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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How We are Fed, by James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How We are Fed
+       A Geographical Reader
+
+Author: James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: February 5, 2012 [EBook #38762]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW WE ARE FED ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Peter Vachuska, Fritz Ohrenschall, Chuck Greif,
+Julia Neufeld and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's Mark]
+
+  _HOME AND WORLD SERIES_
+
+
+  HOW WE ARE FED
+
+  A GEOGRAPHICAL READER
+
+  BY
+
+  JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, ED.B., S.B.
+  DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
+  LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
+
+  New York
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+  1912
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1903,
+  BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+  Set up, electrotyped, and published June, 1903. Reprinted
+  January, June, August, 1904: July, 1905; January, 1906;
+  August, December, 1907; September, 1909; August, 1910;
+  August, 1911; June, 1912.
+
+
+  Norwood Press
+  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+  Norwood, Mass., U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the ordinary course of events, most individuals take some part in the
+manifold industries which engage the mind and the hand of man, by which
+alone our present-day civilization can be maintained. These great world
+activities touch the daily life of _every_ member of society, whether
+child or adult, worker or idler.
+
+A chain of mutual dependence, too often unrecognized, binds together the
+members of the human family, whether they belong to the same community
+or dwell on opposite sides of the earth. The links of this chain are
+made up of the articles which constitute our daily food, our clothing,
+homes, fuel, light, our means of communication and transportation, and
+only by continuous coöperation are they kept together.
+
+The highest motive in education is to present the conditions which will
+lead to the most complete living; to build up the best possible members
+of society; to develop character. An individual who does not understand
+the life of which he finds himself a part, cannot be in full sympathy
+with its conditions and hence cannot be of the most service to himself
+or to others. Only to the extent that education and life follow the same
+general course, can each be truly successful. Far too little is done in
+our schools to acquaint children with their relations to the great
+industrial and social organization of which they are members. Even grown
+persons have, as a rule, a very indefinite knowledge of these relations.
+
+It is a recognized principle that our knowledge of geography has its
+foundation in our knowledge of the home. The natural connecting link
+between the immediate surroundings and the outside world is the _present
+daily life of the home_. Through the industries seen in the community,
+the commodities in general use, and the history of their creation and
+supply, the pupil acquires an insight into the life about him as well as
+into that of other parts of the world. He also realizes the great truth
+that the world and its people are in intimate touch with _him_. In this
+way he is led back and forth along the routes which civilization has
+followed in its progress, which it also follows to-day, as mankind clasp
+hands across oceans and continents. Thus the remote and abstract become
+immediate and concrete. Facts are seen in a setting of reason, and a
+logical and interesting basis for the study of physical, climatic, and
+human conditions is furnished.
+
+This study begins with the commodities in constant use and finally
+encompasses the whole world, but always with the home as the base of
+operations. It will create a knowledge of the interdependence of
+individuals, communities, and nations, and a genuine respect for the
+work of the hands and for the worker. The importance of this respect is
+not likely to be overestimated. Without it a true democracy cannot long
+exist.
+
+Reading should not only serve for the acquisition and the expression of
+the thought contained in the printed page; it should, in addition,
+stimulate to _new_ thought--to independent power in reasoning. On this
+account questions are inserted which the pupil is left to answer. These
+are suggestive of a much larger number, which should be worked out by
+the teacher. Too many of the questions found in books do not "stimulate
+thought" or "independent power in reasoning." They are purely
+informatory and not at all formative.
+
+No attempt has been made to treat every article of food. Those in most
+general use, as well as those which will best serve to develop a
+knowledge of geographical conditions and of man's relation to man, have
+been chosen.
+
+A given industry is pursued in somewhat different ways in different
+places. It has not been thought wise to describe each modification in
+these pages. For example, the method of handling wheat in California is
+different from that employed in Minnesota. The value of the work will be
+increased if the teacher will bring out these points.
+
+_All places mentioned should he definitely located_, both as to position
+on the map or globe and with reference to the home. When developed from
+the standpoint of direct, personal interest, a knowledge of the
+location of places as well as of other facts mentioned is most likely to
+be retained.
+
+The illustrations used have been very carefully selected for their
+_teaching value_. They give a clearness to mental pictures which can be
+derived only through observation of that which the illustrations
+symbolize. Much experience in the use of geographical illustrations has
+shown that pupils need to be directed in their examination of them. To
+secure the best results they must be made the centers of
+thought-developing questions.
+
+Thanks are due the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company of
+Minneapolis, the Swift Packing Company of Chicago, the Walter Baker
+Company of Dorchester, the United Fruit Company of New Orleans, and Dr.
+Charles U. Shepard of Pinehurst Plantation, for the excellent
+illustrations furnished by them.
+
+                                      JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN.
+
+STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,
+  LOS ANGELES, March, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                            PAGE
+
+  THE PAST AND THE PRESENT                     1
+
+  THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD                 7
+
+  HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED                    18
+
+  MARKET GARDENING                            32
+
+  DAIRY PRODUCTS                              41
+
+  BUTTER MAKING                               44
+
+  CHEESE                                      50
+
+  THE FISHING INDUSTRY                        54
+
+  OYSTER FARMING                              64
+
+  A RICE FIELD                                70
+
+  HOW SUGAR IS MADE                           77
+
+  BEET SUGAR                                  84
+
+  MAPLE SUGAR                                 87
+
+  WHERE SALT COMES FROM                       91
+
+  MACARONI AND VERMICELLI                     99
+
+  ON A COFFEE PLANTATION                     104
+
+  THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA                   113
+
+  A CUP OF COCOA                             120
+
+  A CRANBERRY BOG                            131
+
+  THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC        139
+
+  A BUNCH OF BANANAS                         146
+
+  HOW DATES GROW                             155
+
+  THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   165
+
+  A VISIT TO A VINEYARD                      174
+
+  NUTTING                                    184
+
+  A WALNUT VACATION                          187
+
+  CHESTNUTS                                  193
+
+  A BAG OF PEANUTS                           195
+
+  ASSORTED NUTS                              201
+
+  A STRANGE CONVERSATION                     206
+
+
+
+
+HOW WE ARE FED
+
+
+
+
+THE PAST AND THE PRESENT
+
+
+Long, long ago people did not live as we do to-day. Their homes were
+very different from ours, for they were made of the skins of wild
+animals, of the limbs and bark of trees, or of tall grasses. There were
+no stoves, chairs, tables, or beds in their houses. Instead of lamps,
+gas, or electricity, a fire on the dirt floor or in front of the house,
+furnished the light.
+
+The clothing of these people was as simple as their homes. It was made
+of skins and furs in cold countries and in warm countries of braided
+grasses and the fibers of certain plants. You may be sure that tailors
+and dressmakers were not consulted as to the latest styles, for the
+styles did not change and there were neither tailors nor dressmakers to
+talk to. Each family made its own clothing, and there was not a sewing
+machine to be found.
+
+How would you like to use a bone for a needle? Sometimes, instead of
+sharpened bones, long thorns were used. The sinews of the deer, or of
+some other animal, usually furnished the thread.
+
+When the people were in need of food, they went into the forest and
+gathered roots, nuts, and fruits. Wild animals were killed by means of
+such weapons as bows and arrows and spears, and fish were caught in the
+lakes and streams.
+
+The food was not cooked as ours is; for, as I have told you, there were
+no stoves. Sometimes the meat was broiled over the fire, sometimes baked
+in a hole filled with ashes and coals, but it was often eaten raw. It
+was not easy to have a variety of food, and there were times when it was
+very difficult to obtain anything. When food was abundant, the people
+feasted, and when it was scarce, they were often hungry. How would you
+like to wait for your breakfast while your father went to the woods or
+to the river in search of something to eat?
+
+When the meals were prepared, they were not neatly served as yours are,
+but each person took his portion and sat on the ground while he ate it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Indians at Dinner.]
+
+All of this seems very strange to you, I know. If you live in the city,
+you are accustomed to seeing the butcher, the baker, the milkman, and
+the grocer call every day. There are stores where people can buy
+whatever they want to eat, drink, or wear. You wonder how any one could
+live in such a way as I have described, but there _are_ people who live
+in this fashion to-day, although you have never seen any of them. They
+are _uncivilized_. Where do you think they are to be found? When people
+live in this way, it takes most of their time to provide themselves with
+the things that are necessary to life. They have little opportunity to
+improve their ways of living and of thinking.
+
+Civilized people divide their work. Some provide food, some make
+clothing, some build houses, and some furnish fuel. Each one does his or
+her part. In this way, you see, they learn to do their work better and
+better, because each gives much time and thought to one kind of work.
+This plan gives each one time to study and to learn something about the
+world and its people. Think how much better our homes, our clothing, and
+our food are, than are those of uncivilized people, and how many other
+advantages we have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--White People at Dinner.]
+
+It is only possible to live as we do, when each one works for others as
+well as for himself. If any one fails to do his part, the rest must
+suffer until some one is found to take his place. It is to prepare
+yourself to do _your part_ in some useful work for others, that you are
+going to school day by day. You do not now know just what that work is
+to be, but I want you to remember that _all_ honest work is noble. It is
+not so important _what work_ you do, as it is that you should do your
+work _well_. No matter what your work may be, you can carry sunshine in
+your face and helpfulness in your heart. If you do this, you will be
+known and loved. Hard work, coarse clothes, and lack of money can never
+hide these things, neither will the finest of clothing cover a selfish
+or untruthful nature.
+
+Let us look at this dinner table loaded with good things to eat and
+drink. There are bread, butter, meat, vegetables, milk, tea, fruits, and
+other things. You see at once that many persons must have worked to
+provide this food, for only a small part of the work was done in the
+kitchen. If these things could but speak, they might tell you stories as
+wonderful as fairy tales. They have been gathered here from the fertile
+plains of the West, from the sunny South, from Brazil, from the islands
+of the Pacific Ocean, from far-off China, and even from the waters of
+the sea.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD
+
+
+In the dark granary of a farmer's barn in North Dakota once lived a
+modest family of grains of wheat. The bright, warm days of the summer
+time, during which they had been placed in this dark room, soon grew
+shorter and cooler. The swallows, whose mud nests were in the rafters
+overhead, told the wheat brothers that winter was coming, and then flew
+away to the balmy southland.
+
+Soon biting winds and blinding snow came sweeping over the level land.
+Sometimes the farmhouse was almost hidden under the drifts, and the
+farmer had to shovel out a path to the barn, so that he could feed the
+horses and cattle. By and by the days grew warmer, the snow disappeared,
+and the birds returned one by one. The farmer and his men got out their
+plows and harrows, and prepared the soil for the seeds soon to be
+planted.
+
+The wheat was now shoveled into sacks and taken to the fields. Here it
+was placed in great machines drawn by horses, which scattered it evenly
+over the land and at the same time covered it with soft soil. The men
+whistled and sang as they worked, and blackbirds, bluebirds, and larks
+flew back and forth, singing and searching for bugs and worms, as well
+as for the shining kernels of wheat.
+
+The wheat was not content to remain underground, but kept trying to push
+itself out into the world. One night there came a warm shower, and the
+next morning what looked like tiny, green blades of grass appeared all
+over the field.
+
+All through the spring and summer the wheat kept growing, and finally
+there appeared at the ends of the stalks clusters of kernels, just like
+those which the farmer had planted. Some of these kernels had produced
+families of twenty or thirty. These clusters are called _heads_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Harvesting Wheat in Southern California.]
+
+As the south wind passed over the field it brought the wheat messages
+from Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and other states, telling of
+relatives who were already turning golden in the summer sunshine. One
+day some of the kernels thought they heard a voice from California. Do
+you think they did?
+
+The grain in some of the fields was called _winter wheat_. This was
+because the grain had been sown the autumn before, and had remained in
+the ground all winter, covered by a blanket of snow. Why was it sown in
+the fall? The wheat of which I am telling you was called by the farmer
+_spring wheat_.
+
+Soon machines, each drawn by several horses, appeared. They cut the
+waving grain, and bound it up in bundles called _sheaves_. These were
+set up in double rows to dry, and afterward put into another machine
+which separated the kernels from the stalks, which were now called
+_straw_. This work the farmer calls _threshing_. See if you can find out
+how this used to be done.
+
+After threshing, the wheat was put into sacks and taken to the nearest
+railroad station. Freight cars then carried it across the level prairies
+to the beautiful city of Minneapolis, built beside the Falls of Saint
+Anthony. What river is this city on? Of what use are the falls?
+
+There are tall buildings called _elevators_ here in which the wheat was
+stored for a time. Before being put into the elevators it was examined
+and _graded_. As there was wheat from many farms it could not be kept
+separate, so each farmer was told how much he had, and how it graded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Threshing Wheat in Southern California.]
+
+Some time after this the wheat was taken to one of the great mills to be
+ground into flour. The largest of these mills manufactures about
+fifteen thousand barrels of flour every day. This is the largest flour
+mill in the world.
+
+When the kernels reached the mill, they were put into machines called
+_separators_, to be separated from all companions such as grass seed,
+mustard seed, and wild buckwheat. They were then placed in an iron box
+in which brushes were revolving rapidly, and were _scoured_ to free them
+from fuzz and dirt. Those that were very dirty were washed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Flour Mills in Minneapolis.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Largest Flour Mill in the World.]
+
+The kernels were _steamed_, in order that the coating, called _bran_,
+might not break into small pieces. This is called _tempering_. The
+kernels now thought that their trials were over, but they were mistaken.
+Soon they found themselves being _crushed_ between rollers. After they
+came out they were _sifted_, and then run between other rollers. This
+was repeated six times, and each time the flour was a little finer, for
+the rollers were closer together. The flour was then run through tubes
+of flannel. These took out whatever dust it contained. It was then
+ground still finer. The flour was then put into sacks or barrels, which
+were marked for shipment to other parts of the country.
+
+Only the wheat intended for the very best grade of flour is treated as
+carefully as this was.
+
+What industry does the use of barrels bring in?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Grinding Wheat.]
+
+From the mills the flour was sent to many parts of the land to supply
+stores, bakeries, hotels, and homes. Some of it found its way to the
+bakery near your home. The bakers, in their clean suits of white,
+weighed the flour which they were going to use, and then added a
+certain amount of water to it. Some yeast and salt were added also. This
+mixture they called _dough_. You have seen your mother mix or _knead_
+dough, I am sure. The bakers did not do the kneading with their hands,
+but by means of machinery made for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Bolting Flour.]
+
+When the dough had been thoroughly kneaded it was left to _rise_. It is
+the yeast that causes the rising. This makes the bread light and spongy.
+It was then cut into loaves and placed in the oven. The ovens in the
+bakery are very much larger than those in your kitchen stove, for many
+loaves are baked at once. When a nice shade of brown appeared on the
+loaves, the bakers took them out of the oven by means of long shovels.
+Soon the delivery wagons came and were loaded with the fresh bread to be
+delivered to stores and homes. This loaf was just left at the door and
+is still warm.
+
+So, you see, a loaf of bread has quite a history. I have told you the
+life story of this one from the time of its grandparents, who were
+raised on the plains of North Dakota. Would it not be interesting to see
+each of the people who have had something to do with its production, and
+to make the journey which the wheat and the flour made? You can do both
+in your thoughts.
+
+
+
+
+HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED
+
+
+Ramon lived in a plain, one-story house, built in the shade of some
+cottonwood trees that fringed each side of a small river in the eastern
+part of Colorado. A wide veranda extended entirely around the house, but
+there were very few flowers and no lawn. I am afraid you would not think
+it a very pleasant place for a home.
+
+Not far from the _ranch house_, as it was called, were the barn and the
+_corrals_. A corral is a yard with a strong, high fence about it, in
+which cattle or horses may be placed. On the bottom land beside the
+stream, there was a corn and an alfalfa patch, besides one containing
+some potatoes and garden vegetables.
+
+During most of the year the stream was quite shallow, and flowed quietly
+over its bed, but when heavy rains occurred it rose rapidly, spreading
+over much of the bottom land and carrying so much clay with it that it
+was almost the color of coffee.
+
+Except along the river, not a tree was in sight from Ramon's home, and
+it was many miles to the nearest house. For hundreds of miles both north
+and south, there stretched a vast plain. Little was to be seen but sand,
+grass, and sagebrush. I had almost forgotten the prairie dogs, which
+scamper across the plain or sit up straight and motionless on a little
+mound of sand beside their burrows. They watch you closely, not moving
+unless they regard you as a dangerous creature, when, quick as a flash,
+they disappear.
+
+The rainfall is very slight in this part of the country, being less than
+twenty inches a year. On this account there is little attention paid to
+farming, but instead, the settlers own great herds of cattle as well as
+many horses. Ramon's father is one of the _cattlemen_ of Colorado. He
+owns more than ten thousand head of cattle, and some of the cattlemen
+own twice that number. Of course such great herds of cattle must have
+much land to graze on. Some of the land is owned by the government and
+any one may use it. Everywhere fences are far apart. These great
+pastures are called _ranges_.
+
+Ramon's life is not much like yours. His home is far from schools,
+churches, stores, or railroads. He seldom sees strangers, but he enjoys
+long rides on his own pony, _Prince_. Sometimes he goes with his father
+and at other times he takes a gallop with one of the "cowboys" who herd
+the cattle.
+
+The "cowboys" almost live in the saddle. They are out in all kinds of
+weather and are not boys at all, but strong, hardy men. They wear
+broad-brimmed hats, and carry long ropes called lassos or _lariats_,
+with which they catch the cattle.
+
+Where there are so many herds they sometimes get mixed up. On this
+account each cattleman marks or _brands_ his animals. These brands may
+be the initial letter of the owner's name, or they may be in the form of
+a horseshoe, a cross, a circle, or a crescent.
+
+Each spring and fall the cowboys gather the cattle together. This is
+called "rounding up" the cattle. They are then counted and the calves
+born since the last "round up" are branded. In the fall, in addition to
+this work, animals are selected for the market. Why is the fall a better
+time for this than the spring?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Branding Cattle.--Point to the Lariats.]
+
+The cowboys, mounted upon their swift, strong ponies, single out the
+animals that have never been branded, and swinging their lassos over
+their heads, they throw them with such skill that the loop settles over
+the head or about the leg of the one wanted. As soon as the rope
+tightens, the pony braces its forefeet firmly and the animal is finally
+thrown to the ground. It is then branded with a hot iron and allowed to
+go. Ramon used to feel very sorry for them until his father explained
+that it hurt them very little, for only the skin was burned.
+
+Sometimes the cattle selected to be sold, are not quite fat enough for
+the market. They are then taken farther east into the _corn belt_ and
+fed for a time.
+
+When they are shipped directly from the range to the market, they are
+driven to the nearest railroad and put into yards beside the track. They
+are then made to walk up an incline with high railings ending at the
+open doors of a cattle car. The animals are arranged so that the first
+faces one side of the car, the second the other, and so on. This is done
+so that the cattle cannot hook one another, and also that they may be
+fed and watered on the way from a long iron trough which is fastened to
+each side of the car.
+
+The great cattle markets of the United States are Omaha, Kansas City,
+and Chicago. Find these cities.
+
+One day when Ramon was about fourteen years old, his father told him
+that he was going to take a train load of cattle to Chicago and that he
+might go with him. It was a happy time for Ramon, you may be sure, for
+he was very anxious to see some of the wonderful sights his father had
+told him about.
+
+At last the day when they were to start on their journey arrived. The
+afternoon before, the cowboys had driven the cattle to the railroad so
+as to load them early in the morning. Soon after breakfast Ramon kissed
+his mother and his little sister good-by, and he and his father rode off
+across the level plain.
+
+Finding the cattle already loaded in the cars, Ramon and his father were
+soon seated in the _caboose_, rolling over the miles of railroad which
+connected them with Chicago. Whenever the train stopped for a few
+minutes, they took a long stick and went from car to car making the
+cattle that had lain down get up, so that they might not be injured by
+the others.
+
+When bedtime came, they made their beds on the benches along each side
+of the caboose, which are covered with cushions. As they had brought
+blankets with them, they were fairly comfortable.
+
+Ramon did not sleep very soundly the first night. The engine shrieked
+from time to time, and the car rocked and jolted so that he was afraid
+of falling from his bed.
+
+The next day they reached a part of the country where great cornfields
+waved in the breeze. The leaves had already turned brown, and golden
+ears of grain peeped out from the ends of the husks. There were stubble
+fields, too, where wheat and oats had been harvested.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Bird's Eye View of Union Stock Yards, Chicago.]
+
+The country became more thickly settled as they went on, and the towns
+were nearer together. Streams were more common, and grass and timber
+more abundant. The young traveler wondered why this was so. Can you
+tell?
+
+Early in the morning of the fourth day the train reached Chicago. After
+much switching and backing the cars were run into the Union Stock Yards,
+and the cattle were unloaded.
+
+Ramon was thoroughly bewildered by what he saw and heard. Men were
+shouting and cracking whips; others were riding up and down the alleys
+that separate the yards; dogs were barking and turning the animals this
+way and that, and gates were swinging back and forth.
+
+The cattle were weighed and examined to see if they had any disease, and
+were then placed in charge of a _commission merchant_ to be sold. Buyers
+come to the yards and bargain with these commission merchants. When an
+unusually large number of cattle come in, the prices are likely to fall;
+when few arrive, the prices rise.
+
+When the cattle had been yarded, Ramon's father said that they would go
+and have breakfast. In the afternoon they visited the "yards," and the
+slaughter and packing houses. The "yards" cover about a square mile of
+territory. They are divided into countless pens or small yards,
+containing sheds, feeding racks, and watering troughs.
+
+Ramon asked how many cattle were unloaded in these yards daily. His
+father handed him a copy of the _Chicago Live Stock World_, and at the
+top of the first column he read that on the day previous there had been
+received 18,500 cattle, 35,000 hogs, and 18,000 sheep. He was told that
+sometimes the receipts are much larger than this and sometimes not so
+large.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Dressing Beef.]
+
+They followed the bodies of the cattle from the slaughterhouses where
+they are dressed, into the cooling rooms. These are simply great
+refrigerators. Wagons come to the cooling rooms and haul loads of the
+meat to butcher shops, hotels, and depots. Within a few hours it finds
+its way to smaller cities and towns in all directions. A great deal of
+meat is shipped even to Europe. Why does not Europe produce its own
+meat?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Cooling Beef.]
+
+When the meat has thoroughly hardened in the cooling rooms, it is sent
+to the curing rooms, where it is cut up and packed. Each person here
+does his particular work from morning until night.
+
+Ramon learned, to his surprise, that every part of the animal is used.
+Hair, hide, horns, hoofs, teeth, bones, and even blood, are made use of.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Splitting Backbone of Hogs.]
+
+Most of the hogs which enter the great meat-packing cities are raised in
+the corn belt.
+
+The sheep need much pasturage, and so the largest flocks are found in
+the Western and Southwestern states. A single herder may take care of
+several thousand sheep. His faithful companions and helpers are
+intelligent shepherd dogs. After a great flock of sheep has fed on an
+area, hardly a green thing is left. The people in the part of the West
+where there is little rainfall, object to the pasturing of sheep around
+the head waters of streams, because when the vegetation is removed the
+water runs off too quickly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Curing Pork in Salt.]
+
+In the evening our friends watched the men, women, and children march
+out of the "yards." They were told that not less than thirty-five
+thousand persons were employed in the various establishments. There is
+but one city in Colorado which contains so many people.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Chopping Sausage Meat.]
+
+As they sat at breakfast next morning, Ramon wondered how many of the
+people of Chicago were eating steaks from cattle which he had seen on
+his father's ranch. The thought was a new one to him. His trip had shown
+him that the cattlemen who lived and worked on those far-away plains
+were doing their part in supplying people all over our country with
+meat. Their lonely life, with all of its disadvantages, now had a new
+meaning for him, and he went back to his Western home content with it,
+yet very glad to have had this glimpse of another side of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Packing Poultry.]
+
+
+
+
+MARKET GARDENING
+
+
+Think of the immense quantities of fruits and vegetables that are used
+daily on the tables of a great city such as New York or Chicago. As we
+travel up and down the streets of any great city, we see rows of
+buildings, sometimes built in solid blocks and sometimes a little
+distance apart. Some have trees and small lawns in front of them; others
+are without even this touch of nature. Nowhere, except in the outskirts,
+do we find gardens.
+
+_These people depend upon others to furnish them with their vegetable
+food._
+
+Now let us make some excursions into the region surrounding one of these
+cities. For miles and miles we see on every hand _truck farms_ or
+_market gardens_. The main business of those who live in these districts
+is to furnish food for the people of the city, so that the latter may
+devote their time to their various occupations.
+
+We see growing potatoes, cabbages, tomatoes, beans, peas, squashes,
+turnips, onions, sweet corn, celery, melons, and many other things.
+Usually all of these will be found in one garden, but sometimes the
+farmer raises only a few kinds, or perhaps but one.
+
+Market gardening is very common in Germany, Holland, Italy, China, and
+in other densely populated countries. Therefore we often find people who
+have come from these countries to America engaged in this business.
+Chinese gardeners are seldom seen in the East, but on the Pacific coast
+they raise most of the vegetables used in the cities and towns.
+
+In the early spring, before the ground is warm enough to make seeds
+grow, the gardener starts his plants in "hotbeds." These are long wooden
+boxes, or frames, without bottoms, covered with glass. They are usually
+placed on the south side of some building or high fence. The glass
+covers allow the warm sunshine to enter the "beds" freely, but they
+prevent the rapid escape of the heat. You see now why they are called
+"hotbeds." They are like small greenhouses.
+
+A little later in the spring the fields are thoroughly cultivated and
+the plants transplanted. Of course only the vegetables desired for the
+early market are started in this way. What advantage is there in having
+the vegetables ready for the market very early in the season?
+
+Vegetable farming is not easy work, although it is a pleasure to see
+things grow day by day as you care for them, and as nature supplies her
+sunshine and her rain. The fields must be cultivated almost constantly,
+to keep the soil loose, as well as to remove the weeds. Much of the
+weeding has to be done by hand, which is tedious work.
+
+We want our vegetables fresh every morning; and as the truck farms are
+at some distance from the city, the farmer must load up his wagon the
+night before. Of course much produce is sent to the cities on trains,
+but where farmers live near enough to deliver it themselves, their crops
+are more profitable to them. Why?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Market Scene.]
+
+Everything is put in readiness before dark; and while others are still
+in bed, the farmer mounts his wagon to start toward the sleeping city. I
+have often ridden ten or fifteen miles on such a load before the stars
+faded away.
+
+It is a novel experience. At first the night seems strangely still, but
+soon you are able to distinguish many voices coming from various places.
+The frogs croak from the ponds by the roadside; crickets and locusts
+send their shrill notes from grass and tree; a night owl startles you by
+his dismal hoot; the lamps of the fireflies gleam, then disappear only
+to shine out again a little farther on.
+
+At last a faint glow appears in the eastern sky, which grows brighter
+and brighter until the shining face of the sun is pushed above the
+horizon. Do you not think such a ride would be more enjoyable than a
+street car ride?
+
+In the cities there are market places where produce from the country is
+taken. In Chicago there is a very busy street where much of the buying
+and selling is done. Study the picture carefully. Here the buyers from
+hotels, restaurants, and stores, as well as the men who wish to peddle
+the produce from house to house, go for their daily supplies. There are
+also commission merchants whose stores are on this street. They sell the
+produce for those who ship it to the city by train.
+
+We go to the stores and get what we want each day, or the peddlers bring
+it to the door. You see how necessary it is to have special workers to
+supply us with the different kinds of food. We consider it very
+important that we should have vegetables and fruits fresh daily. The
+work of supplying us with this food is very important. Remember that
+those who till the soil are entitled to as great respect as are those
+who do not work with their hands. Contact with nature makes men and
+women better, and many of the noblest souls that the world has known
+have lived in the country and plowed, planted, and harvested the
+products of the soil.
+
+[Illustration: Market Scene. Chicago.]
+
+[Illustration: Market Scene. New York.]
+
+
+
+
+DAIRY PRODUCTS
+
+
+Uncle Ben lives on a dairy farm in the western part of New York State.
+It is a beautiful _rolling_ country with cultivated fields, woodland,
+and pastures, and here and there a sparkling stream winding its way
+through the lowlands. The farmhouses are large and well built, and are
+surrounded by grand old maple, beech, and elm trees. Most of the barns
+are painted red with white trimmings.
+
+There are many dairy farms in the neighborhood. Some of the farmers send
+their milk to the towns to be used directly, some sell it to creameries,
+and some to cheese factories.
+
+Last summer I spent my vacation on Uncle Ben's farm, and Cousin Frank
+and I had happy times, you may be sure.
+
+Every day, just before sundown, we went to the pasture for the cows.
+There were about twenty-five of them, and they always seemed perfectly
+contented after the long day of feasting on rich grass and clover.
+
+After we drove them into the barnyard Uncle Ben helped us fasten them in
+their _stanchions_ in the barn. Then the men brought the bright pails
+and cans to begin milking. Cousin Frank and I always helped, although he
+can milk much faster than I. Some of the cows gave but two or three
+quarts, while others gave as many gallons.
+
+We strained the milk into cans holding eight gallons each, and put them
+into tanks of water to cool. After milking was finished we turned the
+cattle into the barnyard for the night.
+
+In the morning we commenced milking about sunrise. After breakfast the
+cans were loaded into a spring wagon and Uncle Ben drove to the depot.
+Here they were put on the "milk train," which took them to the city.
+
+Many other people sent milk on this same train. It was sent to bakeries,
+to hotels and restaurants, and to milkmen, who delivered it from house
+to house. Usually the milkmen put the milk into pint or quart bottles
+for people who like to have it in that form. Uncle Ben told us that
+much of the milk that is sent to New York City is bottled before it is
+sent. The bottling is done by machinery. He also told us that, because
+of the great importance of having pure milk, there are, in all cities,
+inspectors who carefully examine the milk and report to the Board of
+Health. The cows also are inspected, and if any are sick, they are
+usually killed.
+
+Each evening some one drove to the depot again to get empty cans which
+the milk train had brought home. These were always carefully washed in
+hot water before being used again.
+
+
+
+
+BUTTER MAKING
+
+
+One day, after I had been on the farm about a week, Uncle Ben took Frank
+and me to the _creamery_. A creamery is a place where the milk and cream
+are separated and butter is made.
+
+We found several wagonloads of milk being unloaded. The milk was weighed
+as it was received, for it is sold by weight.
+
+The milk was then strained into a large galvanized iron tub, from which
+a pipe carried it into a circular machine called the _separator_. The
+separator revolves rapidly, throwing the milk, which is heavier than the
+cream, to the outer edge, where it passes through small holes into a
+compartment by itself. The cream rises along the center and passes
+through another set of openings into a special compartment. A pipe
+carries it to a large vat, while another pipe conveys the milk to large
+tanks.
+
+Uncle Ben told me that when people make their own butter, they must wait
+for the cream to _rise_ on the milk. The cream is then skimmed off, and
+the milk is called _skimmed milk_. Although the milk in the creamery is
+not skimmed, the same name is used for it.
+
+I asked if the skimmed milk was used for anything. Uncle Ben gave me a
+cupful of it to taste. It was very good. He then told me that the
+separator takes out only the part needed in making butter, leaving all
+of the sugar. I did not know before that milk contains sugar.
+
+The farmers take home loads of this milk to feed it to their hogs. For
+each hundred pounds of milk delivered, they get back seventy-five pounds
+of skimmed milk, besides the pay for their cream.
+
+The creamery man told me that he made from four to six pounds of butter
+from one hundred pounds of milk.
+
+The cream remains in the large vat about twenty-four hours before it is
+churned. The churn, as you see by the picture, is a great barrel made
+to revolve by machinery. It takes from thirty-five minutes to one hour
+to churn. The man told me that I might look at the book in which he kept
+the record of the churning. I saw that he made from two hundred fifty to
+six hundred pounds of butter at a churning. He said that some churns
+would produce more than one thousand pounds at a churning.
+
+Not all of the cream is made into butter. There is left in the bottom of
+the churn a liquid called _buttermilk_. This is drawn off, and the
+butter is washed and _worked_ before being taken out of the churn. The
+working is done by means of paddles in the churn. It continues for six
+or eight minutes and squeezes the liquid out of the butter.
+
+While the butter is being worked, it is salted. Some of the butter is
+unsalted, but most of it is salted. When butter is made in the home, it
+must be churned by hand. Only a few pounds at a time can be made in this
+way.
+
+When the butter was taken out of the churn, the men packed it solidly in
+wooden boxes about two feet square and four inches deep. The bottom
+of each box consisted of strips as wide as a _square_ of butter. These
+were held together by a clamp, and the sides were hooked to the bottom
+and to one another. When the butter is to be cut into squares, these
+sides are removed and zinc ones take their places. In these there are
+slits running from top to bottom. Through these slits a wire saw is run,
+and so the butter is quickly cut into one or two pound squares. The
+butter is then wrapped in fancy papers upon which the name of the butter
+or of the creamery is stamped.
+
+[Illustration: A Separator.]
+
+[Illustration: A Churn.]
+
+Of course some of the butter is packed in wooden tubs and shipped in
+that form. This butter is a little cheaper than that put up in squares.
+
+
+
+
+CHEESE
+
+
+I was so much pleased with my visit to the creamery, that Uncle Ben
+promised to show me how cheese is made. So one morning just after
+breakfast he, Cousin Frank, and I started out. After a pleasant ride of
+about five miles we reached the factory.
+
+The first process here was the same as that at the creamery. After the
+milk was weighed it was run into great zinc-lined vats. There were four
+of these in the factory, each of which held about five thousand pounds.
+
+Uncle Ben explained that the milk must _curdle_ before cheese can be
+made. In order to make it curdle quickly, a little less than a pound of
+a substance called _rennet_ was put into each vat.
+
+A man worked at each vat with a long wooden rake, stirring the milk
+constantly. I saw a glass tube standing in the milk and asked what it
+was. Uncle Ben told me to look at it closely. I saw that it was a
+thermometer, and that it registered eighty degrees. A little while after
+I looked again, when it showed a temperature of ninety degrees. The milk
+is kept warm, so as to help it to curdle quickly.
+
+In about an hour I could see the curd very plainly, but the men kept on
+stirring and cutting it. Presently one of them carried a piece of the
+curd to a table. He heated a small iron rod and touched it with the
+curd. When he pulled the curd away, little threads were drawn out to the
+length of half an inch or more. This he called the "acid test," which
+showed that the curd was in the right condition to be made into cheese.
+
+Of course only a part of the milk had turned into curd; the rest was
+_whey_, that was drawn off and run into tanks. Each man who had
+delivered one hundred pounds of milk was given a check for seventy-five
+pounds of the whey. It is fed to hogs. About two hours from the time
+that the milk was put into the vats, the whey was drawn off.
+
+One of the men now took a long knife and cut the curd into oblong cakes.
+These he frequently lifted and turned over. After continuing this for
+about twenty minutes, the pieces of curd were put into a small mill,
+placed on a board over the vat, and the curd was chopped into strips
+from one to six inches long and from one-half an inch to an inch thick.
+Salt was scattered over the mass by one man, while another pitched it
+about with a three-pronged wooden fork. The man told me that he used
+three pounds of salt to each thousand pounds of milk.
+
+Next, a piece of cloth was placed on a board about sixteen inches
+square. Two circular metal frames or bands, about six inches high, were
+fitted one within the other and placed on the cloth. The frame was
+filled with curd, covered by a cloth, and another set placed on top of
+it until there were five. They were then put on a table directly under a
+block which was fastened to a screw. By turning the screw the block was
+pressed against the top board, and so each frame of curd was pressed. I
+saw the whey running out as the squeezing went on. The superintendent
+told us that the curd would be left in the press until the next day.
+
+We were then taken into the room where the cheese "ripens." Here we saw
+large racks reaching nearly to the ceiling, filled with double rows of
+cheeses. The smallest ones weighed but three pounds, while the largest
+weighed fifty pounds. It may take but a few days and it may take many
+months to "ripen" a cheese. It depends upon the flavor wanted. The man
+said that in England "strong" cheese is generally liked, while in our
+country "mild" cheese is preferred.
