, 174-176.
+
+     _Capitulum Saxonicum_, issued by Charlemagne, 119.
+
+     Cappadocia, crusaders in, 293.
+
+     Cardinals, college of, instituted, 269;
+       and Great Schism, 389-391.
+
+     Carloman, capitulary concerning the preservation of order,
+         174-176;
+       functions of the _missi_, 175;
+       obligations of officials, 176.
+
+     _Carmina Burana_, source for mediaeval students' songs, 352.
+
+     Carolingians, origin of, 105-106;
+       age of Charlemagne, 108-148;
+       disorders in reigns of, 149-163;
+       menaced by Norse invasions, 163-173;
+       efforts to preserve order, 173-176;
+       growing inability to cope with conditions, 174;
+       replaced by Capetian dynasty, 177-180.
+
+     Carthusians, 246.
+
+     _Castellanerie_, defined, 216.
+
+     Celestine III., 381.
+
+     _Cens_, payment of, in Lorris, 328.
+
+     _Census_, 209.
+
+     _Centenarius_, functions of, 176.
+
+     Chalcedon, Council of, 80.
+
+     Chalons-sur-Saone, immunity of monastery at, confirmed by
+         Charlemagne, 212-214.
+
+     Champagne, county of, 215;
+       Joinville's residence in, 312.
+
+     Charibert, 75.
+
+     Charlemagne, employs Einhard at court, 108;
+       biography of, 109;
+       personal appearance, 109-110;
+       manner of dress, 111;
+       fondness for St. Augustine's _De Civitate Dei_, 111;
+       everyday life, 112;
+       education, 112-113;
+       interest in religion, 113;
+       charities, 114;
+       policy of Germanic consolidation, 115;
+       conquers Lombardy, Bavaria, and the Spanish March, 115;
+       war with the Saxons, 115-118;
+       transplants Saxons into Gaul, 117-118;
+       peace with Saxons, 118;
+       issues capitularies concerning the Saxon territory, 119;
+       capitulary concerning the royal domains, 124-127;
+       revenues, 124;
+       interest in agriculture, 124;
+       inventory of a royal estate, 127-129;
+       appealed to by Pope Leo III., 130;
+       goes to Rome, 130;
+       crowned emperor by Leo, 130, 132-134;
+       significance of the coronation, 131-133;
+       issues capitulary for the _missi_, 134;
+       new oath to, as emperor, 137;
+       provisions for administration of justice, 138-139;
+       legislation for clergy, 139-140;
+       letter to Abbot Fulrad, 142-144;
+       builds up Palace School, 144-145;
+       provides for elementary and intermediate education, 145;
+       confirms immunity of monastery of Chalons-sur-Saone, 212-214.
+
+     Charles Martel, victor at Tours, 105;
+       Frankish mayor of the palace, 105;
+       makes office hereditary, 105.
+
+     Charles the Fat, Emperor, 168;
+       Odo's mission to, 170-171;
+       buys off the Northmen, 171;
+       deposition and death, 171.
+
+     Charles, son of Charlemagne, anointed by Leo, 134.
+
+     Charles the Bald, of France, birth, 149;
+       combines with Louis against Lothair, 150-151;
+       takes oath of Strassburg, 152-154;
+       lands received by treaty of Verdun, 155-156;
+       buys off the Northmen, 159;
+       capitularies, 174.
+
+     Charles the Simple, of France, yields Normandy to Rollo, 172.
+
+     Charles of Lower Lorraine, claimant to French throne, 177;
+       candidacy opposed by Adalbero, 179-180.
+
+     Charles IV., Emperor, founds University of Prague, 345;
+       promulgates Golden Bull, 410.
+
+     Charles IV. (the Fair), of France, 419.
+
+     Charles VI. of France, 440;
+       and the Great Schism, 390.
+
+     Charles VII. of France, convenes council at Bourges, 394;
+       dauphin of France, 440-441.
+
+     Charles, count of Anjou, 321.
+
+     Charles, of Luxemburg, slain at Crecy, 433.
+
+     Charter, conditions of grant to towns, 326;
+       of Laon, 327-328;
+       of Lorris, 328-330.
+       (See _Magna Charta_.)
+
+     Chatillon, St. Bernard educated at, 252;
+       begins monastic career at, 254.
+
+     Childebert, conquers Septimania, 57
+
+     Childeric I., father of Clovis, 50.
+
+     Childeric III., last Merovingian king, 105;
+       deposed, 107.
+
+     Chippenham, Danes winter at, 184;
+       siege of, 184;
+       treaty of, 185.
+
+     _Chronica Majora_ (by Roger of Wendover), scope of, 298;
+       quoted, 298-303.
+
+     _Chronica Majora_ (by Matthew Paris), value of, 404;
+       quoted, 405-409.
+
+     _Chroniques_ (by Froissart), character of, 418;
+       quoted, 418-439.
+
+     Church, development of, 78-96;
+       origin of papacy, 78-79;
+       Pope Leo's sermon on the Petrine supremacy, 80-83;
+       rise of monasticism, 83-84;
+       the Benedictine Rule, 84-90;
+       papacy of Gregory the Great, 90-91;
+       Gregory's description of the functions of the secular clergy,
+           91-96;
+       Charlemagne's zeal for promotion of, 113;
+       Charlemagne's extension into Saxony, 118-123;
+       influence on development of annalistic writings, 157;
+       education intrusted to, by Charlemagne, 146;
+       to aid in suppressing disorder, 175-176;
+       illiteracy of English clergy in Alfred's day, 190-192;
+       influence on use of ordeals, 197;
+       use of _precarium_, 206-207;
+       favored by grants of immunity, 210;
+       efforts to discourage private warfare, 228-229;
+       decrees the Peace of God, 229;
+       decrees the Truce of God, 229;
+       reform through Cluniac movement, 246;
+       conditions in St. Bernard's day, 250;
+       Gregory VII.'s conception of the papal authority, 262-264;
+       Gregory VII. avows purpose to correct abuses in, 267;
+       college of cardinals instituted, 269;
+       issue of lay investiture, 265-278;
+       Concordat of Worms, 278-281;
+       liberties in England granted in Great Charter, 305;
+       patronage of universities, 340;
+       menaced by abuses, 360;
+       rise of the mendicant orders, 360;
+       St. Francis's attitude toward, 375, 377-378;
+       use of excommunication and interdict, 380;
+       _Unam Sanctam_, 383-388;
+       Great Schism, 389-390;
+       Council of Pisa, 390-391;
+       Council of Constance, 391, 393;
+       Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 393-397;
+       decline in England in fourteenth century, 474;
+       Wyclif's efforts to regenerate, 475-477.
+
+     Cicero, Dante cites, 451;
+       Petrarch's reading of, 466.
+
+     _Cimbri_, 32.
+
+     Cistercians, 246, 250.
+
+     Citeaux, 246;
+       St. Bernard decides to join, 252, 254;
+       St. Bernard goes forth from, 256.
+
+     Cities (see Towns), Frederick Barbarossa and Lombard, 398-399;
+       rights of guaranteed by Peace of Constance, 400-402.
+
+     Clairvaux, St. Bernard founds monastery at, 256-257;
+       description of by William of St. Thierry, 258-260;
+       marvelous works accomplished at, 259;
+       piety of monks at, 259.
+
+     Claudius Claudianus, at the court of Honorius, 42;
+       description of the Huns, 43.
+
+     Clement VII., elected pope, 389;
+       dies, 390.
+
+     Clergy (see Church), Charlemagne's general legislation for,
+         139-140;
+       Pope Gregory I.'s exhortation to, 91-96;
+       Charlemagne's provisions for, in Saxony, 120-123;
+       temporal importance in Charlemagne's empire, 141-142;
+       work of education committed to by Charlemagne, 146;
+       illiteracy in Alfred's day, 186, 191-192;
+       grants of immunity to, 210-214;
+       protected by Peace of God, 230-231;
+       worldliness of, in England before the Conquest, 239.
+
+     _Clericis Laicos_, issued by Boniface VIII., 384.
+
+     Clermont, Council of, confirms Peace and Truce of God, 229;
+       Pope Urban's speech at, 283-288;
+       first crusade proclaimed at, 287-288.
+
+     Cloderic, receives deputation from Clovis, 57;
+       has his father slain, 57;
+       himself slain, 58.
+
+     Clotilde, wife of Clovis, 49;
+       labors for his conversion, 53;
+       calls Remigius to the court, 54.
+
+     Clovis, conversion of, 49;
+       becomes king of the Salian Franks, 50;
+       advances against Syagrius, 51;
+       defeats him at Soissons, 51;
+       requests King Alaric to surrender the refugee, 51;
+       has Syagrius put to death, 51;
+       episode of the broken vase, 51-52;
+       decides to become a Christian, 53;
+       wins battle of Strassburg, 53;
+       baptized with his warriors, 54;
+       interview with Alaric, 54-55;
+       resolves to conquer southern Gaul, 55;
+       campaign against Alaric, 55-57;
+       victory at Vouille, 56;
+       takes possession of southern Gaul, 56;
+       captures Angouleme, 57;
+       sends deputation to Cloderic, 57;
+       takes Cloderic's kingdom, 58;
+       slays Ragnachar and Richar, 58-59;
+       death at Paris, 59.
+
+     Cluny, establishment of monastery at, 245;
+       growth and influence, 246;
+       charter issued for, 247-249;
+       land and other property yielded to, 247-248;
+       Berno to be abbot, 248;
+       relations with the papacy, 249;
+       charitable activity, 249.
+
+     Cologne, 57;
+       university founded at, 345.
+
+     _Comitatus_, among the early Germans, 27-28;
+       a prototype of vassalage, 205.
+
+     Commendation, defined, 205;
+       Frankish formula for, 205-206.
+
+     Commerce, freedom guaranteed by
+       Great Charter, 308-309;
+       encouraged in charter of Lorris, 329.
+
+     Commune (see Towns), 326.
+
+     Compiegne, 171.
+
+     Compurgation, defined, 196.
+
+     Conrad IV., 334.
+
+     Constance, Council of, assembles, 391;
+       declarations of, 393.
+
+     Constance, Peace of, 398-402.
+
+     Constantine, 78.
+
+     Constantine VI., deposed at Constantinople, 131-132.
+
+     Constantinople, threatened by Seljuk Turks, 282.
+
+     Corbei, 191;
+       French barons assemble at, 314.
+
+     _Corvee_, provision for in charter of Lorris, 330.
+
+     Councils, Church, powers of declared at Pisa and Constance,
+         392-393;
+       provisions for in Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 396-397.
+
+     Count, duties, 123, 134;
+       restrictions on by grants of immunity, 211.
+
+     Count of the Palace, 112.
+
+     Crecy, English take position at, 427-428;
+       French advance to, 427, 430-431;
+       English prepare for battle, 431-432;
+       the French defeated at, 433-436.
+
+     Crime, in the Salic law, 62-65;
+       in Charlemagne's _De Partibus Saxoniae_, 123;
+       in Charlemagne's _Capitulare Missorum Generale_, 140-141;
+       Carloman's regulations for suppression of, 175-176;
+       in Alfred's legislation, 194-195;
+       penalties for in Peace and Truce of God, 230-232;
+       protection of scholars against, 343.