+
+I asked how much cheese five thousand pounds of milk would make, and was
+told that it would make between four and five hundred pounds.
+
+On the way home Uncle Ben told us that although our country is a great
+dairy country, we import certain kinds of cheese from Europe. He told us
+how the Swiss people pasture their cattle on the steep mountain sides,
+and that in every little mountain valley cheese is made, some of which
+finds its way over the mountains and across the sea to the United
+States.
+
+
+
+
+THE FISHING INDUSTRY
+
+
+Have you ever stood by the side of a stream and watched the fish dart
+from one shadow of overhanging rock into another, or swim lazily at the
+bottom of some deep pool? How gracefully they move and turn! How like
+water jewels they flash as the sunlight falls upon them!
+
+Most streams and lakes, like the ocean, contain fish. So we have
+fresh-water and salt-water fish. There are a few bodies of water so full
+of salt that fish cannot live in them. Do you know of any such bodies of
+water?
+
+Most of the fish used as food come from the ocean. In this, and in most
+other countries, there are many men who do nothing but fish, in order
+that other people may be supplied with this sort of food. They do not
+depend upon hook and line alone, but use nets also.
+
+Nets are great sacks made of cord, knotted or woven together in such a
+way as to leave spaces or _meshes_. These meshes are not big enough to
+allow large fish to escape. Sometimes the fishermen go out in rowboats
+some distance from shore and then throw the net into the water. Corks or
+floats keep the upper edge of the net near the surface, while weights
+hold the lower edge on the bottom. Ropes are fastened to each end, and
+so it is drawn toward the shore. How the fishermen wish that they could
+see to the bottom of the restless water and know what their harvest is
+to be! When the boats have almost reached the shore, horses are
+sometimes driven into the water and hitched to the ropes. At last the
+net is dragged out upon the sands and the uncertainty is past.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Drying Nets.]
+
+Look! Within the folds of the net is a countless number of fishes, each
+jumping, squirming, wriggling, trying to get back to its ocean home.
+They are of many sizes, shapes, and colors. Those not good for food,
+together with the smallest ones, are thrown back into the water.
+
+Sometimes a net called a "dip-net" is dropped from a fishing schooner
+and drawn about a "school" of fish. I have seen many barrels of fish
+brought up at one time in this way.
+
+The fishermen keep a close watch for the appearance of these "schools,"
+you may be sure. Whales and dolphins pursue them, and gulls and
+cormorants circle overhead, for they, too, are fishers. Their
+appearance helps the men to tell where the "schools" are. There is a
+great rush for the fishing grounds when they are sighted. The
+white-sailed schooners skim over the waters almost like a flock of
+birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A Fishing Schooner.]
+
+Large quantities of fish are caught by a method called _trawl fishing_.
+This may be carried on miles from the shore. How do you suppose it is
+done? To a very long and strong line, many shorter ones, each with a
+hook at the end, are attached. These lines, to which large buoys are
+fastened, are left in the water for several hours, and then fishermen in
+flat-bottomed boats called _dories_ row out from the schooner and
+examine them. The lines are then reset and the fish taken to the
+schooner to be dressed. This is a common method of catching codfish,
+which is carried on during summer and winter alike. Storms and fogs are
+likely to occur while the men are out in their little boats, making
+their work full of danger as well as of hardship.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Splitting Codfish.]
+
+Many of the fish are packed in ice and sold fresh, while others are
+cured on the boats or on shore. Some of the fishing schooners carry
+great quantities of salt when they start out on a trip. The fish are
+dressed and packed in this. Sometimes they are packed in brine, and
+along the shores of some countries they are strung on poles to dry.
+
+Codfish are dried in great quantities along the New England coast by
+placing them on frames made of strips of wood and raised a little above
+the wharf, so that the air can circulate freely. When the skin and bones
+are removed and the flesh cut into strips, it is called "shredded"
+codfish.
+
+The principal food-fish are the cod, mackerel, herring, halibut, shad,
+salmon, sardines, and whitefish. Whitefish are caught in the Great
+Lakes. To this list the lobster may be added, although it is not a fish.
+
+A common method of catching lobsters is to sink a box made of lath to
+the bottom, where they crawl about on the rocks. A fish head is placed
+in the box for bait. The lobsters crawl in and are likely to remain
+until the box is examined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Drying Codfish.]
+
+Lobster steamers, fitted up with tanks containing salt water, run from
+Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to Boston and New York. Here those not
+wanted are placed on cars containing similar tanks and sent to interior
+cities. In this way fresh lobsters are served thousands of miles from
+where they were caught.
+
+A lobster that would cost us from twenty-five to seventy-five cents
+brings the fisherman not more than ten cents.
+
+Along our New England coast there are many towns engaged extensively in
+fishing. Portland, Gloucester, Boston, and Provincetown are among the
+number. Gloucester is the most important fishing town in the United
+States. From it fishing schooners go as far as Newfoundland, Greenland,
+Iceland, and even to the coast of Ireland. There are also important
+fisheries on the Pacific coast, from San Francisco to Alaska. Here the
+salmon are taken in great numbers. They weigh from twenty to one hundred
+pounds. The fish are canned and shipped to all parts of the country.
+Besides being caught in nets and traps and on lines many are caught in
+"fish wheels." These are fastened to the stern of a boat and revolve in
+the water. The fish are caught in pockets and dropped in the boat as the
+wheel brings them up over it.
+
+There are very extensive fisheries along the shores of the British Isles
+and on the western coast of Europe. Fishing is the chief industry in
+the towns along the coast of Norway. The air is full of the odor of
+fish, while drying fish, nets, and boats are everywhere in sight.
+
+Although the supply of fish in the ocean is very great, it is
+diminishing, especially near the shore. Most countries now pay
+considerable attention to the raising of both fresh and salt water
+fishes, and they have passed laws regulating fishing. Eggs are hatched
+in great _hatcheries_, from which the young fish are taken where they
+are most needed.
+
+The great ocean is free to all to sail over or fish in at will. There is
+a narrow strip along the shore three miles wide, which belongs to the
+country which it borders. The men of other countries are not allowed to
+fish there.
+
+The fisherman is a brave and sturdy man. His life is full of danger. He
+battles constantly with the winds and the waves. Fogs may hide the sharp
+rocks which seem to wait for a chance to destroy his little vessel.
+Sometimes icebergs or great ocean steamers sink his boat and he is never
+seen again.
+
+When storms are raging and night has settled over sea and land, and
+angry waves are dashing themselves into foam against the shore, the
+mothers, wives, and children look anxiously from their cottage windows
+toward the sea, and pray that their loved ones may return to them in
+safety.
+
+
+
+
+OYSTER FARMING
+
+
+It sounds strange to speak of farming in the ocean, but there are many
+and large oyster farms all along our coast. Some of these farms are
+covered by water all of the time and some are uncovered when the tide is
+low. Oyster farms are far more profitable than are those upon which corn
+and wheat are raised.
+
+This is a new industry in our country because civilized people have not
+lived here very long, but it is a very old one in some parts of the
+world. As long ago as the seventh century a Roman knight raised oysters
+for the market, and it is said that the business made him very wealthy.
+
+You will understand better about the cultivation of oysters, if I tell
+you first how they live and grow in their natural homes.
+
+Except during the first few days of their lives, oysters are prisoners.
+They cannot move about freely from place to place as fishes and most
+animals can, but they are attached to rocks, to the shells of their dead
+relatives, and to other objects. How, then, do you suppose they get
+their food? They grow in immense numbers, and they crowd one another
+more than people do in the tenement houses in our great cities. In fact
+most of them are soon crowded out, and they die, leaving room for the
+rest to grow upon their empty homes. In this way the oyster beds spread
+out.
+
+These oyster beds are not found in very deep water, but rather along the
+shore, generally near the mouth of some river. As I have told you, they
+often live where they are uncovered when the tide goes out. You can see
+from this that it is not very difficult to gather oysters, so that,
+partly on this account, man has used them for food for ages.
+
+When the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the shores of New England, they found
+that the Indians used oysters very commonly. All along the coast were
+great heaps of the shells. At the very first Thanksgiving dinner given
+in America, oysters were served.
+
+Oysters used to be so plentiful on these natural beds that they were
+very cheap. In some places where the winter weather was cold enough to
+freeze the water along the shore, people cut holes in the ice and
+gathered them by means of long-handled rakes.
+
+In a single year an oyster will produce more than a million young ones.
+Just think of it! If all of this family grew up, they would fill a room
+fourteen feet in each dimension.
+
+These young oysters are _very_ small. They are called "spat." Most of
+them are drifted away by waves and currents, or devoured by larger sea
+animals. The few that escape soon attach themselves to some object, so
+getting a chance to begin the battle of life.
+
+If oysters are caught at all times of the year it does not give them a
+chance to produce their young, and this, as well as catching the young
+ones themselves, has destroyed many of the natural beds. In order to
+keep up the supply of this food men commenced oyster farming. You see
+how our daily needs and desires lead to the establishment of great
+industries.
+
+The oyster farmer prepares his farm in various ways. He places clean
+oyster shells, stones, trays, bundles of sticks, and other things on the
+bottom, so that the oysters may find something to which to attach
+themselves. Then he places the young oysters or "spat" on these objects.
+When trays are used, several are placed one upon another and bound
+together by means of a chain. These trays are taken up from time to time
+in order to gather the oysters that are ready for market.
+
+Stones are sometimes piled on the bottom and the "spat" are placed in
+the crevices between them. Often stakes are planted in a somewhat
+circular form. Cords are attached to the stakes, to which bundles of
+sticks are fastened in such a way as to keep them a little above the
+bottom. Young oysters attach themselves to these sticks, which may be
+drawn up when the proper time comes.
+
+Shells are used more commonly than other things. They are taken from the
+restaurants and hotels to the farms in boat loads, to be scattered over
+the bottom.
+
+The young oysters grow at very different rates. In two years they may
+grow to be six inches in length, or it may take several years to reach
+that size. They grow more rapidly on the artificial beds, and are better
+in quality also. The starfish is one of the greatest enemies of the
+oyster, large numbers of which it destroys every year.
+
+During the fishing season the oyster men go to the beds in their boats
+and scoop the oysters up from the bottom. This is called dredging. The
+scoops with their loads of oysters are drawn to the deck of the boat by
+machinery. Sometimes the oysters are gathered by means of long tongs.
+
+As the oysters are usually in clusters, these have to be broken up. For
+this purpose a sort of a hammer known as a _culling iron_ is used. The
+oysters are broken apart and sorted. Sometimes the oyster man makes
+three grades and sometimes four.
+
+Oysters are not the only things drawn up in the dredge. Starfish,
+lobsters, and various kinds of fishes are gathered in. The starfish are
+killed and the rest thrown back.
+
+The oysters are heaped up in great piles on the deck of the boat. Sacks
+and barrels are filled with them, and many car loads are shipped daily
+from the cities near the fishing grounds. Chesapeake Bay is the center
+of the oyster industry in our country. Find it. There are oyster beds,
+however, all along both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts.
+
+Great quantities of oysters are canned near where they are caught.
+Getting them out of their shells is not an easy matter. For this purpose
+a knife is used. This work is called in the South "shucking oysters."
+Canning oysters is an important industry in the city of Baltimore. Have
+you ever seen cans of oysters that came from there?
+
+
+
+
+A RICE FIELD
+
+
+When you do not feel quite satisfied with your breakfast, dinner, or
+supper, and think that there should be a greater variety of food on the
+table, just come with me and we will visit some of the boys and girls of
+far-away China. What do you suppose _their_ chief article of food is?
+Rice. Rice in the morning, rice at noon, and rice at night. Rice from
+the beginning to the end of the year. In the poorer families a bit of
+dried fish and some vegetables are usually eaten with it. Those who can
+afford such things have bits of preserved ginger, mushrooms, and barley
+cakes with the rice. Of course the rich people have other things to eat,
+but most of the people of China are poor.
+
+In the fertile portions of China the people live very close together.
+Gardens take the place of farms. Workmen often receive no more than ten
+cents a day. On this account they cannot afford the variety of food
+that we have, but must be content with whatever is cheap and nourishing
+for their labor. If the rice crop were to fail, the Chinese would
+suffer. You will see how important this food is to them, when I tell you
+that they are forbidden by law to sell rice to other countries.
+
+Perhaps you are wondering where the rice that we use in this country
+comes from. Rice is grown in great quantities in Japan, Corea,
+Indo-China, Ceylon, India, the Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, and in
+our Gulf states.
+
+Rice is the chief food of one half the people of the world. Although we
+raise large quantities, we produce only about one half of what we use.
+It is a kind of grain which will not thrive on the fertile Western
+prairies where corn, oats, and wheat grow. It needs a warm climate and a
+great deal of water. For this reason the rice fields are found on the
+marshy lands near the coast, and by the banks of rivers, where they can
+be easily flooded. Some rice is raised on the uplands, but not so
+successfully as on the lowlands.
+
+Canals are dug from the streams through the farms, and from these
+smaller ditches branch off so as to reach all parts. They are so
+arranged that the farmer can turn the water on or off whenever he
+wishes. On some of the farms, wells furnish the water to the canals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--A Rice Field.--Observe the Canal.]
+
+In the Gulf states the fields are plowed in the winter, and the rice is
+sown between the first of April and the middle of May. Sometimes the
+seed is sown broadcast, as wheat is, and sometimes it is planted in
+regular drills or trenches about twelve inches apart.
+
+The Japanese sow the seed in gardens, and when the plants are eight or
+ten inches high, they are pulled up and transplanted to the fields. The
+men work right in the water, for the fields are flooded at the time.
+
+In our country the farmer floods the field as soon as the seeds are
+planted, allowing the water to remain five or six days. When the young
+blade of rice is a few inches high, the field is again flooded. After
+the second leaf appears on the stalk, the water is turned on and left
+for twenty or thirty days. After the land dries the crop is hoed. The
+fields are irrigated from time to time, until about eight days before
+the harvest, which generally occurs in August.
+
+When full grown, the stalks are from one to six feet in height, with
+long, slender leaves. The kernels grow much as those of wheat and oats
+do.
+
+On account of the fields being so wet, rice, in most countries, is cut
+by hand. In China and Japan small curved sickles are used, and the
+grain is bound up in very small bundles. In Louisiana and some other
+parts of the South, regular harvesters are used. They have very broad
+wheels. Why?
+
+After the grain has been bound into bundles, these are set up in double
+rows to dry. This is called _shocking_ the rice. The grain is then put
+through a thrashing machine, to separate it from the straw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Harvesting Rice.]
+
+Rice kernels are covered by a husk. Before the husk is removed the grain
+is often called _paddy rice_. Removing the hulls or husks is called
+_hulling_. The hulling machine is a long tube into one end of which the
+rice is poured. Within the tube are ribs which revolve rapidly. As the
+kernels pass between these the hulls are taken off.
+
+If you were passing through a Chinese village, you might hear sounds
+like those produced when a man pounds with a mallet on a great piece of
+timber. On searching for the sounds, you would find that they came from
+the rice mill. The mill consists of a portion of a log hollowed out and
+placed upright. In the hollow a quantity of rice is held. A piece of
+timber, fastened to a pivot, extends in a horizontal position with one
+end over the mill. To this end another timber is fastened in an upright
+position. A Chinaman gets on to the end of the long timber which is
+farthest from the mill. This raises the end with the upright. He then
+jumps off and the upright falls, striking upon the rice. In this way the
+hulls are worn off.
+
+After hulling, the grain is carefully screened, in order to remove the
+hulls, the broken and very small kernels, and the _rice flour_. This
+latter makes good cattle food.
+
+Perhaps you have noticed that rice kernels have a bluish appearance.
+This is not natural, but is the result of polishing. The polishing
+removes much of the best part of the grain, but the rice sells for a
+higher price simply on account of its appearance.
+
+The polishing machine is cylindrical or drum-like in shape. Moosehide or
+sheepskin is tacked to the cylinder. It is made to revolve rapidly, so
+that the kernels are polished as they pass over the skin. After being
+polished the kernels are run through screens and sorted. The rice is
+then put up in barrels or sacks and shipped.
+
+
+
+
+HOW SUGAR IS MADE
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Sowing Sugar Seed.]
+
+This picture represents one of the beginnings of the great industry of
+sugar making. The small objects which you see in the trenches are pieces
+of sugar cane. These "cuttings," as they are called, are covered with
+soil. They soon sprout, and from them grow the tall, waving fields of
+cane, which resemble cornfields. The canes are taller than cornstalks,
+however. How high do you think those shown in the picture are?
+
+In about ten months after planting the cane is ready to cut. In the
+Southern states this work usually begins about the middle of October.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Cutting Sugar Cane.]
+
+The canes are jointed, as cornstalks are, and the spongy substance
+between the joints is filled with a sweet juice. It is from this juice
+or sap that cane sugar is made. I have seen children chew pieces of the
+cane, and enjoy it as you do candy; for this use it is sometimes sold in
+stores in the South.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Loading Cars with Sugar Cane.]
+
+After the canes are cut they are hauled to the mill or sugarhouse on
+wagons. On the large plantations _tram cars_ sometimes run right into
+the fields.
+
+At the mill the canes are run between heavy rollers, which squeeze out
+the sap. Sometimes as many as seventy-five pounds of sap are obtained
+from one hundred pounds of cane. The crushed stalks are used in the mill
+for fuel, and the ashes are returned to the land to fertilize it.
+
+When the juice is first pressed out, it is not at all clear in color. It
+is then placed in great vats or kettles and heated. This heating causes
+the water which is in the sap to evaporate, and it also brings some of
+the impurities to the top, where they are skimmed off. When the
+evaporating has been finished, there are two products, molasses and
+brown sugar.
+
+The sugar must next be refined. For this purpose it is usually sent to
+cities outside of the sugar belt. There are great refineries in New
+Orleans, San Francisco, St. Louis, Chicago, and other cities.
+
+When the _raw sugar_, as it is called, reaches the refinery, which is
+generally a tall building, it is taken to the top story and dissolved in
+hot water. It then passes through bags which act as _filters_, and
+through a great cylinder which contains burned bones, known as
+_bone-black_. You remember that I told you that the bones of the cattle
+were saved. This is one of the uses to which they are put. When the
+liquid comes out of this bone filter it is a perfectly clear sirup,
+which is then crystallized.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--A Sugar Mill.]
+
+You know that we buy refined sugar in three forms: granulated sugar,
+loaf sugar, and pulverized sugar. When granulated sugar is wanted, the
+crystals are placed in a great drum, which revolves until they are
+thoroughly dried in the right form. To make loaf sugar, the crystals are
+pressed into molds, then dried, and cut into the size desired. In
+powdered sugar they are simply ground to a powdered condition.
+
+Think how much labor is required to produce sugar, and yet you can buy
+it for five cents a pound.
+
+There are great fields of sugar cane in the Gulf states, in Cuba, in the
+Hawaiian Islands, in the East Indies, in India, and in other warm, moist
+parts of the world. We buy a great deal of sugar from Cuba, and from the
+Hawaiian Islands. To what city do you think the sugar from the Hawaiian
+Islands is sent?
+
+
+
+
+BEET SUGAR
+
+
+Although the cane fields of the moist, hot countries yield great
+quantities of sugar, there are other sources from which this useful
+product comes. In the year 1747 a German scientist discovered that sugar
+can be made from beets, and now about two thirds of our supply come from
+these plants.
+
+The sugar beet is not just like the plant of the same name which we
+raise for table use. It is white, and sometimes weighs as much as ten or
+fifteen pounds. Beets do not need so much water nor so much heat as
+sugar cane, so they can be raised in Germany, France, Austria, Russia,
+and other countries, as well as in California, Utah, and Nebraska, in
+our own land.
+
+In some parts of California there are fields of beets stretching for
+miles. The seeds are planted in rows, which, after the plants have come
+up, are thinned. In four or five months from the time the seeds are
+planted, the beets are ready to harvest.
+
+On most of the large _ranches_ the beets are dug by machinery. Men then
+move back and forth in the fields, cutting off the leaves and a little
+of the upper part of the beet, for this contains too much mineral matter
+to be of value in making sugar. The workmen use large knives, and they
+walk on their knees.
+
+The beets are now taken to the factory in wagons, or, if it is far away,
+they are sent on trains. When the loads of beets reach the factory, they
+are weighed. The teamsters then drive up an inclined plane to a plank
+roadway. There are generally several of these. On each side of the road
+or platform are deep V-shaped trenches with wooden sides, in which
+streams of water run. When the wagon has reached the right spot, the
+platform upon which it rests is raised in a slanting position, and the
+beets fall into the trench.
+
+A basket full of beets is taken from each load and tested, to see how
+much sugar they contain, for this determines the price to be paid.
+
+The stream of water in the trench carries the beets along, just as they
+would be carried in a brook. This, you see, is a quick and easy way of
+washing them.
+
+The streams of water carry the beets into the factory, where they are
+cut up into strips by machinery. The juice is then washed out in vats
+containing warm water, and is boiled down in great tanks. The raw sugar
+is refined much as the cane sugar is. After the sugar has been dried, it
+is run through spouts into sacks held open to catch it as it comes out.
+One hundred pounds are put into each sack. One workman sews the sacks up
+and another wheels them to the wareroom. Train loads are carried away to
+be distributed in the parts of our country that do not produce sugar.
+
+
+
+
+MAPLE SUGAR
+
+
+You would enjoy helping to make some maple sugar, I am sure, so let us
+make a trip to the woods of Vermont or New York, where maple sugar is
+made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree.
+
+You will need your cap and mittens, as the sugar season is the early
+spring, when there is yet snow on the ground. Besides, some of the work
+is done at night, and you will not wish to miss that.
+
+The owner of the "sugar bush" bores holes into the trees a short
+distance from the ground, into which he slips small spouts, called
+"spiles."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Tapping a Tree.]
+
+This is called _tapping_ the trees. Underneath the spout a pail is
+placed. During the day the sap trickles out and runs into the pail.
+During the colder hours of the night the sap flows slowly, if at all.
+Sometimes it is so cold that little sap runs for two or three days at a
+time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Oxen hauling Sap.]
+
+The sap is collected in barrels and drawn on sleds to the camp or place
+where it is to be boiled down. This is done in great pans called
+_evaporators_, which may be five or six feet wide, and fifteen feet
+long. They are divided into sections, and these are connected by means
+of little openings.
+
+The sap flows into one end of the evaporator and follows a zigzag path
+through the different sections. By flowing slowly over so large a
+surface, evaporation goes on rapidly and the sap is changed to sirup by
+the time it has finished its journey.
+
+The sirup is put up in cans, or boiled down into sugar, which is molded
+into small cakes, and brings a high price.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Sap-yoke and Pails for gathering Sap.]
+
+"Sugaring off," as the boiling down of the sap is called, is quite an
+event. Often a number of people will be invited to go to the sugarhouse
+and take part in the operation.
+
+Before the modern evaporator came into use "sugaring off" always
+occurred at night. This was necessary, because during the day the sap
+buckets had to be attended to. The young people would sing songs, tell
+stories, and eat sugar.
+
+Some of the "sugar bushes" contain but a few trees and some contain one
+or two thousand or even more. A tree will yield from one to six pounds
+of sugar during a season.
+
+Our country produces great quantities of sugar every year, but we use so
+much that we have to buy much more than we manufacture at home. It was
+not always in such common use, however, because people in olden times
+did not understand how to make it cheaply.
+
+Long, long ago sugar was used only as a medicine. Don't you wish that
+all medicine to-day was as good as sugar? About seven hundred years ago
+an Italian nobleman died and left to his relatives, among other things,
+_six pounds of sugar_. His will caused considerable comment among the
+people, who said that no one family should be allowed to have so much
+sugar in its possession.
+
+
+
+
+WHERE SALT COMES FROM
+
+
+The Arab, journeying over the yellow sands, riding upon the back of his
+faithful "ship of the desert," often looks longingly for some sign of
+water to cool his parched lips. The sailor may ride upon the beautiful
+blue waters of the ocean in his white-winged ship; but although there is
+nothing but water to greet his eyes, he cannot drink it, for it is
+bitter to the taste.
+
+If you were to place a quantity of ocean water over a fire and evaporate
+it, there would remain a white substance. This is common salt. You see
+that it is as necessary to provide fresh water when one wishes to cross
+the ocean, as it is if one is going to cross the desert.
+
+Most streams and lakes contain _fresh_ water, so you will wonder why the
+waters of the ocean are briny. The rocks and soil of the earth contain
+salt, and the streams wash it from the land. Each one carries so little
+that we do not notice it, but they have worked so steadily and so long,
+that they have carried a great amount to the sea. None of it can escape,
+so the ocean gets more and more briny.
+
+No healthy person would ever think of eating salt alone as a food, and
+yet our food would taste very unsatisfactory without it. Farmers supply
+their cattle and horses with salt, and wild animals search for it in the
+forests, and lick it from the soil with their tongues.
+
+Salt is so important to us that I want to tell you about some of the
+ways in which men obtain it.
+
+Sometimes sea water is placed in great vats and evaporated. This leaves
+the salt, which is then refined. You know that the sun's heat causes the
+waters of a shallow pond to evaporate during warm weather. Shallow
+basins are often scooped out along the coast, and the waters which fill
+them are then shut off from the larger body. In time the water
+evaporates, and the salt, which has formed in thin layers, is
+collected.
+
+I said that most lakes are fresh-water bodies. There are some, however,
+that are _very_ salty. Great Salt Lake is one of these. Streams flow
+into it, but none flows out. If you were to bathe in the waters of this
+lake, you would find that your body would not sink.
+
+I have seen great piles of glistening salt along the shore of Great Salt
+Lake which had been obtained by evaporation. A railroad runs beside the
+lake, and the salt is loaded upon the cars to be hauled away. When the
+people first settled in Utah, they used to drive to the lake in wagons
+to get a supply of salt.
+
+Although the ocean and a few lakes contain immense quantities of this
+useful article, we get most of our supply from other sources.
+
+In the western part of New York State, at some distance below the
+surface of the earth, there is a thick layer of salt. Wells are drilled
+down to this; water is pumped into them, and then pumped out again as
+brine. This brine is evaporated in large pans made of iron, two quarts
+of brine yielding about a pound of salt.
+
+In China salt has been obtained in this way for hundreds and even
+thousands of years. Though they had little machinery to work with in
+those days, yet by patient, steady effort, they drilled wells two
+thousand and even three thousand feet in depth. From twenty-five to
+forty years were required to drill some of these wells. Those who
+commenced them knew that they were not likely to enjoy the fruits of
+their labor and that others must get the benefit of what they did. What
+does this show about these people? What benefits are you receiving from
+what others have done?
+
+Salt is also mined as coal and iron are. This is called _rock salt_. It
+is obtained in Germany, Poland, Austria, India, the United States, and
+in many other countries.
+
+One of the most interesting salt fields of the world is in the
+southeastern part of California. It is on the Colorado Desert, near the
+Colorado River. This was once a part of the ocean floor and the rocks
+contain much salt. Water seeping through the earth dissolves the salt
+and brings it to the surface at this place. What happens to the water?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Harvesting Salt, Salton, California. Is there
+any Water in this Field?]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Loading Cars with Salt. Salton, California.]
+
+This salt field covers an area of about one thousand acres, to a depth
+of from one to eight inches. You can see by the picture that it looks
+more like a field of snow and ice than one of salt. The bright sunlight
+is reflected from its surface with such power that it hurts one's eyes.
+
+A great plow drawn by a steam engine moves over this dazzling field,
+and throws the salt up in furrows. It is then piled up, loaded on to
+cars, and taken to sheds, where it is purified. Indians and Japanese do
+most of the work.
+
+In order to purify the brines they are boiled in iron pans and treated
+in various ways to make them fit for table use. When evaporation is
+rapid, the salt crystals are quite small, but slower evaporation
+produces larger ones. Rock salt is dissolved in water and then
+evaporated. To get the finest of salt, the crystals must be ground. When
+salt is to be used for other purposes than to season food, not so much
+pains are taken. Name other uses of salt.
+
+In olden times, when salt was not so easily obtained as it is to-day, it
+was regarded in some countries as a luxury. This seems strange, does it
+not? At one time the Chinese made it into little cakes, stamped the
+image of the emperor upon it, and used it as money. In Arabia those who
+together ate food which had been salted, believed that this established
+a special bond of friendship between them. This led to the old saying,
+"There is salt between us."
+
+
+
+
+MACARONI AND VERMICELLI
+
+
+Have you ever wondered as you have looked at the hollow sticks of
+macaroni in the stores or as you have eaten them at the table, how they
+were made in that way, and what they were made of?
+
+In Italy macaroni is a very important article of food, and its use is
+rapidly increasing in our own country. For a long time it was not made
+outside of Italy, where the city of Genoa was the center of the
+industry. Locate this city. Do you know what great man was born there?
+Now macaroni and vermicelli are made in other countries. There are a few
+factories in the United States, but most of what we use still comes from
+Italy.
+
+In making these foods only the best hard wheat is used.
+
+After grinding the wheat, the bran is taken out and the flour is placed
+in a large wooden tub. Water is added, and the two are mixed by hand
+for a few minutes. In this tub a marble wheel about five feet in
+diameter and eighteen inches in thickness is fastened in an upright
+position. This wheel weighs about a ton.
+
+After the flour and water have been mixed, the wheel is set in motion by
+machinery, and it slowly circles around in the tub, pressing the dough
+under it.
+
+A man keeps walking in front of the wheel, moving the dough from the
+edges of the tub and placing it directly in the path of it. This work of
+pressing the flour into a paste continues for a little more than half an
+hour.
+
+The wheel is then stopped and the paste, which is quite stiff, is cut
+into cakes about a foot square and from one to three inches in
+thickness.
+
+These are put into an iron cylinder heated by steam. In the bottom of
+the cylinder is a copper plate filled with holes having the centers
+filled. A cover fitted to a great screw which turns by machinery is
+placed on top. This slowly, but steadily, presses the paste downward.
+It is thus forced through these openings, and of course comes out in the
+form of round, hollow pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Drying Macaroni in Italy.]
+
+As these pipes issue from the cylinder, they are straightened out on a
+wooden tray or platform, and with a large, sharp knife cut into lengths
+of about three feet. They are then taken to a drying room and spread on
+wire frames covered with oiled paper. Here they are left for about five
+days, after which they are placed in boxes and are ready to ship.
+
+The only difference between macaroni and vermicelli is that the pipes
+of vermicelli are very small and are not hollow.
+
+When vermicelli is wanted, two plates are placed on the bottom of the
+press. The under one is of iron and contains holes about one inch in
+diameter. The upper one is of copper and contains _groups_ of very small
+openings. There are sometimes eighty of these openings in a group. When
+the plates are screwed together, the groups of small holes are directly
+above the larger openings.
+
+As the paste is pressed, it passes through the little holes and then
+issues from the larger ones; this keeps each little group of pipes
+somewhat apart from the others.
+
+Saffron is added to the paste to color it, and the great golden mass is
+quite a pretty sight as it steadily lengthens.
+
+The workman cuts off six or seven feet of it at a time; and holding it
+above his head with one hand, he shakes it out with the other, as one
+might shake the folds of a piece of silk. The pipes tangle up very
+little. They are cut into lengths of about eighteen inches.
+
+It is then taken to the drying room and spread out on the trays just as
+the macaroni is. A handful of the vermicelli is taken at a time, and by
+a peculiar twist of the arm it is placed on the paper in a form
+something like that of the letter _n_. After drying for five days it is
+packed and shipped.
+
+
+
+
+ON A COFFEE PLANTATION
+
+
+Juan and Lupe live in a beautiful valley where palm and banana trees
+wave their broad leaves in the breeze. It is never cold there, so that
+many kinds of plants and flowers grow out of doors which we do not see
+in our country except in greenhouses. On clear days they can see lofty
+mountains far to the westward, which sometimes wear caps of white.
+
+Juan is fourteen years old and Lupe is twelve. Their skin is much darker
+than yours, and they have bright black eyes and black hair. Their father
+owns a great coffee plantation in Brazil, not far from the city of Rio
+Janeiro.
+
+There are many men, women, and children employed on the plantation, and
+Juan and Lupe enjoy roaming about from place to place and watching them
+at their work.
+
+In the nursery they see men planting the coffee seeds in the rich soil.
+There are some plants that have just come up, and some that are ready
+to transplant. They are set out in rows, six or eight feet apart each
+way, and sometimes more.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--A Coffee Nursery.]
+
+The trees would grow much taller than those you see in the picture, if
+they were not kept pruned. Do you know why they are prevented from
+growing tall? Whenever you look at a coffee plantation, you see the dark
+green foliage of the tree, which is an evergreen. Lupe is very fond of
+the blossoms. They are clear white and very fragrant.
+
+A tree will yield a small amount the second year after planting, but it
+will not produce a full crop for five or more years. Two pounds is a
+good average crop for a tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Picking Coffee.]
+
+The children like to watch the pickers as they go from tree to tree.
+Many of them are about their own age. Some carry a sack slung over the
+shoulders, and others carry baskets or pails. The _berries_ must be
+picked by hand, for they do not all ripen at once. They are dark
+scarlet in color and look a little like cranberries. A good picker
+gathers about three bushels in a day. The pickers are given a check
+every time they fill a basket. Sometimes Juan tends to this work, and he
+enjoys it very much. At the end of each week the pickers are paid
+according to the number of checks they have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Coffee Berries.]
+
+Within the berry are two kernels or seeds, with their flat sides
+together. These are called "coffee beans." It is these beans from which
+the drink is made.
+
+The picking is but a small part of the work of preparing coffee for the
+market. The first operation is removing the pulp. This used to be done
+by tramping on the berries, but now it is done in a better way.
+
+The berries are thrown into a large tank filled with water, which
+carries them through a pipe to the pulping machine. This machine removes
+the pulp and separates the beans.
+
+Next the beans are carried to a second tank, where they remain for about
+twenty-four hours, to wash off a sticky substance which covers the shell
+of the bean.
+
+If you have ever put beans or peas into a basin of water, you have
+noticed that nearly all of them sink, while a few float. These latter
+are the poor ones. This is the way in which the good and bad coffee
+beans are separated. A pipe carries off the seeds that float on the
+surface of the water.
+
+The beans are dried on cement floors upon which they are spread. This
+drying takes a long time. Before sunset each day the coffee must be
+carried under shelter, for the dew injures it. While they are drying,
+the workmen stir them. Sometimes artificial heat is used, but this is
+expensive. Juan's father has a watchman whose duty it is to guard the
+coffee at night, for it is very valuable.
+
+Each bean is covered by a strong shell, or hull, which has to be
+removed. The soaking has loosened this, and so it comes off easier than
+it otherwise would. Juan and Lupe often watch the wheels of the huller
+as they turn, moved by patient oxen.
+
+There are two wheels set upright over a circular box, into which the
+coffee is put. As it passes between the wheels and the bottom of the
+box, the hulls are removed. Underneath the hull is a thin skin, which is
+also taken off.
+
+In some countries people want the coffee dyed or colored. A bluish color
+is given to it by coating the wheels of the hulling machine with lead.
+
+The hulls are separated from the beans in a winnowing machine, and the
+coffee is then sorted. Often this is done by hand. The beans are spread
+out on a table, and girls and boys, and sometimes grown persons, sort
+it into several grades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Sorting and sacking Coffee.]
+
+Juan's father has this work done by machinery. The coffee is put into a
+cylinder, in the bottom of which there are holes of different sizes by
+which it is graded.
+
+The last process is to sack the coffee and send it by railroad to Rio
+Janeiro. Of course it is neither roasted nor ground until it reaches its
+destination.
+
+We do not produce coffee in our country, but we are the greatest coffee
+drinkers in the world. A large part of our supply comes from Brazil.
+Trace the course of the ship from Rio Janeiro to New York. Juan has
+often done this, and his father has promised to take him with him
+sometime, when he goes with a cargo of coffee.
+
+You naturally think that coffee of different names must come from
+different countries, or at least from different trees. This is not
+always the case. Several brands may come from the same tree. The name
+depends partly upon the size and the general appearance of the beans.
+
+Coffee is a native of the far East, but it has gradually been
+transplanted to other countries, until it is now very extensively used.
+Brazil, Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, the Hawaiian Islands,
+Java, Ceylon, and Arabia are coffee-raising countries.
+
+In 1551 coffee found its way to the city of Constantinople; in 1652 it
+had reached London; and in 1720 it was planted in the West Indies. You
+see it worked its way westward rather slowly.
+
+Several hundred years ago, coffee was very expensive, so that only the
+rich could afford to use it. Instead of drinking it at home, people went
+to "coffeehouses," where it was served. To these "coffeehouses" men
+brought whatever news they had heard and told it to one another. In this
+way these places served about the same purpose that newspapers do now.
+
+
+
+
+THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA
+
+
+At the bottom of the teapot you will find some leaves. Spread one of
+them out carefully. You can see that it was once long and slender, a
+little like willow leaves. It may have grown in some garden in far-away
+China, for we get a great deal of tea from that country.
+
+I have told you how close together the people live on the fertile plains
+of eastern China. There is so little room that many live on boats on the
+rivers and in the harbors. On this account their farms are not so large
+as ours.
+
+The tea trees in the gardens are about five or six feet high. If they
+were allowed to, they would reach a height of twenty-five feet; but they
+are kept trimmed for the same reasons that the coffee trees are pruned.
+
+The trees are raised from seeds, and are generally planted on land which
+slopes toward the south. What advantage is this?
+
+In about three years after planting, the first crop of leaves can be
+gathered. In China they are usually gathered four times each year, and
+the trees continue to yield for twenty-five or thirty years.
+
+When the leaves are picked, they are full of sap or juice, and so have
+to be dried. The drying is usually done on trays made of bamboo. While
+they are drying, they are rubbed and rolled between the palms of the
+hands, so that they may dry more quickly and evenly.
+
+Next the leaves are placed, a few at a time, in iron pans over a
+charcoal fire. They are left in these but a short time, for they are
+hot. This process is called "firing." Sometimes the leaves are "fired"
+but once, and sometimes twice.
+
+The tea is then spread out, and broken bits of stems are removed. Some
+of the tea growers place the tea in baskets which are suspended over
+slow fires, for drying.
+
+If you were to look into some of the _tea-hongs_ or houses where tea is
+cured and packed, you would find the tea dried in a very curious
+fashion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Picking Tea. "Pinehurst," South Carolina.]
+
+In one of the rooms you would see several Chinamen rolling and tossing
+balls about with their bare feet. The balls are about the size of
+footballs and are partly filled with tea. Although it looks like play,
+it is hard work. As the balls are tossed about, the tea leaves are given
+their rounded or twisted appearance. From time to time the workers stop
+and tie the bags up more closely at the neck. This method is used in
+making _gunpowder tea_.
+
+Black and green teas are not different varieties, but are produced by
+different methods of handling.
+
+In the great tea-hongs there are professional _tasters_,--that is, men
+who do nothing but sip tea from small cups, so as to grade it and fix
+its value. This is considered a very particular line of work and
+requires an educated taste.
+
+The ocean atmosphere has a bad effect on tea, so that the very finest
+grades are seldom sent across the sea. When tea is to be shipped by
+water, it is placed in boxes lined with a sort of sheet lead. This
+protects the tea greatly. Most of the tea sent to the United States
+lands at San Francisco. Why? How does it get to other parts of our
+country?
+
+Great quantities of tea are pressed into the form of bricks and sent
+over mountains and across deserts into Russia.
+
+This is called "brick tea." The Russians are great tea drinkers, and
+whenever any one calls in Russia, tea is served. They call their teapot
+a _samovar_.
+
+Better tea is obtained from Ceylon and India than from China. In these
+countries Europeans have charge of most of the tea farms, and they have
+carefully studied the cultivation and handling of tea.
+
+There is a little tea raised in our own country in the state of South
+Carolina. It is very fine in quality and people are willing to pay a
+high price for it. Some of it has been sold for five dollars a pound.
+
+When tea was first brought into Europe, it was regarded as a great
+luxury, just as coffee was. People paid as much as fifty dollars a pound
+for it. It is said that some of the tea raised to-day for the royal
+family of China, is worth a hundred dollars a pound.
+
+Many people in this country do not enjoy a cup of tea unless they have
+milk and sugar in it. The Chinese do not use either in their tea. In
+Russia it is quite common to draw the tea through a lump of sugar held
+between the teeth.
+
+You know that tea parties are very common. The most celebrated tea party
+ever held was called the "Boston Tea Party." See what you can find out
+about it.
+
+
+
+
+A CUP OF COCOA
+
+
+On the eighteenth day of June, in the year 1771, this notice appeared in
+the _Essex Gazette_ of Massachusetts:--
+
+                          "AMOS TRASK,
+
+     At his House a little below the Bell-Tavern in
+
+                            DANVERS,
+
+                  Makes and sells Chocolate,
+
+     which he will warrant to be good, and takes Cocoa to grind. Those
+     who may please to favor him with their Custom may depend upon being
+     well served, and at a very cheap Rate."
+
+This seems to have been the first notice of the manufacture and sale of
+cocoa and chocolate in our country. What is peculiar about the notice?
+
+In those days the raw product was brought to Massachusetts by the
+Gloucester fishermen. They obtained it in the West Indies in exchange
+for fish and other things which they took there.
+
+When the Spanish soldier, Cortez, conquered Mexico in 1519, he found
+that the people of that country were very fond of a drink which they
+called "chocolatl." It was served to their ruler, Montezuma, in a cup of
+gold. When the Spaniards went home, they of course introduced the drink
+into their own country. For a long time it was very expensive and was
+not commonly used outside of Spain, for the Spaniards kept the secret of
+its preparation.
+
+Cocoa and chocolate are products of the seeds of a tree called the cacao
+tree. It is a tropical tree and grows in both the Old and the New World.
+
+Although the cacao tree grows wild, it is also cultivated in orchards
+much like fruit orchards which you have seen. The trees are seldom more
+than twenty feet high, but they are rather inclined to spread out. They
+require some shade, and so other trees are often planted between the
+rows to shade them. The trees begin to bear when five or six years old,
+and continue to yield for forty years. There are generally two chief
+harvests each year, but the fruit is ripening all of the time.
+
+The blossoms, which grow in clusters, are small and pink or yellow in
+color. They grow directly from the branches or the trunk of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Cocoa Pods and Leaves.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+In about four months after the tree has blossomed, you will find dark
+yellow or brown pods hanging from it. These look a little like ripe
+cucumbers, but they are more pointed at one end and are grooved or
+fluted. These pods are from six inches to a foot or more in length, with
+a rather thick, tough rind.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Native Cocoa Pickers. Ceylon. (Permission of
+WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+How do you think the pods are gathered? They are cut off by men carrying
+long poles, sometimes of bamboo, to the ends of which knives are
+fastened. Only the ripe pods are cut off and collected in a heap under
+the tree. They are left in these heaps for about twenty-four hours,
+when they are cut open and the seeds are gathered in baskets.
+
+The seeds are called "beans." There are five rows of them, about the
+size of almonds, within the pink pulp of the fruit. When fresh they are
+white, but when dried they are brown. If you taste one, you will find it
+bitter.
+
+You have often seen on packages of chocolate, as well as on the cans of
+breakfast cocoa, the picture of a young woman carrying some chocolate
+upon a tray. It is the picture of a beautiful girl who once served
+chocolate in the old city of Vienna. Her name was Anette Baldauff, and
+she married a rich count and "lived happily ever after." It is said that
+a painting of her hangs upon the walls of the great art gallery in
+Dresden. Point out the cities I have mentioned.
+
+The seeds are carried from the orchard to the sheds, where they are
+prepared for market. Here they go through a process of fermentation or
+"sweating." For this purpose they are placed in a covered box, or they
+may even be covered with earth. This is called "claying." Now the seeds
+must be dried. They are spread out on platforms, raised a little above
+the ground, so that the air can circulate underneath. You notice that
+the roofs do not cover them just now, for their only purpose is to keep
+off the dew and the rain. They are fastened to frames which have wheels
+under them. During the day they are not used, but at night they are
+rolled over the cocoa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Drying Cocoa Seed. Ceylon.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The cocoa is stirred by workmen using long shovels or rakes, so that it
+may dry quickly and evenly. Once a day the beans are shoveled into heaps
+and the workmen tread upon them with their bare feet, as you see. This
+is called "dancing the cocoa."
+
+After the seeds have dried for about two weeks they are nearly the color
+of red bricks. They are put up for shipment in canvas sacks holding one
+hundred and fifty pounds each. The name of the plantation is usually
+stamped upon the outside. Guayaquil exports more cocoa than any other
+city. Find it. A great deal comes from the island of Trinidad, and from
+the northern part of South America.
+
+When the "beans" have reached their destination, they must be cleaned,
+to rid them of dust and dirt collected on the way. They are then placed
+in a great revolving cylinder and roasted. You remember that when coffee
+is roasted it brings out a pleasant odor called its _aroma_. The same is
+true of cocoa. The roasting also helps to loosen a shell which surrounds
+the seed. The shell is next removed and the "beans" are then crushed.
+
+The Mexicans used to crush the seeds on a large stone, hollowed out on
+top. This they called a "matate."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Grinding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The crushing is now done by machinery. The broken bits of the cocoa are
+called "cocoa nibs." When the cocoa is ground to a powder, it is put
+into strong bags and pressed. This pressure removes a part of an oily
+substance known as "cocoa butter." Remember, then, that cocoa is the
+meal or flour made from the crushed seeds from which some of the oil has
+been removed. Chocolate differs from cocoa in that none of this oil is
+removed in making it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Moulding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+You have often seen the words "sweet chocolate" on the labels. This is
+made by adding a quantity of pulverized sugar to the "plain" or "bitter"
+chocolate. Sometimes vanilla beans are added.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Cooling Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The pasty mass known as chocolate must be molded. When the proper amount
+has been placed in each of several metal molds which rest on a table,
+they are made to rock or shake, and this causes the chocolate to assume
+the right shape. The molds are then taken to the cooling room, where
+they are placed on frames, one above another, in long rows. Girls and
+women wrap the cakes of chocolate in the wrappers specially prepared for
+them, after which they are packed in boxes ready for shipment.
+
+At Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the Neponset River, is situated the
+largest establishment for the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate in
+America. It is interesting to know that on the very spot where these
+great mills now stand, was built, in 1765, the first one of the kind in
+this country.
+
+
+
+
+A CRANBERRY BOG
+
+
+                WAREHAM, MASSACHUSETTS, Dec. 10, 1901.
+
+DEAR FRANK: How surprised you will be to learn that I am now a country
+boy. We left Boston early last spring, and came out here to go into the
+business of cranberry raising. It seemed very strange at first to travel
+along country roads, or through woods and fields, instead of upon the
+cement walks of our city streets, but we all think the country
+delightful.
+
+A cranberry farm is a marsh or a bog, so you will see that the vines
+need a great deal of water. There are both wild and cultivated bogs.
+Those that are cultivated are provided with a system of ditches, so that
+they can be flooded from time to time. It is a good deal like irrigation
+in Southern California, I suppose. We flood the bogs to prevent the
+berries from freezing, as well as to furnish the vines with water. I
+will tell you more about that by and by.
+
+Father wanted a larger bog than the one he first bought, so, soon after
+we came, he got another small piece of marsh land which joins it on the
+west, and started vines on it.
+
+You know that willows, rosebushes, grapevines, and many other plants
+will grow from _cuttings_. It is the same with cranberry vines. The
+lower end of each cutting is pressed into the soil, and it soon begins
+to grow. They are set in rows about fourteen inches apart. One of our
+neighbors, who was starting a bog at the same time, cut the vines into
+pieces an inch or two long, and scattered them over the ground. He then
+harrowed them in. The vines multiply just as strawberry plants do, by
+putting out _runners_.
+
+They tell us that our new bog will produce a crop in three years. Do you
+have to wait that long for a crop of oranges?
+
+By the middle of June our bog was in full blossom. The flowers are quite
+small and their color is a little like that of the flesh. I read an
+interesting thing about them the other day. It seems that the berries
+used to be called "craneberries," because people thought that the
+blossoms, just before they opened fully, "resembled the neck, head, and
+bill of a crane." By dropping the _e_, we got the present name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--A Cranberry Bog. Showing the Young Vines.]
+
+During our harvest time, which lasted from the middle of September to
+the last of October, we were very busy. We did not commence to go to
+school until the berries were picked. You see, frost may occur and spoil
+the crop, so that everybody works as fast as possible until the harvest
+is over. Father had about twenty pickers some of the time, besides our
+own family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Cranberry Pickers at Work. Notice how the Bog
+is divided into Rows by Means of Cords.]
+
+When we were ready to begin picking, father took some twine and
+stretched it back and forth across the bog, fastening it to small
+stakes. This divided the field into rows. Each picker was given a row,
+and he was not allowed to change until it was finished.
+
+At first it seemed great fun to get down on the ground and strip off the
+bright berries, but when one does this day after day it gets pretty
+tiresome. It must be easy to pick oranges, because you can stand up
+while you work.
+
+Father paid the pickers twelve cents a pail. It takes about three
+pailfuls to make a bushel. I averaged about one dollar and a half each
+day. I bought a suit of clothes and all of my books for the year, and
+have considerable money left. Some of the pickers who were quite small
+did not earn very much. Do you recognize Jennie? She worked a part of
+every day.
+
+Twice during the picking season there was a sharp frost, but we saved
+the crop.
+
+The government sends out a Weather Map every day. Our teacher gets one,
+and there is one tacked up in the post office every morning. These maps
+tell what kind of weather to expect, and father watches them closely.
+When he saw that frost was likely to occur, he and the men opened the
+gates which hold back the water, in order to flood the part of the bog
+where we had not picked. The vines were buried nearly two feet beneath
+the surface of the water. Father says the water cools so slowly that its
+temperature is much above that of the surface of the ground or the air
+near it, so the berries do not get frost-bitten. Soon after sunrise the
+water was drawn off, and the next day the bog was dry enough for the
+pickers to work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--A Young Worker. Notice how the Berries are
+picked.]
+
+I wonder if the Weather Bureau is of any use to farmers in California. I
+know that the sailors watch for the flags which tell when storms are
+coming, that they may not go to sea if a violent storm is expected.
+Father says very many lives and much property are saved every year in
+this way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Winnowing and Barreling Cranberries.]
+
+I have not told you what we do with the cranberries after they are
+picked. Of course we cannot help gathering some leaves and twigs with
+the berries, and these must be taken out. For this purpose the berries
+are put into a winnowing machine. I will send you a picture of one. As
+the man turns the crank, wooden fans within turn rapidly, blowing out
+the leaves, twigs, and dirt. The berries drop through a screen and run
+out of a spout into a barrel, as you see. We then put them into crates
+or barrels for sale. Father tells me that cranberries are shipped from
+our country to Europe, because those raised here are much better than
+the European berries.
+
+There are great quantities of cranberries raised in this part of
+Massachusetts. I have been reading lately that they are produced in New
+Jersey, on Long Island, in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Canada, and
+some other sections. From what I have read, I guess they are not raised
+in Southern California. Wouldn't it seem strange if you were to eat
+berries raised on our bog, three thousand miles away?
+
+Now I want you to tell me about the orange groves of Southern
+California, for none of us have ever seen an orange growing.
+
+I wish you all a very "Merry Christmas" and a "Happy New Year."
+
+                                      Your loving friend,
+
+                                                        WILL.
+
+
+
+
+THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC
+
+
+Imagine yourself on a great ocean steamship, gliding over the blue water
+of the Pacific Ocean toward the Samoan Islands. Among the first things
+that you will see as you near the shores of these islands will be tall,
+slender, graceful trees, rising without a branch to a height of thirty
+to eighty feet. At the top is a sort of crown, composed of long,
+drooping leaves. These beautiful trees lean out over the water and toss
+their leaves in the strong and steady breeze from the ocean. They seem
+to nod a friendly greeting to you as you approach, and to wave a loving
+farewell to you as you sail away. These trees are the cocoanut palms.
+They grow on all of the tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean, in the
+West Indies, and along the shores of most warm countries, but never far
+from the sea.
+
+When the cocoanut falls into the water, it is rocked and tossed by the
+waves and drifted about by the currents, but it is safe within its
+shell, for the salt water cannot penetrate this. When it finally comes
+to rest upon some strange shore, it is ready to give to the world
+another cocoanut palm, if the climate is like that from which it sailed.
+In this way nature has helped the trees to become widely distributed.
+
+There are cocoanut plantations as well as wild groves of the trees. When
+a plantation is to be established, the planter selects the ripest nuts
+and dries them for several weeks. They are then planted, and by and by a
+little palm springs from the small end of the nut and the roots from the
+large end. When the young trees are from six months to two years old,
+they are transplanted in rows thirty or forty feet apart. They begin to
+bear nuts in about five years, but they do not yield a full crop for
+fifteen or twenty years. Do you think that a poor man could afford to go
+into the business of cocoanut raising?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A Cocoanut Grove.]
+
+As you see in the picture, cocoanuts grow in clusters. You notice
+also that they grow close to the stem instead of at the ends of the
+branches. They do not all ripen at once, but nuts may be picked at
+almost any time. A tree will produce from fifty to one hundred nuts each
+year. If you were to go into an apple, a peach, or a cherry orchard, you
+could easily pick the ripe fruit. Gathering cocoanuts is quite a
+different matter, however. Let us observe this shiny-skinned Samoan boy
+and see how he picks them. He fastens a short piece of rope in the form
+of a loop to each foot. Letting one of the loops catch on a rough place
+on the bark of the tree he places the hollow of his foot against it,
+clasps the trunk with his hands, and raises himself a little. Then the
+other loop is fastened a little higher up, and he raises himself again.
+In this way he finally reaches the nuts. With a knife he cuts off the
+ripe ones, which fall to the ground and are then piled up. They are then
+placed in baskets which are hung from a pole and carried on the
+shoulders of two men or are loaded on to donkeys and taken to the shed.
+
+The ripe cocoanut is a valuable article of food just as it is picked
+from the tree. It contains also a milk which is a nourishing drink. Most
+of the cocoanut sent to other countries, however, is in a form known as
+_copra_.
+
+At the shed the hard shell, which covers the meat, is split open by
+means of an ax. The meat is removed with a knife and is then spread out
+on mats to dry. This dried cocoanut is copra.
+
+The inhabitants of these cocoanut islands live in a much more simple
+style than we do, and the cocoanut tree supplies many of the things that
+they use daily.
+
+Let us examine the home of a native Samoan. The frame and posts of the
+house are made of the slender trunks of the cocoanut palm, while the
+roof is covered with its leaves instead of with shingles. The cups,
+bowls, dippers, and many other household utensils are made of the
+shells. If a whole shell is wanted, the "eyes" are pushed in, the milk
+is used, and ants are allowed to eat the meat. These make excellent
+water bottles. Baskets, curtains, and twine, are made from the fiber of
+the leaves, and the bark is used for fuel.
+
+From the copra an oil is pressed which is used in the manufacture of
+soap. It makes a perfectly white soap that will float on the water. It
+is also used to furnish light, and the people rub it on their bodies to
+prevent sunburn. The sap of the tree is made into sugar, vinegar, and a
+liquor.
+
+While in our country the cocoanut is important chiefly to bakers and
+confectioners, in these far-away islands it is the most useful of
+plants, and one of the chief articles of food. Would you not like to
+visit the cocoanut islands and learn more of their interesting people?
+
+
+
+
+A BUNCH OF BANANAS
+
+
+Every day, as you walk along the streets you see great bunches of
+bananas hanging in front of fruit and grocery stores. You find them at
+the corner fruit stand, and peddlers carry them from house to house.
+
+Although bananas are so common now and so cheap that all can afford to
+eat them, this was not so when your grandparents were children. In those
+days the fruit was regarded as quite a luxury, for there were few people
+engaged in carrying it from its tropical home to the cities of our
+country. Now many small but swift ships, called "fruiters," carry on
+this business. They get their cargoes of fruit in the West Indies or
+Central America, and within a week after sailing they are unloading at
+New Orleans, Baltimore, New York, or Boston. If the number of bananas
+which reach our country each year were equally distributed, each person
+would receive twenty-five.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A Banana Tree.]
+
+Let us get aboard that wonderful train upon which all may travel free of
+cost, which runs equally well upon land and water. We step off right in
+the center of a banana plantation on the island of Jamaica.
+
+Yes, these are banana trees all about you. See how long and broad the
+leaves are and how gracefully they droop! Some of them are ten or
+fifteen feet long; almost as long as the trees are tall. The trees, you
+see, are simply stalks from which the leaves unroll. Here you can see
+some just starting out. They are rolls of bright green, pointing upward,
+each starting from the center of the stalk. No, the leaves were not torn
+in that way by the pickers. The wind sometimes whips them into ribbons,
+for they are very tender.
+
+These stalks growing from the base of the main stem are called "suckers"
+here; in Costa Rica they are called "bits." You remember that there are
+no seeds in bananas. It is these "suckers" that are planted when a
+farmer wants to start a plantation. They are set out when two or three
+feet high and within a year they bear fruit. What did I tell you about
+the length of time required for the cocoanut to bear?
+
+It is but four years since the trees in this plantation were single
+"suckers," standing about fifteen feet apart. Now there are several
+stalks grouped about each parent plant, and the beautiful leaves,
+touching overhead, form shaded aisles of green.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--A Banana Plantation.]
+
+Of course a great number of "suckers" are not allowed to grow together.
+Keeping these cut down is called "cleaning the plantation."
+
+Now let us examine the fruit on this tree beside us. You see that the
+great cluster or bunch is made up of smaller bunches. These are called
+"hands," and each banana is spoken of as a "finger." Let us count the
+"hands" in this bunch. This is an unusually large one, for it contains
+thirteen. Nine "hands" make a _full bunch_. As you see, there are from
+ten to twenty "fingers" in a "hand." Buyers will seldom take bunches of
+less than six "hands."
+
+Here come the fruit cutters to help get a cargo for the "fruiter" we saw
+at anchor.
+
+Yes, the bananas are green, I know, and they are always green when
+gathered. They will ripen in the storehouses when they reach the United
+States.
+
+No, it is not a waste to cut down the stalks, for they die after bearing
+their fruit, and the smaller stalks about them will soon yield. Some of
+these stalks, you see, have but one bunch and some have two or three.
+How odd the bunches look with the "fingers" all pointing upward!
+
+The banana leaves which the men are wrapping about the bunches are to
+protect the fruit. It bruises very easily and great quantities are lost
+on this account. They are not always wrapped, however.
+
+When the fruit reaches the vessel, it is carefully inspected; and if not
+in just the right condition, it is refused. The bunches which are
+accepted, are taken into the hold of the ship and packed closely
+together. The planter receives for these from ten to thirty-five cents a
+bunch. Just think of buying eight or nine dozen of bananas for ten
+cents!
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Loading a Small Boat with Bananas to be taken
+to the "Fruiter" in the Harbor.]
+
+The men will not stop work until the ship is loaded. It may take
+twenty-four hours, and it may take twice that long, for a "fruiter" will
+carry from fifteen to twenty thousand bunches of fruit.
+
+In some parts of Central America, where there are no harbors, the
+planters float the fruit down the streams in canoes. The vessels anchor
+at some distance from the shore, and the bananas are taken out in boats
+called _dories_. They are hoisted up to the deck of the ship by means of
+pulleys, and then packed in the hold. The thousands of bunches which are
+bruised in handling are thrown into the sea.
+
+While the northern ports get most of their supply of bananas from the
+West Indies, the Pacific coast states are supplied from Central America.
+The "fruiters" unload at New Orleans into trains, which carry the fruit
+to Los Angeles, San Francisco, and other places. Banana trains also run
+from New Orleans to St. Louis, Chicago, and other parts of the country.
+
+The fruit ships have great pipes or ventilators, which carry the cool,
+fresh air from the sea down into the hold. Sometimes when they reach
+port it is so cold that the bananas cannot be taken out for a few days.
+Wagons are loaded with the fruit at the wharves, and it is taken to
+warehouses where it gradually turns yellow. I am sure you have seen
+loads of the green fruit on the streets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--A "Fruiter" taking a Cargo of Bananas.]
+
+When the wholesale merchant sells the fruit, he often incloses each
+bunch in the rough material of which gunny sacks are made, and then puts
+a light, circular frame, made of strips of wood, over it. This, you see,
+protects the bananas. The grocer or fruit man takes hold of the frame
+without danger of mashing the fruit, lifts the bunch, and hangs it upon
+a hook. The frame and sacking are then removed.
+
+Bananas grow in the tropical parts of Asia and Africa and on many of the
+islands of the Pacific Ocean. They are also raised in Florida, and they
+ripen in sheltered places in Southern California.
+
+You have seen both yellow and red bananas. The red ones usually bring
+the higher price, but they do not keep well and are not so extensively
+raised as the yellow ones.
+
+The banana is an important article of food. It is much more nourishing
+than potatoes or even good, white bread. A flour or meal can be made
+from the fruit by drying it and then grinding.
+
+
+
+
+HOW DATES GROW
+
+
+Three thousand years before the shepherds followed the star to the
+manger at Bethlehem, the beautiful date palm was cultivated beside the
+banks of the Euphrates and the Nile rivers. The date was the bread of
+the people who lived in these fertile valleys, and it is an important
+article of food in northern Africa, Arabia, and Persia to-day.
+
+Look at a map of northern Africa, and you will see that the great Sahara
+covers a large part of it. Here and there across the drifting sands wind
+caravan routes, traveled by camels ridden by strangely dressed men.
+These routes lead to beautiful garden spots called _oases_. Here are
+wells and springs, with little streams flowing in the shade of fig, date
+palm, and other trees. The people who dwell within these groves beside
+the cooling waters look out upon the desert as the inhabitants of an
+island might look upon the boundless sea. Find some of these oases and
+learn why they are fertile. The people who live in these oases depend
+upon dates for their living. The dreary journey from the coast to the
+interior is made to procure quantities of this fruit, which are wanted
+by the outside world.
+
+If you were to make a journey in a desert country, you would find that
+you could not carry such articles of food as you would have if you
+remained at home. The sunshine beats down fiercely, the springs and
+wells are far apart, and the patient animals must not be overloaded. The
+chief article of food carried is the date. A mass is packed together
+until it is so hard that pieces are chopped off with a hatchet when they
+are wanted.
+
+Like the cocoanut palm, the date palm rises to a great height, sometimes
+fifty or sixty feet, without branches. It ends in a crown of beautiful
+feathery leaves which droop downward. These leaves may be ten or fifteen
+feet long. Many of them stand edgewise. Unlike most trees, the trunk
+does not steadily increase in size, and you can tell nothing as to
+the age of the tree by its diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Date Palms loaded with Ripe Fruit, Biskra,
+Algeria. (Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1900.)]
+
+In its wild state many shoots spring from the base of the tree. These
+may grow as high as the parent stalk, so that in time a jungle or
+thicket is formed.
+
+The flowers, which are clear white, grow in clusters. There are from six
+to twenty of these clusters on a tree, each of which produces a bunch of
+dates. The female tree bears the fruit. The blossoms are pollinated both
+by the wind and by man.
+
+There are from ten to fifteen pounds of dates in a bunch. A tree will
+average from one hundred to two hundred pounds each year, although trees
+have been known to yield six hundred pounds. The trees yield when from
+four to eight years old, and continue to bear for a century.
+
+The dates, green at first, later in the year a yellowish brown, are,
+when ripe, amber or black in color.
+
+The trees require a very dry, hot climate, but moist soil. Long, long
+ago, this saying was common among the Arabs, "The date palm, the queen
+of trees, must have her feet in running water and her head in the
+burning sky."
+
+Although there are lovely date palm trees on the grounds of many
+California homes, few of them bear fruit. The temperature must average
+from eighty to ninety degrees for a considerable time in the summer, in
+order to mature it. What is the average summer temperature in your
+locality?
+
+If an ordinary tree is frost-bitten, it recovers and soon puts out a new
+growth; but if the crown of the date palm be frozen, the tree dies.
+
+When the Moors went to Spain, in the eleventh century, they introduced
+this valuable tree which the mission fathers several hundred years later
+brought to Mexico and to Southern California.
+
+How would you like to try to climb a date palm tree? Although they look
+so smooth and are without branches, the natives of the desert climb them
+without any help whatever. The trunk is always somewhat rough, and this
+makes it possible to ascend them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Date Palm Trees.]
+
+Not all of the dates in a bunch ripen at once, so they are usually
+picked by hand and only the ripe ones selected. Sometimes, however, the
+bunches are cut off. Some dates contain so much sap that the bunches
+must be hung up to allow it to drain off before they can be shipped.
+This sap is called _date honey_, and is saved. They are sent to the
+coast towns in bags or boxes called _frails_. Where dates are to be sold
+in small quantities, they are repacked in the small boxes such as you
+have seen.
+
+You know that dates are very sweet, and it is no wonder that they are,
+for they contain from fifty-five to sixty per cent of sugar.
+
+The trees are often tapped, and the sap which flows out is made into
+sugar. Vinegar and a liquor called _arrack_ are also made from it. The
+leaves of the tree are made into bags and mats; from the stones a drink
+is made which takes the place of coffee. From the leafstalks baskets are
+made, while the trunk furnishes material for houses and for fences.
+
+If the dates could speak, they could tell us many wonderful stories of
+the far East, of the river boats on the Nile, of the drifting sands
+which come so close to the river's banks, of the caravans creeping over
+the desert toward the green oases and then fading out of sight, bearing
+loads of this food to the countries where it is not produced.
+
+
+
+
+THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
+
+
+                            PASADENA, CALIFORNIA, Jan. 4, 1902.
+
+DEAR FRIEND WILL: I was very glad to receive your letter, and much
+surprised to know that you are living on a farm. I am glad that you
+described the raising of cranberries, for I did not know much about it
+before. When I told my teacher about getting the letter, she asked me to
+read it in the geography class and to show the pictures. I asked our
+grocery-man where he gets his cranberries, and found that some of them
+came from Wareham.
+
+You are having cold weather now, I know. Is the skating good? I have not
+seen ice as thick as window glass since we came to California, except
+that delivered by the iceman. Just now there is a beautiful covering of
+snow on the mountains a few miles north and east of town. Just think of
+picking roses and callas with snow in plain sight! The snow never
+remains more than a day or two on these mountains.
+
+Soon after we came to Pasadena, father bought an orange grove of
+twenty-five acres. We are picking the fruit now. People began to pick
+oranges several weeks ago, and the work will continue all winter.
+
+Orange trees are planted about twenty feet apart, but the groves do not
+look as apple orchards do in the East, for no grass is allowed to grow
+in them.
+
+The best orange section is east of here, near Redlands and Riverside,
+but some good fruit is raised near Pasadena also.
+
+Father keeps our trees pruned down rather low, so that it is easier to
+pick the oranges than it would be if they were allowed to grow very
+tall.
+
+Orange raising is like cranberry growing in one way--the land must be
+irrigated in each case. Here the water is piped from the mountain
+streams and from tunnels. We form basins about ten feet square around
+each tree and fill them with water. Most of our irrigating is done
+during the summer, as the winter is our rainy season. _You_ would not
+call it a very rainy time. Our average is about twenty inches for the
+whole year.
+
+The trees in our grove have been set out about six years, and they are
+bearing nicely now. Orange trees begin to bear when they are four years
+old; so, you see, we have to wait a little longer for a crop than you do
+for a crop of cranberries. It costs a good deal to start an orange
+grove. Trees cost from one dollar to one and one-half dollars each at
+the nurseries. A few years ago they sold for twenty cents each.
+
+I wish that you could see the trees when they are in full blossom, and
+also when they are loaded with the golden fruit. I am going to put some
+orange blossoms into the envelope, but I am afraid they will not reach
+you in very good condition. They are very fragrant, and you can smell
+their perfume some distance from a tree in blossom.
+
+To-day we picked about two hundred and fifty boxes of oranges. We always
+speak of _picking_ them, although they are not picked, but cut. You
+see, if they were picked off, the part where the stem pulled off would
+soon begin to decay.
+
+We take a wagon load of fruit boxes, and, while father drives slowly
+between the rows of trees, I throw them off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Picking Oranges in California.]
+
+Each picker carries a sack slung over one shoulder, and as fast as he
+cuts off an orange, he drops it into the sack. The sacks are emptied
+into the boxes, and these are loaded on to the wagon. Father pays five
+cents a box for picking, and a good picker will gather about forty boxes
+in a day.
+
+We sell most of our oranges to fruit companies. These companies pack and
+ship the fruit. At the packing houses the oranges are placed in tubs of
+water and scrubbed with small brushes. Many women, girls, and boys work
+at this. The washing is to take off dirt, and also _scale_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Grading and Packing Oranges.]
+
+After the oranges are washed, they are placed in a sort of trough which
+is highest at the end near the tub. They roll down this trough to the
+_grader_. This is a machine so arranged that the oranges pass through
+different openings according to their size, and come out sorted.
+
+In the warehouse close by they are wrapped and packed. Chinamen often do
+this work. Each orange is wrapped in a separate piece of paper, which
+has the brand of the company stamped upon it. It is then packed firmly
+in a box. A certain number of oranges of each grade fill a box,
+ninety-six of the largest grade, and about two hundred of the smallest.
+Those which are too small, as well as the imperfect oranges, are
+rejected. These are called _culls_. Sometimes these are sold for a low
+price, and sometimes they are thrown away by wagon loads.
+
+After the boxes are filled, they are placed in special fruit cars and
+hurried to St. Louis, Chicago, New York, Boston, and other cities.
+
+Yes, the Weather Bureau is of great help to fruit growers. Of course we
+have very little winter here, but oranges will not endure much cold. The
+mercury falls below the freezing point but a few times each season. On
+New Year's Day the temperature here was fifty-eight degrees. I looked up
+the Boston temperature for the same day and found that it was only four
+degrees above zero. When the Bureau predicts a sharp freeze, the farmers
+build small fires in their orchards, or turn on a good deal of water.
+The fires are built in small wire baskets. They make a smudge instead of
+a flame. The people in the raisin districts watch the weather reports
+pretty closely, for rain injures the drying grapes.
+
+Growers have to _spray_ or _fumigate_ the trees to destroy the scale
+that I spoke of which is a great enemy of the orange, to kill the
+insects, and to wash off dirt. This is sometimes done by putting a great
+piece of canvas over the tree, forming a sort of tent which prevents the
+fumes from escaping. It was found that the ladybugs would eat the scale
+and so they were brought into California from the East. They do a great
+deal of good, but still we have to spray the trees.
+
+Orange trees are raised from the seed, and the trees produced in this
+way are called _seedlings_. By _budding_, a fruit much better than the
+oranges grown on the seedling tree has been produced. There were five
+acres of seedlings in our grove, and father budded the trees. He cut
+off the limbs rather close to the trunk of the tree. Then he slipped
+buds from _navel_ trees into cuts made through the bark in the end of
+each limb left on the tree. He then wound cord tightly about the limb
+and put on some wax. After a time a new growth started out where these
+buds were placed. These new branches will bear much improved fruit.
+
+We have a very fine variety of oranges called Washington Navels. Trees
+of this variety were obtained by our government from Brazil. Two of
+these were brought to Riverside, a town about seventy-five miles east of
+Pasadena, and planted on a ranch belonging to a Mr. Tibbits. They did
+well, and all of the trees of this variety in Southern California were
+obtained from these two through budding. These trees are still living.
+
+California and Florida are the two important orange-growing states of
+our country. Father says the industry is much older in Florida than in
+our state. Florida growers can ship their fruit to market much cheaper
+than we can. It costs us ninety cents for each box.
+
+Mexico, the West Indies, Italy, southern France, and Spain are also
+orange producers. These countries have the advantage of cheap labor,
+father says.