+
+     Crusade, Gregory VII.'s plan for, 283;
+       Urban II.'s speech in behalf of, 284-288;
+       first crusade proclaimed, 287-288;
+       motives for, 288;
+       starting of the crusaders, 289-291;
+       letters of crusaders, 291-292;
+       Stephen of Blois to his wife, 292-296;
+       early achievements of, 293;
+       of St. Louis to Egypt, 313, 318-322.
+
+     Cyprus, St. Louis in, 316;
+       departs from, 317.
+
+
+     Dacia, ceded to the Visigoths, 33.
+
+     Danelaw, 185.
+
+     Danes (see Northmen), earliest visits to England, 181;
+       defeat Alfred the Great at Wilton, 182;
+       winter at Exeter, 183;
+       defeated by Alfred at Swanwich, 183;
+       winter at Chippenham, 184;
+       defeated by Alfred at Ethandune, 184;
+       treaties of peace with Alfred, 185.
+
+     Dante, career of, 446;
+       attachment to Holy Roman Empire, 446;
+       relation to Renaissance, 446-447;
+       defends Italian as a literary language, 447-452;
+       conception of imperial power, 452-453;
+       _De Monarchia_ quoted, 453-462.
+
+     Danube, Visigoths cross, 34-37.
+
+     Dauphine, origin of, 395.
+
+     _De Bello Gallico_ (by Julius Caesar), character of, 20;
+       quoted, 20-22;
+       used by Tacitus, 23.
+
+     Debt, in the Salic law, 66;
+       collection of among students, 342.
+
+     _Decime_, defined, 389.
+
+     _De Civitate Dei_ (by St. Augustine), Charlemagne's regard for,
+         111.
+
+     _De Divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergae reginae_ (by Hincmar),
+         quoted, 200-201.
+
+     _De Domino Divino_ (by Wyclif), nature of, 474.
+
+     _De Gestis Regum Anglorum_ (by William of Malmesbury), scope,
+         235;
+       quoted, 235-241, 289-290.
+
+     Degrees, university, 340.
+
+     _De Litteris Colendis_, addressed by Charlemagne to Abbot
+         Baugulf, 145;
+       quoted, 146-148;
+       work of education committed to the clergy, 146-147;
+       education essential to interpretation of Scriptures, 147.
+
+     Demesne, 125.
+
+     _De Monarchia_ (by Dante), nature of, 452-453;
+       quoted, 453-462.
+
+     _De odio et atia_, writ of, 307-308.
+
+     _De Partibus Saxoniae_, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, 119;
+       quoted, 120-123;
+       churches as places of refuge, 120;
+       offenses against the Church, 121;
+       penalties for persistence in paganism, 122;
+       fugitive criminals, 123;
+       public assemblies, 123.
+
+     _De Rebus Familiaribus_ (by Petrarch), quoted, 465-473.
+
+     _De Rebus Gestis Aelfredi Magni_ (by Asser), quoted, 182-185,
+         186-191.
+
+     _De Temporibus_ (by Eusebius), preface to, cited by Petrarch,
+         468.
+
+     _De Villis_, capitulary issued by Charlemagne, 124;
+       translation of, 124;
+       quoted, 124-127;
+       reports to be made by the stewards, 125;
+       equipment, 125-127;
+       produce due the king, 127.
+
+     _De Vulgari Eloquentia_ (by Dante), 447-448.
+
+     Deusdedit, 262.
+
+     _Dictatus Papae_, authorship of, 262;
+       quoted, 262-264.
+
+     Diedenhofen, Louis, Lothair, and Charles meet at, 158.
+
+     _Divina Commedia_ (by Dante), 446.
+
+     Domains, Charlemagne's capitulary concerning, 124-127;
+       specimen inventory of property, 127-129.
+
+     Domesday Survey, 243.
+
+     Dominicans, founded, 360.
+
+     Dordrecht, burned by the Northmen, 159;
+       again taken, 161.
+
+     Dorset, Danes land in, 181.
+
+     Dorylaeum, Turks defeated at, 293.
+
+     Druids, among the Gauls, 20-21.
+
+     Dudo, dean of St. Quentin, 165.
+
+
+     Easter tables, origin of mediaeval annals, 157.
+
+     Eastern Empire, menaced by Seljuk Turks, 282-283, 285.
+
+     Ebolus, abbot of St. Germain des Pres, 169-170.
+
+     Edington (see Ethandune).
+
+     Education, decline among the Franks, 144-147;
+       Charlemagne's provisions for, 145-148;
+       the Palace School, 144;
+       decline after Charlemagne, 145;
+       entrusted by Charlemagne to the clergy, 146;
+       Alfred's interest in, 185;
+       of Alfred's children, 187;
+       Alfred's labors in behalf of, 189-191;
+       Alfred laments decline of, 192;
+       universities in the Middle Ages, 339-359.
+
+     Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, 187.
+
+     Edward the Confessor, death of, 233.
+
+     Edward III., claim to French throne, 421;
+       takes title of king of France, 421-424;
+       wins battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       takes position at Crecy, 427;
+       prepares for battle, 429;
+       defeats French army, 433-436;
+       new invasion of France, 439;
+       concludes treaty of Bretigny, 439-442.
+
+     Edward, the Black Prince, wins his spurs at Crecy, 434-435;
+       besieges and sacks Limoges, 436-439.
+
+     Egbert's stone, Alfred meets English people at, 184.
+
+     Einhard, describes weakness of later Merovingians, 106-107;
+       career of, 108;
+       author of _Vita Caroli Magni_, 109;
+       sketch of Charlemagne, 109-114;
+       account of the Saxon war, 116-118;
+       statement regarding Charlemagne's coronation, 133.
+
+     Elbe, German boundary in Charlemagne's day, 330.
+
+     Electors, of Holy Roman Empire, provisions of Golden Bull
+         regarding, 409-416.
+
+     Ely, bishop of, 300.
+
+     Empire (see Eastern Empire; Holy Roman Empire, and the names of
+         emperors).
+
+     England, ravaged by the Danes, 181;
+       Alfred the Great becomes king, 182;
+       Alfred's wars with the Danes, 182-185;
+       navy founded by Alfred, 183;
+       treaty of Wedmore, 185;
+       decadence of learning, 186;
+       Alfred brings learned men to, 190-191;
+       Alfred writes to Bishop Werfrith on state of learning in,
+           191-194;
+       William the Conqueror's claim to throne of, 234;
+       Harold becomes king of, 234;
+       William the Conqueror prepares to invade, 234;
+       battle of Hastings, 235-238;
+       Saxons and Normans, 238-241;
+       William the Conqueror's government of, 241-244;
+       reign of King John, 297-298;
+       the winning of the Great Charter, 298-303;
+       provisions of the Charter, 305-310;
+       Edward III. claims French throne, 421-423;
+       naval battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       battle of Crecy, 427-436;
+       the Black Prince sacks Limoges, 436-439;
+       treaty of Bretigny, 439, 441-442;
+       treaty of Troyes, 440, 443;
+       religious decline in fourteenth century, 474;
+       Wyclif's career, 474-475.
+
+     _Epistolae de Rebus Senilibus_ (by Petrarch), 464.
+
+     _Epistolae sine Titulo_ (by Petrarch), 464.
+
+     _Epistolae Variae_ (by Petrarch), 464.
+
+     Erfurt, University of, founded, 345.
+
+     _Etablissements de St. Louis_, quoted, 217, 223-224.
+
+     Ethandune, Alfred defeats Danes at, 184.
+
+     Ethelbert, king of Kent, 72;
+       accepts Christianity, 73, 77;
+       power of, 74;
+       receives Augustine, 76;
+       encourages missionary effort, 77.
+
+     Ethelred I., king of the English, 182.
+
+     Ethelstan, of Mercia, 190.
+
+     Ethelwerd, son of Alfred the Great, 186.
+
+     Eugene IV., and Council of Basel, 393.
+
+     Eurie, king of the Northmen, 166;
+       defeated by Louis the German, 166.
+
+     Eusebius, author of _De Temporibus_, 468.
+
+     Excommunication, nature of, 380;
+       of Henry IV. by Gregory VII., 272;
+       of Frederick II. by Gregory IX., 406.
+
+     Exeter, Danes winter at, 183.
+
+
+     Fealty, ceremony of, 216-217;
+       described in an English law book, 218;
+       rendered to count of Flanders, 218-219;
+       ordinance of St. Louis on, 219.
+
+     Feudalism, importance of, in mediaeval history, 203;
+       most perfectly developed in France, 203-204;
+       essential elements, 204;
+       origins of vassalage, 204-205;
+       formula for commendation, 205-206;
+       development of the benefice, 206-207;
+       example of grant of a benefice, 207-210;
+       origins and nature of the immunity, 210-211;
+       formula for grant of immunity, 211-212;
+       an immunity confirmed by Charlemagne, 212-214;
+       nature of the fief, 214;
+       specimen grants of fiefs, 215-216;
+       complexity of the system, 216;
+       ceremonies of homage and fealty, 216-217;
+       homage defined, 217;
+       fealty described, 218;
+       homage and fealty illustrated, 218-219;
+       ordinance of St. Louis on homage and fealty, 219;
+       obligations of lords and vassals, 220-221;
+       rights of the lord, 221-228;
+       aids, 222-223;
+       military service involved, 223-224;
+       wardship and marriage, 224-225;
+       reliefs, 225-226;
+       forfeiture, 226-228;
+       militant character of feudal period, 228-229;
+       efforts to reduce private war, 229;
+       the Peace and Truce of God, 229-232;
+       provisions of Great Charter concerning, 306-307.
+
+     Fief, relation to benefice, 207;
+       nature, 214;
+       specimen grants, 215-216.
+
+     Fitz-Walter, Robert, besieges castle of Northampton, 301.
+
+     Flanders, influence on Hundred Years' War, 419;
+       allied with Edward III., 421-423.
+
+     Flanders, William, count of, homage and fealty to, 218-219.
+
+     Florence, Dante born at, 445.
+
+     Fontaines, St. Bernard born at, 251.
+
+     Fontenay, Charles and Louis defeat Lothair at, 150.
+
+     Forfeiture, nature, 226-227;
+       case of Arnold Atton, 227-228.
+
+     Formula, for commendation, 205-206;
+       for grant of a benefice, 207-210;
+       for grant of immunity to a bishop, 211-212.
+
+     France, Hugh Capet becomes king, 177-180;
+       geographical extent in 987, 180;
+       feudalism most perfectly developed in, 203-204;
+       over-population of described by Pope Urban, 286;
+       in times of Louis IX., 311-324;
+       treaty of Paris (1229), 322;
+       rise of municipalities in, 325-326;
+       interdict laid on by Innocent III., 380-383;
+       Philip the Fair's contest with Boniface VIII., 383-388;
+       States General meets, 385;
+       responsibility for Great Schism, 389-390;
+       Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 393-397;
+       disputed succession in 1328, 419-420;
+       Edward III. takes title of king, 421-423;
+       naval battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       battle of Crecy, 427-436;
+       siege and sack of Limoges, 436-439;
+       treaty of Bretigny, 439, 441-442;
+       treaty of Troyes, 440, 443.
+
+     _Francia Occidentalis_, 155.
+
+     _Francia Orientalis_, 155.
+
+     _Francia_, territorial extent, 152, 155.
+
+     Francis I., Concordat of, 394.
+
+     Franciscans, founded, 360, 361;
+       life of St. Francis, 363-373;
+       Rule of St. Francis, 373-376;
+       Will of St. Francis, 376-378.
+
+     Frankfort, electors of Empire to assemble at, 412.
+
+     Franks, conquer northern Gaul, 49;
+       become Christians, 49, 54;
+       character of conversion, 50;
+       close relations with papacy, 50;
+       Clovis becomes king of the Salians, 50;
+       defeat Syagrius at Soissons, 51;
+       defeat Alaric near Poitiers, 56;
+       Salic law, 59-67;
+       decadence of Merovingians, 105;
+       rise of Mayor of the Palace, 105;
+       early mayors, 105;
+       Pepin the Short becomes king, 105-107;
+       the age of Charlemagne, 108-148;
+       the war with the Saxons, 114-118;
+       Charlemagne's capitularies, 118-127, 134-141;
+       Charlemagne crowned emperor, 130-134;
+       decay of learning among, 144;
+       Carolingian Renaissance, 144-148;
+       disorder among in ninth century, 157-163;
+       menaced by invasions of Northmen, 160-163;
+       decline of monarchy in ninth century, 173;
+       rise of feudalism among, 173-174.
+
+     Freckenhorst, sacred relics brought to, 163.
+
+     Frederick, bishop of Hamburg, issues charter for a colony,
+         332-333.
+
+     Frederick Barbarossa, grants privileges to students and masters,
+         341-343;
+       and the Italian communes, 398-399;
+       destroys Milan, 399;
+       defeated at Legnano, 399;
+       agrees to Peace of Constance, 399-400.
+
+     Frederick II., accession of, 402-403;
+       character, 403-404;
+       suspected of heresy, 405;
+       excommunicated, 406, 408-409.
+
+     Friars, conditions determining rise of, 360;
+       unlike monks, 360-361;
+       relations with papacy and local clergy, 361;
+       system of organization, 361;
+       career of St. Francis, 362-378;
+       Rule of St. Francis, 373-376;
+       Will of St. Francis, 376-378.
+
+     Fridigern, leader of branch of Visigoths, 33-34, 38, 39.
+
+     Friesland (see Frisia).
+
+     Frisia, Northmen in, 159, 162, 166.
+
+     Froissart, Sire de, "Chronicles" of, 417-418.
+
+     Fulbert of Chartres, letter to William of Aquitaine, 220-221.
+
+     Fulcher of Chartres, version of Pope Urban's speech, 286;
+       account of starting of crusaders, 290-291.
+
+     Fulda, Einhard educated at, 108, 145.
+
+     Fulrad, Charlemagne's letter to, 142-144;
+       summoned to assembly at Strassfurt, 143;
+       troops and equipment to be brought, 143;
+       gifts for the Emperor, 143-144.
+
+
+     Gaiseric, 112.
+
+     Galicia, Northmen visit, 166.
+
+     Gatinais, 329.
+
+     _Gau_, 25.
+
+     Gaul, conquered by Julius Caesar, 19, 32;
+       invaded by Cimbri and Teutons, 32;
+       Syagrius's kingdom in, 51;
+       the Franks take possession in the north, 51;
+       Clovis overthrows Visigothic power in south, 55-57;
+       monasteries established in, 83;
+       Charlemagne transplants Saxons into, 117-118;
+       Northmen devastate, 159;
+       survival of Roman immunity in, 210.
+
+     Geoffrey of Clairvaux, 251.
+
+     _Germania_ (by Tacitus), nature and purpose, 23;
+       contents, 24;
+       translation and editions, 24;
+       quoted, 24-31.
+
+     Germans, described by Caesar, 19-22;
+       religion, 21;
+       system of land tenure, 21;
+       magistrates and war leaders, 22;
+       hospitality, 22;
+       described by Tacitus, 23-31;
+       location in Caesar's day, 20;
+       physical characteristics, 24;
+       use of iron, 24;
+       weapons, 24-25;
+       mode of fighting, 25-26, 40;
+       ideas of military honor, 25, 64;
+       kingship, 26;
+       tribal assemblies, 26-27;
+       investment with arms, 27;
+       the _princeps_ and _comitatus_, 27, 28;
+       love of war, 28-29;
+       agriculture, 21, 29;
+       life in times of peace, 29;
+       absence of tax systems, 29;
+       lack of cities and city life, 29;
+       villages, 30;
+       food and drink, 30;
+       amusements, 30;
+       slavery, 31;
+       early contact with the Romans, 32-33;
+       defeat Varus, 32;
+       put Romans on the defensive, 32;
+       filter into the Empire, 33;
+       invasions begin, 33;
+       generally Christianized before invasion of Empire, 48;
+       character of their conversion, 49-50;
+       ideas of law, 59-60;
+       influenced by contact with Romans, 60;
+       codification of law, 60;
+       legal ideas and methods, 196;
+       compurgation,196;
+       use of the ordeal, 196-197.
+
+     Germany, Henry IV.'s position in, 264-265;
+       Henry V.'s government of, 278;
+       question of lay investiture in, 265-281;
+       colonization toward the east, 331-332;
+       colony chartered by bishop of Hamburg, 331-333;
+       decline of imperial power, 334;
+       chaotic conditions, 334;
+       rise of municipal leagues, 334;
+       the Rhine League, 335-338;
+       rise of universities in, 345;
+       in Frederick Barbarossa's period, 398-399;
+       under Frederick II., 402-409;
+       conditions after Frederick II., 409-410;
+       Golden Bull of Charles IV., 410-416.
+
+     Genghis Khan, empire of, 316.
+
+     Ghent, Council at, 423-424.
+
+     Gildas, story of Saxon invasion of Britain, 68.
+
+     Gillencourt, granted to Jocelyn d'Avalon, 216.
+
+     Gisela, 173.
+
+     Gloucester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, 242.
+
+     Godfrey of Bouillon, 289.
+
+     Golden Bull, promulgated by Charles IV.,
+       409;
+       character of, 409.
+
+     Gozlin, bishop of Paris, 168.
+
+     _Grace expectative_, nature of, 396.
+
+     Gratian, 35, 38.
+
+     Great Council, in William the Conqueror's time, 242;
+       provisions of Great Charter concerning, 306;
+       composition, 307.
+
+     Greek fire, nature of, 319;
+       used by the Saracens, 319-321.
+
+     Gregory of Nazianzus, cited by Pope Gregory, 93.
+
+     Gregory of Tours, facts regarding career, 47;
+       author of _Ecclesiastical History of the Franks_, 47-48;
+       opportunities for knowledge, 48;
+       account of Frankish affairs quoted, 50-59;
+       account of ordeal by hot water quoted, 198-200.
+
+     Gregory I. (the Great), plans conversion of Saxons, 72;
+       sends Augustine to Britain, 72-73;
+       becomes pope, 73, 90;
+       letter of encouragement to Augustine's band, 74;
+       early career, 90;
+       qualifications, 90-91;
+       author of the _Pastoral Rule_, 91;
+       describes the functions of the secular clergy, 91-96;
+       attitude toward worldly learning, 95;
+       _Pastoral Rule_ translated by Alfred, 186, 193.
+
+     Gregory IV., 158.
+
+     Gregory VI., 261.
+
+     Gregory VII., early career, 261;
+       becomes pope, 261, 269;
+       conceptions of papal authority, 262-264;
+       breach with Henry IV., 264;
+       letter to Henry IV., 265-269;
+       claim to authority over temporal princes, 266;
+       avows purpose to correct abuses in the Church, 267;
+       disposed to treat Henry IV. fairly, 268;
+       letter to, from Henry IV., 269-272;
+       charges against, by Henry IV., 272;
+       deposes him, 272-273;
+       meets Henry IV. at Canossa, 274, 275;
+       absolves him, 276;
+       project for a crusade, 283.
+
+     Gregory IX., 403, 406.
+
+     Gregory XI., removes to Rome, 389;
+       bull concerning Lollards, 475.
+
+     Gregory XII., abdicates papacy, 391.
+
+     Grimbald, brought from Gaul by Alfred, 190.
+
+     Guienne, English and French dispute possession of, 419.
+
+     Guiscard, Roger, 341.
+
+     Guthrum, peace of Alfred and, 185;
+       becomes a Christian, 185.
+
+
+     Hadrian, I., 111, 130.
+
+     Hamburg, pillaged by the Slavs, 331;
+       bishop of, grants charter for a colony, 331-333.
+
+     Hanseatic League, 334.
+
+     Harold Hardrada, defeated at Stamford Bridge, 234.
+
+     Harold, son of Godwin, chosen king of England, 234;
+       position disputed by William the Conqueror, 234;
+       defeats Harold Hardrada, 234;
+       takes station at Hastings, 234;
+       valor and death, 237.
+
+     Hastings, English take position at, 234;
+       they prepare for battle, 235;
+       the Normans prepare, 236;
+       William's strategem, 236-237.
+
+     Heidelberg, University of, founded, 345;
+       charter of, 345-350;
+       modelled on University of Paris, 346;
+       internal government, 347-348;
+       jurisdiction of bishop of Worms, 348;
+       exemptions enjoyed by students, 349;
+       rates for lodgings, 350.
+
+     Hell, portrayed in the Koran, 103-104.
+
+     Hengist, legendary leader of Saxons, 71;
+       ancestry, 71.
+
+     Henry of Champagne, grants fief to bishop of Beauvais, 215.
+
+     Henry I. of England, charter of, 298, 304, 306.
+
+     Henry III. of England, concludes treaty of Paris with St. Louis,
+         322.
+
+     Henry V. of England, in Hundred Years' War, 440;
+       marries daughter of Charles VI., 441;
+       awarded French crown by treaty of Troyes, 443.
+
+     Henry I. of Germany, movement against the Slavs, 331.
+
+     Henry III. of Germany, 273.
+
+     Henry IV. of Germany, controversy opens with Gregory VII., 264;
+       wins battle on the Unstrutt, 265;
+       letter of Gregory VII. to, 265-269;
+       exhorted to confess and repent sins, 266, 268;
+       reply to letter of Gregory VII., 269-272;
+       rejects papal claim to temporal supremacy, 270;
+       excommunicated by Gregory VII., 272;
+       deposed by him, 272-273;
+       penance at Canossa, 273-277;
+       oath of, 277-278.
+
+     Henry V. of Germany, succeeds Henry IV., 278;
+       his spirit of independence, 278;
+       invasion of Italy, 278;
+       compact with Paschal II., 278;
+       party to Concordat of Worms, 279-281.
+
+     Henry VI. of Germany, 400, 402.
+
+     Henry VII. of Germany, 433.
+
+     Hermaneric, king of the Ostrogoths, 33.
+
+     Hide, a land measure, 242.
+
+     Hildebrand (see Gregory VII.).
+
+     Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, 165;
+       description of ordeal by cold water, 200-201.
+
+     Hippo, St. Augustine bishop of, 112.
+
+     _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ (by the Venerable Bede),
+         scope and character, 68;
+       quoted, 69-72, 73-77;
+       translation of, 69.