+
+I wish that you could visit us. We would have fine times, I am sure.
+
+The next time I write I will tell you about some of the other fruits
+raised in California.
+
+                            Your sincere friend,
+                                               FRANK.
+
+
+
+
+A VISIT TO A VINEYARD
+
+
+                                 PASADENA, CALIFORNIA, Oct. 1, 1902.
+
+DEAR FRIEND WILL: Last week father went to Fresno, which is about three
+hundred miles northwest of here, in the San Joaquin valley. He took me
+with him, and we visited some of the great vineyards and raisin-packing
+establishments near and in that city.
+
+Raisins are simply dried grapes. Although there are many countries where
+grapes grow, there are few where raisins are made. Dew, fog, and rain
+injure the fruit, so that the San Joaquin valley, with its dry, hot
+atmosphere, is well adapted to this industry.
+
+There are a great many different kinds of grapes but only the green
+variety is used in making raisins. The raisin grapes are called
+_muscats_. If the grapes are left on the vines long enough, they become
+raisins. I have picked some pretty good raisins from the vines. Of
+course by being spread out, they dry quicker and more evenly.
+
+The sugar that you find on and in the raisins is not put there by the
+people who dry the grapes. It comes from the juice of the grape.
+
+Grapevines grow from both roots and cuttings. Of course cuttings are the
+cheaper. Often they may be had for the asking. Many think that it is
+better to set out rooted vines than cuttings.
+
+They are planted in rows from six feet apart to twelve or fifteen feet.
+During the first year the young vines will grow several feet. In the
+fall, when the flow of the sap has been checked by frost, the vines are
+pruned. A vineyard in California looks quite different from one in the
+East. During the winter it is simply so many rows of stumps several
+inches in thickness and one or two feet high. During the summer the
+branches grow from these stumps and produce their beautiful clusters of
+grapes, only to be cut off in the fall or winter.
+
+The trimmings are generally burned in the vineyard at the same time that
+they are cut off. A sort of furnace made of sheet iron is fastened
+between two wheels and drawn by horses up and down between the rows. A
+man pitches the cuttings into it, and they burn as it moves along.
+
+In the early summer men go through the vineyards sprinkling a coating of
+sulphur on the vines. This is to prevent mildew, which damages the fruit
+very much.
+
+During the last half of August and September the grapes are picked.
+Sometimes the harvest continues into October. Most of the grapes had
+been gathered when we visited the vineyards.
+
+When the juice of the grapes is one fourth sugar, they are ready to
+pick. The grower generally tells the condition by the taste and color of
+the fruit, although there are instruments for determining the amount of
+sugar.
+
+Like oranges, grapes are cut from the vines and not picked. We saw great
+companies of Chinamen going through the vineyards cutting off the
+beautiful clusters. These they placed on shallow, wooden trays to dry.
+In a week or two, when the upper side of the clusters is pretty well
+dried, the grapes are turned. We saw the workmen place an empty tray,
+upside down, over the filled one. Then, holding the two together, they
+turned them over, and the grapes dropped into the tray that had been
+placed on top.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Picking Grapes.--Notice the Mountains in the
+Background.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Drying Raisin Grapes.]
+
+During this drying time the people watch the reports of the Weather
+Bureau. In some places flags are displayed when rain is expected. As a
+rule the grape season is over before the rains begin.
+
+When the grapes are taken from the trays, they are placed in boxes
+holding about one hundred pounds each. These are called _sweat boxes_.
+Here the driest grapes absorb some of the moisture from the others, and
+the mass becomes more uniform.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A Vineyard after being Pruned.]
+
+After the drying process has been finished, the stems are rather
+brittle. To make them softer and easier to handle, the grapes are next
+placed in a cool room and left there for a time.
+
+After visiting some of the vineyards, we drove to one of the great
+packing establishments in Fresno. These packing houses are nearly always
+in the cities and towns, because there help can be easily obtained. The
+packing house that we visited employs four hundred people, mostly girls
+and women.
+
+The raisins are first placed on wooden or metal frames the size of a
+raisin box. These are called _forms_, and the packers are paid according
+to the number of forms filled. When these are filled, the raisins are
+carefully transferred to the boxes.
+
+A box of raisins weighs twenty pounds, but there are half boxes and
+quarter boxes put up also. A paper is placed on the bottom of each box,
+and over the raisins another is placed. On top of this there is a fancy
+paper on which the name of the packer is stamped.
+
+In most establishments there are three grades of raisins, Imperial
+Clusters, London Layers, and the loose and imperfect stems.
+
+Sometimes a second crop of grapes is gathered a little later in the
+fall. Of course these do not dry so well because the days are shorter,
+it is cooler, and rains sometimes occur. On this account they are dipped
+in lye and then rinsed in water. The lye cracks the skin, and so the
+juice evaporates more quickly. These are called Valencia raisins. There
+is not a very good market for these, so that people do not dip them so
+commonly now as they used to.
+
+We saw the machine where the raisins are _stemmed_. They pass from a
+hopper into a space between two woven-wire cylinders. The inner one
+revolves within the other. In this way the raisins are broken from the
+stems. They are then run through a fanning mill which cleans them, and
+they are finally graded by passing through screens having openings of
+different sizes.
+
+Most of the seedless raisins are made from seedless grapes, but there
+are machines for removing the seeds from the grapes which contain them.
+
+The superintendent of the packing house said that nearly all of the
+raisins that we import come from Spain, and that they are exported
+chiefly from the city of Malaga.
+
+The purple and other _wine grapes_ are taken to the wineries and sold by
+the ton, to be made into wine.
+
+There are many other things that I should like to write about, but my
+letter is a pretty long one now, so I will close.
+
+                                Your loving friend,
+                                                 FRANK.
+
+
+
+
+NUTTING
+
+
+Have you ever gone into the woods on a beautiful autumn day? The bright,
+warm sunshine floods the earth where the trees are far apart and sifts
+down through the branches. All nature seems to invite you to lie down
+under a tree and dream. It was on such a day that Rip Van Winkle fell
+into his long sleep.
+
+How pretty the trees look in their fall suits of yellow, crimson, red,
+and brown! What a rustling is made as your feet tread the carpet of
+leaves!
+
+The breezes pass among the branches and whisper a message to the
+bright-colored leaves. They understand and obey. Singly, in groups, and
+in showers, they silently float downward. By night and by day they fall,
+but soon this carpet will be changed for one of white.
+
+Listen! The leaves are not the only things that are falling. You can
+hear the _thump_, _thump_ of nuts as they drop from their lofty perches
+in the walnut and hickory-nut trees.
+
+Sit down quietly on that log and you will soon see the busy nut
+gatherers. With their tails curled over their backs, they race up and
+down the trees, or spring from branch to branch, carrying their precious
+burdens to their homes in the hollows of trunk or limb. Now one sits up
+straight, holding a nut between his paws, and turning it slowly as he
+cracks and eats it. If he sees you, he whisks out of sight, or scolds
+you from a safe place far above the ground.
+
+When the winter winds are whistling through the leafless trees, and
+snows are drifting over the ground, these little nut gatherers feast to
+their hearts' content.
+
+The squirrels do not gather all of the nuts. Children and grown people
+enjoy nutting. When there are not enough nuts on the ground, the men and
+boys climb the trees to shake them off. Then everybody hunts among the
+leaves for the treasures.
+
+Some of the most important nuts are walnuts, hickory nuts, hazelnuts,
+almonds, chestnuts, Brazil nuts, pecans, and peanuts.
+
+Many of the hickory nuts fall out of their coverings bright and clean.
+Walnuts generally have to be _shucked_, and the juice stains the hands
+almost black.
+
+As hazelnuts grow on bushes, they can be easily picked. They usually
+drop out of their burs after there have been a few frosts.
+
+Many nuts are gathered in the woods, but in some places the trees are
+cultivated just as fruit trees are.
+
+We usually eat nuts between meals, or as a dessert. They are not simply
+dainties, but are very valuable articles of food. In some countries the
+poor people depend upon them for food.
+
+In almost any city of our country are to be found the nuts that I have
+mentioned, with perhaps several other kinds. These have come from
+different states, some from Canada, some from Brazil, and some from
+Spain.
+
+I am sure you will enjoy gathering nuts of different kinds, so let us
+set out on a nutting expedition.
+
+
+
+
+A WALNUT VACATION
+
+
+How would you like to have your school close for two weeks, so that you
+could gather walnuts? Every year many of the boys and girls of Southern
+California are given a vacation just for this purpose. It is called the
+"walnut vacation," and occurs in the month of October.
+
+These children do not take their baskets and go off to the woods where
+they can romp and play, watch the squirrels, and gather beautiful autumn
+leaves. They gather nuts from the trees which their parents own, for in
+Southern California there are many walnut ranches or groves. You see the
+vacation means a vacation for work instead of for play.
+
+Walnut trees are set out in rows just as apple trees are, but their
+roots and branches extend to such a distance from the trunks that they
+need to be about twice as far apart.
+
+The walnut harvest, which begins about the first of October, is a busy
+time. Men, women, boys, and girls may be seen in the groves, shaking the
+nuts from the trees, picking them up, and putting them into sacks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--A Walnut Grove.]
+
+The men shake the trees, and there is a shower of nuts to the earth. Do
+not go under the branches now unless you want to be pelted. A single
+tree has been known to yield three hundred pounds of nuts in a season.
+
+When the trees have been given a good shaking, there are still some nuts
+clinging to the branches. These are obtained by shaking the limbs
+separately, by means of long poles, to the ends of which wire hooks are
+fastened. As all of the nuts do not ripen at the same time, the trees
+are sometimes gone over two or three times.
+
+Now the boys, girls, and women go to work filling pails and baskets and
+emptying them into sacks, for they can do this work as well as men.
+
+Usually the nuts drop out of their covering or _shuck_ when they strike
+the ground; but if they do not, the _shuck_ must be removed. Sometimes
+the covering is cut off. If you handle the nuts with your bare hands,
+they will be stained almost black, and you will have to let the color
+wear off.
+
+The days are bright and warm, and this sort of nutting becomes rather
+tiresome before sundown. The work must be done and the vacation is not a
+very long one, so each does his part cheerfully.
+
+When the nuts have been gathered, they are taken to the shed or place
+where they are to be washed. Here they are poured into a large wire
+cylinder which revolves in a tank filled with water. The machine is
+turned by a horse walking round and round, and it both washes and grades
+the nuts. The smaller ones pass through the meshes in the wire and are
+called _second grade_. The larger ones are known as _first grade_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Washing, Drying, and Sacking Walnuts.]
+
+When the walnuts come out of the washer, they are spread out on shallow,
+wooden trays to dry. Sometimes several thousand trays may be seen on
+one ranch. They are loaded on to a small car and pushed to the part of
+the field where they are wanted.
+
+If there is no foggy or cloudy weather, they will dry in about five
+days, but if there is, it may take ten.
+
+After the nuts are thoroughly dried, the trays are placed on the car and
+pushed to the _bleacher_. This is a large box made of tarred paper. It
+is placed over the trays, and a quantity of sulphur is burned in it.
+This is simply to whiten the shells, for they sell for a higher price
+when they are bleached. Sometimes the nuts are whitened by dipping them
+into a liquid preparation.
+
+The nuts are now sacked and marked, ready to ship. Soon after the boys
+and girls have finished their "walnut vacation," the nuts are on their
+way to the eastern part of the United States.
+
+Most of the walnuts raised in California have soft shells. Some have
+such thin shells that they are called "paper shells." The walnuts that
+grow in the woods of Indiana, Illinois, and other states have hard
+shells. They are dark in color and are called _black walnuts_. The trees
+are quite valuable, as the wood is used in making furniture.
+
+
+
+
+CHESTNUTS
+
+
+Let us go on a chestnutting expedition to the southern part of France.
+We can gather the nuts in many of the states of our own country, but the
+trip to a strange land will be enjoyed by all.
+
+The chestnut trees, many of which are very old, spread their branches to
+great distances. The nuts, as you see, are inclosed in a _bur_ or coat
+which covers the shell. There are generally two nuts in each bur.
+
+When _you_ eat chestnuts, you eat them as a sort of dainty, not as a
+regular article of food. This is not the case in the home of Jean, the
+boy who is helping his father fill those sacks. In his home, as in many
+homes in southern Europe, the nuts form one of the chief articles of
+daily food.
+
+In the winter Jean sells the freshly roasted nuts on a street corner in
+the city of Lyons. He gets a good many pennies each noon from workmen
+and poor people generally, who use them for their midday meal. He sells
+ten nuts for a penny.
+
+This is not the only way in which they are eaten. Jean's mother boils
+them with celery and mashes them as we do potatoes. The nuts are also
+ground into a flour from which bread is made. They are often used in the
+dressing for fowls.
+
+Confectioners use great quantities of chestnuts. In Lyons there are
+establishments where as many as two hundred persons are employed in
+preparing them.
+
+The nuts are first peeled, and then boiled in clear water, which removes
+the thin coating next the kernel. They are then placed in a sirup
+flavored with Mexican vanilla, in which they remain for about three
+days. After draining, they are coated with vanilla or chocolate and
+packed in attractive boxes. In this form they are worth forty-five or
+fifty cents a pound.
+
+
+
+
+A BAG OF PEANUTS
+
+
+Last summer Harry's parents took him with them on a visit to Virginia.
+Harry has always lived in New York City, and the country life of the
+South was very interesting to him.
+
+They visited friends who live on a beautiful _plantation_, as the farms
+in the South are called. A driveway lined with grand old trees leads
+through the flower-studded lawn up to the retired manor house, whose
+wide verandas completely circle it round.
+
+Beyond the house are the stables where work horses, driving horses, and
+saddle horses are kept; and beyond these is the pretty little boathouse,
+standing on the bank of a small river that winds its way through the
+plantation.
+
+The morning after Harry arrived, his friend Bert asked him if he would
+like to go across the river to see the men harvest peanuts.
+
+Now whenever Harry had wanted peanuts, he had always gone to a stand
+and bought a sack. He had never thought about where they came from. He
+had heard of shaking nuts from trees, so he supposed that they were
+going to the woods.
+
+He was therefore much surprised when Bert took him to a field across the
+river where men were plowing vines from the ground.
+
+"Do peanuts grow in the ground?" he asked.
+
+"Why, of course they do," answered Bert.
+
+"I thought that nuts grew on trees," said Harry.
+
+"Father says that the peanut is not a _real_ nut," replied his friend.
+"He says they should be called _ground nuts_ or _ground peas_." He
+pulled up one of the vines, and the boys threw themselves down under a
+tree to examine it.
+
+When the small clods of soil clinging to the roots of the plant had been
+removed, Harry saw a number of pods which he recognized as peanuts.
+
+Opening one of the pods, Bert took out the kernels.
+
+"These," said he, "are the _seeds_, and they are planted much as other
+seeds are.
+
+"Before they are planted the shell must be removed, but we have to be
+careful not to break the thin skin that covers the kernel. If that be
+broken, the seed will not grow.
+
+"The kernels are planted about one foot apart, in rows that are, as you
+see, about three feet apart. Sometimes they are planted by hand and
+sometimes by machinery."
+
+"I wonder if peanuts are raised in the country around New York," said
+Harry.
+
+"No, I think not," replied Bert, "for they are very easily killed by
+frost. Great quantities are raised in North Carolina and in Tennessee.
+Father says that the negroes of western Africa raised them long, long
+before they were known in the United States. He says that they are a
+very important article of food there, and that whole villages take part
+in the planting and harvesting.
+
+"After the vines blossom," continued Bert, "a very strange thing
+happens."
+
+"What is it?" asked Harry.
+
+"The flower stalks bend downward and push themselves right into the
+soil, and on these the pods develop. If the stalks do not enter the
+earth within a few hours after the flowers fall, they die."
+
+Harry now watched the plowing. The plows were drawn up and down the rows
+and ran directly under the vines, lifting them out of the soil. After
+they had been plowed out about two hours, men took them upon pitchforks
+and piled them up. Harry noticed that some of the piles were covered
+with corn fodder, and asked why this was. Bert told him that it was to
+keep out the rain.
+
+"What happens to the nuts after the vines have been piled up?" said
+Harry.
+
+"They remain in the piles fifteen or twenty days, and are then spread
+out on the ground or hauled to the barn, where the nuts are picked off,"
+answered Bert. "Sometimes they are picked by hand and sometimes by
+machinery. Let us go to the lower field; we have an earlier variety
+there, and the nuts are being picked now."
+
+They found men, women, and children picking the pods one by one and
+dropping them into baskets. These were emptied into sacks. Harry tried
+to lift one of these, and was surprised to find it so heavy. Bert told
+him that it weighed about one hundred pounds.
+
+"Do you burn the vines after the nuts are picked?" asked Harry.
+
+"No," said Bert, "they are fed to the cattle. We call the vines _peanut
+hay_."
+
+Bert explained that his father sold the sacks of nuts to the factory,
+where they were cleaned and sorted.
+
+The next day the boys went to town and visited the peanut factory.
+
+The nuts were first put through a machine which removed the dirt. They
+were then polished and sorted into four grades. The poorest grade is
+used in making peanut candy. The nuts were then sacked, and were ready
+to be shipped to the North.
+
+Harry learned that an oil is made from the nuts which is used as olive
+oil is used, and also that peanut butter is produced from them. He
+found that many men were employed on plantations all through Virginia
+and other states of the South, in raising the peanuts that are sold on
+the streets of every city and town in our country.
+
+
+
+
+ASSORTED NUTS
+
+
+After the Thanksgiving dinner had been eaten, the nuts were passed, and
+the children asked Uncle John to tell them something about a few of
+them.
+
+"All right," said he. "You pick out the ones that you want to know
+about."
+
+Frank handed him an almond.
+
+"This nut," said Uncle John, "came from sunny Spain. It grew not far
+from the blue Mediterranean. Almonds are raised in most parts of
+southern Europe and in the northern part of Africa. Ages ago they grew
+in the Holy Land, and are mentioned in the Bible."
+
+"Do almonds grow in any part of our country?" asked Helen.
+
+"I think they grow in California," said Frank.
+
+"You are right," said Uncle John. "There are many almond orchards in the
+southern part of the state.
+
+"An almond tree in full bloom is a beautiful sight. The blossoms are
+white, tinted with pink, and as they appear before the leaves do, there
+is nothing to hide them."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Almond Trees in Full Bloom.]
+
+"Does the nut have a covering?" inquired Mary.
+
+"Yes," replied Uncle John. "When the nut is ripe, the shuck opens
+gradually, and sometimes the nuts fall out.
+
+"When people have large orchards, they spread pieces of canvas under
+the trees and then shake them or beat them by means of long poles.
+
+"The nuts that do not fall out of the shucks are obtained by opening the
+shuck with a knife. The nuts are then dried, and are ready for market."
+
+As soon as Uncle John had finished, Mary handed him a hazelnut. "Please
+tell about this one," said she.
+
+"I have often gone hazel nutting when I was a boy," said her uncle.
+"Hazelnuts grow on bushes in thickets. They are six or eight feet high
+and very slender. Baskets are sometimes made of them, and I have often
+used them for arrows.
+
+"Sometimes the nuts grow singly, and sometimes in groups of two or
+three. A bur covers the nut, which sticks very closely until it is ripe.
+Then the nuts often fall out.
+
+"After I had gathered the hazelnuts, I used to spread them out on the
+roof of the wood house to dry."
+
+"Nuts that look just like these are called filberts," said Helen.
+
+"Filberts are cultivated hazelnuts," replied Uncle John; "they are
+larger than the wild ones."
+
+"I would like to know how this nut grows," said Helen, handing her uncle
+a black nut shaped like a triangular prism.
+
+"This," said Uncle John, "came from Brazil, and is called a Brazil nut.
+Do you know where Brazil is?"
+
+"It is in the northeastern part of South America," replied Helen.
+
+"The great Amazon River is in Brazil, and it flows through tropical
+forests," said Mary.
+
+"Much of our coffee comes from Brazil," said Frank.
+
+Uncle John then told the children that Brazil nuts come from the
+northern part of Brazil and from the Orinoco valley.
+
+Helen asked if they grow as walnuts and hickory nuts do.
+
+"No," answered her uncle, "they grow inside of a great case or shell.
+There are from eighteen to twenty-five in one shell, which is nearly as
+large as a man's head."
+
+"How are the nuts got out of the shells?" asked Mary.
+
+"When they fall, men break them open and take out the nuts," replied
+Uncle John. "Most of them are sent down the Amazon to the city of Para
+and from there shipped to the United States and other countries."
+
+None of the children knew where Para is situated, so they all went to
+the library to look at the atlas. After they had located it, Uncle John
+told them of his visit to the city and of the wonderful things which he
+saw on a steamboat trip up the Amazon River.
+
+
+
+
+A STRANGE CONVERSATION
+
+
+One evening after I had been reading for some time, I went to the
+kitchen to get a drink of water. That part of the house was dark and
+quiet, and as I stepped through the doorway, I heard low, musical
+voices, apparently in the pantry. I was very much surprised, you may be
+sure, and I kept perfectly still, and listened.
+
+"Yes," said a voice, which I could barely hear, "I am a long way from
+home indeed, and sometimes it makes me quite lonely when I think of it."
+
+"Tell us about your home, and how you lived," said another low voice.
+
+"Well," began the first speaker, "my name is _Pepper_. With twenty-five
+or thirty brothers and sisters I grew in a cluster on a vine. We were
+but a small part of the family, for there were similar clusters all over
+our vine. We were about as large as peas, and grew somewhat after the
+fashion of currants.
+
+"All about were other vines to which friends and relatives were
+attached. Pepper vines are always anxious to get to the top, and so some
+of these vines climbed trees and some twined themselves about poles,
+which men had set in the ground for this purpose. Our vine was three or
+four years old when we appeared on it."
+
+"How long did you live on the vine?" asked a voice that I had not heard
+before.
+
+"Only a few months," replied Pepper. "You see, we had to make room for
+another set of berries. Two sets appear each year for twenty years or
+more.
+
+"Under the influence of the tropical sunshine and the warm rains we grew
+day by day, and we were as happy as the butterflies and birds about us.
+By and by we began to turn red. All of this time a _hull_ or coat was
+forming on the outside of our bodies.
+
+"Before we became entirely red, workmen came to the field, and, by
+rubbing us between their hands, separated us from the stems to which we
+lovingly clung.
+
+"After having been picked, I was, with many others, placed upon a mat to
+dry. These mats were all about us, each covered with berries. After
+being thoroughly dried we were put into a mill and ground, and I became
+what I am now, _Black Pepper_."
+
+"Are there other kinds of pepper?" asked some one.
+
+"Oh, yes," said Pepper, "there is _White Pepper_, and _Red_, or _Cayenne
+Pepper_. Some of my friends were made into White Pepper. They were
+soaked in limewater for about two weeks, and this, of course, softened
+and wrinkled their hulls which had always fitted so nicely. This was bad
+enough, but it was not the worst."
+
+"What happened next?" said several voices.
+
+"They were then," continued Pepper, "trodden under the bare feet of
+dark-skinned men, and this rubbed off their hulls completely. After this
+they were ground as we had been.
+
+"Cayenne Pepper is not a member of our family at all, although it has
+the same name. I have looked up its genealogy, and I find that it
+received its name from the city of Cayenne, in French Guiana, near which
+it grows. It is in the form of bell-shaped pods, and grows on low, bushy
+plants instead of vines.
+
+"The pods are green at first, but red when ripe. No doubt you have seen
+strings of them hanging in the grocery store when you were on the
+shelves. People sometimes use the pods as they are, but usually they are
+dried, ground, mixed with yeast, and baked into flat cakes like
+crackers. When these cakes are ground, Red, or Cayenne Pepper, is
+produced. It is put up in little boxes just as we are.
+
+"Pepper used to be regarded as a great luxury," the speaker went on.
+"Until the eighteenth century the Portuguese handled almost all of it.
+It was not uncommon for rents to be paid with pepper. If any of you have
+read ancient history, you know that when Alaric took Rome he demanded,
+among other things, one thousand pounds of pepper as a ransom.
+
+"My home was in the East Indies," said Pepper, "but there are members
+of our family living in the Philippines, India, Mexico, the West Indies,
+and other tropical countries."
+
+"Your story is a very interesting one," said a voice, "and now, if you
+care to hear it, I will tell something of my life."
+
+"Yes, do tell us," said several at once.
+
+"Very well, I will follow the example of our friend Pepper and introduce
+myself at once. I am known as Ginger. I have relatives living in China,
+in India, and in the western part of Africa, but I came from the West
+Indies. The Ginger family is not like that of Pepper; it has no lofty
+notions."
+
+Pepper seemed a little inclined to get angry, so Ginger hastened to say:
+"I mean that our vines do not climb trees or poles, but run along the
+ground. I was a _root_ and not a _fruit_."
+
+"When I was about a year old I, with countless friends, was dug from the
+ground. We were cut from the vines and put into vats of scalding water."
+
+"That was _dreadful_," said Pepper.
+
+"We were treated in that way to prevent us from _sprouting_," continued
+Ginger. "After being taken out of the water, we were thoroughly dried
+and then ground. We were then put up in cans and boxes and sold as
+_Black Ginger_. Others were scraped before being ground, and they were
+then called _White Ginger_.
+
+"We were placed on board a great ship and finally landed at New York.
+After remaining in a large store there for some time, I was brought to
+the corner grocery, and so I found my way to this shelf.
+
+"I am gradually wasting away, and I shall not last a great while longer.
+In my tropical home I seemed to be of no use to anybody, while now I am
+called for frequently by the cook, and my services seem to be
+appreciated, so I am happy."
+
+"To be of some real use in this world is the greatest joy of life,"
+remarked a strange voice.
+
+There was silence for a moment, and then Ginger said "May we not hear
+from you, friend?"
+
+"Your stories almost make me believe that I am still in the land of my
+birth," was the reply.
+
+There was a peculiar little rattle about the voice, which I recognized
+at once as belonging to Cinnamon.
+
+"For several years I was rocked to and fro by gentle tropic breezes or
+lashed about by storms. From my perch I could see beautiful flowers,
+bright insects, and even serpents in the thicket at my feet. Birds of
+brilliant plumage often perched upon me. My home was on the island of
+Ceylon.
+
+"It is often said that where there is much bark there is no bite. In my
+own case that is not so."
+
+"I do not understand," said Ginger.
+
+"Why," said Cinnamon, laughing, "I am _all_ bark, and I have
+considerable bite, as those who have tasted me know.
+
+"I was taken from one of the smaller limbs of a cinnamon tree. I was
+slipped within a larger piece of bark, for we each rolled up when
+stripped from the limbs. A still larger piece was slipped over us and so
+on until quite a bundle had been formed. Some were quite short, and some
+were three feet in length."
+
+
+
+
+                   STORIES OF CALIFORNIA
+
+                            BY
+
+                       ELLA M. SEXTON
+
+                _With many illustrations_
+
+              Cloth      16mo      $1.00 net
+
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+in our schools and libraries, so that every child may read
+it."--_Pacific Churchman._
+
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+certainly comprises some notable contributions to romance. The little
+book is one which will appeal, therefore, to readers old and young.
+Several of the stories explain in some degree the remarkable physical
+characteristics of California, but the writer's chief aim has been to
+unfold to children and their parents the life of bygone days."--_The
+Outlook._
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of How We are Fed, by James Franklin Chamberlain.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How We are Fed, by James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How We are Fed
+       A Geographical Reader
+
+Author: James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: February 5, 2012 [EBook #38762]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW WE ARE FED ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Peter Vachuska, Fritz Ohrenschall, Chuck Greif,
+Julia Neufeld and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><br /><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/dec-front.jpg" width="200" height="73" alt="Publisher&#39;s Mark" title="Publisher&#39;s Mark" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>HOME AND WORLD SERIES</i></p>
+
+
+<h1><br /><br /><br />HOW WE ARE FED</h1>
+
+<h3>A GEOGRAPHICAL READER<br />
+<br />
+BY</h3>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, Ed.B., S.B.</span></h2>
+<p class="center">DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL<br />
+LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA<br />
+<br /><br /><br />
+New York<br />
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+<span class="smcap">LONDON: MACMILLAN &amp; CO., Ltd.</span><br />
+1912</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1903</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span>.
+<br /><br />
+Set up, electrotyped, and published June, 1903. Reprinted<br />
+January, June, August, 1904: July, 1905; January, 1906;<br />
+August, December, 1907; September, 1909; August, 1910;<br />
+August, 1911; June, 1912.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Norwood Press<br />
+J. S. Cushing &amp; Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith Co.<br />
+Norwood, Mass., U. S. A.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the ordinary course of events, most individuals
+take some part in the manifold industries
+which engage the mind and the hand of man, by
+which alone our present-day civilization can be
+maintained. These great world activities touch
+the daily life of <i>every</i> member of society,
+whether child or adult, worker or idler.</p>
+
+<p>A chain of mutual dependence, too often unrecognized,
+binds together the members of the
+human family, whether they belong to the same
+community or dwell on opposite sides of the
+earth. The links of this chain are made up of
+the articles which constitute our daily food, our
+clothing, homes, fuel, light, our means of communication
+and transportation, and only by continuous
+coöperation are they kept together.</p>
+
+<p>The highest motive in education is to present
+the conditions which will lead to the most complete
+living; to build up the best possible members<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+of society; to develop character. An
+individual who does not understand the life of
+which he finds himself a part, cannot be in full
+sympathy with its conditions and hence cannot
+be of the most service to himself or to others.
+Only to the extent that education and life follow
+the same general course, can each be truly successful.
+Far too little is done in our schools to
+acquaint children with their relations to the
+great industrial and social organization of which
+they are members. Even grown persons have,
+as a rule, a very indefinite knowledge of these
+relations.</p>
+
+<p>It is a recognized principle that our knowledge
+of geography has its foundation in our knowledge
+of the home. The natural connecting link
+between the immediate surroundings and the
+outside world is the <i>present daily life of the
+home</i>. Through the industries seen in the community,
+the commodities in general use, and the
+history of their creation and supply, the pupil
+acquires an insight into the life about him as
+well as into that of other parts of the world.
+He also realizes the great truth that the world<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+and its people are in intimate touch with <i>him</i>.
+In this way he is led back and forth along the
+routes which civilization has followed in its
+progress, which it also follows to-day, as mankind
+clasp hands across oceans and continents.
+Thus the remote and abstract become immediate
+and concrete. Facts are seen in a setting of
+reason, and a logical and interesting basis for
+the study of physical, climatic, and human conditions
+is furnished.</p>
+
+<p>This study begins with the commodities in
+constant use and finally encompasses the whole
+world, but always with the home as the base of
+operations. It will create a knowledge of the
+interdependence of individuals, communities, and
+nations, and a genuine respect for the work of
+the hands and for the worker. The importance
+of this respect is not likely to be overestimated.
+Without it a true democracy cannot long exist.</p>
+
+<p>Reading should not only serve for the acquisition
+and the expression of the thought contained
+in the printed page; it should, in addition, stimulate
+to <i>new</i> thought&mdash;to independent power in
+reasoning. On this account questions are inserted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+which the pupil is left to answer. These
+are suggestive of a much larger number, which
+should be worked out by the teacher. Too
+many of the questions found in books do not
+"stimulate thought" or "independent power in
+reasoning." They are purely informatory and
+not at all formative.</p>
+
+<p>No attempt has been made to treat every
+article of food. Those in most general use, as
+well as those which will best serve to develop a
+knowledge of geographical conditions and of
+man's relation to man, have been chosen.</p>
+
+<p>A given industry is pursued in somewhat different
+ways in different places. It has not been
+thought wise to describe each modification in
+these pages. For example, the method of handling
+wheat in California is different from that
+employed in Minnesota. The value of the work
+will be increased if the teacher will bring out
+these points.</p>
+
+<p><i>All places mentioned should he definitely located</i>,
+both as to position on the map or globe
+and with reference to the home. When developed
+from the standpoint of direct, personal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>
+interest, a knowledge of the location of places
+as well as of other facts mentioned is most
+likely to be retained.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations used have been very carefully
+selected for their <i>teaching value</i>. They
+give a clearness to mental pictures which can be
+derived only through observation of that which
+the illustrations symbolize. Much experience in
+the use of geographical illustrations has shown
+that pupils need to be directed in their examination
+of them. To secure the best results they
+must be made the centers of thought-developing
+questions.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks are due the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour
+Mills Company of Minneapolis, the Swift Packing
+Company of Chicago, the Walter Baker
+Company of Dorchester, the United Fruit Company
+of New Orleans, and Dr. Charles U. Shepard
+of Pinehurst Plantation, for the excellent
+illustrations furnished by them.</p>
+
+<div class="signature">
+JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN.
+</div>
+<p><span class="smcap">State Normal School</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Los Angeles</span>, March, 1903.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Past and the Present</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Story of a Loaf of Bread</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How our Meat is supplied</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Market Gardening</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Dairy Products</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Butter Making</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cheese</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Fishing Industry</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Oyster Farming</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Rice Field</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How Sugar is made</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Beet Sugar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Maple Sugar</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Where Salt comes from</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Macaroni and Vermicelli</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">On a Coffee Plantation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Tea Gardens of China</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Cup of Cocoa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Cranberry Bog</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Cocoanut Islands of the Pacific</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Bunch of Bananas</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How Dates grow</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Orange Groves of Southern California</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Visit to a Vineyard</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Nutting</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Walnut Vacation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Chestnuts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Bag of Peanuts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Assorted Nuts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Strange Conversation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>HOW WE ARE FED</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE PAST AND THE PRESENT</h2>
+
+
+<p>Long, long ago people did not live as we do
+to-day. Their homes were very different from
+ours, for they were made of the skins of wild
+animals, of the limbs and bark of trees, or of tall
+grasses. There were no stoves, chairs, tables, or
+beds in their houses. Instead of lamps, gas,
+or electricity, a fire on the dirt floor or in front
+of the house, furnished the light.</p>
+
+<p>The clothing of these people was as simple
+as their homes. It was made of skins and
+furs in cold countries and in warm countries of
+braided grasses and the fibers of certain plants.
+You may be sure that tailors and dressmakers
+were not consulted as to the latest styles, for the
+styles did not change and there were neither
+tailors nor dressmakers to talk to. Each family<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+made its own clothing, and there was not a
+sewing machine to be found.</p>
+
+<p>How would you like to use a bone for a
+needle? Sometimes, instead of sharpened bones,
+long thorns were used. The sinews of the deer,
+or of some other animal, usually furnished the
+thread.</p>
+
+<p>When the people were in need of food, they
+went into the forest and gathered roots, nuts,
+and fruits. Wild animals were killed by
+means of such weapons as bows and arrows
+and spears, and fish were caught in the lakes
+and streams.</p>
+
+<p>The food was not cooked as ours is; for, as
+I have told you, there were no stoves. Sometimes
+the meat was broiled over the fire, sometimes
+baked in a hole filled with ashes and coals,
+but it was often eaten raw. It was not easy
+to have a variety of food, and there were
+times when it was very difficult to obtain
+anything. When food was abundant, the
+people feasted, and when it was scarce, they
+were often hungry. How would you like to
+wait for your breakfast while your father<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+went to the woods or to the river in search of
+something to eat?</p>
+
+<p>When the meals were prepared, they were
+not neatly served as yours are, but each person
+took his portion and sat on the ground while
+he ate it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p3.jpg" width="450" height="352" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Indians at Dinner." title="Indians at Dinner" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Indians at Dinner.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All of this seems very strange to you, I know.