+
+     _Historia Ecclesiastica Francorum_ (by Gregory of Tours), scope
+         and character, 48-49;
+       quoted, 50-59.
+
+     _Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem_ (by Raimond of
+         Agiles), quoted, 201-202.
+
+     _Historia Iherosolimitana_ (by Robert the Monk), quoted, 284-288.
+
+     _Historia Iherosolimitana_ (by Fulcher of Chartres), quoted,
+         290-291.
+
+     _Historiarum Libri IV._ (by Nithardus), scope, 151;
+       quoted, 151-154.
+
+     _Historiarum Libri IV._ (by Richer), scope, 178;
+       quoted, 178-180.
+
+     _Histoire de Saint Louis_ (by Joinville), character, 312;
+       quoted, 313-324.
+
+     Hollanders, receive charter from bishop of Hamburg, 332-333;
+       fiscal obligations, 332;
+       judicial immunity, 333.
+
+     Holy Roman Empire, coronation of Charlemagne, 130-134;
+       character and significance, 131-132;
+       difficulty of holding together, 149;
+       disordered condition in ninth century, 157-163;
+       Henry IV.'s position in, 264-265;
+       question of lay investiture in, 265-281;
+       Henry V., emperor, 278;
+       Concordat of Worms, 278-281;
+       weakening of central authority, 334;
+       chaotic condition, 334;
+       rise of municipal leagues, 334;
+       the Rhine League, 335-338;
+       in 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, 398-416;
+       Frederick Barbarossa at head of, 398;
+       Peace of Constance, 399-402;
+       accession of Frederick II., 403;
+       II., 403;
+       Dante's attachment to, 446;
+       Dante's defense of in _De Monarchia_, 452-462.
+
+     Homage, ceremony of, 216-217;
+       a Norman definition of, 217;
+       rendered to count of Flanders, 218-219;
+       ordinance of St. Louis on, 219.
+
+     Homer, Dante's knowledge of, 449;
+       Petrarch interested in, 467.
+
+     Homicide, in the Salic law, 65.
+
+     Honorius III., St. Francis promises allegiance to, 375.
+
+     Horace, alluded to by Petrarch, 468.
+
+     Horsa, legendary leader of Saxons, 71;
+       death, 71;
+       ancestry, 71.
+
+     _Hote_, defined, 329.
+
+     House of Commons, origin of, 307.
+
+     House of Lords, origin of, 307.
+
+     Hugh Capet, establishes Capetian dynasty, 177;
+       Adalbero urges election as king, 178-180;
+       crowned at Noyon, 180;
+       extent of dominions, 180.
+
+     Humanism, rise of, 445;
+       Petrarch's love of the classics, 465-469.
+
+     Humber River, 71, 74, 191.
+
+     Hundred Years' War, causes, 418-419;
+       Edward III. and the Flemings, 421-424;
+       naval battle of Sluys, 424-427;
+       battle of Crecy, 427-436;
+       siege and sack of Limoges, 436-439;
+       treaty of Bretigny, 439, 441-442;
+       treaty of Troyes, 440, 443.
+
+     Huns, threaten the Goths, 33-34, 42;
+       characterized by Claudius Claudianus, 43;
+       described by Ammianus Marcellinus, 43-46;
+       physical appearance, 44;
+       dress, 44;
+       mode of fighting, 45;
+       nomadic character, 45;
+       greed and quarrelsomeness, 46.
+
+
+     Iacinthus, 199.
+
+     _Il Convito_ (by Dante), character of, 447;
+       quoted, 447-452.
+
+     Immunity, in Roman law, 210;
+       feudal, 210-211;
+       formula for grant to bishop, 211-212;
+       grant to a monastery confirmed by Charlemagne, 212-214;
+       in an East German colony, 333.
+
+     Incendiarism, in the Salic law, 63;
+       in the Burgundian law, 63.
+
+     Ingeborg, wife of Philip Augustus, 380-381.
+
+     Ingelheim, 108.
+
+     Inghen, Marsilius, rector of University of Heidelberg, 345.
+
+     Inheritance, in the Salic law, 66.
+
+     Innocent III., King John's surrender to, 297;
+       confirms privileges of University of Paris, 341;
+       approves work of St. Francis, 362;
+       lays interdict on France, 380-383.
+
+     Innocent IV., 403, 454.
+
+     _In Rufinum_ (by Claudius Claudianus), quoted, 43.
+
+     Interdict, nature of, 380;
+       laid on France, 380-383.
+
+     Interregnum, 334;
+       end of, 409-410.
+
+     Investiture, lay, 261;
+       Henry IV.'s disregard of Gregory VII.'s decrees concerning,
+         265;
+       Paschal II.'s decree prohibiting, 278;
+       agreement of 1111 concerning, 278;
+       settlement of by Concordat of Worms, 279-281.
+
+     Ireland, Christianity in, 72.
+
+     Irene, deposes Constantine VI., 132.
+
+     Irmensaule, destroyed by Charlemagne, 122.
+
+     Irnerius, teacher of law at Bologna, 340.
+
+     Isabella, mother of Edward III., 418-419;
+       excluded from French throne, 420.
+
+     Islam (see Koran, Mohammed).
+
+     Italian (language), Dante's defense of, 446-452.
+
+     Italy, Frederick Barbarossa and communes of, 398-399.
+
+
+     Jerusalem, captured by Arabs, 282;
+       by the Seljuk Turks, 282.
+
+     Jeufosse, Northmen winter at, 167.
+
+     Jocelyn d'Avalon, receives fief from Thiebault of Troyes, 216.
+
+     John, bishop of Ravenna, 91.
+
+     John the Old Saxon, brought from Gaul by Alfred, 191.
+
+     John, of England, character of reign, 297;
+       conference of magnates in opposition to, 298;
+       arranges truce with them, 299;
+       takes the cross, 300;
+       scorns the demands of the barons, 301;
+       loses London, 302;
+       consents to terms of Great Charter, 303.
+
+     John XXIII., elected pope, 390;
+       deposed, 391.
+
+     John, king of Bohemia, 421.
+
+     John II. of France, taken captive at Poitiers, 439;
+       later career, 442.
+
+     John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 440.
+
+     Joinville, Sire de, sketch of, 312;
+       biographer of St. Louis, 312.
+
+     Judith of Bavaria, 149.
+
+     Julian the Apostate, 271.
+
+     Jurats, in Laon, 328.
+
+     Jury, not provided for in Great Charter, 308.
+
+     Justice, among the early Germans, 22;
+       among the Franks, 61-67;
+       among the Saxons, 121-123;
+       Charlemagne's provision for in capitulary for the _missi_,
+         138-139;
+       compurgation, 196;
+       ordeal, 196-197;
+       administration of in the universities, 342, 344, 349.
+
+     Jutes, settle in Kent, 70.
+
+
+     Karlmann, son of Charles Martel, 105.
+
+     Kent, Saxons and Jutes settle in, 70;
+       Ethelbert, king of, 72, 74.
+
+     Kingship, among the early Germans, 26.
+
+     Knut VI., king of Denmark, 380.
+
+     Koran, origin of, 97;
+       scope and character, 98;
+       essential teachings, 98;
+       translation, 99;
+       quoted, 99-104;
+       opening prayer, 99;
+       unity of God, 99;
+       the resurrection, 100;
+       the coming judgment, 100;
+       reward of the righteous, 101;
+       fate of the wicked, 101;
+       pleasures of paradise, 102-103;
+       torments of hell, 103-104.
+
+     Kutuz, defeats Tartars, 317.
+
+
+     La Broyes, Philip VI. at castle of, 435.
+
+     La Ferte-sur-Aube, 216;
+       St. Bernard at, 256.
+
+     _L'Ancienne Coutume de Normandie_, quoted, 217, 222-223, 224-225.
+
+     Laon, 171;
+       charter of, 327-328.
+
+     Law, character of among the early Germans, 27, 59-60;
+       codification under Roman influence, 60;
+       the Salic code, 60-67;
+       of Alfred the Great, 194-195;
+       revival of Roman, 339-340;
+       study of at University of Bologna, 340.
+
+     Learning, revival under Charlemagne, 144-148;
+       decline after Charlemagne, 145;
+       Alfred on state of in England, 191-194;
+       decadence in England before the Conquest, 239;
+       revival in thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 445;
+       Petrarch's love of the classics, 465-469.
+
+     _Legend of the Three Companions_, quoted, 363-368, 376-378.
+
+     Legnano, Frederick Barbarossa defeated at, 399.
+
+     Leo I. (the Great), elected pope, 78;
+       sermon on the Petrine supremacy, 80-83.
+
+     Leo III., 111;
+       driven from Rome, 130;
+       appeals to Charlemagne, 130;
+       crowns Charlemagne emperor, 130, 132-134.
+
+     Leo IV., 160.
+
+     Leo IX., 261.
+
+     Leo, author of the _Mirror of Perfection_, 363.
+
+     Liberal Arts, place in Charlemagne's system of education, 145;
+       Alfred laments his ignorance of, 189, 339.
+
+     _Liber Regulae Pastoralis_ (by Pope Gregory I.), nature and value,
+         91;
+       translation of, 91;
+       quoted, 91-96;
+       qualities of the ideal pastor, 91-93, 96;
+       admonitions for various sorts of people, 94-95;
+       translated by Alfred, 186, 193.
+
+     _Libri Miraculorum_ (by Gregory of Tours), quoted, 198-200.
+
+     Liege, Henry IV. dies at, 278.
+
+     Limoges, siege of by the Black Prince, 436-439.
+
+     Limousin, 437.
+
+     Lindisfarne, plundered by Danes, 181.
+
+     _Little Flowers of St. Francis_, 363.
+
+     Loire, Clovis and Alaric meet on, 55;
+       Clovis's campaign beyond, 55-56;
+       Northmen on, 167.
+
+     Lollards, tenets of, 475.
+
+     Lombard League, formation of, 399;
+       Frederick Barbarossa's war upon, 399;
+       provisions of Peace of Constance regarding, 400-402.
+
+     Lombards, conquered by Charlemagne, 112, 115.
+
+     London, sacked by Danes, 181;
+       King John at, 299;
+       army of the barons arrives at, 302;
+       surrendered to the barons, 302;
+       treaty of, 439;
+       Wyclif's doctrines condemned in council at, 475.
+
+     Lorris, model of franchise towns, 327;
+       charter of, 328-330.
+
+     Lorsch, monastery at, 106;
+       _Lesser Annals_ of, 106.
+
+     Lothair, Charles and Louis combine against, 150;
+       defeated at Fontenay, 150;
+       oaths of Strassburg directed against, 151-154;
+       makes overtures for peace, 154;
+       lands received by treaty of Verdun, 155-156.
+
+     Lotharingia, 155.
+
+     Louis the Pious, capitulary on education, 145;
+       divides the Empire, 149.
+
+     Louis the German, combines with Charles the Bald against Lothair,
+         150-151;
+       takes oath at Strassburg, 152-153;
+       lands received by treaty of Verdun, 155-156;
+       advances against the Wends, 158, 159, 160;
+       expeditions against the Bohemians, 160-161;
+       defeats the Northmen, 166.
+
+     Louis the Stammerer, 174.
+
+     Louis V., last direct Carolingian, 177.
+
+     Louis VI. of France, ratifies charter of Laon, 327.
+
+     Louis VII. of France, 215;
+       grants charter to Lorris, 327.
+
+     Louis IX. of France, early career, 311, 313-314;
+       character, 311-312;
+       difficulties at beginning of reign, 314;
+       takes the cross, 314-315;
+       emulated by prominent nobles, 315;
+       in Cyprus, 316;
+       receives deputation from Khan of Tartary, 316-317;
+       arrival in Egypt, 318;
+       advances on Babylon (Cairo), 318;
+       operations on the lower Nile, 318-322;
+       negotiates treaty of Paris, 322;
+       personal traits, 323;
+       methods of dispensing justice, 323-324.
+
+     Louis X. of France, 419.
+
+     Louis XI. of France, seeks to revoke Pragmatic Sanction of
+         Bourges, 394.
+
+     Louis IV., Emperor, allied with Edward III., 421.
+
+     Luidhard, 75.
+
+     Luitbert, brings sacred relics to the Freckenhorst, 163.
+
+     Lyons, Council of, Frederick II. excommunicated at, 407.
+
+
+     Macon, 248.
+
+     Magdeburg, established, 331.
+
+     _Magna Charta_, the winning of, 298-303;
+       agreed to at Runnymede, 303;
+       importance and character, 303-304;
+       translations, 305;
+       quoted, 305-310;
+       liberties of the English church, 305;
+       rate of reliefs, 306;
+       aids, 306;
+       the Great Council, 307;
+       writ _de odio et atia_, 307-308;
+       personal liberties and prerogatives, 308;
+       freedom of commercial intercourse, 308-309;
+       means of enforcement, 309.
+
+     _Magna Moralia_, written by Pope Gregory, 91.
+
+     Mainz, a capital of Rhine League, 337;
+       archbishop of, to summon electors of the Empire, 412.
+
+     _Mallus_, character, 61;
+       summonses to, 61;
+       complaint to be made before, 63.
+
+     Manichaeus, 388.
+
+     Manzikert, Eastern emperor defeated at, 282.
+
+     Mapes, Walter, _Latin Poems_ attributed to, a source for mediaeval
+         students' songs, 352.
+
+     Marcomanni, 32, 35.
+
+     Marriage, of heiresses, right of lord to control, 224-225.
+
+     Marseilles, St. Louis's companions embark at, 315.
+
+     Marshall, William, surety for King John, 300-301.
+
+     Martian, 69.
+
+     Martin V., elected pope, 391;
+       and Council of Siena, 395.
+
+     Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, 234.
+
+     Matilda, Countess, ally of Gregory VII., 274.
+
+     Matthew Paris, 292;
+       _Greater Chronicle_ of, quoted, 405-409.
+
+     Maurice, 73.
+
+     May-field, character of in Charlemagne's time, 142.
+
+     Mayor of the Palace, rise of, 105;
+       office made hereditary, 105;
+       accession of Pepin the Short, 105;
+       latter becomes king, 107.
+
+     Merovingians, decadence of, 105-106;
+       end with Childeric III., 105.
+
+     Merovius, ancestor of Clovis, 50.
+
+     Metz, 154;
+       diet of, 410;
+       electors of Empire to meet at, 416.
+
+     Milan, Frederick Barbarossa destroys, 398-399.
+
+     _Ministeriales_, functions of, 188.
+
+     _Missaticae_, 135.
+
+     _Missi dominici_, 123;
+       Charlemagne's capitulary for, 134;
+       character and functions, 134-137;
+       employed by Charles Martel and Pepin the Short, 135;
+       to promulgate royal decrees, 141;
+       abuses of, 175-176;
+       in ninth century, 175-176.
+
+     Moesia, Visigoths settle in, 34.
+
+     Mohammed, sayings comprised in Koran, 97;
+       principal teachings, 98.
+
+     Monastery, formula for grant of _precarium_ by, 209-210;
+       grant of immunity confirmed to, 212-214.
+
+     Monasticism, rise of, 83-84;
+       character of in the East and West, 83;
+       abbey of St. Martin established, 83;
+       Monte Cassino established by St. Benedict, 84;
+       the Benedictine rule, 84-90;
+       character and functions of the abbot, 84-86;
+       prohibition of individual property-holding, 87;
+       manual labor, 88;
+       reading and study, 89;
+       hospitality, 89;
+       decadence in eighth and ninth centuries, 245;
+       the Cluniac reform, 245-246;
+       St. Bernard's reformation of, 250;
+       founding of Clairvaux, 256-258.
+
+     Monotheism, set forth in the Koran, 99.
+
+     Monte Cassino, monastery founded at, 84;
+       Karlmann withdraws to, 105.
+
+     Montlheri, St. Louis at, 314;
+       English army at, 439.
+
+     Mortmain, prohibited by charter of Laon, 328.
+
+     Murder, Charlemagne's legislation on, 141.
+
+
+     Nantes, pillaged by Northmen, 165.
+
+     Nazianzus, Gregory, bishop of, 93.
+
+     Nerva, 34.
+
+     New Forest, of William the Conqueror, 244.
+
+     Nicaea, Council of, 198;
+       Seljuk Turks established at, 282;
+       crusaders converge at, 290.
+
+     Nice, Visigoths advance toward, 38.
+
+     Nicholas II., 269.
+
+     Nile, St. Louis's operations on, 318.
+
+     Nithardus, author of _Historiarum Libri IV._, 151;
+       career, 151.
+
+     Nogaret, William of, captures Boniface VIII., 385.
+
+     Nomenoe, conflicts with Charles the Bald, 167.
+
+     Normans, rapid civilization of, 233;
+       retain adventuresome disposition, 233;
+       in battle of Hastings, 236-238;
+       described by William of Malmesbury, 238-241.
+
+     Normandy, ceded by Charles the Simple to Rollo, 172;
+       improvement under Norman regime, 173;
+       William the Bastard becomes duke of, 233-234;
+       English and French dispute possession of, 419.
+
+     Northampton, castle of, besieged by the English barons, 301.
+
+     Northmen, in Frisia and Gaul, 159-160;
+       in Frisia and Saxony, 162;
+       burn church of St. Martin at Tours, 162, 167;
+       motives of the Norse invasions, 163;
+       pillage, Nantes, 165;
+       winter at Rhe, 165;
+       ascend Garonne, 166;
+       in Spain, 166;
+       at Paris, 166;
+       in Frisia and Brittany, 166;
+       threaten Orleans, 167;
+       at Angers, 167;
+       pillage Orleans, 167;
+       plunder Pisa, 168;
+       besiege Paris, 168-171;
+       bought off by Charles the Fat, 171;
+       receive Normandy from Charles the Simple, 172;
+       become Christians, 173. (See Danes.)
+
+     Notre Dame, cathedral school of, 340.
+
+     Noyon, Hugh Capet crowned at, 180.
+
+     Nuremberg, diet of, 410.
+
+
+     Odo, becomes king of France, 168, 177;
+       defense of Paris, 169-170;
+       mission to Charles the Fat, 170-171.
+
+     Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned by William the Conqueror, 243.
+
+     Oppenheim, convention of, 274.
+
+     Ordeal, nature of, 197;
+       use among Germanic peoples, 197;
+       various forms, 197;
+       an Arian presbyter tested by, 198-200;
+       by cold water described, 200-201;
+       Peter Bartholomew subjected to by fire, 201-202.
+
+     Origen, 387.
+
+     Orleans, threatened by the Northmen, 167;
+       pillaged by them, 167.
+
+     Orosius, 186.
+
+     Ostrogoths, fall before the Huns, 33.
+
+     Otger, archbishop of Mainz, 152, 160.
+
+     Otto I. of Germany, 331.
+
+     Otto II. of Germany, loses ground to the Slavs, 331.
+
+     Otto III. of Germany, 403.
+
+     Otto IV. of Germany, 401;
+       crowned at Rome, 403;
+       defeated at Bouvines, 403.
+
+     Oxford, Wyclif educated at, 474;
+       banishes Lollards, 475.
+
+
+     Paderborn, Frankish assembly at, 119;
+       Pope Leo III. meets Charlemagne at, 130.
+
+     _Pagus_, 25.
+
+     Paradise, portrayed in the Koran, 102-103.
+
+     Palace School, origin of, 144;
+       enlargement by Charlemagne, 112-113, 144-145.
+
+     Papacy, views on origin of, 78-79;
+       reasons for growth, 78-79;
+       theory of Petrine supremacy, 79;
+       Pope Leo's sermon, 80-83;
+       Gregory becomes pope, 73, 90;
+       his literary efforts, 91;
+       describes functions of secular clergy, 91-96;
+       Pope Zacharias sanctions deposition of Merovingian line, 107;
+       Pope Leo III. crowns Charlemagne emperor, 130-134;
+       Cluny's relations with, 249;
+       Gregory VII.'s conception of, 262-264;
+       Gregory VII.'s claim to authority over temporal princes, 266;
+       Henry IV.'s rejection of claim of, 270;
+       Calixtus II. agrees to Concordat of Worms, 278-281;
+       relations of friars with, 361;
+       St. Francis's attitude towards, 375, 377-378;
+       and temporal powers in later Middle Ages, 380-397;
+       contest of Innocent III. and Philip Augustus, 380-383;
+       Boniface VIII.'s bull _Unam Sanctam_, 383-388;
+       Babylonian Captivity, 383, 389;
+       Great Schism, 389-390;
+       declarations of Councils of Pisa and Constance, 390-393;
+       provisions of Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges regarding powers
+         of, 395-397;
+       conflicts with Frederick II., 405-409;
+       Dante enumerates theories in defense of, 453-455;
+       defines true position of, 456-462;
+       Wyclif's ideas concerning, 475-477.
+
+     Paris, Clovis's capital, 57;
+       his death at, 59;
+       Northmen at, 166;
+       Northmen prepare to besiege, 168;
+       attack upon, 169-171;
+       importance of siege, 171;
+       treaty of (1259), 322;
+       treaty of (1396), 439.
+
+     Paris, University of, origin, 340;
+       privileges granted to students by Philip Augustus, 341,
+         343-345;
+       Heidelberg modelled on, 346;
+       case of Great Schism laid before, 390;
+       proposals regarding Schism, 371-392.
+
+     Paschal II., accession to papacy, 278;
+       decree prohibiting lay investiture, 278;
+       relations with Henry V., 278.
+
+     _Patrocinium_, a prototype of vassalage, 204.
+
+     Paul the Deacon, in Charlemagne's Palace School, 144.
+
+     Paulinus of Aquileia, in Charlemagne's Palace School, 144.
+
+     Pavia, taken by Charlemagne, 112.
+
+     Peace of God, decreed by Church councils, 229;
+       decree of Council of Toulouges, 229-232.
+
+     Pelagius II., sends Gregory to Constantinople, 90.
+
+     Penalties, in the Salic law, 62-65;
+       in Charlemagne's _De Partibus Saxoniae_, 121-123;
+       in Alfred's legislation, 194-195;
+       for violation of an immunity, 214;
+       for violation of Peace and Truce of God, 230-232.