+If you live in the city, you are accustomed to
+seeing the butcher, the baker, the milkman, and
+the grocer call every day. There are stores<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+where people can buy whatever they want to
+eat, drink, or wear. You wonder how any one
+could live in such a way as I have described,
+but there <i>are</i> people who live in this fashion
+to-day, although you have never seen any of
+them. They are <i>uncivilized</i>. Where do you
+think they are to be found? When people live
+in this way, it takes most of their time to provide
+themselves with the things that are necessary to
+life. They have little opportunity to improve
+their ways of living and of thinking.</p>
+
+<p>Civilized people divide their work. Some
+provide food, some make clothing, some build
+houses, and some furnish fuel. Each one does
+his or her part. In this way, you see, they learn
+to do their work better and better, because each
+gives much time and thought to one kind of
+work. This plan gives each one time to study
+and to learn something about the world and its
+people. Think how much better our homes, our
+clothing, and our food are, than are those of
+uncivilized people, and how many other advantages
+we have.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p5.jpg" width="450" height="351" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;White People at Dinner." title="White People at Dinner" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;White People at Dinner.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is only possible to live as we do, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+each one works for others as well as for himself.
+If any one fails to do his part, the rest
+must suffer until some one is found to take his
+place. It is to prepare yourself to do <i>your part</i>
+in some useful work for others, that you are
+going to school day by day. You do not now
+know just what that work is to be, but I want
+you to remember that <i>all</i> honest work is noble.
+It is not so important <i>what work</i> you do, as it is
+that you should do your work <i>well</i>. No matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+what your work may be, you can carry sunshine
+in your face and helpfulness in your heart. If
+you do this, you will be known and loved.
+Hard work, coarse clothes, and lack of money
+can never hide these things, neither will the
+finest of clothing cover a selfish or untruthful
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>Let us look at this dinner table loaded with
+good things to eat and drink. There are bread,
+butter, meat, vegetables, milk, tea, fruits, and
+other things. You see at once that many persons
+must have worked to provide this food, for
+only a small part of the work was done in the
+kitchen. If these things could but speak, they
+might tell you stories as wonderful as fairy
+tales. They have been gathered here from the
+fertile plains of the West, from the sunny
+South, from Brazil, from the islands of the
+Pacific Ocean, from far-off China, and even
+from the waters of the sea.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the dark granary of a farmer's barn in
+North Dakota once lived a modest family of
+grains of wheat. The bright, warm days of the
+summer time, during which they had been
+placed in this dark room, soon grew shorter
+and cooler. The swallows, whose mud nests
+were in the rafters overhead, told the wheat
+brothers that winter was coming, and then flew
+away to the balmy southland.</p>
+
+<p>Soon biting winds and blinding snow came
+sweeping over the level land. Sometimes the
+farmhouse was almost hidden under the drifts,
+and the farmer had to shovel out a path to the
+barn, so that he could feed the horses and cattle.
+By and by the days grew warmer, the snow disappeared,
+and the birds returned one by one.
+The farmer and his men got out their plows
+and harrows, and prepared the soil for the
+seeds soon to be planted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>The wheat was now shoveled into sacks and
+taken to the fields. Here it was placed in great
+machines drawn by horses, which scattered it
+evenly over the land and at the same time
+covered it with soft soil. The men whistled
+and sang as they worked, and blackbirds, bluebirds,
+and larks flew back and forth, singing
+and searching for bugs and worms, as well as
+for the shining kernels of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>The wheat was not content to remain underground,
+but kept trying to push itself out into
+the world. One night there came a warm
+shower, and the next morning what looked
+like tiny, green blades of grass appeared all
+over the field.</p>
+
+<p>All through the spring and summer the wheat
+kept growing, and finally there appeared at the
+ends of the stalks clusters of kernels, just like
+those which the farmer had planted. Some of
+these kernels had produced families of twenty
+or thirty. These clusters are called <i>heads</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p9.jpg" width="500" height="285" alt="Fig. 3.&mdash;Harvesting Wheat in Southern California." title="Harvesting Wheat" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Harvesting Wheat in Southern California.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the south wind passed over the field it
+brought the wheat messages from Minnesota,
+Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and other states, telling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">&nbsp;</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">&nbsp;</a></span>
+of relatives who were already turning golden
+in the summer sunshine. One day some of
+the kernels thought they heard a voice from
+California.    Do you think they did?</p>
+
+<p>The grain in some of the fields was called
+<i>winter wheat</i>. This was because the grain had
+been sown the autumn before, and had remained
+in the ground all winter, covered by a blanket
+of snow. Why was it sown in the fall? The
+wheat of which I am telling you was called
+by the farmer <i>spring wheat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Soon machines, each drawn by several horses,
+appeared. They cut the waving grain, and
+bound it up in bundles called <i>sheaves</i>. These
+were set up in double rows to dry, and afterward
+put into another machine which separated
+the kernels from the stalks, which were
+now called <i>straw</i>. This work the farmer calls
+<i>threshing</i>. See if you can find out how this
+used to be done.</p>
+
+<p>After threshing, the wheat was put into
+sacks and taken to the nearest railroad station.
+Freight cars then carried it across the level
+prairies to the beautiful city of Minneapolis,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+built beside the Falls of Saint Anthony. What
+river is this city on? Of what use are the
+falls?</p>
+
+<p>There are tall buildings called <i>elevators</i> here
+in which the wheat was stored for a time.
+Before being put into the elevators it was
+examined and <i>graded</i>. As there was wheat
+from many farms it could not be kept separate,
+so each farmer was told how much he had,
+and how it graded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p12.jpg" width="550" height="328" alt="Fig. 4.&mdash;Threshing Wheat in Southern California." title="Threshing Wheat" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Threshing Wheat in Southern California.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some time after this the wheat was taken
+to one of the great mills to be ground into
+flour. The largest of these mills manufactures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+about fifteen thousand barrels of flour every
+day. This is the largest flour mill in the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>When the kernels reached the mill, they
+were put into machines called <i>separators</i>, to
+be separated from all companions such as grass
+seed, mustard seed, and wild buckwheat. They
+were then placed in an iron box in which
+brushes were revolving rapidly, and were
+<i>scoured</i> to free them from fuzz and dirt.
+Those that were very dirty were washed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p13.jpg" width="550" height="313" alt="Fig. 5.&mdash;The Flour Mills in Minneapolis." title="Flour Mills in Minneapolis" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;The Flour Mills in Minneapolis.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p14.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="Fig. 6.&mdash;The Largest Flour Mill in the World." title="The Largest Flour Mill in the World" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;The Largest Flour Mill in the World.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The kernels were <i>steamed</i>, in order that the
+coating, called <i>bran</i>, might not break into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+small pieces. This is called <i>tempering</i>. The
+kernels now thought that their trials were
+over, but they were mistaken. Soon they
+found themselves being <i>crushed</i> between rollers.
+After they came out they were <i>sifted</i>, and then
+run between other rollers. This was repeated
+six times, and each time the flour was a little
+finer, for the rollers were closer together. The
+flour was then run through tubes of flannel.
+These took out whatever dust it contained.    It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+was then ground still finer. The flour was
+then put into sacks or barrels, which were
+marked for shipment to other parts of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Only the wheat intended for the very best
+grade of flour is treated as carefully as this was.</p>
+
+<p>What industry does the use of barrels bring in?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p15.jpg" width="450" height="292" alt="Fig. 7.&mdash;Grinding Wheat." title="Grinding Wheat" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Grinding Wheat.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the mills the flour was sent to many
+parts of the land to supply stores, bakeries,
+hotels, and homes. Some of it found its way
+to the bakery near your home. The bakers, in
+their clean suits of white, weighed the flour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+which they were going to use, and then added
+a certain amount of water to it. Some yeast
+and salt were added also. This mixture they
+called <i>dough</i>. You have seen your mother mix
+or <i>knead</i> dough, I am sure. The bakers did
+not do the kneading with their hands, but by
+means of machinery made for this purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p16.jpg" width="450" height="295" alt="Fig. 8.&mdash;Bolting Flour." title="Bolting Flour" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Bolting Flour.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the dough had been thoroughly
+kneaded it was left to <i>rise</i>. It is the yeast
+that causes the rising. This makes the bread
+light and spongy. It was then cut into loaves
+and placed in the oven. The ovens in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+bakery are very much larger than those in
+your kitchen stove, for many loaves are baked
+at once. When a nice shade of brown appeared
+on the loaves, the bakers took them out
+of the oven by means of long shovels. Soon
+the delivery wagons came and were loaded
+with the fresh bread to be delivered to stores
+and homes. This loaf was just left at the
+door and is still warm.</p>
+
+<p>So, you see, a loaf of bread has quite a history.
+I have told you the life story of this
+one from the time of its grandparents, who
+were raised on the plains of North Dakota.
+Would it not be interesting to see each of the
+people who have had something to do with its
+production, and to make the journey which
+the wheat and the flour made? You can do
+both in your thoughts.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p>
+<h2>HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED</h2>
+
+
+<p>Ramon lived in a plain, one-story house, built
+in the shade of some cottonwood trees that
+fringed each side of a small river in the eastern
+part of Colorado. A wide veranda extended
+entirely around the house, but there were very
+few flowers and no lawn. I am afraid you
+would not think it a very pleasant place for a
+home.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from the <i>ranch house</i>, as it was called,
+were the barn and the <i>corrals</i>. A corral is a
+yard with a strong, high fence about it, in
+which cattle or horses may be placed. On the
+bottom land beside the stream, there was a corn
+and an alfalfa patch, besides one containing
+some potatoes and garden vegetables.</p>
+
+<p>During most of the year the stream was
+quite shallow, and flowed quietly over its bed,
+but when heavy rains occurred it rose rapidly,
+spreading over much of the bottom land and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+carrying so much clay with it that it was almost
+the color of coffee.</p>
+
+<p>Except along the river, not a tree was in
+sight from Ramon's home, and it was many
+miles to the nearest house. For hundreds of
+miles both north and south, there stretched a
+vast plain. Little was to be seen but sand,
+grass, and sagebrush. I had almost forgotten
+the prairie dogs, which scamper across the plain
+or sit up straight and motionless on a little
+mound of sand beside their burrows. They
+watch you closely, not moving unless they
+regard you as a dangerous creature, when, quick
+as a flash, they disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The rainfall is very slight in this part of the
+country, being less than twenty inches a year.
+On this account there is little attention paid to
+farming, but instead, the settlers own great
+herds of cattle as well as many horses. Ramon's
+father is one of the <i>cattlemen</i> of Colorado.
+He owns more than ten thousand head of cattle,
+and some of the cattlemen own twice that
+number. Of course such great herds of cattle
+must have much land to graze on.    Some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+the land is owned by the government and any
+one may use it. Everywhere fences are far
+apart. These great pastures are called <i>ranges</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Ramon's life is not much like yours. His
+home is far from schools, churches, stores, or
+railroads. He seldom sees strangers, but he
+enjoys long rides on his own pony, <i>Prince</i>.
+Sometimes he goes with his father and at other
+times he takes a gallop with one of the "cowboys"
+who herd the cattle.</p>
+
+<p>The "cowboys" almost live in the saddle.
+They are out in all kinds of weather and are
+not boys at all, but strong, hardy men. They
+wear broad-brimmed hats, and carry long ropes
+called lassos or <i>lariats</i>, with which they catch
+the cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Where there are so many herds they sometimes
+get mixed up. On this account each
+cattleman marks or <i>brands</i> his animals. These
+brands may be the initial letter of the owner's
+name, or they may be in the form of a horseshoe,
+a cross, a circle, or a crescent.</p>
+
+<p>Each spring and fall the cowboys gather
+the cattle together. This is called "rounding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+up" the cattle. They are then counted and
+the calves born since the last "round up" are
+branded. In the fall, in addition to this work,
+animals are selected for the market. Why is
+the fall a better time for this than the spring?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p21.jpg" width="450" height="269" alt="Fig. 9.&mdash;Branding Cattle.&mdash;Point to the Lariats." title="Branding Cattle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Branding Cattle.&mdash;Point to the Lariats.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cowboys, mounted upon their swift,
+strong ponies, single out the animals that have
+never been branded, and swinging their lassos
+over their heads, they throw them with such
+skill that the loop settles over the head or about
+the leg of the one wanted. As soon as the
+rope tightens, the pony braces its forefeet firmly
+and the animal is finally thrown to the ground.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+It is then branded with a hot iron and allowed
+to go. Ramon used to feel very sorry for them
+until his father explained that it hurt them
+very little, for only the skin was burned.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the cattle selected to be sold, are
+not quite fat enough for the market. They are
+then taken farther east into the <i>corn belt</i> and
+fed for a time.</p>
+
+<p>When they are shipped directly from the
+range to the market, they are driven to the
+nearest railroad and put into yards beside
+the track. They are then made to walk up an
+incline with high railings ending at the open
+doors of a cattle car. The animals are arranged
+so that the first faces one side of the car, the
+second the other, and so on. This is done so
+that the cattle cannot hook one another, and
+also that they may be fed and watered on the
+way from a long iron trough which is fastened
+to each side of the car.</p>
+
+<p>The great cattle markets of the United States
+are Omaha, Kansas City, and Chicago. Find
+these cities.</p>
+
+<p>One day when Ramon was about fourteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+years old, his father told him that he was going
+to take a train load of cattle to Chicago and
+that he might go with him. It was a happy
+time for Ramon, you may be sure, for he was
+very anxious to see some of the wonderful
+sights his father had told him about.</p>
+
+<p>At last the day when they were to start on
+their journey arrived. The afternoon before,
+the cowboys had driven the cattle to the railroad
+so as to load them early in the morning.
+Soon after breakfast Ramon kissed his mother
+and his little sister good-by, and he and his
+father rode off across the level plain.</p>
+
+<p>Finding the cattle already loaded in the
+cars, Ramon and his father were soon seated
+in the <i>caboose</i>, rolling over the miles of railroad
+which connected them with Chicago.
+Whenever the train stopped for a few minutes,
+they took a long stick and went from
+car to car making the cattle that had lain
+down get up, so that they might not be injured
+by the others.</p>
+
+<p>When bedtime came, they made their beds
+on the benches along each side of the caboose,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+which are covered with cushions. As they had
+brought blankets with them, they were fairly
+comfortable.</p>
+
+<p>Ramon did not sleep very soundly the first
+night. The engine shrieked from time to time,
+and the car rocked and jolted so that he was
+afraid of falling from his bed.</p>
+
+<p>The next day they reached a part of the
+country where great cornfields waved in the
+breeze. The leaves had already turned brown,
+and golden ears of grain peeped out from the
+ends of the husks. There were stubble fields,
+too, where wheat and oats had been harvested.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p24.jpg" width="450" height="146" alt="Fig. 10.&mdash;Bird&#39;s Eye View of Union Stock Yards, Chicago." title="Union Stock Yards, Chicago" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Bird&#39;s Eye View of Union Stock Yards, Chicago.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The country became more thickly settled as
+they went on, and the towns were nearer together.
+Streams were more common, and
+grass and timber more abundant. The young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+traveler wondered why this was so. Can you
+tell?</p>
+
+<p>Early in the morning of the fourth day the
+train reached Chicago. After much switching
+and backing the cars were run into the Union
+Stock Yards, and the cattle were unloaded.</p>
+
+<p>Ramon was thoroughly bewildered by what
+he saw and heard. Men were shouting and
+cracking whips; others were riding up and down
+the alleys that separate the yards; dogs were
+barking and turning the animals this way and
+that, and gates were swinging back and forth.</p>
+
+<p>The cattle were weighed and examined to
+see if they had any disease, and were then
+placed in charge of a <i>commission merchant</i> to
+be sold. Buyers come to the yards and bargain
+with these commission merchants. When
+an unusually large number of cattle come in,
+the prices are likely to fall; when few arrive,
+the prices rise.</p>
+
+<p>When the cattle had been yarded, Ramon's
+father said that they would go and have
+breakfast. In the afternoon they visited the
+"yards," and the slaughter and packing houses.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+The "yards" cover about a square mile of territory.
+They are divided into countless pens or
+small yards, containing sheds, feeding racks,
+and watering troughs.</p>
+
+<p>Ramon asked how many cattle were unloaded
+in these yards daily. His father handed him a
+copy of the <i>Chicago Live Stock World</i>, and at
+the top of the first column he read that on the
+day previous there had been received 18,500
+cattle, 35,000 hogs, and 18,000 sheep. He
+was told that sometimes the receipts are much
+larger than this and sometimes not so large.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p26.jpg" width="450" height="298" alt="Fig. 11.&mdash;Dressing Beef." title="Dressing Beef" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Dressing Beef.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>They followed the bodies of the cattle from
+the slaughterhouses where they are dressed,
+into the cooling rooms. These are simply great
+refrigerators. Wagons come to the cooling
+rooms and haul loads of the meat to butcher
+shops, hotels, and depots. Within a few hours
+it finds its way to smaller cities and towns in
+all directions. A great deal of meat is shipped
+even to Europe. Why does not Europe produce
+its own meat?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p27.jpg" width="450" height="304" alt="Fig. 12.&mdash;Cooling Beef." title="Cooling Beef" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Cooling Beef.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the meat has thoroughly hardened in
+the cooling rooms, it is sent to the curing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+rooms, where it is cut up and packed. Each
+person here does his particular work from
+morning until night.</p>
+
+<p>Ramon learned, to his surprise, that every
+part of the animal is used. Hair, hide, horns,
+hoofs, teeth, bones, and even blood, are made
+use of.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p28.jpg" width="450" height="309" alt="Fig. 13.&mdash;Splitting Backbone of Hogs." title="Splitting Backbone of Hogs" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Splitting Backbone of Hogs.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most of the hogs which enter the great meat-packing
+cities are raised in the corn belt.</p>
+
+<p>The sheep need much pasturage, and so the
+largest flocks are found in the Western and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Southwestern states. A single herder may
+take care of several thousand sheep. His
+faithful companions and helpers are intelligent
+shepherd dogs. After a great flock of sheep
+has fed on an area, hardly a green thing is
+left. The people in the part of the West
+where there is little rainfall, object to the
+pasturing of sheep around the head waters of
+streams, because when the vegetation is removed
+the water runs off too quickly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p29.jpg" width="450" height="302" alt="Fig. 14.&mdash;Curing Pork in Salt." title="Curing Pork" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Curing Pork in Salt.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the evening our friends watched the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+men, women, and children march out of the
+"yards." They were told that not less than
+thirty-five thousand persons were employed in
+the various establishments. There is but one
+city in Colorado which contains so many people.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p30.jpg" width="450" height="309" alt="Fig. 15.&mdash;Chopping Sausage Meat." title="Chopping Sausage Meat" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Chopping Sausage Meat.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As they sat at breakfast next morning,
+Ramon wondered how many of the people of
+Chicago were eating steaks from cattle which
+he had seen on his father's ranch. The
+thought was a new one to him. His trip
+had shown him that the cattlemen who lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+and worked on those far-away plains were
+doing their part in supplying people all over
+our country with meat. Their lonely life,
+with all of its disadvantages, now had a new
+meaning for him, and he went back to his
+Western home content with it, yet very glad to
+have had this glimpse of another side of life.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p31.jpg" width="450" height="303" alt="Fig. 16.&mdash;Packing Poultry." title="Packing Poultry" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Packing Poultry.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+<h2>MARKET GARDENING</h2>
+
+
+<p>Think of the immense quantities of fruits and
+vegetables that are used daily on the tables of a
+great city such as New York or Chicago. As
+we travel up and down the streets of any great
+city, we see rows of buildings, sometimes built
+in solid blocks and sometimes a little distance
+apart. Some have trees and small lawns in
+front of them; others are without even this
+touch of nature. Nowhere, except in the outskirts,
+do we find gardens.</p>
+
+<p><i>These people depend upon others to furnish
+them with their vegetable food.</i></p>
+
+<p>Now let us make some excursions into the
+region surrounding one of these cities. For
+miles and miles we see on every hand <i>truck
+farms</i> or <i>market gardens</i>. The main business
+of those who live in these districts is to furnish
+food for the people of the city, so that the
+latter may devote their time to their various
+occupations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>We see growing potatoes, cabbages, tomatoes,
+beans, peas, squashes, turnips, onions, sweet
+corn, celery, melons, and many other things.
+Usually all of these will be found in one garden,
+but sometimes the farmer raises only a few
+kinds, or perhaps but one.</p>
+
+<p>Market gardening is very common in Germany,
+Holland, Italy, China, and in other
+densely populated countries. Therefore we
+often find people who have come from these
+countries to America engaged in this business.
+Chinese gardeners are seldom seen in the
+East, but on the Pacific coast they raise most
+of the vegetables used in the cities and
+towns.</p>
+
+<p>In the early spring, before the ground is
+warm enough to make seeds grow, the gardener
+starts his plants in "hotbeds." These are
+long wooden boxes, or frames, without bottoms,
+covered with glass. They are usually placed
+on the south side of some building or high
+fence. The glass covers allow the warm sunshine
+to enter the "beds" freely, but they
+prevent the rapid escape of the heat. You<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+see now why they are called "hotbeds." They
+are like small greenhouses.</p>
+
+<p>A little later in the spring the fields are
+thoroughly cultivated and the plants transplanted.
+Of course only the vegetables desired
+for the early market are started in this way.
+What advantage is there in having the vegetables
+ready for the market very early in the
+season?</p>
+
+<p>Vegetable farming is not easy work, although
+it is a pleasure to see things grow day by day
+as you care for them, and as nature supplies her
+sunshine and her rain. The fields must be cultivated
+almost constantly, to keep the soil loose,
+as well as to remove the weeds. Much of the
+weeding has to be done by hand, which is
+tedious work.</p>
+
+<p>We want our vegetables fresh every morning;
+and as the truck farms are at some distance from
+the city, the farmer must load up his wagon
+the night before. Of course much produce is
+sent to the cities on trains, but where farmers
+live near enough to deliver it themselves, their
+crops are more profitable to them. Why?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p35.jpg" width="450" height="335" alt="Fig. 17.&mdash;A Market Scene." title="A Market Scene" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;A Market Scene.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>Everything is put in readiness before dark;
+and while others are still in bed, the farmer
+mounts his wagon to start toward the sleeping
+city. I have often ridden ten or fifteen miles
+on such a load before the stars faded away.</p>
+
+<p>It is a novel experience. At first the night
+seems strangely still, but soon you are able to
+distinguish many voices coming from various
+places. The frogs croak from the ponds by the
+roadside; crickets and locusts send their shrill
+notes from grass and tree; a night owl startles
+you by his dismal hoot; the lamps of the fireflies
+gleam, then disappear only to shine out
+again a little farther on.</p>
+
+<p>At last a faint glow appears in the eastern
+sky, which grows brighter and brighter until
+the shining face of the sun is pushed above the
+horizon. Do you not think such a ride would
+be more enjoyable than a street car ride?</p>
+
+<p>In the cities there are market places where
+produce from the country is taken. In Chicago
+there is a very busy street where much of the
+buying and selling is done. Study the picture
+carefully. Here the buyers from hotels, restaurants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+and stores, as well as the men who wish to
+peddle the produce from house to house, go for
+their daily supplies. There are also commission
+merchants whose stores are on this street.
+They sell the produce for those who ship it to
+the city by train.</p>
+
+<p>We go to the stores and get what we want
+each day, or the peddlers bring it to the door.
+You see how necessary it is to have special
+workers to supply us with the different kinds
+of food. We consider it very important that
+we should have vegetables and fruits fresh
+daily. The work of supplying us with this
+food is very important. Remember that those
+who till the soil are entitled to as great respect
+as are those who do not work with their hands.
+Contact with nature makes men and women
+better, and many of the noblest souls that the
+world has known have lived in the country and
+plowed, planted, and harvested the products
+of the soil.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 448px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p39-1.jpg" width="448" height="322" alt="Market Scene. Chicago." title="Market Scene. Chicago." />
+<span class="caption">Market Scene. Chicago.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p39-2.jpg" width="450" height="353" alt="Market Scene. New York." title="Market Scene. New York." />
+<span class="caption">Market Scene. New York.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+<h2>DAIRY PRODUCTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Uncle Ben lives on a dairy farm in the western
+part of New York State. It is a beautiful
+<i>rolling</i> country with cultivated fields, woodland,
+and pastures, and here and there a sparkling
+stream winding its way through the lowlands.
+The farmhouses are large and well built, and
+are surrounded by grand old maple, beech, and
+elm trees. Most of the barns are painted red
+with white trimmings.</p>
+
+<p>There are many dairy farms in the neighborhood.
+Some of the farmers send their milk to
+the towns to be used directly, some sell it to
+creameries, and some to cheese factories.</p>
+
+<p>Last summer I spent my vacation on Uncle
+Ben's farm, and Cousin Frank and I had happy
+times, you may be sure.</p>
+
+<p>Every day, just before sundown, we went to
+the pasture for the cows. There were about
+twenty-five of them, and they always seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+perfectly contented after the long day of feasting
+on rich grass and clover.</p>
+
+<p>After we drove them into the barnyard Uncle
+Ben helped us fasten them in their <i>stanchions</i>
+in the barn. Then the men brought the bright
+pails and cans to begin milking. Cousin Frank
+and I always helped, although he can milk
+much faster than I. Some of the cows gave
+but two or three quarts, while others gave as
+many gallons.</p>
+
+<p>We strained the milk into cans holding eight
+gallons each, and put them into tanks of water
+to cool. After milking was finished we turned
+the cattle into the barnyard for the night.</p>
+
+<p>In the morning we commenced milking about
+sunrise. After breakfast the cans were loaded
+into a spring wagon and Uncle Ben drove to the
+depot. Here they were put on the "milk train,"
+which took them to the city.</p>
+
+<p>Many other people sent milk on this same
+train. It was sent to bakeries, to hotels and
+restaurants, and to milkmen, who delivered it
+from house to house. Usually the milkmen put
+the milk into pint or quart bottles for people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+who like to have it in that form. Uncle Ben
+told us that much of the milk that is sent to
+New York City is bottled before it is sent. The
+bottling is done by machinery. He also told
+us that, because of the great importance of having
+pure milk, there are, in all cities, inspectors
+who carefully examine the milk and report to
+the Board of Health. The cows also are inspected,
+and if any are sick, they are usually
+killed.</p>
+
+<p>Each evening some one drove to the depot
+again to get empty cans which the milk train
+had brought home. These were always carefully
+washed in hot water before being used
+again.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+<h2>BUTTER MAKING</h2>
+
+
+<p>One day, after I had been on the farm about
+a week, Uncle Ben took Frank and me to the
+<i>creamery</i>. A creamery is a place where the
+milk and cream are separated and butter is
+made.</p>
+
+<p>We found several wagonloads of milk being
+unloaded. The milk was weighed as it was
+received, for it is sold by weight.</p>
+
+<p>The milk was then strained into a large galvanized
+iron tub, from which a pipe carried it
+into a circular machine called the <i>separator</i>.
+The separator revolves rapidly, throwing the
+milk, which is heavier than the cream, to the
+outer edge, where it passes through small holes
+into a compartment by itself. The cream rises
+along the center and passes through another set
+of openings into a special compartment. A pipe
+carries it to a large vat, while another pipe
+conveys the milk to large tanks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>Uncle Ben told me that when people make
+their own butter, they must wait for the cream
+to <i>rise</i> on the milk. The cream is then skimmed
+off, and the milk is called <i>skimmed milk</i>. Although
+the milk in the creamery is not skimmed,
+the same name is used for it.</p>
+
+<p>I asked if the skimmed milk was used for
+anything. Uncle Ben gave me a cupful of it
+to taste. It was very good. He then told me
+that the separator takes out only the part
+needed in making butter, leaving all of the
+sugar. I did not know before that milk contains
+sugar.</p>
+
+<p>The farmers take home loads of this milk to
+feed it to their hogs. For each hundred pounds
+of milk delivered, they get back seventy-five
+pounds of skimmed milk, besides the pay for
+their cream.</p>
+
+<p>The creamery man told me that he made
+from four to six pounds of butter from one
+hundred pounds of milk.</p>
+
+<p>The cream remains in the large vat about
+twenty-four hours before it is churned. The
+churn, as you see by the picture, is a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+barrel made to revolve by machinery. It takes
+from thirty-five minutes to one hour to churn.
+The man told me that I might look at the book
+in which he kept the record of the churning. I
+saw that he made from two hundred fifty to
+six hundred pounds of butter at a churning.
+He said that some churns would produce more
+than one thousand pounds at a churning.</p>
+
+<p>Not all of the cream is made into butter.
+There is left in the bottom of the churn a liquid
+called <i>buttermilk</i>. This is drawn off, and the
+butter is washed and <i>worked</i> before being taken
+out of the churn. The working is done by means
+of paddles in the churn. It continues for six or
+eight minutes and squeezes the liquid out of the
+butter.</p>
+
+<p>While the butter is being worked, it is salted.
+Some of the butter is unsalted, but most of it
+is salted. When butter is made in the home,
+it must be churned by hand. Only a few pounds
+at a time can be made in this way.</p>
+
+<p>When the butter was taken out of the churn,
+the men packed it solidly in wooden boxes about
+two feet square and four inches deep.   The bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">&nbsp;</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">&nbsp;</a></span>
+of each box consisted of strips as wide as a
+<i>square</i> of butter. These were held together
+by a clamp, and the sides were hooked to the
+bottom and to one another. When the butter
+is to be cut into squares, these sides are removed
+and zinc ones take their places. In these
+there are slits running from top to bottom.
+Through these slits a wire saw is run, and so
+the butter is quickly cut into one or two pound
+squares. The butter is then wrapped in fancy
+papers upon which the name of the butter or
+of the creamery is stamped.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p47-1.jpg" width="450" height="304" alt="A Separator." title="A Separator." />
+<span class="caption">A Separator.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p47-2.jpg" width="450" height="331" alt="A Churn." title="A Churn." />
+<span class="caption">A Churn.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of course some of the butter is packed in
+wooden tubs and shipped in that form. This
+butter is a little cheaper than that put up in
+squares.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHEESE</h2>
+
+
+<p>I was so much pleased with my visit to the
+creamery, that Uncle Ben promised to show me
+how cheese is made. So one morning just after
+breakfast he, Cousin Frank, and I started out.
+After a pleasant ride of about five miles we
+reached the factory.</p>
+
+<p>The first process here was the same as that
+at the creamery. After the milk was weighed
+it was run into great zinc-lined vats. There
+were four of these in the factory, each of
+which held about five thousand pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Uncle Ben explained that the milk must
+<i>curdle</i> before cheese can be made. In order to
+make it curdle quickly, a little less than a
+pound of a substance called <i>rennet</i> was put
+into each vat.</p>
+
+<p>A man worked at each vat with a long
+wooden rake, stirring the milk constantly. I
+saw a glass tube standing in the milk and
+asked what it was. Uncle Ben told me to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+look at it closely. I saw that it was a thermometer,
+and that it registered eighty degrees.
+A little while after I looked again, when it
+showed a temperature of ninety degrees. The
+milk is kept warm, so as to help it to curdle
+quickly.</p>
+
+<p>In about an hour I could see the curd
+very plainly, but the men kept on stirring and
+cutting it. Presently one of them carried a
+piece of the curd to a table. He heated a small
+iron rod and touched it with the curd. When
+he pulled the curd away, little threads were
+drawn out to the length of half an inch or
+more. This he called the "acid test," which
+showed that the curd was in the right condition
+to be made into cheese.</p>
+
+<p>Of course only a part of the milk had turned
+into curd; the rest was <i>whey</i>, that was drawn
+off and run into tanks. Each man who had
+delivered one hundred pounds of milk was
+given a check for seventy-five pounds of the
+whey. It is fed to hogs. About two hours
+from the time that the milk was put into the
+vats, the whey was drawn off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>One of the men now took a long knife and
+cut the curd into oblong cakes. These he frequently
+lifted and turned over. After continuing
+this for about twenty minutes, the pieces
+of curd were put into a small mill, placed on a
+board over the vat, and the curd was chopped
+into strips from one to six inches long and from
+one-half an inch to an inch thick. Salt was scattered
+over the mass by one man, while another
+pitched it about with a three-pronged wooden
+fork. The man told me that he used three
+pounds of salt to each thousand pounds of milk.</p>
+
+<p>Next, a piece of cloth was placed on a board
+about sixteen inches square. Two circular metal
+frames or bands, about six inches high, were
+fitted one within the other and placed on the
+cloth. The frame was filled with curd, covered
+by a cloth, and another set placed on top of it
+until there were five. They were then put on
+a table directly under a block which was fastened
+to a screw. By turning the screw the
+block was pressed against the top board, and
+so each frame of curd was pressed. I saw the
+whey running out as the squeezing went on.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+The superintendent told us that the curd would
+be left in the press until the next day.</p>
+
+<p>We were then taken into the room where the
+cheese "ripens." Here we saw large racks reaching
+nearly to the ceiling, filled with double rows
+of cheeses. The smallest ones weighed but
+three pounds, while the largest weighed fifty
+pounds. It may take but a few days and it
+may take many months to "ripen" a cheese.
+It depends upon the flavor wanted. The man
+said that in England "strong" cheese is generally
+liked, while in our country "mild" cheese
+is preferred.</p>
+
+<p>I asked how much cheese five thousand pounds
+of milk would make, and was told that it would
+make between four and five hundred pounds.</p>
+
+<p>On the way home Uncle Ben told us that
+although our country is a great dairy country,
+we import certain kinds of cheese from Europe.
+He told us how the Swiss people pasture their
+cattle on the steep mountain sides, and that in
+every little mountain valley cheese is made, some
+of which finds its way over the mountains and
+across the sea to the United States.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE FISHING INDUSTRY</h2>
+
+
+<p>Have you ever stood by the side of a stream
+and watched the fish dart from one shadow of
+overhanging rock into another, or swim lazily at
+the bottom of some deep pool? How gracefully
+they move and turn! How like water jewels
+they flash as the sunlight falls upon them!</p>
+
+<p>Most streams and lakes, like the ocean, contain
+fish. So we have fresh-water and salt-water
+fish. There are a few bodies of water so full of
+salt that fish cannot live in them. Do you know
+of any such bodies of water?</p>
+
+<p>Most of the fish used as food come from the
+ocean. In this, and in most other countries,
+there are many men who do nothing but fish, in
+order that other people may be supplied with
+this sort of food. They do not depend upon
+hook and line alone, but use nets also.</p>
+
+<p>Nets are great sacks made of cord, knotted
+or woven together in such a way as to leave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+spaces or <i>meshes</i>. These meshes are not big
+enough to allow large fish to escape. Sometimes
+the fishermen go out in rowboats some distance
+from shore and then throw the net into the
+water. Corks or floats keep the upper edge of
+the net near the surface, while weights hold the
+lower edge on the bottom.    Ropes are fastened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+to each end, and so it is drawn toward the shore.
+How the fishermen wish that they could see to
+the bottom of the restless water and know what
+their harvest is to be! When the boats have
+almost reached the shore, horses are sometimes
+driven into the water and hitched to the ropes.
+At last the net is dragged out upon the sands
+and the uncertainty is past.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p55.jpg" width="450" height="435" alt="Fig. 18.&mdash;Drying Nets." title="Drying Nets" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Drying Nets.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Look! Within the folds of the net is a countless
+number of fishes, each jumping, squirming,
+wriggling, trying to get back to its ocean
+home. They are of many sizes, shapes, and
+colors. Those not good for food, together
+with the smallest ones, are thrown back into
+the water.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a net called a "dip-net" is
+dropped from a fishing schooner and drawn
+about a "school" of fish. I have seen many
+barrels of fish brought up at one time in this
+way.</p>
+
+<p>The fishermen keep a close watch for the
+appearance of these "schools," you may be sure.
+Whales and dolphins pursue them, and gulls and
+cormorants circle overhead, for they, too, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+fishers. Their appearance helps the men to tell
+where the "schools" are. There is a great rush
+for the fishing grounds when they are sighted.
+The white-sailed schooners skim over the waters
+almost like a flock of birds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p57.jpg" width="450" height="347" alt="Fig. 19.&mdash;A Fishing Schooner." title="A Fishing Schooner" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;A Fishing Schooner.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Large quantities of fish are caught by a
+method called <i>trawl fishing</i>. This may be carried
+on miles from the shore. How do you suppose
+it is done? To a very long and strong line,
+many shorter ones, each with a hook at the end,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+are attached. These lines, to which large buoys
+are fastened, are left in the water for several
+hours, and then fishermen in flat-bottomed boats
+called <i>dories</i> row out from the schooner and
+examine them.    The lines are then reset and
+the fish taken to the schooner to be dressed.