+
+     Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, 105;
+       mayor of the palace, 105;
+       sends deputation to Pope Zacharias, 106;
+       crowned by Pope Stephen III., 106;
+       advised to take title of king, 107;
+       anointed by Boniface at Soissons, 107.
+
+     Pepin, grandson of Louis the Pious, 152, 158.
+
+     Peter Bartholomew, subjected to ordeal by fire, 198, 201-202.
+
+     Peter of Catana, minister-general of Franciscans, 370.
+
+     Peter of Pisa, brought to Charlemagne's court, 112;
+       in the Palace School, 144.
+
+     Petrarch, career of, 462-463;
+       part in the Renaissance, 463;
+       writings, 464-465;
+       love of the classics, 465-469;
+       letter to Posterity, 469-473.
+
+     Petrine Supremacy, theory of, 79;
+       Pope Leo's sermon on, 80-83;
+       mediaeval acceptance of, 79;
+       theory of stated by Gregory VII., 267;
+       allusion to in _Unam Sanctam_, 386;
+       Dante's conception of, 456-457.
+
+     Pfahlburgers, provision of Rhine League concerning, 337.
+
+     Philip II. (Augustus) of France, privileges granted to students
+         by, 343-345;
+       contest with Innocent III., 380-383;
+       imposes Saladin tithe, 390.
+
+     Philip IV. (the Fair) of France, contest with Boniface VIII.,
+         383-385;
+       convenes States General, 385;
+       sons of, 419.
+
+     Philip V. of France, 419.
+
+     Philip VI. of France, acquires the Dauphine, 395;
+       accession of, 420;
+       advances with army to Crecy, 430-431;
+       defeated at Crecy, 433-436.
+
+     Philip of Hohenstaufen, 402-403.
+
+     Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 440.
+
+     Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 440.
+
+     Philippa, wife of Edward III., 425.
+
+     Piacenza, Council of, 283.
+
+     Picts, menace the Britons, 68;
+       Saxons called in against, 69;
+       Saxons ally with, 71.
+
+     Pilgrimages, to Jerusalem, 282-283.
+
+     Pisa, Council of, convened, 390;
+       declarations of, 392-393.
+
+     Plato, Petrarch loans a volume of, 469.
+
+     Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury, 190.
+
+     Pliny the Elder, probably used by Tacitus, 23.
+
+     Poitiers, 55, 56;
+       battle of, 418.
+
+     Pontus, 35.
+
+     Posidonius of Rhodes, probably used by Tacitus, 23.
+
+     Prague, University of founded, 345.
+
+     _Precarium_, nature of, 206;
+       prototype of the benefice, 206-207;
+       example of grant, 207-210.
+
+     _Principes_, among the early Germans, 27-28;
+       conduct in battle, 28.
+
+     Prudence, bishop of Troyes, 165.
+
+
+     Quadi, 35.
+
+     _Quadrivium_, 145, 339.
+
+
+     Ragnachar, kinsman of Clovis, 51;
+       slain, 58-59.
+
+     Raymond of Agiles, account of ordeal by fire, 201-202.
+
+     Raymond, count of Toulouse, letter to Arnold Atton, 227-228.
+
+     Raymond of St. Gilles, 294-295.
+
+     Ravenna, Dante's death at, 446.
+
+     Reformation, foreshadowings of, 474-477.
+
+     _Regalia_, in Concordat of Worms, 279-280;
+       claimed by Frederick Barbarossa, 398;
+       grant of to Lombard cities, 400-401.
+
+     Relief, defined, 223, 225;
+       origin, 225-226;
+       examples, 226;
+       rate fixed by Great Charter, 306.
+
+     Religion, of the early Germans, 21;
+       rise of Mohammedanism, 97-104;
+       the Koran quoted, 99-104;
+       Charlemagne's zeal for, 113.
+
+     Remigius, bishop of Rheims, 54.
+
+     Renaissance (Carolingian), conditions preceding, 144;
+       Charlemagne's part in, 145-146.
+
+     Renaissance (Italian), nature of, 444-445;
+       career of Dante, 446-447;
+       Dante's defense of Italian as literary language, 446-452;
+       Dante's conception of the imperial power, 452-462;
+       career and writings of Petrarch, 462-465;
+       Petrarch's love of the classics, 465-469;
+       his letter to Posterity, 469-473.
+
+     _Rerum Gestarum Libri qui Supersunt_ (by Ammianus Marcellinus),
+         quoted, 34-37, 38-41, 43-46.
+
+     _Reserve_, nature of, 396.
+
+     Resurrection, portrayed in the Koran, 100.
+
+     Rhe, Northmen winter at, 165.
+
+     Rhine, the Roman frontier, 19-20;
+       trade in vicinity of, 30, 32.
+
+     Rhine League, conditions influencing formation, 334;
+       instituted at Worms, 335;
+       restrictions imposed on members, 335;
+       treatment of enemies of, 335-336;
+       capitals, 337;
+       governing body, 337;
+       military preparations, 338.
+
+     Richar, slain by Clovis, 59.
+
+     Richer, author of _Four Books of Histories_, 178.
+
+     Rivo Torto, St. Francis at, 369.
+
+     Robert I., 169, 177.
+
+     Robert the Strong, 168, 177.
+
+     Robert the Monk, version of Pope Urban's speech, 283-288.
+
+     Robert of Artois, connection with Hundred Years' War, 423.
+
+     Robertians, 168;
+       rivalry with Carolingians, 177.
+
+     Roger de Hoveden, 292.
+
+     Roger of Wendover, account of the winning of the Great Charter,
+         298-303, 404.
+
+     Roland, Song of, 236.
+
+     Rollo, receives Normandy from Charles the Simple, 172;
+       baptized, 172;
+       improvement of Normandy, 173.
+
+     Romans, conquest of Gaul by, 19;
+       travelers and traders in Germany, 23, 32;
+       defeat of Varus, 32;
+       put on the defensive, 32;
+       early contact with the Germans, 32-33;
+       alarmed by reports of Gothic restlessness, 35;
+       mistreat the Visigoths, 37;
+       defeated at Adrianople, 39-41;
+       withdraw garrisons from Britain, 68.
+
+     Roman Empire, filtration of Germans into, 33;
+       efforts to enlarge to the northward, 19, 32;
+       Visigoths desire to enter, 34;
+       Visigoths settle in, 36-37;
+       relation of Charlemagne's empire to, 131-132.
+
+     Romanus Diogenes, defeated at Manzikert, 282.
+
+     Rome, development of papacy at, 78-79;
+       Pepin the Short sends deputation to, 106;
+       Charlemagne's visits to, 111, 114;
+       Charlemagne crowned at, 130, 132-134;
+       plundered by the Saracens, 160.
+
+     Romulus Augustulus, 131.
+
+     Roncesvalles, Count Roland slain at, 236.
+
+     Rorik, leader of Northmen, 161.
+
+     Rouen, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, imprisoned at, 243.
+
+     Rudolph I., of Hapsburg, elected emperor, 409.
+
+     _Rudolfi Fuldensis Annales_, quoted, 156.
+
+     Rufinus, companion of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     Rule, of St. Francis, drawn up, 373-374;
+       quoted, 375-376.
+
+     Runnymede, Great Charter promulgated at, 303.
+
+     Rupert I., founds University of Heidelberg, 345.
+
+
+     _Sacrosancta_, decree of, 391.
+
+     St. Albans, 298.
+
+     St. Andrew, monastery of, established, 90.
+
+     St. Augustine, author of _De Civitate Dei_, 111.
+
+     St. Benedict, career of, 84;
+       service to European monasticism, 84;
+       Rule of, 84-90.
+
+     St. Bernard, times of, 250;
+       founds Clairvaux, 250;
+       biography of, 251;
+       birth and parentage, 251;
+       early traits, 252;
+       decides to become a monk, 252-253;
+       at Chatillon, 254;
+       enters Citeaux,254;
+       obtains ability to reap, 255;
+       piety and knowledge of Scriptures, 255-256;
+       goes forth from Citeaux, 256;
+       founds monastery at Clairvaux, 256-257.
+
+     St. Bonaventura, author of official life of St. Francis, 363.
+
+     Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, treaty of, 172.
+
+     St. David, 181.
+
+     St. Dionysius, 387.
+
+     St. Dominic, founder of Dominican order, 360.
+
+     St. Edmund's, magnates of England assemble at, 298.
+
+     St. Francis, early career, 362;
+       sources of information on, 362;
+       youthful follies, 364;
+       redeeming qualities, 364;
+       change in manner of life, 365-366;
+       zeal in charity, 366-367;
+       begs alms at Rome, 367;
+       overcomes aversion to lepers, 368;
+       refuses to dwell in an adorned cell, 369;
+       humiliates himself publicly, 370-371;
+       love for the larks, 371-372;
+       regard for all created things, 372-373;
+       draws up his Rule, 373-374;
+       the Rule quoted, 375;
+       the will of, 376-378;
+       attitude toward the existing Church, 375, 377-378;
+       enjoins poverty and labor, 377-379.
+
+     St. Germain des Pres, 165, 169.
+
+     St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, 56.
+
+     St. Jerome, translation of Scriptures, 193;
+       cited by Petrarch, 468.
+
+     St. Louis (see Louis IX.).
+
+     St. Marcellus, Church of, 212.
+
+     St. Martin (of Tours), career of, 48;
+       shrine of visited by pilgrims, 48;
+       Clovis's respect for, 55, 57;
+       church at Canterbury dedicated to, 77;
+       monastery at Tours dedicated to, 83;
+       church of burned by Northmen, 162, 167.
+
+     St. Peter, Christ's commission to, 79, 81.
+
+     St. Peter, Church of, Charlemagne's gifts to, 114;
+       Charlemagne crowned in, 133;
+       fortified, 161.
+
+     St. Quentin, Fulrad abbot of, 142;
+       Dudo, dean of, 165.
+
+     Savigny, granted as fief to bishop of Beauvais, 215.
+
+     Saisset, Bernard, offends Philip the Fair, 384.
+
+     Salerno, University of, 341.
+
+     Salic law, cited, 25;
+       date, 60;
+       character, 60;
+       editions and translation, 61;
+       monetary system in, 61;
+       summonses to meetings of the local courts, 61;
+       theft, 62;
+       robbery with assault, 63;
+       incendiarism, 63;
+       deeds of violence, 63;
+       use of poison or witchcraft, 64;
+       slander, 64;
+       trespass, 65;
+       homicide, 65;
+       right of migration, 66;
+       debt, 66;
+       inheritance, 66-67;
+       wergeld, 67.
+
+     Saracens, plunder Rome, 160;
+       Italian league against, 160;
+       renew devastation, 161;
+       in possession of the Holy Land, 282;
+       combats with crusaders, 292-296;
+       project to turn the Tartars against, 317;
+       operations against St. Louis, 318-322;
+       Frederick II. accused of friendly relations with, 405-407.
+
+     Saxon Chronicle, quoted, 241-244.
+
+     Saxons, conquer Britain while yet pagans, 49;
+       infest British coasts, 68;
+       appear at Thanet, 69;
+       called in by Britons, 69;
+       settlement in Britain, 70;
+       ally with Picts, 71;
+       conquest of Britain, 71-72;
+       pagan character, 72;
+       Christianization begun, 73-77;
+       in Charlemagne's day, 115-117;
+       problem of conquest, 115-116;
+       lack of natural frontier, 117;
+       faithlessness, 117;
+       transplanted in part to Gaul, 117;
+       Charlemagne's peace with, 118;
+       massacre at Verden, 117;
+       formula for acceptance of Christianity, 118;
+       Charlemagne's capitularies concerning, 118-123;
+       provisions for establishment of Christianity among, 120-122;
+       penalties for persistence in paganism, 122;
+       fugitive criminals, 123;
+       public assemblies, 123.
+
+     Scheldt River, 58.
+
+     Schism, Great, origin, 389-390;
+       plans of University of Paris to end, 391-392;
+       Councils of Pisa and Constance, 390-393;
+       stops proceedings against Wyclif, 475.
+
+     Schools (see Education).
+
+     Scots, menace the Britons, 68;
+       Saxons called in against, 69.
+
+     Scutage, increased by King John, 297;
+       method of raising specified in Great Charter, 306.
+
+     Scythia, 43.
+
+     Seine, Northmen on, 166, 168.
+
+     Seligenstadt, Einhard at, 109.
+
+     Selwood, Alfred at, 184.
+
+     Senlis, meeting of Frankish magnates at, 178.
+
+     Sens, given over to Northmen to plunder, 171.
+
+     Septimania, conquered by Childebert, 57.
+
+     Septuagint, 192.
+
+     Serfs, fugitive, 138.
+
+     Sergius II., 158.
+
+     Senlac (see Hastings).
+
+     Siegfred, leads siege of Paris, 168.
+
+     Siena, Council of, 395.
+
+     Sigibert the Lame, slain by son's agents, 57.
+
+     Sigismund, appealed to by John XXIII., 391.
+
+     Simony, 261;
+       Henry IV.'s councilors condemned for, 264.
+
+     Slander, in the Salic law, 64.
+
+     Slavery, among the early Germans, 31.
+
+     Slavs, location in Charlemagne's day, 330;
+       German encroachment upon, 331.
+
+     Sluys, naval battle of, 424-427.
+
+     Soana, Hildebrand born at, 261.
+
+     Soissons, capital of Syagrius's kingdom, 51;
+       Clovis defeats Syagrius at, 51;
+       episode of the broken vase, 51-52;
+       Pepin the Short anointed at, 107;
+       council at, 381.
+
+     _Solidus_, value, 61.
+
+     Spain, invaded by Northmen, 166.
+
+     Spanish March, annexed to Charlemagne's kingdom, 115.
+
+     _Speculum Perfectionis_ (by Brother Leo), quoted, 368-373.
+
+     Speyer, Henry IV. flees from, 274.
+
+     Stamford, English barons meet at, 300.
+
+     Stamford Bridge, Harold Hardrada defeated at, 234.
+
+     Stephen, abbot of Citeaux, 254.
+
+     Stephen III., crowns Pepin the Short, 106.
+
+     Stephen IX., 261.
+
+     Stephen of Blois, sketch of, 292;
+       letter to his wife, 292-296;
+       recounts experiences of crusaders, 293;
+       describes siege of Antioch, 293-296.
+
+     Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, 298, 299.
+
+     Strassburg, battle of won by Clovis, 49, 50, 53;
+       results, 53-54;
+       oaths of Charles and Louis at, 150, 152-154;
+       linguistic and historical significance, 150-151.
+
+     Strassfurt, Frankish assembly at, 142.
+
+     Students, privileges granted to by Frederick I., 341-343;
+       by Philip Augustus, 343-345;
+       itinerant character of, 351-352;
+       songs of, 353-359.
+
+     Subasio, Mount, St. Francis seeks seclusion at, 370.
+
+     Suetonius, 34;
+       as model for Einhard, 109.
+
+     Suevi, described by Caesar, 21.
+
+     Swanwich, Danes defeated at, 183.
+
+     Syagrius, "king of the Romans," 50-51;
+       defeated by Clovis at Soissons, 51;
+       takes refuge with Alaric, 51;
+       surrendered and put to death, 51.
+
+     Sylvester II. (Gerbert), 283.
+
+     Syria, overrun by Arabs, 282;
+       partially recovered, 282;
+       conquered by Seljuk Turks, 282;
+       described by Pope Urban, 286;
+       crusaders in, 293-296.
+
+
+     Tacitus, describes the Germans in his _Germania_, 23-31;
+       sources of information, 23;
+       object in writing, 23-24.
+
+     Tartary, Khan of, sends deputation to St. Louis, 316-317.
+
+     Taxation, not developed among the early Germans, 29.
+
+     Templars, in England, 299;
+       Turks attack, 319.
+
+     Tertullian, 72.
+
+     Tescelin, father of St. Bernard, 251.
+
+     Teutoberg Forest, Varus defeated at, 32.
+
+     _Teutones_, 32.
+
+     Thames, Danes appear on, 181.
+
+     Thanet, Saxons appear at, 69;
+       conceded to them by Vortigern, 70;
+       population, 75;
+       Augustine lands at, 75.
+
+     Theft, in the Salic law, 62;
+       Charlemagne's legislation on, 141.
+
+     Thiebault, count palatine of Troyes, grants fief to Jocelyn
+         d'Avalon, 216.
+
+     Thrace, selected as a haven by the Visigoths, 35;
+       conceded to them by Valens, 36.
+
+     Toulouges, Council of, decrees Peace and Truce of God, 229-232.
+
+     Toulouse, Visigothic capital, 51;
+       Syagrius takes refuge at, 51.
+
+     Tours, Gregory, bishop of, 47-48;
+       monastery and shrine of St. Martin at, 48;
+       Alaric and Clovis meet near, 55;
+       monastery at dedicated to St. Martin, 83;
+       truce of, 439.
+
+     Towns, lack of among the early Germans, 29;
+       prevalence in Graeco-Roman world, 29;
+       use of in France, 325;
+       origins of, 325-326;
+       classes of, 326-327;
+       charter of Laon, 327-328;
+       charter of Lorris, 328-330.
+
+     Trajan, wars in the Rhine country, 23.
+
+     Trespass, in the Salic law, 65.
+
+     Tribur, conference of German nobles at, 274-275.
+
+     _Trivium_, 145, 339.
+
+     Troyes, county of, 215.
+
+     Troyes, treaty of, negotiated, 440-441;
+       provisions of, 443.
+
+     Truce of God, decreed by church councils, 229;
+       decree of Council of Toulouges, 229-232;
+       reissued by Council of Clermont, 286.
+
+     Turks, Seljuk, invasions of, 282;
+       ravages depicted by Pope Urban, 285;
+       defeated by crusaders, 293;
+       attack the Templars, 318;
+       operations against St. Louis, 318-322.
+
+
+     _Unam Sanctam_, issued by Boniface VIII., 383-385;
+       quoted, 385-388.
+
+     Universities, origins of in Middle Ages, 339;
+       patronage of by Church and temporal powers, 340;
+       privileges granted to students by Frederick I., 341-343;
+       by Philip Augustus, 343-345;
+       rise in Germany, 345;
+       charter of Heidelberg, 345-350;
+       student songs, 351-359.
+
+     Unstrutt, Henry IV.'s victory at, 265.
+
+     Urban II., appealed to by Alexius Comnenus, 283;
+       speech at Clermont, 283-288;
+       appeal to the French, 284-285;
+       enumerates reasons for a crusade, 285-287;
+       results of speech, 287-288.
+
+     Urban VI., approves foundation of University of Heidelberg, 346;
+       elected pope, 389;
+       Wyclif's letter to, 475-477.
+
+
+     Valens, Visigoths send embassy to, 35;
+       flattered into acceding to their request, 36;
+       seeks to quell Visigothic uprising, 37-38;
+       rash resolve to attack, 38;
+       defeat, 41.
+
+     Valentinian I., 35.
+
+     Valentinian III., 69.
+
+     Varus, defeated at the Teutoberg Forest, 32.
+
+     Vassalage, origins, 204-205;
+       relations with _patrocinium_ and _comitatus_, 205;
+       commendation defined, 205;
+       formula for commendation, 205-206;
+       relation to benefice, 207;
+       obligations of, 220-221.
+
+     Vecta, 71.
+
+     Venice, treaty of, 399.
+
+     Verden, massacre of Saxons at, 117.
+
+     Verdun, treaty of, 154-156;
+       territorial division by, 155.
+
+     _Vicarius_, functions, 176.
+
+     Victgilsus, 71.
+
+     Vienna, University of, founded, 345.
+
+     Villages, among the early Germans, 30.
+
+     _Villes franches_, nature of, 326-327.
+
+     _Villes libres_, nature of, 326;
+       Laon as an example, 327-328.
+
+     Vincennes, 323.
+
+     Viscount, functions, 176.
+
+     Visigoths, invasion of the Roman Empire described by Ammianus
+         Marcellinus, 32-41;
+       receive Dacia from Aurelian, 33;
+       threatened by the Huns, 33;
+       select Thrace as a haven, 35;
+       send embassy to Valens, 35;
+       receive the desired permission, 36;
+       cross the Danube, 36-37;
+       terms of the settlement, 37;
+       mistreated by the Romans, 37;
+       rise in revolt, 37;
+       Valens resolves to attack, 38;
+       advance toward Nice, 38;
+       defeat the Romans at Adrianople, 39-41;
+       Alaric, king of, 51, 54-55;
+       defeated by Clovis, 56;
+       Amalaric, king of, retreats to Spain, 56;
+       new capital at Toledo, 56.
+
+     _Vita Caroli Magni_ (by Einhard), purpose, 109;
+       value, 109;
+       translation of, 109, 116;
+       quoted, 109-114, 116-118.
+
+     _Vitae Pontificorum Romanorum_, quoted, 133-134.
+
+     Vortigern, king of the Britons, 68;
+       invites Saxons into Britain, 69.
+
+     Vortimer, 71.
+
+     Vulcan, worshipped by the Germans, 21, 26.
+
+     Vouille, Clovis defeats Alaric at, 56.
+
+     Vulgate, 193;
+       origin of, 468.
+
+
+     Wager of battle, discouraged by the Church, 197.
+
+     Wales, Christianity in, 72.
+
+     Wardship, nature of, 224;
+       conditions of prescribed by Norman custom, 224-225;
+       conditions of defined in Great Charter, 306.
+
+     Warfare, of the early Germans, 22, 25-26, 28-29;
+       of the Huns, 45;
+       prevalence in feudal times, 228-229;
+       efforts to restrict, 229;
+       decline of feudal, 428.
+
+     Weapons, of the early Germans, 24;
+       of the Huns, 45.
+
+     Wedmore, treaty of, 185.
+
+     Wends, 158, 159, 160.
+
+     Werfrith, bishop of Worcester, 189;
+       Alfred's letter to, 191-194.
+
+     Wergeld, 65;
+       in the Salic law, 67, 141.
+
+     Werwulf, of Mercia, 190.
+
+     Westminster, William the Conqueror wears crown at, 242.
+
+     Widukind, account of Saxon conquest, 116.
+
+     William of Aquitaine, letter of Fulbert of Chartres to, 220-221.