+This is a common method of catching codfish,
+which is carried on during summer and winter
+alike. Storms and fogs are likely to
+occur while the men are out in their little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+boats, making their work full of danger as
+well as of hardship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p58.jpg" width="450" height="358" alt="Fig. 20.&mdash;Splitting Codfish." title="Splitting Codfish" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20.&mdash;Splitting Codfish.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the fish are packed in ice and sold
+fresh, while others are cured on the boats or
+on shore. Some of the fishing schooners carry
+great quantities of salt when they start out on a
+trip. The fish are dressed and packed in this.
+Sometimes they are packed in brine, and along
+the shores of some countries they are strung on
+poles to dry.</p>
+
+<p>Codfish are dried in great quantities along the
+New England coast by placing them on frames
+made of strips of wood and raised a little above
+the wharf, so that the air can circulate freely.
+When the skin and bones are removed and the
+flesh cut into strips, it is called "shredded"
+codfish.</p>
+
+<p>The principal food-fish are the cod, mackerel,
+herring, halibut, shad, salmon, sardines, and
+whitefish. Whitefish are caught in the Great
+Lakes. To this list the lobster may be added,
+although it is not a fish.</p>
+
+<p>A common method of catching lobsters is to
+sink a box made of lath to the bottom, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+they crawl about on the rocks. A fish head is
+placed in the box for bait. The lobsters crawl
+in and are likely to remain until the box is
+examined.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p60.jpg" width="450" height="318" alt="Fig. 21.&mdash;Drying Codfish." title="Drying Codfish" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21.&mdash;Drying Codfish.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lobster steamers, fitted up with tanks containing
+salt water, run from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland
+to Boston and New York. Here those
+not wanted are placed on cars containing similar
+tanks and sent to interior cities. In this way
+fresh lobsters are served thousands of miles
+from where they were caught.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>A lobster that would cost us from twenty-five
+to seventy-five cents brings the fisherman not
+more than ten cents.</p>
+
+<p>Along our New England coast there are many
+towns engaged extensively in fishing. Portland,
+Gloucester, Boston, and Provincetown are among
+the number. Gloucester is the most important
+fishing town in the United States. From it
+fishing schooners go as far as Newfoundland,
+Greenland, Iceland, and even to the coast of
+Ireland. There are also important fisheries on
+the Pacific coast, from San Francisco to Alaska.
+Here the salmon are taken in great numbers.
+They weigh from twenty to one hundred pounds.
+The fish are canned and shipped to all parts of
+the country. Besides being caught in nets and
+traps and on lines many are caught in "fish
+wheels." These are fastened to the stern of a
+boat and revolve in the water. The fish are
+caught in pockets and dropped in the boat as
+the wheel brings them up over it.</p>
+
+<p>There are very extensive fisheries along the
+shores of the British Isles and on the western
+coast of Europe. Fishing is the chief industry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+in the towns along the coast of Norway. The
+air is full of the odor of fish, while drying fish,
+nets, and boats are everywhere in sight.</p>
+
+<p>Although the supply of fish in the ocean is
+very great, it is diminishing, especially near the
+shore. Most countries now pay considerable attention
+to the raising of both fresh and salt water
+fishes, and they have passed laws regulating
+fishing. Eggs are hatched in great <i>hatcheries</i>,
+from which the young fish are taken where they
+are most needed.</p>
+
+<p>The great ocean is free to all to sail over or
+fish in at will. There is a narrow strip along
+the shore three miles wide, which belongs to the
+country which it borders. The men of other
+countries are not allowed to fish there.</p>
+
+<p>The fisherman is a brave and sturdy man.
+His life is full of danger. He battles constantly
+with the winds and the waves. Fogs may
+hide the sharp rocks which seem to wait for a
+chance to destroy his little vessel. Sometimes
+icebergs or great ocean steamers sink his boat
+and he is never seen again.</p>
+
+<p>When storms are raging and night has settled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+over sea and land, and angry waves are dashing
+themselves into foam against the shore,
+the mothers, wives, and children look anxiously
+from their cottage windows toward the sea, and
+pray that their loved ones may return to them
+in safety.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+<h2>OYSTER FARMING</h2>
+
+
+<p>It sounds strange to speak of farming in the
+ocean, but there are many and large oyster
+farms all along our coast. Some of these farms
+are covered by water all of the time and some
+are uncovered when the tide is low. Oyster
+farms are far more profitable than are those
+upon which corn and wheat are raised.</p>
+
+<p>This is a new industry in our country because
+civilized people have not lived here very long,
+but it is a very old one in some parts of the
+world. As long ago as the seventh century a
+Roman knight raised oysters for the market,
+and it is said that the business made him very
+wealthy.</p>
+
+<p>You will understand better about the cultivation
+of oysters, if I tell you first how they
+live and grow in their natural homes.</p>
+
+<p>Except during the first few days of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+lives, oysters are prisoners. They cannot move
+about freely from place to place as fishes and
+most animals can, but they are attached to
+rocks, to the shells of their dead relatives, and
+to other objects. How, then, do you suppose
+they get their food? They grow in immense
+numbers, and they crowd one another more than
+people do in the tenement houses in our great
+cities. In fact most of them are soon crowded
+out, and they die, leaving room for the rest to
+grow upon their empty homes. In this way
+the oyster beds spread out.</p>
+
+<p>These oyster beds are not found in very deep
+water, but rather along the shore, generally near
+the mouth of some river. As I have told you,
+they often live where they are uncovered when
+the tide goes out. You can see from this that
+it is not very difficult to gather oysters, so that,
+partly on this account, man has used them for
+food for ages.</p>
+
+<p>When the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the
+shores of New England, they found that the
+Indians used oysters very commonly. All along
+the coast were great heaps of the shells. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+the very first Thanksgiving dinner given in
+America, oysters were served.</p>
+
+<p>Oysters used to be so plentiful on these
+natural beds that they were very cheap. In
+some places where the winter weather was cold
+enough to freeze the water along the shore,
+people cut holes in the ice and gathered them
+by means of long-handled rakes.</p>
+
+<p>In a single year an oyster will produce more
+than a million young ones. Just think of it!
+If all of this family grew up, they would fill a
+room fourteen feet in each dimension.</p>
+
+<p>These young oysters are <i>very</i> small. They
+are called "spat." Most of them are drifted
+away by waves and currents, or devoured by
+larger sea animals. The few that escape soon
+attach themselves to some object, so getting a
+chance to begin the battle of life.</p>
+
+<p>If oysters are caught at all times of the year
+it does not give them a chance to produce their
+young, and this, as well as catching the young
+ones themselves, has destroyed many of the
+natural beds. In order to keep up the supply
+of this food men commenced oyster farming.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+You see how our daily needs and desires lead
+to the establishment of great industries.</p>
+
+<p>The oyster farmer prepares his farm in
+various ways. He places clean oyster shells,
+stones, trays, bundles of sticks, and other things
+on the bottom, so that the oysters may find
+something to which to attach themselves. Then
+he places the young oysters or "spat" on these
+objects. When trays are used, several are
+placed one upon another and bound together
+by means of a chain. These trays are taken
+up from time to time in order to gather the
+oysters that are ready for market.</p>
+
+<p>Stones are sometimes piled on the bottom
+and the "spat" are placed in the crevices between
+them. Often stakes are planted in a
+somewhat circular form. Cords are attached
+to the stakes, to which bundles of sticks are
+fastened in such a way as to keep them a little
+above the bottom. Young oysters attach themselves
+to these sticks, which may be drawn up
+when the proper time comes.</p>
+
+<p>Shells are used more commonly than other
+things. They are taken from the restaurants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and hotels to the farms in boat loads, to be
+scattered over the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>The young oysters grow at very different
+rates. In two years they may grow to be six
+inches in length, or it may take several years to
+reach that size. They grow more rapidly on
+the artificial beds, and are better in quality also.
+The starfish is one of the greatest enemies of
+the oyster, large numbers of which it destroys
+every year.</p>
+
+<p>During the fishing season the oyster men go
+to the beds in their boats and scoop the oysters
+up from the bottom. This is called dredging.
+The scoops with their loads of oysters are drawn
+to the deck of the boat by machinery. Sometimes
+the oysters are gathered by means of long
+tongs.</p>
+
+<p>As the oysters are usually in clusters, these
+have to be broken up. For this purpose a sort
+of a hammer known as a <i>culling iron</i> is used.
+The oysters are broken apart and sorted. Sometimes
+the oyster man makes three grades and
+sometimes four.</p>
+
+<p>Oysters are not the only things drawn up in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+the dredge. Starfish, lobsters, and various
+kinds of fishes are gathered in. The starfish
+are killed and the rest thrown back.</p>
+
+<p>The oysters are heaped up in great piles on
+the deck of the boat. Sacks and barrels are
+filled with them, and many car loads are
+shipped daily from the cities near the fishing
+grounds. Chesapeake Bay is the center of the
+oyster industry in our country. Find it. There
+are oyster beds, however, all along both the
+Atlantic and the Pacific coasts.</p>
+
+<p>Great quantities of oysters are canned near
+where they are caught. Getting them out of
+their shells is not an easy matter. For this
+purpose a knife is used. This work is called in
+the South "shucking oysters." Canning oysters
+is an important industry in the city of
+Baltimore. Have you ever seen cans of oysters
+that came from there?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>A RICE FIELD</h2>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>When you do not feel quite satisfied with
+your breakfast, dinner, or supper, and think
+that there should be a greater variety of food
+on the table, just come with me and we will
+visit some of the boys and girls of far-away
+China. What do you suppose <i>their</i> chief article
+of food is? Rice. Rice in the morning, rice
+at noon, and rice at night. Rice from the
+beginning to the end of the year. In the
+poorer families a bit of dried fish and some
+vegetables are usually eaten with it. Those
+who can afford such things have bits of preserved
+ginger, mushrooms, and barley cakes
+with the rice. Of course the rich people have
+other things to eat, but most of the people of
+China are poor.</p>
+
+<p>In the fertile portions of China the people
+live very close together. Gardens take the
+place of farms. Workmen often receive no
+more than ten cents a day.    On this account<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+they cannot afford the variety of food that we
+have, but must be content with whatever is
+cheap and nourishing for their labor. If the
+rice crop were to fail, the Chinese would suffer.
+You will see how important this food is to
+them, when I tell you that they are forbidden
+by law to sell rice to other countries.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps you are wondering where the rice
+that we use in this country comes from.    Rice
+is grown in great quantities in Japan, Corea,
+Indo-China, Ceylon, India, the Philippines, the
+Hawaiian Islands, and in our Gulf states.</p>
+
+<p>Rice is the chief food of one half the people
+of the world. Although we raise large quantities,
+we produce only about one half of what
+we use. It is a kind of grain which will not
+thrive on the fertile Western prairies where corn,
+oats, and wheat grow. It needs a warm climate
+and a great deal of water. For this reason the
+rice fields are found on the marshy lands near
+the coast, and by the banks of rivers, where they
+can be easily flooded. Some rice is raised on
+the uplands, but not so successfully as on the
+lowlands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>Canals are dug from the streams through the
+farms, and from these smaller ditches branch
+off so as to reach all parts. They are so
+arranged that the farmer can turn the water
+on or off whenever he wishes. On some of
+the farms, wells   furnish   the   water   to   the
+canals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p72.jpg" width="450" height="321" alt="Fig. 22.&mdash;A Rice Field.&mdash;Observe the Canal." title="A Rice Field." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;A Rice Field.&mdash;Observe the Canal.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Gulf states the fields are plowed in
+the winter, and the rice is sown between the
+first of April and the middle of May. Sometimes
+the seed is sown broadcast, as wheat is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+and sometimes it is planted in regular drills or
+trenches about twelve inches apart.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese sow the seed in gardens, and
+when the plants are eight or ten inches high,
+they are pulled up and transplanted to the
+fields. The men work right in the water, for
+the fields are flooded at the time.</p>
+
+<p>In our country the farmer floods the field as
+soon as the seeds are planted, allowing the
+water to remain five or six days. When the
+young blade of rice is a few inches high, the field
+is again flooded. After the second leaf appears
+on the stalk, the water is turned on and left
+for twenty or thirty days. After the land dries
+the crop is hoed. The fields are irrigated from
+time to time, until about eight days before the
+harvest, which generally occurs in August.</p>
+
+<p>When full grown, the stalks are from one to
+six feet in height, with long, slender leaves.
+The kernels grow much as those of wheat and
+oats do.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the fields being so wet, rice,
+in most countries, is cut by hand. In China
+and Japan small curved sickles are used, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+the grain is bound up in very small bundles.
+In Louisiana and some other parts of the
+South, regular harvesters are used. They have
+very broad wheels. Why?</p>
+
+<p>After the grain has been bound into bundles,
+these are set up in double rows to dry. This
+is called <i>shocking</i> the rice.    The grain is then
+put through a thrashing machine, to separate it
+from the straw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p74.jpg" width="450" height="176" alt="Fig. 23.&mdash;Harvesting Rice." title="Harvesting Rice" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23.&mdash;Harvesting Rice.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rice kernels are covered by a husk. Before
+the husk is removed the grain is often called
+<i>paddy rice</i>. Removing the hulls or husks is
+called <i>hulling</i>. The hulling machine is a long
+tube into one end of which the rice is poured.
+Within the tube are ribs which revolve rapidly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+As the kernels pass between these the hulls
+are taken off.</p>
+
+<p>If you were passing through a Chinese village,
+you might hear sounds like those produced
+when a man pounds with a mallet on a great
+piece of timber. On searching for the sounds,
+you would find that they came from the rice
+mill. The mill consists of a portion of a log
+hollowed out and placed upright. In the hollow
+a quantity of rice is held. A piece of
+timber, fastened to a pivot, extends in a horizontal
+position with one end over the mill. To
+this end another timber is fastened in an upright
+position. A Chinaman gets on to the end of the
+long timber which is farthest from the mill.
+This raises the end with the upright. He then
+jumps off and the upright falls, striking upon
+the rice.    In this way the hulls are worn off.</p>
+
+<p>After hulling, the grain is carefully screened,
+in order to remove the hulls, the broken and
+very small kernels, and the <i>rice flour</i>. This
+latter makes good cattle food.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps you have noticed that rice kernels
+have a bluish appearance.    This is not natural,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+but is the result of polishing. The polishing
+removes much of the best part of the grain,
+but the rice sells for a higher price simply on
+account of its appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The polishing machine is cylindrical or drum-like
+in shape. Moosehide or sheepskin is
+tacked to the cylinder. It is made to revolve
+rapidly, so that the kernels are polished as they
+pass over the skin. After being polished the
+kernels are run through screens and sorted.
+The rice is then put up in barrels or sacks and
+shipped.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>
+<h2>HOW SUGAR IS MADE</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p77.jpg" width="450" height="276" alt="Fig. 24.&mdash;Sowing Sugar Seed." title="Sowing Sugar Seed" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Sowing Sugar Seed.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This picture represents one of the beginnings
+of the great industry of sugar making. The
+small objects which you see in the trenches
+are pieces of sugar cane.    These "cuttings," as
+they are called, are covered with soil. They
+soon sprout, and from them grow the tall, waving
+fields of cane, which resemble cornfields.
+The canes are taller than cornstalks, however.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+How high do you think those shown in the
+picture are?</p>
+
+<p>In about ten months after planting the cane is
+ready to cut. In the Southern states this work
+usually begins about the middle of October.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p78.jpg" width="450" height="284" alt="Fig. 25.&mdash;Cutting Sugar Cane." title="Cutting Sugar Cane" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Cutting Sugar Cane.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The canes are jointed, as cornstalks are, and
+the spongy substance between the joints is filled
+with a sweet juice. It is from this juice or
+sap that cane sugar is made. I have seen
+children chew pieces of the cane, and enjoy it
+as you do candy; for this use it is sometimes
+sold in stores in the South.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p79.jpg" width="500" height="279" alt="Fig. 26.&mdash;Loading Cars with Sugar Cane." title="Loading Cars with Sugar Cane" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26.&mdash;Loading Cars with Sugar Cane.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>After the canes are cut they are hauled to the
+mill or sugarhouse on wagons. On the large
+plantations <i>tram cars</i> sometimes run right into
+the fields.</p>
+
+<p>At the mill the canes are run between heavy
+rollers, which squeeze out the sap. Sometimes
+as many as seventy-five pounds of sap are obtained
+from one hundred pounds of cane. The
+crushed stalks are used in the mill for fuel, and
+the ashes are returned to the land to fertilize it.</p>
+
+<p>When the juice is first pressed out, it is not
+at all clear in color. It is then placed in great
+vats or kettles and heated. This heating
+causes the water which is in the sap to evaporate,
+and it also brings some of the impurities
+to the top, where they are skimmed off. When
+the evaporating has been finished, there are two
+products, molasses and brown sugar.</p>
+
+<p>The sugar must next be refined. For this
+purpose it is usually sent to cities outside of
+the sugar belt. There are great refineries in
+New Orleans, San Francisco, St. Louis, Chicago,
+and other cities.</p>
+
+<p>When the <i>raw sugar</i>, as it is called, reaches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+the refinery, which is generally a tall building,
+it is taken to the top story and dissolved in hot
+water. It then passes through bags which act
+as <i>filters</i>, and through a great cylinder which
+contains burned bones, known as <i>bone-black</i>.
+You remember that I told you that the bones
+of the cattle were saved. This is one of the
+uses to which they are put. When the liquid
+comes out of this bone filter it is a perfectly
+clear sirup, which is then crystallized.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p82.jpg" width="450" height="344" alt="Fig. 27.&mdash;A Sugar Mill." title="A Sugar Mill" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;A Sugar Mill.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>You know that we buy refined sugar in three
+forms: granulated sugar, loaf sugar, and pulverized
+sugar. When granulated sugar is
+wanted, the crystals are placed in a great
+drum, which revolves until they are thoroughly
+dried in the right form. To make loaf sugar,
+the crystals are pressed into molds, then dried,
+and cut into the size desired. In powdered
+sugar they are simply ground to a powdered
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>Think how much labor is required to produce
+sugar, and yet you can buy it for five cents a
+pound.</p>
+
+<p>There are great fields of sugar cane in the
+Gulf states, in Cuba, in the Hawaiian Islands,
+in the East Indies, in India, and in other warm,
+moist parts of the world. We buy a great deal
+of sugar from Cuba, and from the Hawaiian
+Islands. To what city do you think the sugar
+from the Hawaiian Islands is sent?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+<h2>BEET SUGAR</h2>
+
+
+<p>Although the cane fields of the moist, hot
+countries yield great quantities of sugar, there
+are other sources from which this useful product
+comes. In the year 1747 a German scientist
+discovered that sugar can be made from beets,
+and now about two thirds of our supply come
+from these plants.</p>
+
+<p>The sugar beet is not just like the plant of
+the same name which we raise for table use.
+It is white, and sometimes weighs as much as
+ten or fifteen pounds. Beets do not need so
+much water nor so much heat as sugar cane,
+so they can be raised in Germany, France,
+Austria, Russia, and other countries, as well
+as in California, Utah, and Nebraska, in our
+own land.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of California there are fields
+of beets stretching for miles. The seeds are
+planted in rows, which, after the plants have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+come up, are thinned. In four or five months
+from the time the seeds are planted, the beets
+are ready to harvest.</p>
+
+<p>On most of the large <i>ranches</i> the beets are
+dug by machinery. Men then move back and
+forth in the fields, cutting off the leaves and a
+little of the upper part of the beet, for this contains
+too much mineral matter to be of value in
+making sugar. The workmen use large knives,
+and they walk on their knees.</p>
+
+<p>The beets are now taken to the factory in
+wagons, or, if it is far away, they are sent
+on trains. When the loads of beets reach the
+factory, they are weighed. The teamsters then
+drive up an inclined plane to a plank roadway.
+There are generally several of these. On each
+side of the road or platform are deep V-shaped
+trenches with wooden sides, in which streams
+of water run. When the wagon has reached
+the right spot, the platform upon which it rests
+is raised in a slanting position, and the beets
+fall into the trench.</p>
+
+<p>A basket full of beets is taken from each
+load and tested, to see how much sugar they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+contain, for this determines the price to be
+paid.</p>
+
+<p>The stream of water in the trench carries the
+beets along, just as they would be carried in a
+brook. This, you see, is a quick and easy way
+of washing them.</p>
+
+<p>The streams of water carry the beets into the
+factory, where they are cut up into strips by
+machinery. The juice is then washed out in
+vats containing warm water, and is boiled down
+in great tanks. The raw sugar is refined much
+as the cane sugar is. After the sugar has been
+dried, it is run through spouts into sacks held
+open to catch it as it comes out. One hundred
+pounds are put into each sack. One workman
+sews the sacks up and another wheels them to
+the wareroom. Train loads are carried away to
+be distributed in the parts of our country that
+do not produce sugar.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p>
+<h2>MAPLE SUGAR</h2>
+
+
+<p>You would enjoy helping to make some
+maple sugar, I am sure, so let us make a trip
+to the woods of Vermont or New York, where
+maple sugar is made from
+the sap of the sugar-maple
+tree.</p>
+
+<p>You will need your cap
+and mittens, as the sugar
+season is the early spring,
+when there is yet snow on
+the ground. Besides, some
+of the work is done at night,
+and you will not wish to
+miss that.</p>
+
+<p>The owner of the "sugar
+bush" bores holes into the trees a short distance
+from the ground, into which he slips small
+spouts, called "spiles."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p87.jpg" width="160" height="300" alt="Fig. 28.&mdash;Tapping a Tree." title="Tapping a Tree." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Tapping a Tree.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is called <i>tapping</i> the trees. Underneath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+the spout a pail is placed. During the day the
+sap trickles out and runs into the pail. During
+the colder hours of the night the sap flows
+slowly, if at all. Sometimes it is so cold that
+little sap runs for two or three days at a time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p88.jpg" width="450" height="287" alt="Fig. 29.&mdash;Oxen hauling Sap." title="Oxen hauling Sap" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Oxen hauling Sap.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sap is collected in barrels and drawn on
+sleds to the camp or place where it is to be
+boiled down. This is done in great pans called
+<i>evaporators</i>, which may be five or six feet wide,
+and fifteen feet long. They are divided into
+sections, and these are connected by means of
+little openings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>The sap flows into one end of the evaporator and
+follows a zigzag path through the different sections.
+By flowing slowly over so large a surface,
+evaporation goes on rapidly and the sap is changed
+to sirup by the time it has finished its journey.</p>
+
+<p>The sirup is put up in cans, or boiled down
+into sugar, which is molded into small cakes,
+and brings a high price.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p89.jpg" width="450" height="292" alt="Fig. 30.&mdash;Sap-yoke and Pails for gathering Sap." title="Sap-yoke and Pails for gathering Sap" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Sap-yoke and Pails for gathering Sap.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"Sugaring off," as the boiling down of the
+sap is called, is quite an event. Often a number
+of people will be invited to go to the sugarhouse
+and take part in the operation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>Before the modern evaporator came into use
+"sugaring off" always occurred at night. This
+was necessary, because during the day the sap
+buckets had to be attended to. The young people
+would sing songs, tell stories, and eat sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the "sugar bushes" contain but a
+few trees and some contain one or two thousand
+or even more. A tree will yield from one to six
+pounds of sugar during a season.</p>
+
+<p>Our country produces great quantities of
+sugar every year, but we use so much that we
+have to buy much more than we manufacture at
+home. It was not always in such common use,
+however, because people in olden times did not
+understand how to make it cheaply.</p>
+
+<p>Long, long ago sugar was used only as a
+medicine. Don't you wish that all medicine
+to-day was as good as sugar? About seven
+hundred years ago an Italian nobleman died and
+left to his relatives, among other things, <i>six
+pounds of sugar</i>. His will caused considerable
+comment among the people, who said that no
+one family should be allowed to have so much
+sugar in its possession.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+<h2>WHERE SALT COMES FROM</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Arab, journeying over the yellow sands,
+riding upon the back of his faithful "ship of
+the desert," often looks longingly for some
+sign of water to cool his parched lips. The
+sailor may ride upon the beautiful blue waters
+of the ocean in his white-winged ship; but
+although there is nothing but water to greet
+his eyes, he cannot drink it, for it is bitter
+to the taste.</p>
+
+<p>If you were to place a quantity of ocean
+water over a fire and evaporate it, there would
+remain a white substance. This is common
+salt. You see that it is as necessary to provide
+fresh water when one wishes to cross the
+ocean, as it is if one is going to cross the
+desert.</p>
+
+<p>Most streams and lakes contain <i>fresh</i> water,
+so you will wonder why the waters of the
+ocean are briny. The rocks and soil of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+earth contain salt, and the streams wash it
+from the land. Each one carries so little that
+we do not notice it, but they have worked so
+steadily and so long, that they have carried a
+great amount to the sea. None of it can escape,
+so the ocean gets more and more briny.</p>
+
+<p>No healthy person would ever think of eating
+salt alone as a food, and yet our food
+would taste very unsatisfactory without it.
+Farmers supply their cattle and horses with
+salt, and wild animals search for it in the
+forests, and lick it from the soil with their
+tongues.</p>
+
+<p>Salt is so important to us that I want to
+tell you about some of the ways in which
+men obtain it.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes sea water is placed in great vats
+and evaporated. This leaves the salt, which
+is then refined. You know that the sun's heat
+causes the waters of a shallow pond to evaporate
+during warm weather. Shallow basins are
+often scooped out along the coast, and the
+waters which fill them are then shut off from
+the larger body. In time the water evaporates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+and the salt, which has formed in thin
+layers, is collected.</p>
+
+<p>I said that most lakes are fresh-water
+bodies. There are some, however, that are
+<i>very</i> salty. Great Salt Lake is one of these.
+Streams flow into it, but none flows out. If
+you were to bathe in the waters of this lake,
+you would find that your body would not
+sink.</p>
+
+<p>I have seen great piles of glistening salt
+along the shore of Great Salt Lake which
+had been obtained by evaporation. A railroad
+runs beside the lake, and the salt is loaded
+upon the cars to be hauled away. When the
+people first settled in Utah, they used to drive
+to the lake in wagons to get a supply of salt.</p>
+
+<p>Although the ocean and a few lakes contain
+immense quantities of this useful article, we
+get most of our supply from other sources.</p>
+
+<p>In the western part of New York State, at
+some distance below the surface of the earth,
+there is a thick layer of salt. Wells are drilled
+down to this; water is pumped into them, and
+then pumped out again as brine. This brine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+is evaporated in large pans made of iron, two
+quarts of brine yielding about a pound of salt.</p>
+
+<p>In China salt has been obtained in this way
+for hundreds and even thousands of years.
+Though they had little machinery to work
+with in those days, yet by patient, steady
+effort, they drilled wells two thousand and even
+three thousand feet in depth. From twenty-five
+to forty years were required to drill some of
+these wells. Those who commenced them knew
+that they were not likely to enjoy the fruits
+of their labor and that others must get the
+benefit of what they did. What does this
+show about these people? What benefits are
+you receiving from what others have done?</p>
+
+<p>Salt is also mined as coal and iron are.
+This is called <i>rock salt</i>. It is obtained in
+Germany, Poland, Austria, India, the United
+States, and in many other countries.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting salt fields of
+the world is in the southeastern part of California.
+It is on the Colorado Desert, near the
+Colorado River. This was once a part of the
+ocean floor and the rocks contain much salt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+Water seeping through the earth dissolves the
+salt and brings it to the surface at this place.
+What happens to the water?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p95.jpg" width="450" height="296" alt="Fig. 31.&mdash;Harvesting Salt, Salton, California. Is there any Water in this Field?" title="Harvesting Salt" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;Harvesting Salt, Salton, California. Is there any Water in this Field?</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p97.jpg" width="450" height="351" alt="Fig. 32.&mdash;Loading Cars with Salt. Salton, California." title="Loading Cars with Salt" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;Loading Cars with Salt. Salton, California.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This salt field covers an area of about one
+thousand acres, to a depth of from one to eight
+inches. You can see by the picture that it looks
+more like a field of snow and ice than one of
+salt. The bright sunlight is reflected from its
+surface with such power that it hurts one's eyes.</p>
+
+<p>A great plow drawn by a steam engine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+moves over this dazzling field, and throws the
+salt up in furrows. It is then piled up, loaded
+on to cars, and taken to sheds, where it is purified.
+Indians and Japanese do most of the work.</p>
+
+<p>In order to purify the brines they are boiled
+in iron pans and treated in various ways to
+make them fit for table use. When evaporation
+is rapid, the salt crystals are quite small,
+but slower evaporation produces larger ones.
+Rock salt is dissolved in water and then evaporated.
+To get the finest of salt, the crystals
+must be ground. When salt is to be used for
+other purposes than to season food, not so much
+pains are taken. Name other uses of salt.</p>
+
+<p>In olden times, when salt was not so easily
+obtained as it is to-day, it was regarded in some
+countries as a luxury. This seems strange, does
+it not? At one time the Chinese made it into
+little cakes, stamped the image of the emperor
+upon it, and used it as money. In Arabia those
+who together ate food which had been salted,
+believed that this established a special bond of
+friendship between them. This led to the old
+saying, "There is salt between us."</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+<h2>MACARONI AND VERMICELLI</h2>
+
+
+<p>Have you ever wondered as you have looked
+at the hollow sticks of macaroni in the stores or
+as you have eaten them at the table, how they
+were made in that way, and what they were
+made of?</p>
+
+<p>In Italy macaroni is a very important article
+of food, and its use is rapidly increasing in our
+own country. For a long time it was not made
+outside of Italy, where the city of Genoa was
+the center of the industry. Locate this city.
+Do you know what great man was born there?
+Now macaroni and vermicelli are made in other
+countries. There are a few factories in the
+United States, but most of what we use still
+comes from Italy.</p>
+
+<p>In making these foods only the best hard
+wheat is used.</p>
+
+<p>After grinding the wheat, the bran is taken
+out and the flour is placed in a large wooden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+tub. Water is added, and the two are mixed by
+hand for a few minutes. In this tub a marble
+wheel about five feet in diameter and eighteen
+inches in thickness is fastened in an upright
+position. This wheel weighs about a ton.</p>
+
+<p>After the flour and water have been mixed,
+the wheel is set in motion by machinery, and it
+slowly circles around in the tub, pressing the
+dough under it.</p>
+
+<p>A man keeps walking in front of the wheel,
+moving the dough from the edges of the tub
+and placing it directly in the path of it. This
+work of pressing the flour into a paste continues
+for a little more than half an hour.</p>
+
+<p>The wheel is then stopped and the paste,
+which is quite stiff, is cut into cakes about a
+foot square and from one to three inches in
+thickness.</p>
+
+<p>These are put into an iron cylinder heated
+by steam. In the bottom of the cylinder is a
+copper plate filled with holes having the centers
+filled. A cover fitted to a great screw which
+turns by machinery is placed on top. This
+slowly, but steadily, presses the paste downward.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+It is thus forced through these openings, and of
+course comes out in the form of round, hollow
+pipes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p101.jpg" width="450" height="282" alt="Fig. 33.&mdash;Drying Macaroni in Italy." title="Drying Macaroni in Italy" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;Drying Macaroni in Italy.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As these pipes issue from the cylinder, they
+are straightened out on a wooden tray or platform,
+and with a large, sharp knife cut into
+lengths of about three feet. They are then
+taken to a drying room and spread on wire
+frames covered with oiled paper. Here they
+are left for about five days, after which they are
+placed in boxes and are ready to ship.</p>
+
+<p>The only difference between macaroni and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+vermicelli is that the pipes of vermicelli are
+very small and are not hollow.</p>
+
+<p>When vermicelli is wanted, two plates are
+placed on the bottom of the press. The under
+one is of iron and contains holes about one inch
+in diameter. The upper one is of copper and
+contains <i>groups</i> of very small openings. There
+are sometimes eighty of these openings in a
+group. When the plates are screwed together,
+the groups of small holes are directly above the
+larger openings.</p>
+
+<p>As the paste is pressed, it passes through the
+little holes and then issues from the larger ones;
+this keeps each little group of pipes somewhat
+apart from the others.</p>
+
+<p>Saffron is added to the paste to color it, and
+the great golden mass is quite a pretty sight as
+it steadily lengthens.</p>
+
+<p>The workman cuts off six or seven feet of it
+at a time; and holding it above his head with
+one hand, he shakes it out with the other, as one
+might shake the folds of a piece of silk. The
+pipes tangle up very little. They are cut into
+lengths of about eighteen inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>It is then taken to the drying room and
+spread out on the trays just as the macaroni is.
+A handful of the vermicelli is taken at a time,
+and by a peculiar twist of the arm it is placed
+on the paper in a form something like that of
+the letter <i>n</i>. After drying for five days it is
+packed and shipped.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ON A COFFEE PLANTATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>Juan and Lupe live in a beautiful valley
+where palm and banana trees wave their broad
+leaves in the breeze. It is never cold there, so
+that many kinds of plants and flowers grow
+out of doors which we do not see in our country
+except in greenhouses. On clear days they can
+see lofty mountains far to the westward, which
+sometimes wear caps of white.</p>
+
+<p>Juan is fourteen years old and Lupe is
+twelve. Their skin is much darker than yours,
+and they have bright black eyes and black hair.
+Their father owns a great coffee plantation in
+Brazil, not far from the city of Rio Janeiro.</p>
+
+<p>There are many men, women, and children
+employed on the plantation, and Juan and Lupe
+enjoy roaming about from place to place and
+watching them at their work.</p>
+
+<p>In the nursery they see men planting the
+coffee seeds in the rich soil. There are some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+plants that have just come up, and some that
+are ready to transplant. They are set out in
+rows, six or eight feet apart each way, and
+sometimes more.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p105.jpg" width="450" height="332" alt="Fig. 34.&mdash;A Coffee Nursery." title="A Coffee Nursery" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;A Coffee Nursery.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The trees would grow much taller than those
+you see in the picture, if they were not kept
+pruned. Do you know why they are prevented
+from growing tall? Whenever you look at a
+coffee plantation, you see the dark green foliage
+of the tree, which is an evergreen. Lupe is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+very fond of the blossoms. They are clear
+white and very fragrant.</p>
+
+<p>A tree will yield a small amount the second
+year after planting, but it will not produce a
+full crop for five or more years. Two pounds
+is a good average crop for a tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p106.jpg" width="450" height="336" alt="Fig. 35.&mdash;Picking Coffee." title="Picking Coffee" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Picking Coffee.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The children like to watch the pickers as
+they go from tree to tree. Many of them are
+about their own age. Some carry a sack slung
+over the shoulders, and others carry baskets or
+pails. The <i>berries</i> must be picked by hand, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+they do not all ripen at once. They are dark
+scarlet in color and look a little like cranberries.
+A good picker gathers about three bushels in a
+day. The pickers are given a check every time
+they fill a basket. Sometimes Juan tends to
+this work, and he enjoys it very much. At the
+end of each week the pickers are paid according
+to the number of checks they have.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p107.jpg" width="450" height="359" alt="Fig. 36.&mdash;Coffee Berries." title="Coffee Berries" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;Coffee Berries.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Within the berry are two kernels or seeds,
+with their flat sides together. These are called
+"coffee beans." It is these beans from which
+the drink is made.</p>
+
+<p>The picking is but a small part of the work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+of preparing coffee for the market. The first
+operation is removing the pulp. This used to
+be done by tramping on the berries, but now
+it is done in a better way.</p>
+
+<p>The berries are thrown into a large tank filled
+with water, which carries them through a pipe
+to the pulping machine. This machine removes
+the pulp and separates the beans.</p>
+
+<p>Next the beans are carried to a second tank,
+where they remain for about twenty-four hours,
+to wash off a sticky substance which covers the
+shell of the bean.</p>
+
+<p>If you have ever put beans or peas into a
+basin of water, you have noticed that nearly all
+of them sink, while a few float. These latter
+are the poor ones. This is the way in which
+the good and bad coffee beans are separated.