+
+     William the Conqueror, power as duke of Normandy, 233;
+       claims to throne of England, 234;
+       prepares to invade England, 234;
+       makes ready for battle, 236;
+       his strategem at Hastings, 236-237;
+       his valor in battle, 237;
+       his government described in the Saxon Chronicle, 241-244;
+       religious zeal, 242;
+       extent of his authority, 243;
+       forest laws, 244.
+
+     William, count of Flanders, homage and fealty to, 218-219.
+
+     William of Holland, claimant to imperial title, 334.
+
+     William of Jumieges, 165.
+
+     William of Malmesbury, sketch of, 235;
+       author of _Chronicle of the Kings of England_, 235, 288.
+
+     William the Pious, issues charter for monastery at Cluny, 245;
+       motives for benefaction, 247;
+       land and other property ceded, 247-248.
+
+     William of St. Thierry, biographer of St. Bernard, 251, 258.
+
+     Wilton, Alfred fights the Danes at, 182.
+
+     Winchester, William the Conqueror wears crown at, 242;
+       King John holds court at, 299.
+
+     Witan, 194.
+
+     Witchcraft, in the Salic law, 64.
+
+     Woden, 26, 49, 50, 71, 72, 119, 197.
+
+     Worcester, Werfrith, bishop of, 189.
+
+     Worms, 154;
+       council at decrees that Gregory VII. should abdicate, 270;
+       diet at, 279;
+       Concordat of, 279-281;
+       Rhine League formed at, 335;
+       with Mainz, to be League's capital, 337;
+       jurisdiction of bishop of over University of Heidelberg, 348,
+         350.
+
+     Wyclif, career of, 474-475.
+
+
+     Zacharias, consulted by Pepin the Short, 106;
+       advises him to take title of king, 107.
+
+     Zaid, collects sayings of Mohammed, 97.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY
+
+From Charlemagne to the Present Day
+
+By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D., Professor of European History,
+Indiana University, in consultation with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.,
+Professor of History, Harvard University.
+
+$1.50
+
+Essentials in Mediaeval History $1.00
+
+The difficulties usually encountered in treating mediaeval and modern
+history are here overcome by an easy and satisfactory method. By this
+plan Italy, France, Germany, and England are taken up in turn as each
+becomes the central figure on the world's stage. The first part of the
+book is devoted to the period previous to the Reformation; the second
+to modern history from the Reformation to the French Revolution; and
+the remainder to the century and a quarter since the occurrence of
+that great event. This arrangement gives an opportunity to discuss the
+greatness of England, the unification of Italy and of Germany, and the
+present organization of Europe under control of the concert of powers,
+on the same plane as the Crusades, or the Thirty Years' War, or the
+age of Louis XIV.
+
+The three most difficult problems in mediaeval history--the feudal
+state, the church, and the rivalry between the empire and the
+church--are here discussed with great clearness and brevity. The
+central idea of the book is the development of the principle of
+national independence in both politics and religion from the earlier
+condition of a world empire.
+
+For the convenience of those wishing a text-book on Mediaeval
+History alone, the period from Charlemagne to the close of the
+fifteenth century is issued in separate form.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER'S BRIEF HISTORY OF THE NATIONS
+
+By GEORGE PARK FISHER, LL.D., Emeritus Professor in Yale University
+
+$1.50
+
+This is an entirely independent work, written, expressly to meet the
+demand for a compact and acceptable text-book on General History for
+secondary schools and lower classes in colleges. Some of the
+distinctive qualities which will commend this book to teachers and
+students are as follows:
+
+It narrates in fresh, vigorous, and attractive style the most
+important facts of history in their due order and connection. It
+explains the nature of historical evidence, and records only well
+established judgments respecting persons and events. It delineates the
+progress of peoples and nations in civilization as well as the rise
+and succession of dynasties.
+
+It connects, in a single chain of narration, events related to each
+other in the contemporary history of different nations and countries.
+It is written from the standpoint of the present, and incorporates the
+latest discoveries of historical explorers and writers.
+
+It is illustrated by numerous colored maps, genealogical tables, and
+artistic reproductions of architecture, sculpture, painting, and
+portraits of celebrated men, representing every period of the world's
+history.
+
+
+FISHER'S OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
+
+Revised, $2.40
+
+Also published in three parts, price, each, $1.00. Part I, Ancient
+History. Part II, Mediaeval History. Part III, Modern History.
+
+A new and revised edition of this standard work. Soon after the
+publication of the first edition of this history the author was
+honored by the University of Edinburgh with the degree of Doctor of
+Laws, in recognition of his services in the cause of historical
+research. In this edition the book is brought fully up to date in all
+particulars.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN ANCIENT HISTORY
+
+From the Earliest Records to Charlemagne. By ARTHUR MAYER WOLFSON,
+Ph.D., First Assistant in History, DeWitt Clinton High School, New
+York. In consultation with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., Professor of
+History, Harvard University
+
+$1.50
+
+This volume belongs to the Essentials in History Series, which follows
+the plan recommended by the Committee of Seven, and adopted by the
+College Entrance Examination Board, and by the New York State
+Education Department. The pedagogic apparatus is amply sufficient for
+any secondary school.
+
+The essentials in ancient history are presented as a unit, beginning
+with the earliest civilization in the East, and ending with the
+establishment of the Western Empire by Charlemagne. More attention is
+paid to civilization than to mere constitutional development, the
+latter being brought out in the narrative, rather than as a series of
+separate episodes.
+
+A departure has been made from the time-honored method of carrying
+the subject down to the end of Greek political life before beginning
+the story of Rome. The history of the two civilizations is not
+entirely distinct; hence, it has seemed wise, after completing the
+account of the life and work of Alexander, to tell the story of the
+beginnings of Rome. Afterwards the history of the East is resumed, and
+carried on to the point where it merges into that of Rome. Should any
+teacher, however, prefer the old method of treating the two nations,
+he has only to take up Chapters XXIV and XXV before Chapters XVIII to
+XXIII. The Roman Empire, a very important but much neglected period of
+history, is brought out in its just proportions, and with reference to
+the events which had the greatest influence.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN AMERICAN HISTORY
+
+From the Discovery to the Present Day. By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.,
+Professor of History, Harvard University
+
+$1.50
+
+Professor Hart was a member of the Committee of Seven, and
+consequently is exceptionally qualified to supervise the preparation
+of a series of text-books which carry out the ideas of that Committee.
+The needs of secondary schools, and the entrance requirements to all
+colleges, are fully met by the Essentials in History Series.
+
+This volume reflects in an impressive manner the writer's broad
+grasp of the subject, his intimate knowledge of the relative
+importance of events, his keen insight into the cause and effect of
+each noteworthy occurrence, and his thorough familiarity with the most
+helpful pedagogical features--all of which make the work unusually
+well suited to students.
+
+The purpose of the book is to present an adequate description of all
+essential things in the upbuilding of the country, and to supplement
+this by good illustrations and maps. Political geography, being the
+background of all historical knowledge, is made a special topic, while
+the development of government, foreign relations, the diplomatic
+adjustment of controversies, and social and economic conditions have
+been duly emphasized.
+
+All sections of the Union, North, East, South, West, and Far West,
+have received fair treatment. Much attention is paid to the causes and
+results of our various wars, but only the most significant battles and
+campaigns have been described. The book aims to make distinct the
+character and public services of some great Americans, brief accounts
+of whose lives are given in special sections of the text. Towards the
+end a chapter sums up the services of America to mankind.
+
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS IN ENGLISH HISTORY
+
+From the Earliest Records to the Present Day. By ALBERT PERRY WALKER,
+A.M., Master in History, English High School, Boston. In consultation
+with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D., Professor of History, Harvard
+University
+
+$1.50
+
+Like the other volumes of the Essentials in History Series, this
+text-book is intended to form a year's work in secondary schools,
+following out the recommendation of the Committee of Seven, and
+meeting the requirements of the College Entrance Examination Board,
+and of the New York State Education Department. It contains the same
+general features, the same pedagogic apparatus, and the same topical
+method of treatment. The text is continuous, the sectional headings
+being placed in the margin. The maps and illustrations are worthy of
+special mention.
+
+The book is a model of good historical exposition, unusually clear
+in expression, logical and coherent in arrangement, and accurate in
+statement. The essential facts in the development of the British
+Empire are vividly described, and the relation of cause and effect is
+clearly brought out.
+
+The treatment begins with a brief survey of the whole course of
+English history, deducing therefrom three general movements: (1) the
+fusing of several races into the English people; (2) the solution by
+that people of two great problems: free and democratic home
+government, and practical, enlightened government of foreign
+dependencies; and (3) the extreme development of two great fields of
+industry, commerce and manufacture. The narrative follows the
+chronological order, and is full of matter which is as interesting as
+it is significant, ending with a masterly summary of England's
+contribution to civilization.
+
+
+
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY ENGLISH PROSE
+
+Critical Essays
+
+Edited with Introductions and Notes by THOMAS H. DICKINSON, Ph.D., and
+FREDERICK W. ROE, A.M., Assistant Professors of English, University of
+Wisconsin.
+
+$1.00
+
+This book for college classes presents a series of ten selected
+essays, which are intended to trace the development of English
+criticism in the nineteenth century. The choice of material has been
+influenced by something more than mere style. An underlying coherence
+in content, typical of the thought of the era in question, may be
+traced throughout. With but few exceptions the selections are given in
+their entirety.
+
+The essays cover a definite period, and exhibit the individuality of
+each author's method of criticism. In each case they are those most
+typical of the author's critical principles, and at the same time
+representative of the critical tendencies of his age. The
+subject-matter provides interesting material for intensive study and
+class room discussion, and each essay is an example of excellent,
+though varying, style.
+
+They represent not only the authors who write, but the authors who
+are treated. The essays provide the best things that have been said by
+England's critics on Swift, on Scott, on Macaulay, and on Emerson.
+
+The introductions and notes provide the necessary biographical
+matter, suggestive points for the use of the teacher in stimulating
+discussion of the form or content of the essays, and such aids as will
+eliminate those matters of detail that might prove stumbling blocks to
+the student. Though the essays are in chronological order, they may be
+treated at random according to the purposes of the teacher.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE
+
+By JAMES WILFORD GARNER, Ph.D., Professor of Political Science,
+University of Illinois
+
+$2.50
+
+This systematic treatise on the science of government covers a wider
+range of topics on the nature, origin, organization, and functions of
+the state than is found in any other college textbook published in the
+English language. The unusually comprehensive treatment of the various
+topics is based on a wide reading of the best literature on the
+subject in English, German, French, and Italian, and the student has
+opportunity to profit by this research work through the bibliographies
+placed at the head of each chapter, as well as by means of many
+additional references in the footnotes.
+
+An introductory chapter is followed by chapters on the nature and
+essential elements of the state; on the various theories concerning
+the origin of the state; on the forms of the state; on the forms of
+government, including a discussion of the elements of strength and
+weakness of each; on sovereignty, its nature, its essential
+characteristics, and its abiding place in the state; on the functions
+and sphere of the state, including the various theories of state
+activity; and on the organization of the state. In addition there are
+chapters on constitutions, their nature, forms, and development; on
+the distribution of the powers of government; on the electorate; and
+on citizenship and nationality.
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