+A pipe carries off the seeds that float on the
+surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p>The beans are dried on cement floors upon
+which they are spread. This drying takes a
+long time. Before sunset each day the coffee
+must be carried under shelter, for the dew
+injures it. While they are drying, the workmen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+stir them. Sometimes artificial heat is used,
+but this is expensive. Juan's father has a
+watchman whose duty it is to guard the coffee
+at night, for it is very valuable.</p>
+
+<p>Each bean is covered by a strong shell, or
+hull, which has to be removed. The soaking
+has loosened this, and so it comes off easier
+than it otherwise would. Juan and Lupe often
+watch the wheels of the huller as they turn,
+moved by patient oxen.</p>
+
+<p>There are two wheels set upright over a
+circular box, into which the coffee is put.
+As it passes between the wheels and the bottom
+of the box, the hulls are removed.
+Underneath the hull is a thin skin, which is
+also taken off.</p>
+
+<p>In some countries people want the coffee
+dyed or colored. A bluish color is given to it
+by coating the wheels of the hulling machine
+with lead.</p>
+
+<p>The hulls are separated from the beans in
+a winnowing machine, and the coffee is then
+sorted. Often this is done by hand. The
+beans are spread out on a table, and girls and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+boys, and sometimes grown persons, sort it into
+several grades.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p110.jpg" width="450" height="340" alt="Fig. 37.&mdash;Sorting and sacking Coffee." title="Sorting and sacking Coffee" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;Sorting and sacking Coffee.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Juan's father has this work done by machinery.
+The coffee is put into a cylinder, in the
+bottom of which there are holes of different
+sizes by which it is graded.</p>
+
+<p>The last process is to sack the coffee and
+send it by railroad to Rio Janeiro. Of course
+it is neither roasted nor ground until it reaches
+its destination.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>We do not produce coffee in our country,
+but we are the greatest coffee drinkers in the
+world. A large part of our supply comes
+from Brazil. Trace the course of the ship
+from Rio Janeiro to New York. Juan has
+often done this, and his father has promised
+to take him with him sometime, when he goes
+with a cargo of coffee.</p>
+
+<p>You naturally think that coffee of different
+names must come from different countries, or
+at least from different trees. This is not
+always the case. Several brands may come
+from the same tree. The name depends partly
+upon the size and the general appearance of the
+beans.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee is a native of the far East, but it has
+gradually been transplanted to other countries,
+until it is now very extensively used. Brazil,
+Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, the
+Hawaiian Islands, Java, Ceylon, and Arabia
+are coffee-raising countries.</p>
+
+<p>In 1551 coffee found its way to the city of
+Constantinople; in 1652 it had reached London;
+and in 1720 it was planted in the West Indies.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+You see it worked its way westward rather
+slowly.</p>
+
+<p>Several hundred years ago, coffee was very
+expensive, so that only the rich could afford to
+use it. Instead of drinking it at home, people
+went to "coffeehouses," where it was served.
+To these "coffeehouses" men brought whatever
+news they had heard and told it to one another.
+In this way these places served about the same
+purpose that newspapers do now.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA</h2>
+
+
+<p>At the bottom of the teapot you will find
+some leaves. Spread one of them out carefully.
+You can see that it was once long and slender,
+a little like willow leaves. It may have grown
+in some garden in far-away China, for we get
+a great deal of tea from that country.</p>
+
+<p>I have told you how close together the people
+live on the fertile plains of eastern China.
+There is so little room that many live on boats
+on the rivers and in the harbors. On this
+account their farms are not so large as ours.</p>
+
+<p>The tea trees in the gardens are about five
+or six feet high. If they were allowed to, they
+would reach a height of twenty-five feet; but
+they are kept trimmed for the same reasons
+that the coffee trees are pruned.</p>
+
+<p>The trees are raised from seeds, and are
+generally planted on land which slopes toward
+the south. What advantage is this?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>In about three years after planting, the first
+crop of leaves can be gathered. In China they
+are usually gathered four times each year, and
+the trees continue to yield for twenty-five or
+thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>When the leaves are picked, they are full of
+sap or juice, and so have to be dried. The
+drying is usually done on trays made of bamboo.
+While they are drying, they are rubbed and
+rolled between the palms of the hands, so that
+they may dry more quickly and evenly.</p>
+
+<p>Next the leaves are placed, a few at a time,
+in iron pans over a charcoal fire. They are
+left in these but a short time, for they are hot.
+This process is called "firing." Sometimes
+the leaves are "fired" but once, and sometimes
+twice.</p>
+
+<p>The tea is then spread out, and broken bits of
+stems are removed. Some of the tea growers
+place the tea in baskets which are suspended
+over slow fires, for drying.</p>
+
+<p>If you were to look into some of the <i>tea-hongs</i>
+or houses where tea is cured and packed, you
+would find the tea dried in a very curious fashion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p115.jpg" width="450" height="353" alt="Fig. 38.&mdash;Picking Tea. &quot;Pinehurst,&quot; South Carolina." title="Picking Tea" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Picking Tea. &quot;Pinehurst,&quot; South Carolina.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In one of the rooms you would see several
+Chinamen rolling and tossing balls about with
+their bare feet. The balls are about the size of
+footballs and are partly filled with tea. Although
+it looks like play, it is hard work. As the balls
+are tossed about, the tea leaves are given their
+rounded or twisted appearance. From time to
+time the workers stop and tie the bags up more
+closely at the neck. This method is used in
+making <i>gunpowder tea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Black and green teas are not different varieties,
+but are produced by different methods of
+handling.</p>
+
+<p>In the great tea-hongs there are professional
+<i>tasters</i>,&mdash;that is, men who do nothing but
+sip tea from small cups, so as to grade it and
+fix its value. This is considered a very particular
+line of work and requires an educated
+taste.</p>
+
+<p>The ocean atmosphere has a bad effect on tea,
+so that the very finest grades are seldom sent
+across the sea. When tea is to be shipped by
+water, it is placed in boxes lined with a sort
+of sheet lead.   This protects the tea greatly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+Most of the tea sent to the United States lands
+at San Francisco. Why? How does it get to
+other parts of our country?</p>
+
+<p>Great quantities of tea are pressed into the
+form of bricks and sent over mountains and
+across deserts into Russia.</p>
+
+<p>This is called "brick tea." The Russians
+are great tea drinkers, and whenever any one
+calls in Russia, tea is served. They call their
+teapot a <i>samovar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Better tea is obtained from Ceylon and India
+than from China. In these countries Europeans
+have charge of most of the tea farms, and they
+have carefully studied the cultivation and handling
+of tea.</p>
+
+<p>There is a little tea raised in our own country
+in the state of South Carolina. It is very fine
+in quality and people are willing to pay a high
+price for it. Some of it has been sold for five
+dollars a pound.</p>
+
+<p>When tea was first brought into Europe, it was
+regarded as a great luxury, just as coffee was.
+People paid as much as fifty dollars a pound for
+it. It is said that some of the tea raised to-day<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+for the royal family of China, is worth a hundred
+dollars a pound.</p>
+
+<p>Many people in this country do not enjoy a
+cup of tea unless they have milk and sugar in
+it. The Chinese do not use either in their tea.
+In Russia it is quite common to draw the tea
+through a lump of sugar held between the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>You know that tea parties are very common.
+The most celebrated tea party ever held was
+called the "Boston Tea Party." See what you
+can find out about it.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A CUP OF COCOA</h2>
+
+
+<p>On the eighteenth day of June, in the year
+1771, this notice appeared in the <i>Essex Gazette</i>
+of Massachusetts:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">"AMOS TRASK,<br /><br />
+
+At his House a little below the Bell-Tavern in<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Danvers</span>,</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Makes and sells Chocolate,
+which he will warrant to be good, and takes
+Cocoa to grind. Those who may please to
+favor him with their Custom may depend
+upon being well served, and at a very cheap
+Rate."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This seems to have been the first notice of the
+manufacture and sale of cocoa and chocolate in
+our country. What is peculiar about the notice?</p>
+
+<p>In those days the raw product was brought
+to Massachusetts by the Gloucester fishermen.
+They obtained it in the West Indies in exchange<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+for fish and other things which they
+took there.</p>
+
+<p>When the Spanish soldier, Cortez, conquered
+Mexico in 1519, he found that the people of
+that country were very fond of a drink which
+they called "chocolatl." It was served to their
+ruler, Montezuma, in a cup of gold. When the
+Spaniards went home, they of course introduced
+the drink into their own country. For a long
+time it was very expensive and was not commonly
+used outside of Spain, for the Spaniards
+kept the secret of its preparation.</p>
+
+<p>Cocoa and chocolate are products of the seeds
+of a tree called the cacao tree. It is a tropical
+tree and grows in both the Old and the
+New World.</p>
+
+<p>Although the cacao tree grows wild, it is also
+cultivated in orchards much like fruit orchards
+which you have seen. The trees are seldom
+more than twenty feet high, but they are rather
+inclined to spread out. They require some
+shade, and so other trees are often planted
+between the rows to shade them. The trees
+begin to bear when five or six years old, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+continue to yield for forty years. There are
+generally two chief harvests each year, but the
+fruit is ripening all of the time.</p>
+
+<p>The blossoms, which grow in clusters, are
+small and pink or yellow in color. They grow
+directly from the branches or the trunk of the
+tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p122.jpg" width="450" height="342" alt="Fig. 39.&mdash;Cocoa Pods and Leaves.
+
+(Permission of Walter Baker &amp; Co., Ltd.)" title="Cocoa Pods and Leaves" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;Cocoa Pods and Leaves.<br />
+
+(Permission of <span class="smcap">Walter Baker</span> &amp; Co., Ltd.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In about four months after the tree has
+blossomed, you will find dark yellow or brown
+pods hanging from it. These look a little like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+ripe cucumbers, but they are more pointed at
+one end and are grooved or fluted. These pods
+are from six inches to a foot or more in length,
+with a rather thick, tough rind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p123.jpg" width="450" height="333" alt="Fig. 40.&mdash;Native Cocoa Pickers. Ceylon.
+(Permission of Walter Baker &amp; Co., Ltd.)" title="Native Cocoa Pickers. Ceylon" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Native Cocoa Pickers. Ceylon.<br />
+(Permission of <span class="smcap">Walter Baker</span> &amp; Co., Ltd.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>How do you think the pods are gathered?
+They are cut off by men carrying long poles,
+sometimes of bamboo, to the ends of which
+knives are fastened. Only the ripe pods are
+cut off and collected in a heap under the tree.
+They are left in these heaps for about twenty-four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+hours, when they are cut open and the
+seeds are gathered in baskets.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds are called "beans." There are five
+rows of them, about the size of almonds, within
+the pink pulp of the fruit. When fresh they
+are white, but when dried they are brown. If
+you taste one, you will find it bitter.</p>
+
+<p>You have often seen on packages of chocolate,
+as well as on the cans of breakfast cocoa, the
+picture of a young woman carrying some chocolate
+upon a tray. It is the picture of a beautiful
+girl who once served chocolate in the old
+city of Vienna. Her name was Anette Baldauff,
+and she married a rich count and "lived
+happily ever after." It is said that a painting
+of her hangs upon the walls of the great art
+gallery in Dresden. Point out the cities I have
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds are carried from the orchard to the
+sheds, where they are prepared for market. Here
+they go through a process of fermentation or
+"sweating." For this purpose they are placed
+in a covered box, or they may even be covered
+with earth. This is called "claying." Now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+the seeds must be dried. They are spread out
+on platforms, raised a little above the ground,
+so that the air can circulate underneath. You
+notice that the roofs do not cover them just
+now, for their only purpose is to keep off the
+dew and the rain. They are fastened to frames
+which have wheels under them. During the
+day they are not used, but at night they are
+rolled over the cocoa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p125.jpg" width="450" height="333" alt="Fig. 41.&mdash;Drying Cocoa Seed. Ceylon.
+
+(Permission of Walter Baker &amp; Co., Ltd.)" title="Drying Cocoa Seed. Ceylon" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41.&mdash;Drying Cocoa Seed. Ceylon.<br />
+
+(Permission of <span class="smcap">Walter Baker</span> &amp; Co., Ltd.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cocoa is stirred by workmen using long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+shovels or rakes, so that it may dry quickly and
+evenly. Once a day the beans are shoveled into
+heaps and the workmen tread upon them with
+their bare feet, as you see. This is called
+"dancing the cocoa."</p>
+
+<p>After the seeds have dried for about two
+weeks they are nearly the color of red bricks.
+They are put up for shipment in canvas sacks
+holding one hundred and fifty pounds each.
+The name of the plantation is usually stamped
+upon the outside. Guayaquil exports more
+cocoa than any other city. Find it. A great
+deal comes from the island of Trinidad, and from
+the northern part of South America.</p>
+
+<p>When the "beans" have reached their destination,
+they must be cleaned, to rid them of dust
+and dirt collected on the way. They are then
+placed in a great revolving cylinder and roasted.
+You remember that when coffee is roasted it
+brings out a pleasant odor called its <i>aroma</i>.
+The same is true of cocoa. The roasting also
+helps to loosen a shell which surrounds the
+seed. The shell is next removed and the
+"beans" are then crushed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>The Mexicans used to crush the seeds on a
+large stone, hollowed out on top. This they
+called a "matate."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p127.jpg" width="450" height="349" alt="Fig. 42.&mdash;Grinding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of Walter Baker &amp; Co., Ltd.)" title="Grinding Cocoa" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Grinding Cocoa.<br />
+
+(Permission of <span class="smcap">Walter Baker</span> &amp; Co., Ltd.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The crushing is now   done   by machinery.
+The broken bits of the cocoa are called "cocoa
+nibs." When the cocoa is ground to a powder,
+it is put into strong bags and pressed. This
+pressure removes a part of an oily substance
+known as "cocoa butter." Remember, then, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+cocoa is the meal or flour made from the crushed
+seeds from which some of the oil has been removed.
+Chocolate differs from cocoa in that
+none of this oil is removed in making it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p128.jpg" width="450" height="363" alt="Fig. 43.&mdash;Moulding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of Walter Baker &amp; Co., Ltd.)" title="Moulding Cocoa" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Moulding Cocoa.<br />
+
+(Permission of <span class="smcap">Walter Baker</span> &amp; Co., Ltd.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>You have often seen the words "sweet chocolate"
+on the labels. This is made by adding a
+quantity of pulverized sugar to the "plain" or
+"bitter" chocolate. Sometimes vanilla beans
+are added.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p129.jpg" width="450" height="316" alt="Fig. 44.&mdash;Cooling Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of Walter Baker &amp; Co., Ltd.)" title="Cooling Cocoa" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Cooling Cocoa.<br />
+
+(Permission of <span class="smcap">Walter Baker</span> &amp; Co., Ltd.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>The pasty mass known as chocolate must be
+molded. When the proper amount has been
+placed in each of several metal molds which
+rest on a table, they are made to rock or shake,
+and this causes the chocolate to assume the
+right shape. The molds are then taken to the
+cooling room, where they are placed on frames,
+one above another, in long rows. Girls and
+women wrap the cakes of chocolate in the wrappers
+specially prepared for them, after which
+they are packed in boxes ready for shipment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>At Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the Neponset
+River, is situated the largest establishment
+for the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate in
+America. It is interesting to know that on the
+very spot where these great mills now stand,
+was built, in 1765, the first one of the kind in
+this country.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A CRANBERRY BOG</h2>
+
+
+<div class="signature">
+<span class="smcap">Wareham, Massachusetts</span>, Dec. 10, 1901.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Frank</span>: How surprised you will be to
+learn that I am now a country boy. We left
+Boston early last spring, and came out here to
+go into the business of cranberry raising. It
+seemed very strange at first to travel along
+country roads, or through woods and fields,
+instead of upon the cement walks of our city
+streets, but we all think the country delightful.</p>
+
+<p>A cranberry farm is a marsh or a bog, so
+you will see that the vines need a great deal
+of water. There are both wild and cultivated
+bogs. Those that are cultivated are provided
+with a system of ditches, so that they can be
+flooded from time to time. It is a good deal
+like irrigation in Southern California, I suppose.
+We flood the bogs to prevent the berries from
+freezing, as well as to furnish the vines with
+water. I will tell you more about that by
+and by.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>Father wanted a larger bog than the one he
+first bought, so, soon after we came, he got
+another small piece of marsh land which joins
+it on the west, and started vines on it.</p>
+
+<p>You know that willows, rosebushes, grapevines,
+and many other plants will grow from
+<i>cuttings</i>. It is the same with cranberry vines.
+The lower end of each cutting is pressed into
+the soil, and it soon begins to grow. They are
+set in rows about fourteen inches apart. One
+of our neighbors, who was starting a bog at
+the same time, cut the vines into pieces an
+inch or two long, and scattered them over the
+ground. He then harrowed them in. The
+vines multiply just as strawberry plants do, by
+putting out <i>runners</i>.</p>
+
+<p>They tell us that our new bog will produce
+a crop in three years. Do you have to wait
+that long for a crop of oranges?</p>
+
+<p>By the middle of June our bog was in full
+blossom. The flowers are quite small and their
+color is a little like that of the flesh. I read
+an interesting thing about them the other day.
+It seems that the berries used to be called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+"craneberries," because people thought that the
+blossoms, just before they opened fully, "resembled
+the neck, head, and bill of a crane."
+By dropping the <i>e</i>, we got the present name.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 413px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p133.jpg" width="413" height="450" alt="Fig. 45.&mdash;A Cranberry Bog. Showing the Young Vines." title="Cranberry Bog" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;A Cranberry Bog. Showing the Young Vines.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>During our harvest time, which lasted from
+the middle of September to the last of October,
+we were very busy. We did not commence to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+go to school until the berries were picked. You
+see, frost may occur and spoil the crop, so that
+everybody works as fast as possible until the
+harvest is over. Father had about twenty
+pickers some of the time, besides our own
+family.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p134.jpg" width="450" height="334" alt="Fig. 46.&mdash;Cranberry Pickers at Work. Notice how the Bog is
+divided into Rows by Means of Cords." title="Cranberry Pickers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Cranberry Pickers at Work. Notice how the Bog is
+divided into Rows by Means of Cords.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When we were ready to begin picking,
+father took some twine and stretched it back
+and forth across the bog, fastening it to small
+stakes. This divided the field into rows. Each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+picker was given a row, and he was not allowed
+to change until it was finished.</p>
+
+<p>At first it seemed great fun to get down on
+the ground and strip off the bright berries, but
+when one does this day after day it gets pretty
+tiresome. It must be easy to pick oranges,
+because you can stand up while you work.</p>
+
+<p>Father paid the pickers twelve cents a pail.
+It takes about three pailfuls to make a bushel.
+I averaged about one dollar and a half each
+day. I bought a suit of clothes and all of my
+books for the year, and have considerable
+money left. Some of the pickers who were
+quite small did not earn very much. Do you
+recognize Jennie? She worked a part of
+every day.</p>
+
+<p>Twice during the picking season there was a
+sharp frost, but we saved the crop.</p>
+
+<p>The government sends out a Weather Map
+every day. Our teacher gets one, and there is
+one tacked up in the post office every morning.
+These maps tell what kind of weather to expect,
+and father watches them closely. When he
+saw that frost was likely to occur, he and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+men opened the gates which hold back the
+water, in order to flood the part of the bog
+where we had not picked. The vines were
+buried nearly two feet beneath the surface of
+the water. Father says the water cools so
+slowly that its temperature is much above that
+of the surface of the ground or the air near it,
+so the berries do not get frost-bitten. Soon
+after sunrise the water was drawn off, and the
+next day the bog was dry enough for the pickers
+to work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p136.jpg" width="450" height="324" alt="Fig. 47.&mdash;A Young Worker. Notice how the Berries are picked." title="A Young Worker" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47.&mdash;A Young Worker. Notice how the Berries are picked.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>I wonder if the Weather Bureau is of any
+use to farmers in California. I know that the
+sailors watch for the flags which tell when
+storms are coming, that they may not go to
+sea if a violent
+storm is expected.
+Father
+says very many
+lives and much
+property are
+saved every year
+in this way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 296px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p137.jpg" width="296" height="400" alt="Fig. 48.&mdash;Winnowing and Barreling
+Cranberries." title="Winnowing and Barreling
+Cranberries" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48.&mdash;Winnowing and Barreling
+Cranberries.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have not told
+you what we do
+with the cranberries
+after they
+are picked. Of
+course we cannot
+help gathering
+some leaves and twigs with the berries, and these
+must be taken out. For this purpose the berries
+are put into a winnowing machine. I will send
+you a picture of one. As the man turns the
+crank, wooden fans within turn rapidly, blowing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+out the leaves, twigs, and dirt. The berries drop
+through a screen and run out of a spout into
+a barrel, as you see. We then put them into
+crates or barrels for sale. Father tells me that
+cranberries are shipped from our country to
+Europe, because those raised here are much
+better than the European berries.</p>
+
+<p>There are great quantities of cranberries
+raised in this part of Massachusetts. I have
+been reading lately that they are produced in
+New Jersey, on Long Island, in Michigan, Wisconsin,
+Minnesota, Canada, and some other sections.
+From what I have read, I guess they
+are not raised in Southern California. Wouldn't
+it seem strange if you were to eat berries raised
+on our bog, three thousand miles away?</p>
+
+<p>Now I want you to tell me about the orange
+groves of Southern California, for none of us
+have ever seen an orange growing.</p>
+
+<p>I wish you all a very "Merry Christmas"
+and a "Happy New Year."</p>
+
+<div class="signature">Your loving friend,<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Will</span>.
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC</h2>
+
+
+<p>Imagine yourself on a great ocean steamship,
+gliding over the blue water of the Pacific Ocean
+toward the Samoan Islands. Among the first
+things that you will see as you near the shores
+of these islands will be tall, slender, graceful
+trees, rising without a branch to a height of
+thirty to eighty feet. At the top is a sort
+of crown, composed of long, drooping leaves.
+These beautiful trees lean out over the water
+and toss their leaves in the strong and steady
+breeze from the ocean. They seem to nod a
+friendly greeting to you as you approach, and
+to wave a loving farewell to you as you sail
+away. These trees are the cocoanut palms.
+They grow on all of the tropical islands of
+the Pacific Ocean, in the West Indies, and
+along the shores of most warm countries, but
+never far from the sea.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>When the cocoanut falls into the water, it
+is rocked and tossed by the waves and drifted
+about by the currents, but it is safe within
+its shell, for the salt water cannot penetrate
+this. When it finally comes to rest upon some
+strange shore, it is ready to give to the world
+another cocoanut palm, if the climate is like
+that from which it sailed. In this way nature
+has helped the trees to become widely distributed.</p>
+
+<p>There are cocoanut plantations as well as
+wild groves of the trees. When a plantation is
+to be established, the planter selects the ripest
+nuts and dries them for several weeks. They
+are then planted, and by and by a little
+palm springs from the small end of the nut
+and the roots from the large end. When the
+young trees are from six months to two years
+old, they are transplanted in rows thirty or
+forty feet apart. They begin to bear nuts in
+about five years, but they do not yield a full
+crop for fifteen or twenty years. Do you think
+that a poor man could afford to go into the
+business of cocoanut raising?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 340px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p141.jpg" width="340" height="450" alt="Fig. 49.&mdash;A Cocoanut Grove." title="A Cocoanut Grove" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49.&mdash;A Cocoanut Grove.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As you see in the picture, cocoanuts grow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">&nbsp;</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">&nbsp;</a></span>
+in clusters. You notice also that they grow
+close to the stem instead of at the ends of the
+branches. They do not all ripen at once, but
+nuts may be picked at almost any time. A
+tree will produce from fifty to one hundred
+nuts each year. If you were to go into an
+apple, a peach, or a cherry orchard, you could
+easily pick the ripe fruit. Gathering cocoanuts
+is quite a different matter, however. Let us
+observe this shiny-skinned Samoan boy and see
+how he picks them. He fastens a short piece
+of rope in the form of a loop to each foot.
+Letting one of the loops catch on a rough
+place on the bark of the tree he places the
+hollow of his foot against it, clasps the trunk
+with his hands, and raises himself a little.
+Then the other loop is fastened a little higher
+up, and he raises himself again. In this way
+he finally reaches the nuts. With a knife he
+cuts off the ripe ones, which fall to the ground
+and are then piled up. They are then placed
+in baskets which are hung from a pole and
+carried on the shoulders of two men or are
+loaded on to donkeys and taken to the shed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>The ripe cocoanut is a valuable article of
+food just as it is picked from the tree. It
+contains also a milk which is a nourishing
+drink. Most of the cocoanut sent to other
+countries, however, is in a form known as <i>copra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the shed the hard shell, which covers the
+meat, is split open by means of an ax. The
+meat is removed with a knife and is then
+spread out on mats to dry. This dried cocoanut
+is copra.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of these cocoanut islands live
+in a much more simple style than we do, and the
+cocoanut tree supplies many of the things that
+they use daily.</p>
+
+<p>Let us examine the home of a native Samoan.
+The frame and posts of the house are made of
+the slender trunks of the cocoanut palm, while
+the roof is covered with its leaves instead of with
+shingles. The cups, bowls, dippers, and many
+other household utensils are made of the shells.
+If a whole shell is wanted, the "eyes" are
+pushed in, the milk is used, and ants are allowed
+to eat the meat. These make excellent water
+bottles. Baskets, curtains, and twine, are made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+from the fiber of the leaves, and the bark is used
+for fuel.</p>
+
+<p>From the copra an oil is pressed which is used
+in the manufacture of soap. It makes a perfectly
+white soap that will float on the water. It is
+also used to furnish light, and the people rub it
+on their bodies to prevent sunburn. The sap
+of the tree is made into sugar, vinegar, and
+a liquor.</p>
+
+<p>While in our country the cocoanut is important
+chiefly to bakers and confectioners, in these
+far-away islands it is the most useful of plants,
+and one of the chief articles of food. Would
+you not like to visit the cocoanut islands and
+learn more of their interesting people?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A BUNCH OF BANANAS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Every day, as you walk along the streets you
+see great bunches of bananas hanging in front of
+fruit and grocery stores. You find them at the
+corner fruit stand, and peddlers carry them from
+house to house.</p>
+
+<p>Although bananas are so common now and so
+cheap that all can afford to eat them, this was not
+so when your grandparents were children. In
+those days the fruit was regarded as quite a
+luxury, for there were few people engaged in
+carrying it from its tropical home to the cities of
+our country. Now many small but swift ships,
+called "fruiters," carry on this business. They
+get their cargoes of fruit in the West Indies or
+Central America, and within a week after sailing
+they are unloading at New Orleans, Baltimore,
+New York, or Boston. If the number of
+bananas which reach our country each year were
+equally distributed, each person would receive
+twenty-five.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 295px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p147.jpg" width="295" height="450" alt="Fig. 50.&mdash;A Banana Tree." title="A Banana Tree" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;A Banana Tree.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>Let us get aboard that wonderful train upon
+which all may travel free of cost, which runs
+equally well upon land and water. We step off
+right in the center of a banana plantation on the
+island of Jamaica.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>Yes, these are banana trees all about you.
+See how long and broad the leaves are and
+how gracefully they droop! Some of them are
+ten or fifteen feet long; almost as long as the
+trees are tall. The trees, you see, are simply
+stalks from which the leaves unroll. Here you
+can see some just starting out. They are rolls
+of bright green, pointing upward, each starting
+from the center of the stalk. No, the leaves
+were not torn in that way by the pickers. The
+wind sometimes whips them into ribbons, for
+they are very tender.</p>
+
+<p>These stalks growing from the base of the
+main stem are called "suckers" here; in Costa
+Rica they are called "bits." You remember
+that there are no seeds in bananas. It is
+these "suckers" that are planted when a
+farmer wants to start a plantation. They are
+set out when two or three feet high and within
+a year they bear fruit. What did I tell you
+about the length of time required for the
+cocoanut to bear?</p>
+
+<p>It is but four years since the trees in this
+plantation were single "suckers," standing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+about fifteen feet apart. Now there are several
+stalks grouped about each parent plant,
+and the beautiful leaves, touching overhead,
+form shaded aisles of green.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p149.jpg" width="450" height="334" alt="Fig. 51.&mdash;A Banana Plantation." title="A Banana Plantation" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;A Banana Plantation.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of course a great number of "suckers" are
+not allowed to grow together. Keeping these
+cut down is called "cleaning the plantation."</p>
+
+<p>Now let us examine the fruit on this tree
+beside us. You see that the great cluster or
+bunch is made up of smaller bunches. These
+are called "hands," and each banana is spoken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+of as a "finger." Let us count the "hands" in
+this bunch. This is an unusually large one,
+for it contains thirteen. Nine "hands" make
+a <i>full bunch</i>. As you see, there are from ten
+to twenty "fingers" in a "hand." Buyers will
+seldom take bunches of less than six "hands."</p>
+
+<p>Here come the fruit cutters to help get a
+cargo for the "fruiter" we saw at anchor.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, the bananas are green, I know, and
+they are always green when gathered. They
+will ripen in the storehouses when they reach
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>No, it is not a waste to cut down the stalks,
+for they die after bearing their fruit, and the
+smaller stalks about them will soon yield.
+Some of these stalks, you see, have but one
+bunch and some have two or three. How odd
+the bunches look with the "fingers" all pointing
+upward!</p>
+
+<p>The banana leaves which the men are wrapping
+about the bunches are to protect the
+fruit. It bruises very easily and great quantities
+are lost on this account. They are not
+always wrapped, however.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>When the fruit reaches the vessel, it is
+carefully inspected; and if not in just the right
+condition, it is refused. The bunches which
+are accepted, are taken into the hold of the
+ship and packed closely together. The planter
+receives for these from ten to thirty-five cents
+a bunch. Just think of buying eight or nine
+dozen of bananas for ten cents!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p151.jpg" width="450" height="360" alt="Fig. 52.&mdash;Loading a Small Boat with Bananas to be taken to the
+&quot;Fruiter&quot; in the Harbor." title="Loading a Small Boat with Bananas" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52.&mdash;Loading a Small Boat with Bananas to be taken to the
+&quot;Fruiter&quot; in the Harbor.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The men will not stop work until the ship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+is loaded. It may take twenty-four hours,
+and it may take twice that long, for a "fruiter"
+will carry from fifteen to twenty thousand
+bunches of fruit.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of Central America, where
+there are no harbors, the planters float the
+fruit down the streams in canoes. The vessels
+anchor at some distance from the shore, and
+the bananas are taken out in boats called
+<i>dories</i>. They are hoisted up to the deck of
+the ship by means of pulleys, and then packed
+in the hold. The thousands of bunches which
+are bruised in handling are thrown into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>While the northern ports get most of their
+supply of bananas from the West Indies, the
+Pacific coast states are supplied from Central
+America. The "fruiters" unload at New
+Orleans into trains, which carry the fruit to
+Los Angeles, San Francisco, and other places.
+Banana trains also run from New Orleans to
+St. Louis, Chicago, and other parts of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The fruit ships have great pipes or ventilators,
+which carry the cool, fresh air from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+sea down into the hold. Sometimes when they
+reach port it is so cold that the bananas cannot
+be taken out for a few days. Wagons are
+loaded with the fruit at the wharves, and it
+is taken to warehouses where it gradually turns
+yellow.    I am sure you have seen loads of the
+green fruit on the streets.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p153.jpg" width="450" height="295" alt="Fig. 53.&mdash;A &quot;Fruiter&quot; taking a Cargo of Bananas." title="A &quot;Fruiter&quot; taking a Cargo of Bananas" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;A &quot;Fruiter&quot; taking a Cargo of Bananas.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the wholesale merchant sells the fruit,
+he often incloses each bunch in the rough
+material of which gunny sacks are made, and
+then puts a light, circular frame, made of strips
+of wood, over it.    This, you see, protects the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+bananas. The grocer or fruit man takes hold
+of the frame without danger of mashing the
+fruit, lifts the bunch, and hangs it upon a hook.
+The frame and sacking are then removed.</p>
+
+<p>Bananas grow in the tropical parts of Asia
+and Africa and on many of the islands of the
+Pacific Ocean. They are also raised in Florida,
+and they ripen in sheltered places in Southern
+California.</p>
+
+<p>You have seen both yellow and red bananas.
+The red ones usually bring the higher price,
+but they do not keep well and are not so
+extensively raised as the yellow ones.</p>
+
+<p>The banana is an important article of food.
+It is much more nourishing than potatoes or
+even good, white bread. A flour or meal can
+be made from the fruit by drying it and then
+grinding.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+<h2>HOW DATES GROW</h2>
+
+
+<p>Three thousand years before the shepherds
+followed the star to the manger at Bethlehem,
+the beautiful date palm was cultivated beside
+the banks of the Euphrates and the Nile rivers.
+The date was the bread of the people who
+lived in these fertile valleys, and it is an important
+article of food in northern Africa,
+Arabia, and Persia to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Look at a map of northern Africa, and you
+will see that the great Sahara covers a large
+part of it. Here and there across the drifting
+sands wind caravan routes, traveled by camels
+ridden by strangely dressed men. These routes
+lead to beautiful garden spots called <i>oases</i>.
+Here are wells and springs, with little streams
+flowing in the shade of fig, date palm, and
+other trees. The people who dwell within
+these groves beside the cooling waters look
+out upon the desert as the inhabitants of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+island might look upon the boundless sea.
+Find some of these oases and learn why they
+are fertile. The people who live in these
+oases depend upon dates for their living. The
+dreary journey from the coast to the interior
+is made to procure quantities of this fruit,
+which are wanted by the outside world.</p>
+
+<p>If you were to make a journey in a desert
+country, you would find that you could not
+carry such articles of food as you would have
+if you remained at home. The sunshine beats
+down fiercely, the springs and wells are far
+apart, and the patient animals must not be
+overloaded. The chief article of food carried
+is the date. A mass is packed together until
+it is so hard that pieces are chopped off with
+a hatchet when they are wanted.</p>
+
+<p>Like the cocoanut palm, the date palm rises
+to a great height, sometimes fifty or sixty feet,
+without branches. It ends in a crown of beautiful
+feathery leaves which droop downward.
+These leaves may be ten or fifteen feet long.
+Many of them stand edgewise. Unlike most
+trees, the trunk does not steadily increase in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">&nbsp;</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">&nbsp;</a></span>
+size, and you can tell nothing as to the age of
+the tree by its diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p157.jpg" width="450" height="685" alt="Fig. 54.&mdash;Date Palms loaded with Ripe Fruit, Biskra, Algeria.
+(Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1900.)" title="Date Palms loaded with Ripe Fruit" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Date Palms loaded with Ripe Fruit, Biskra, Algeria.
+(Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1900.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In its wild state many shoots spring from
+the base of the tree. These may grow as high
+as the parent stalk, so that in time a jungle or
+thicket is formed.</p>
+
+<p>The flowers, which are clear white, grow in
+clusters. There are from six to twenty of these
+clusters on a tree, each of which produces a
+bunch of dates. The female tree bears the
+fruit. The blossoms are pollinated both by the
+wind and by man.</p>
+
+<p>There are from ten to fifteen pounds of dates
+in a bunch. A tree will average from one hundred
+to two hundred pounds each year, although
+trees have been known to yield six hundred
+pounds. The trees yield when from four to
+eight years old, and continue to bear for a
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The dates, green at first, later in the year a
+yellowish brown, are, when ripe, amber or black
+in color.</p>
+
+<p>The trees require a very dry, hot climate, but
+moist soil.    Long, long ago, this saying was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+common among the Arabs, "The date palm,
+the queen of trees, must have her feet in running
+water and her head in the burning sky."</p>
+
+<p>Although there are lovely date palm trees on
+the grounds of many California homes, few of
+them bear fruit. The temperature must average
+from eighty to ninety degrees for a considerable
+time in the summer, in order to mature
+it. What is the average summer temperature
+in your locality?</p>
+
+<p>If an ordinary tree is frost-bitten, it recovers
+and soon puts out a new growth; but if the
+crown of the date palm be frozen, the tree dies.</p>
+
+<p>When the Moors went to Spain, in the
+eleventh century, they introduced this valuable
+tree which the mission fathers several hundred
+years later brought to Mexico and to Southern
+California.</p>
+
+<p>How would you like to try to climb a date
+palm tree? Although they look so smooth
+and are without branches, the natives of the
+desert climb them without any help whatever.
+The trunk is always somewhat rough, and this
+makes it possible to ascend them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 338px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p161.jpg" width="338" height="450" alt="Fig. 55.&mdash;Date Palm Trees." title="Date Palm Trees" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55.&mdash;Date Palm Trees.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>Not all of the dates in a bunch ripen at once,
+so they are usually picked by hand and only
+the ripe ones selected. Sometimes, however, the
+bunches are cut off. Some dates contain so
+much sap that the bunches must be hung up
+to allow it to drain off before they can be
+shipped. This sap is called <i>date honey</i>, and is
+saved. They are sent to the coast towns in
+bags or boxes called <i>frails</i>. Where dates
+are to be sold in small quantities, they are
+repacked in the small boxes such as you have
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>You know that dates are very sweet, and it
+is no wonder that they are, for they contain
+from fifty-five to sixty per cent of sugar.</p>
+
+<p>The trees are often tapped, and the sap which
+flows out is made into sugar. Vinegar and a
+liquor called <i>arrack</i> are also made from it.
+The leaves of the tree are made into bags and
+mats; from the stones a drink is made which
+takes the place of coffee. From the leafstalks
+baskets are made, while the trunk furnishes
+material for houses and for fences.</p>
+
+<p>If the dates could speak, they could tell us<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+many wonderful stories of the far East, of the
+river boats on the Nile, of the drifting sands
+which come so close to the river's banks, of
+the caravans creeping over the desert toward
+the green oases and then fading out of sight,
+bearing loads of this food to the countries
+where it is not produced.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA</h2>
+
+
+<div class="signature">
+<span class="smcap">Pasadena, California</span>, Jan. 4, 1902.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Friend Will</span>: I was very glad to
+receive your letter, and much surprised to know
+that you are living on a farm. I am glad that
+you described the raising of cranberries, for I
+did not know much about it before. When I
+told my teacher about getting the letter, she
+asked me to read it in the geography class
+and to show the pictures. I asked our grocery-man
+where he gets his cranberries, and found
+that some of them came from Wareham.</p>
+
+<p>You are having cold weather now, I know.
+Is the skating good? I have not seen ice as
+thick as window glass since we came to California,
+except that delivered by the iceman.
+Just now there is a beautiful covering of snow
+on the mountains a few miles north and east
+of town.    Just think of picking roses and callas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+with snow in plain sight! The snow never
+remains more than a day or two on these
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after we came to Pasadena, father
+bought an orange grove of twenty-five acres.
+We are picking the fruit now. People began
+to pick oranges several weeks ago, and the
+work will continue all winter.</p>
+
+<p>Orange trees are planted about twenty feet
+apart, but the groves do not look as apple
+orchards do in the East, for no grass is allowed
+to grow in them.</p>
+
+<p>The best orange section is east of here, near
+Redlands and Riverside, but some good fruit is
+raised near Pasadena also.</p>
+
+<p>Father keeps our trees pruned down rather
+low, so that it is easier to pick the oranges
+than it would be if they were allowed to grow
+very tall.</p>
+
+<p>Orange raising is like cranberry growing in
+one way&mdash;the land must be irrigated in each
+case. Here the water is piped from the mountain
+streams and from tunnels. We form
+basins about ten feet square around each tree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+and fill them with water. Most of our irrigating
+is done during the summer, as the winter
+is our rainy season. <i>You</i> would not call it a
+very rainy time. Our average is about twenty
+inches for the whole year.</p>
+
+<p>The trees in our grove have been set out
+about six years, and they are bearing nicely
+now. Orange trees begin to bear when they
+are four years old; so, you see, we have to wait
+a little longer for a crop than you do for a crop
+of cranberries. It costs a good deal to start an
+orange grove. Trees cost from one dollar to
+one and one-half dollars each at the nurseries.
+A few years ago they sold for twenty cents each.</p>
+
+<p>I wish that you could see the trees when
+they are in full blossom, and also when they
+are loaded with the golden fruit. I am going
+to put some orange blossoms into the envelope,
+but I am afraid they will not reach you in very
+good condition. They are very fragrant, and
+you can smell their perfume some distance from
+a tree in blossom.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we picked about two hundred and fifty
+boxes of oranges. We always speak of <i>picking</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+them, although they are not picked, but cut.
+You see, if they were picked off, the part where
+the stem pulled off would soon begin to decay.</p>
+
+<p>We take a wagon load of fruit boxes, and,
+while father drives slowly between the rows
+of trees, I throw them off.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p168.jpg" width="450" height="255" alt="Fig. 56.&mdash;Picking Oranges in California." title="Picking Oranges" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;Picking Oranges in California.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Each picker carries a sack slung over one
+shoulder, and as fast as he cuts off an orange,
+he drops it into the sack. The sacks are
+emptied into the boxes, and these are loaded
+on to the wagon. Father pays five cents a
+box for picking, and a good picker will gather
+about forty boxes in a day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We sell most of our oranges to fruit companies.
+These companies pack and ship the
+fruit. At the packing houses the oranges are
+placed in tubs of water and scrubbed with
+small brushes. Many women, girls, and boys
+work at this. The washing is to take off dirt,
+and also <i>scale</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p169.jpg" width="450" height="269" alt="Fig. 57.&mdash;Grading and Packing Oranges." title="Grading and Packing Oranges" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 57.&mdash;Grading and Packing Oranges.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the oranges are washed, they are placed
+in a sort of trough which is highest at the end
+near the tub. They roll down this trough to
+the <i>grader</i>. This is a machine so arranged
+that the oranges pass through different openings
+according to their size, and come out sorted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>In the warehouse close by they are wrapped
+and packed. Chinamen often do this work.
+Each orange is wrapped in a separate piece of
+paper, which has the brand of the company
+stamped upon it. It is then packed firmly in
+a box. A certain number of oranges of each
+grade fill a box, ninety-six of the largest grade,
+and about two hundred of the smallest. Those
+which are too small, as well as the imperfect
+oranges, are rejected. These are called <i>culls</i>.
+Sometimes these are sold for a low price, and
+sometimes they are thrown away by wagon
+loads.</p>
+
+<p>After the boxes are filled, they are placed
+in special fruit cars and hurried to St. Louis,
+Chicago, New York, Boston, and other cities.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, the Weather Bureau is of great help to
+fruit growers. Of course we have very little
+winter here, but oranges will not endure much
+cold. The mercury falls below the freezing
+point but a few times each season. On New
+Year's Day the temperature here was fifty-eight
+degrees. I looked up the Boston temperature
+for the same day and found that it was only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+four degrees above zero. When the Bureau
+predicts a sharp freeze, the farmers build small
+fires in their orchards, or turn on a good deal
+of water. The fires are built in small wire
+baskets. They make a smudge instead of a
+flame. The people in the raisin districts watch
+the weather reports pretty closely, for rain
+injures the drying grapes.</p>
+
+<p>Growers have to <i>spray</i> or <i>fumigate</i> the trees
+to destroy the scale that I spoke of which is a
+great enemy of the orange, to kill the insects,
+and to wash off dirt. This is sometimes done
+by putting a great piece of canvas over the tree,
+forming a sort of tent which prevents the fumes
+from escaping. It was found that the ladybugs
+would eat the scale and so they were brought
+into California from the East. They do a great
+deal of good, but still we have to spray the
+trees.</p>
+
+<p>Orange trees are raised from the seed, and
+the trees produced in this way are called <i>seedlings</i>.
+By <i>budding</i>, a fruit much better than the
+oranges grown on the seedling tree has been
+produced. There were five acres of seedlings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+in our grove, and father budded the trees. He
+cut off the limbs rather close to the trunk of
+the tree. Then he slipped buds from <i>navel</i>
+trees into cuts made through the bark in the
+end of each limb left on the tree. He then
+wound cord tightly about the limb and put on
+some wax. After a time a new growth started
+out where these buds were placed. These new
+branches will bear much improved fruit.</p>
+
+<p>We have a very fine variety of oranges called
+Washington Navels. Trees of this variety were
+obtained by our government from Brazil. Two
+of these were brought to Riverside, a town
+about seventy-five miles east of Pasadena, and
+planted on a ranch belonging to a Mr. Tibbits.
+They did well, and all of the trees of this variety
+in Southern California were obtained from
+these two through budding. These trees are
+still living.</p>
+
+<p>California and Florida are the two important
+orange-growing states of our country. Father
+says the industry is much older in Florida than
+in our state. Florida growers can ship their
+fruit to market much cheaper than we can. It
+costs us ninety cents for each box.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>Mexico, the West Indies, Italy, southern
+France, and Spain are also orange producers.
+These countries have the advantage of cheap
+labor, father says.</p>
+
+<p>I wish that you could visit us. We would
+have fine times, I am sure.</p>
+
+<p>The next time I write I will tell you about
+some of the other fruits raised in California.</p>
+
+<div class="signature">
+Your sincere friend,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Frank</span>.
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A VISIT TO A VINEYARD</h2>
+
+
+<div class="signature">
+<span class="smcap">Pasadena, California</span>, Oct. 1, 1902.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear friend Will</span>: Last week father
+went to Fresno, which is about three hundred
+miles northwest of here, in the San Joaquin
+valley. He took me with him, and we visited
+some of the great vineyards and raisin-packing
+establishments near and in that city.</p>
+
+<p>Raisins are simply dried grapes. Although
+there are many countries where grapes grow,
+there are few where raisins are made. Dew,
+fog, and rain injure the fruit, so that the San
+Joaquin valley, with its dry, hot atmosphere, is
+well adapted to this industry.</p>
+
+<p>There are a great many different kinds of
+grapes but only the green variety is used in
+making raisins. The raisin grapes are called
+<i>muscats</i>. If the grapes are left on the vines
+long enough, they become raisins. I have
+picked some pretty good raisins from the vines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+Of course by being spread out, they dry quicker
+and more evenly.</p>
+
+<p>The sugar that you find on and in the raisins
+is not put there by the people who dry the
+grapes. It comes from the juice of the grape.</p>
+
+<p>Grapevines grow from both roots and cuttings.
+Of course cuttings are the cheaper.
+Often they may be had for the asking. Many
+think that it is better to set out rooted vines
+than cuttings.</p>
+
+<p>They are planted in rows from six feet apart
+to twelve or fifteen feet. During the first year
+the young vines will grow several feet. In
+the fall, when the flow of the sap has been
+checked by frost, the vines are pruned. A vineyard
+in California looks quite different from one
+in the East. During the winter it is simply so
+many rows of stumps several inches in thickness
+and one or two feet high. During the summer
+the branches grow from these stumps and produce
+their beautiful clusters of grapes, only to
+be cut off in the fall or winter.</p>
+
+<p>The trimmings are generally burned in the
+vineyard at the same time that they are cut off.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+A sort of furnace made of sheet iron is fastened
+between two wheels and drawn by horses up
+and down between the rows. A man pitches
+the cuttings into it, and they burn as it moves
+along.</p>
+
+<p>In the early summer men go through the
+vineyards sprinkling a coating of sulphur on
+the vines. This is to prevent mildew, which
+damages the fruit very much.</p>
+
+<p>During the last half of August and September
+the grapes are picked. Sometimes the
+harvest continues into October. Most of the
+grapes had been gathered when we visited
+the vineyards.</p>
+
+<p>When the juice of the grapes is one fourth
+sugar, they are ready to pick. The grower
+generally tells the condition by the taste and
+color of the fruit, although there are instruments
+for determining the amount of sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Like oranges, grapes are cut from the vines
+and not picked. We saw great companies of
+Chinamen going through the vineyards cutting
+off the beautiful clusters. These they placed on
+shallow, wooden trays to dry. In a week or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">&nbsp;</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">&nbsp;</a></span>
+two, when the upper side of the clusters is
+pretty well dried, the grapes are turned. We
+saw the workmen place an empty tray, upside
+down, over the filled one. Then, holding the
+two together, they turned them over, and the
+grapes dropped into the tray that had been
+placed on top.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p177.jpg" width="450" height="338" alt="Fig. 58.&mdash;Picking Grapes.&mdash;Notice the Mountains in the Background." title="Picking Grapes" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 58.&mdash;Picking Grapes.&mdash;Notice the Mountains in the Background.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p179.jpg" width="450" height="359" alt="Fig. 59.&mdash;Drying Raisin Grapes." title="Drying Raisin Grapes" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 59.&mdash;Drying Raisin Grapes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>During this drying time the people watch
+the reports of the Weather Bureau. In some
+places flags are displayed when rain is expected.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+As a rule the grape season is over before the
+rains begin.</p>
+
+<p>When the grapes are taken from the trays,
+they are placed in boxes holding about one
+hundred pounds each.    These are called <i>sweat
+boxes</i>. Here the driest grapes absorb some
+of the moisture from the others, and the mass
+becomes more uniform.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p180.jpg" width="450" height="341" alt="Fig. 60.&mdash;A Vineyard after being Pruned." title="A Vineyard after being Pruned" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 60.&mdash;A Vineyard after being Pruned.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the drying process has been   finished,
+the stems are rather brittle. To make them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+softer and easier to handle, the grapes are next
+placed in a cool room and left there for a time.</p>
+
+<p>After visiting some of the vineyards, we
+drove to one of the great packing establishments
+in Fresno. These packing houses are
+nearly always in the cities and towns, because
+there help can be easily obtained. The
+packing house that we visited employs four
+hundred people, mostly girls and women.</p>
+
+<p>The raisins are first placed on wooden or
+metal frames the size of a raisin box. These
+are called <i>forms</i>, and the packers are paid according
+to the number of forms filled. When
+these are filled, the raisins are carefully transferred
+to the boxes.</p>
+
+<p>A box of raisins weighs twenty pounds, but
+there are half boxes and quarter boxes put up
+also. A paper is placed on the bottom of each
+box, and over the raisins another is placed. On
+top of this there is a fancy paper on which the
+name of the packer is stamped.</p>
+
+<p>In most establishments there are three grades
+of raisins, Imperial Clusters, London Layers,
+and the loose and imperfect stems.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>Sometimes a second crop of grapes is gathered
+a little later in the fall. Of course these do not
+dry so well because the days are shorter, it is
+cooler, and rains sometimes occur. On this
+account they are dipped in lye and then rinsed
+in water. The lye cracks the skin, and so the
+juice evaporates more quickly. These are called
+Valencia raisins. There is not a very good
+market for these, so that people do not dip
+them so commonly now as they used to.</p>
+
+<p>We saw the machine where the raisins are
+<i>stemmed</i>. They pass from a hopper into a
+space between two woven-wire cylinders. The
+inner one revolves within the other. In this
+way the raisins are broken from the stems.
+They are then run through a fanning mill
+which cleans them, and they are finally graded
+by passing through screens having openings of
+different sizes.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the seedless raisins are made from
+seedless grapes, but there are machines for
+removing the seeds from the grapes which
+contain them.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent of the packing house said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+that nearly all of the raisins that we import
+come from Spain, and that they are exported
+chiefly from the city of Malaga.</p>
+
+<p>The purple and other <i>wine grapes</i> are taken
+to the wineries and sold by the ton, to be made
+into wine.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other things that I should
+like to write about, but my letter is a pretty
+long one now, so I will close.</p>
+
+<div class="signature">
+Your loving friend,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Frank</span>.
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p>
+<h2>NUTTING</h2>
+
+
+<p>Have you ever gone into the woods on a
+beautiful autumn day? The bright, warm sunshine
+floods the earth where the trees are far
+apart and sifts down through the branches. All
+nature seems to invite you to lie down under
+a tree and dream. It was on such a day that
+Rip Van Winkle fell into his long sleep.</p>
+
+<p>How pretty the trees look in their fall suits
+of yellow, crimson, red, and brown! What a
+rustling is made as your feet tread the carpet
+of leaves!</p>
+
+<p>The breezes pass among the branches and
+whisper a message to the bright-colored leaves.
+They understand and obey. Singly, in groups,
+and in showers, they silently float downward.
+By night and by day they fall, but soon this
+carpet will be changed for one of white.</p>
+
+<p>Listen! The leaves are not the only things
+that are falling. You can hear the <i>thump</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+<i>thump</i> of nuts as they drop from their lofty
+perches in the walnut and hickory-nut trees.</p>
+
+<p>Sit down quietly on that log and you will
+soon see the busy nut gatherers. With their
+tails curled over their backs, they race up and
+down the trees, or spring from branch to branch,
+carrying their precious burdens to their homes
+in the hollows of trunk or limb. Now one sits
+up straight, holding a nut between his paws,
+and turning it slowly as he cracks and eats
+it. If he sees you, he whisks out of sight, or
+scolds you from a safe place far above the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>When the winter winds are whistling through
+the leafless trees, and snows are drifting over
+the ground, these little nut gatherers feast to
+their hearts' content.</p>
+
+<p>The squirrels do not gather all of the nuts.
+Children and grown people enjoy nutting.
+When there are not enough nuts on the
+ground, the men and boys climb the trees to
+shake them off. Then everybody hunts among
+the leaves for the treasures.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most important nuts are walnuts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+hickory nuts, hazelnuts, almonds, chestnuts,
+Brazil nuts, pecans, and peanuts.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the hickory nuts fall out of their
+coverings bright and clean. Walnuts generally
+have to be <i>shucked</i>, and the juice stains the
+hands almost black.</p>
+
+<p>As hazelnuts grow on bushes, they can be
+easily picked. They usually drop out of their
+burs after there have been a few frosts.</p>
+
+<p>Many nuts are gathered in the woods, but
+in some places the trees are cultivated just as
+fruit trees are.</p>
+
+<p>We usually eat nuts between meals, or as a
+dessert. They are not simply dainties, but are
+very valuable articles of food. In some countries
+the poor people depend upon them for food.</p>
+
+<p>In almost any city of our country are to be
+found the nuts that I have mentioned, with
+perhaps several other kinds. These have come
+from different states, some from Canada, some
+from Brazil, and some from Spain.</p>
+
+<p>I am sure you will enjoy gathering nuts of
+different kinds, so let us set out on a nutting
+expedition.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A WALNUT VACATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>How would you like to have your school close
+for two weeks, so that you could gather walnuts?
+Every year many of the boys and girls of Southern
+California are given a vacation just for this
+purpose. It is called the "walnut vacation,"
+and occurs in the month of October.</p>
+
+<p>These children do not take their baskets and
+go off to the woods where they can romp and
+play, watch the squirrels, and gather beautiful
+autumn leaves. They gather nuts from the
+trees which their parents own, for in Southern
+California there are many walnut ranches or
+groves. You see the vacation means a vacation
+for work instead of for play.</p>
+
+<p>Walnut trees are set out in rows just as apple
+trees are, but their roots and branches extend
+to such a distance from the trunks that they
+need to be about twice as far apart.</p>
+
+<p>The walnut harvest, which begins about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+first of October, is a busy time. Men, women,
+boys, and girls may be seen in the groves, shaking
+the nuts from the trees, picking them up,
+and putting them into sacks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p188.jpg" width="450" height="365" alt="Fig. 61.&mdash;A Walnut Grove." title="A Walnut Grove" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 61.&mdash;A Walnut Grove.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The men shake the trees, and there is a
+shower of nuts to the earth. Do not go under
+the branches now unless you want to be pelted.
+A single tree has been known to yield three
+hundred pounds of nuts in a season.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>When the trees have been given a good shaking,
+there are still some nuts clinging to the
+branches. These are obtained by shaking the
+limbs separately, by means of long poles, to
+the ends of which wire hooks are fastened. As
+all of the nuts do not ripen at the same time,
+the trees are sometimes gone over two or three
+times.</p>
+
+<p>Now the boys, girls, and women go to work
+filling pails and baskets and emptying them
+into sacks, for they can do this work as well as
+men.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the nuts drop out of their covering or
+<i>shuck</i> when they strike the ground; but if they
+do not, the <i>shuck</i> must be removed. Sometimes
+the covering is cut off. If you handle the nuts
+with your bare hands, they will be stained
+almost black, and you will have to let the color
+wear off.</p>
+
+<p>The days are bright and warm, and this sort
+of nutting becomes rather tiresome before sundown.
+The work must be done and the vacation
+is not a very long one, so each does his
+part cheerfully.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>When the nuts have been gathered, they are
+taken to the shed or place where they are to be
+washed. Here they are poured into a large
+wire cylinder which revolves in a tank
+filled with water. The machine is
+turned by a horse walking round
+and round, and it both washes
+and grades the nuts. The smaller ones pass
+through the meshes in the wire and are called
+<i>second grade</i>. The larger ones are known as
+<i>first grade</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p190.jpg" width="450" height="373" alt="Fig. 62.&mdash;Washing, Drying, and Sacking Walnuts." title="Washing, Drying, and Sacking Walnuts" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 62.&mdash;Washing, Drying, and Sacking Walnuts.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the walnuts come out of the washer,
+they are spread out on shallow, wooden trays to
+dry. Sometimes several thousand trays may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+seen on one ranch. They are loaded on to a
+small car and pushed to the part of the field
+where they are wanted.</p>
+
+<p>If there is no foggy or cloudy weather, they
+will dry in about five days, but if there is, it
+may take ten.</p>
+
+<p>After the nuts are thoroughly dried, the trays
+are placed on the car and pushed to the <i>bleacher</i>.
+This is a large box made of tarred paper. It
+is placed over the trays, and a quantity of sulphur
+is burned in it. This is simply to whiten
+the shells, for they sell for a higher price when
+they are bleached. Sometimes the nuts are
+whitened by dipping them into a liquid preparation.</p>
+
+<p>The nuts are now sacked and marked, ready
+to ship. Soon after the boys and girls have
+finished their "walnut vacation," the nuts are
+on their way to the eastern part of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the walnuts raised in California have
+soft shells. Some have such thin shells that
+they are called "paper shells." The walnuts
+that grow in the woods of Indiana, Illinois,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+and other states have hard shells. They are
+dark in color and are called <i>black walnuts</i>. The
+trees are quite valuable, as the wood is used
+in making furniture.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHESTNUTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Let us go on a chestnutting expedition to
+the southern part of France. We can gather
+the nuts in many of the states of our own
+country, but the trip to a strange land will be
+enjoyed by all.</p>
+
+<p>The chestnut trees, many of which are very
+old, spread their branches to great distances.
+The nuts, as you see, are inclosed in a <i>bur</i> or
+coat which covers the shell. There are generally
+two nuts in each bur.</p>
+
+<p>When <i>you</i> eat chestnuts, you eat them as a
+sort of dainty, not as a regular article of food.
+This is not the case in the home of Jean,
+the boy who is helping his father fill those
+sacks. In his home, as in many homes in
+southern Europe, the nuts form one of the
+chief articles of daily food.</p>
+
+<p>In the winter Jean sells the freshly roasted
+nuts on a street corner in the city of Lyons.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+He gets a good many pennies each noon from
+workmen and poor people generally, who use
+them for their midday meal. He sells ten nuts
+for a penny.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the only way in which they are
+eaten. Jean's mother boils them with celery
+and mashes them as we do potatoes. The nuts
+are also ground into a flour from which bread
+is made. They are often used in the dressing
+for fowls.</p>
+
+<p>Confectioners use great quantities of chestnuts.
+In Lyons there are establishments where
+as many as two hundred persons are employed
+in preparing them.</p>
+
+<p>The nuts are first peeled, and then boiled in
+clear water, which removes the thin coating
+next the kernel. They are then placed in a
+sirup flavored with Mexican vanilla, in which
+they remain for about three days. After draining,
+they are coated with vanilla or chocolate
+and packed in attractive boxes. In this form
+they are worth forty-five or fifty cents a
+pound.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A BAG OF PEANUTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Last summer Harry's parents took him with
+them on a visit to Virginia. Harry has always
+lived in New York City, and the country life
+of the South was very interesting to him.</p>
+
+<p>They visited friends who live on a beautiful
+<i>plantation</i>, as the farms in the South are called.
+A driveway lined with grand old trees leads
+through the flower-studded lawn up to the
+retired manor house, whose wide verandas
+completely circle it round.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the house are the stables where work
+horses, driving horses, and saddle horses are kept;
+and beyond these is the pretty little boathouse,
+standing on the bank of a small river that
+winds its way through the plantation.</p>
+
+<p>The morning after Harry arrived, his friend
+Bert asked him if he would like to go across
+the river to see the men harvest peanuts.</p>
+
+<p>Now whenever Harry had wanted peanuts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+he had always gone to a stand and bought
+a sack. He had never thought about where
+they came from. He had heard of shaking
+nuts from trees, so he supposed that they were
+going to the woods.</p>
+
+<p>He was therefore much surprised when Bert
+took him to a field across the river where men
+were plowing vines from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>"Do peanuts grow in the ground?" he
+asked.</p>
+
+<p>"Why, of course they do," answered Bert.</p>
+
+<p>"I thought that nuts grew on trees," said
+Harry.</p>
+
+<p>"Father says that the peanut is not a <i>real</i>
+nut," replied his friend. "He says they should
+be called <i>ground nuts</i> or <i>ground peas</i>." He
+pulled up one of the vines, and the boys threw
+themselves down under a tree to examine it.</p>
+
+<p>When the small clods of soil clinging to
+the roots of the plant had been removed,
+Harry saw a number of pods which he recognized
+as peanuts.</p>
+
+<p>Opening one of the pods, Bert took out the
+kernels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>"These," said he, "are the <i>seeds</i>, and they
+are planted much as other seeds are.</p>
+
+<p>"Before they are planted the shell must be
+removed, but we have to be careful not to break
+the thin skin that covers the kernel. If that
+be broken, the seed will not grow.</p>
+
+<p>"The kernels are planted about one foot
+apart, in rows that are, as you see, about three
+feet apart. Sometimes they are planted by
+hand and sometimes by machinery."</p>
+
+<p>"I wonder if peanuts are raised in the
+country around New York," said Harry.</p>
+
+<p>"No, I think not," replied Bert, "for they
+are very easily killed by frost. Great quantities
+are raised in North Carolina and in Tennessee.
+Father says that the negroes of western Africa
+raised them long, long before they were known
+in the United States. He says that they are
+a very important article of food there, and
+that whole villages take part in the planting
+and harvesting.</p>
+
+<p>"After the vines blossom," continued Bert,
+"a very strange thing happens."</p>
+
+<p>"What is it?" asked Harry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>"The flower stalks bend downward and push
+themselves right into the soil, and on these
+the pods develop. If the stalks do not enter
+the earth within a few hours after the flowers
+fall, they die."</p>
+
+<p>Harry now watched the plowing. The plows
+were drawn up and down the rows and ran
+directly under the vines, lifting them out of
+the soil. After they had been plowed out about
+two hours, men took them upon pitchforks and
+piled them up. Harry noticed that some of the
+piles were covered with corn fodder, and asked
+why this was. Bert told him that it was to
+keep out the rain.</p>
+
+<p>"What happens to the nuts after the vines
+have been piled up?" said Harry.</p>
+
+<p>"They remain in the piles fifteen or twenty
+days, and are then spread out on the ground
+or hauled to the barn, where the nuts are
+picked off," answered Bert. "Sometimes they
+are picked by hand and sometimes by machinery.
+Let us go to the lower field; we
+have an earlier variety there, and the nuts are
+being picked now."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>They found men, women, and children picking
+the pods one by one and dropping them
+into baskets. These were emptied into sacks.
+Harry tried to lift one of these, and was surprised
+to find it so heavy. Bert told him that
+it weighed about one hundred pounds.</p>
+
+<p>"Do you burn the vines after the nuts are
+picked?" asked Harry.</p>
+
+<p>"No," said Bert, "they are fed to the cattle.
+We call the vines <i>peanut hay</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Bert explained that his father sold the sacks
+of nuts to the factory, where they were cleaned
+and sorted.</p>
+
+<p>The next day the boys went to town and
+visited the peanut factory.</p>
+
+<p>The nuts were first put through a machine
+which removed the dirt. They were then polished
+and sorted into four grades. The poorest
+grade is used in making peanut candy. The
+nuts were then sacked, and were ready to be
+shipped to the North.</p>
+
+<p>Harry learned that an oil is made from the
+nuts which is used as olive oil is used, and also
+that peanut butter is produced from them. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+found that many men were employed on plantations
+all through Virginia and other states of
+the South, in raising the peanuts that are sold
+on the streets of every city and town in our
+country.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ASSORTED NUTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>After the Thanksgiving dinner had been
+eaten, the nuts were passed, and the children
+asked Uncle John to tell them something about
+a few of them.</p>
+
+<p>"All right," said he. "You pick out the
+ones that you want to know about."</p>
+
+<p>Frank handed him an almond.</p>
+
+<p>"This nut," said Uncle John, "came from
+sunny Spain. It grew not far from the blue
+Mediterranean. Almonds are raised in most
+parts of southern Europe and in the northern
+part of Africa. Ages ago they grew in the Holy
+Land, and are mentioned in the Bible."</p>
+
+<p>"Do almonds grow in any part of our country?"
+asked Helen.</p>
+
+<p>"I think they grow in California," said
+Frank.</p>
+
+<p>"You are right," said Uncle John. "There
+are many almond orchards in the southern part
+of the state.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>"An almond tree in full bloom is a beautiful
+sight. The blossoms are white, tinted with
+pink, and as they appear before the leaves do,
+there is nothing to hide them."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/ill-p202.jpg" width="450" height="347" alt="Fig. 63.&mdash;Almond Trees in Full Bloom." title="Almond Trees in Full Bloom" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;Almond Trees in Full Bloom.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"Does the nut have a covering?" inquired
+Mary.</p>
+
+<p>"Yes," replied Uncle John. "When the
+nut is ripe, the shuck opens gradually, and
+sometimes the nuts fall out.</p>
+
+<p>"When people have large orchards, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+spread pieces of canvas under the trees and then
+shake them or beat them by means of long poles.</p>
+
+<p>"The nuts that do not fall out of the shucks
+are obtained by opening the shuck with a knife.
+The nuts are then dried, and are ready for
+market."</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Uncle John had finished, Mary
+handed him a hazelnut. "Please tell about
+this one," said she.</p>
+
+<p>"I have often gone hazel nutting when I was
+a boy," said her uncle. "Hazelnuts grow on
+bushes in thickets. They are six or eight feet
+high and very slender. Baskets are sometimes
+made of them, and I have often used them for
+arrows.</p>
+
+<p>"Sometimes the nuts grow singly, and sometimes
+in groups of two or three. A bur covers
+the nut, which sticks very closely until it is ripe.
+Then the nuts often fall out.</p>
+
+<p>"After I had gathered the hazelnuts, I used
+to spread them out on the roof of the wood house
+to dry."</p>
+
+<p>"Nuts that look just like these are called
+filberts," said Helen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>"Filberts are cultivated hazelnuts," replied
+Uncle John; "they are larger than the wild
+ones."</p>
+
+<p>"I would like to know how this nut grows,"
+said Helen, handing her uncle a black nut
+shaped like a triangular prism.</p>
+
+<p>"This," said Uncle John, "came from Brazil,
+and is called a Brazil nut. Do you know where
+Brazil is?"</p>
+
+<p>"It is in the northeastern part of South
+America," replied Helen.</p>
+
+<p>"The great Amazon River is in Brazil, and
+it flows through tropical forests," said Mary.</p>
+
+<p>"Much of our coffee comes from Brazil," said
+Frank.</p>
+
+<p>Uncle John then told the children that
+Brazil nuts come from the northern part of
+Brazil and from the Orinoco valley.</p>
+
+<p>Helen asked if they grow as walnuts and
+hickory nuts do.</p>
+
+<p>"No," answered her uncle, "they grow inside
+of a great case or shell. There are from
+eighteen to twenty-five in one shell, which is
+nearly as large as a man's head."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>"How are the nuts got out of the shells?"
+asked Mary.</p>
+
+<p>"When they fall, men break them open and
+take out the nuts," replied Uncle John. "Most
+of them are sent down the Amazon to the city
+of Para and from there shipped to the United
+States and other countries."</p>
+
+<p>None of the children knew where Para is
+situated, so they all went to the library to
+look at the atlas. After they had located it,
+Uncle John told them of his visit to the city
+and of the wonderful things which he saw on
+a steamboat trip up the Amazon River.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p>
+<h2>A STRANGE CONVERSATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>One evening after I had been reading for
+some time, I went to the kitchen to get a drink
+of water. That part of the house was dark
+and quiet, and as I stepped through the doorway,
+I heard low, musical voices, apparently in
+the pantry. I was very much surprised, you
+may be sure, and I kept perfectly still, and
+listened.</p>
+
+<p>"Yes," said a voice, which I could barely
+hear, "I am a long way from home indeed,
+and sometimes it makes me quite lonely when
+I think of it."</p>
+
+<p>"Tell us about your home, and how you
+lived," said another low voice.</p>
+
+<p>"Well," began the first speaker, "my name
+is <i>Pepper</i>. With twenty-five or thirty brothers
+and sisters I grew in a cluster on a vine.
+We were but a small part of the family, for
+there were similar clusters all over our vine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+We were about as large as peas, and grew somewhat
+after the fashion of currants.</p>
+
+<p>"All about were other vines to which friends
+and relatives were attached. Pepper vines are
+always anxious to get to the top, and so some
+of these vines climbed trees and some twined
+themselves about poles, which men had set in
+the ground for this purpose. Our vine was
+three or four years old when we appeared on
+it."</p>
+
+<p>"How long did you live on the vine?" asked
+a voice that I had not heard before.</p>
+
+<p>"Only a few months," replied Pepper. "You
+see, we had to make room for another set of
+berries. Two sets appear each year for twenty
+years or more.</p>
+
+<p>"Under the influence of the tropical sunshine
+and the warm rains we grew day by day,
+and we were as happy as the butterflies and
+birds about us. By and by we began to turn
+red. All of this time a <i>hull</i> or coat was forming
+on the outside of our bodies.</p>
+
+<p>"Before we became entirely red, workmen
+came to the field, and, by rubbing us between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+their hands, separated us from the stems to
+which we lovingly clung.</p>
+
+<p>"After having been picked, I was, with
+many others, placed upon a mat to dry. These
+mats were all about us, each covered with
+berries. After being thoroughly dried we were
+put into a mill and ground, and I became what
+I am now, <i>Black Pepper</i>."</p>
+
+<p>"Are there other kinds of pepper?" asked
+some one.</p>
+
+<p>"Oh, yes," said Pepper, "there is <i>White
+Pepper</i>, and <i>Red</i>, or <i>Cayenne Pepper</i>. Some
+of my friends were made into White Pepper.
+They were soaked in limewater for about two
+weeks, and this, of course, softened and wrinkled
+their hulls which had always fitted so nicely.
+This was bad enough, but it was not the
+worst."</p>
+
+<p>"What happened next?" said several voices.</p>
+
+<p>"They were then," continued Pepper, "trodden
+under the bare feet of dark-skinned men,
+and this rubbed off their hulls completely.
+After this they were ground as we had been.</p>
+
+<p>"Cayenne Pepper is not a member of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+family at all, although it has the same name.
+I have looked up its genealogy, and I find that
+it received its name from the city of Cayenne,
+in French Guiana, near which it grows. It is in
+the form of bell-shaped pods, and grows on low,
+bushy plants instead of vines.</p>
+
+<p>"The pods are green at first, but red when
+ripe. No doubt you have seen strings of them
+hanging in the grocery store when you were
+on the shelves. People sometimes use the
+pods as they are, but usually they are dried,
+ground, mixed with yeast, and baked into flat
+cakes like crackers. When these cakes are
+ground, Red, or Cayenne Pepper, is produced.
+It is put up in little boxes just as we are.</p>
+
+<p>"Pepper used to be regarded as a great
+luxury," the speaker went on. "Until the
+eighteenth century the Portuguese handled almost
+all of it. It was not uncommon for rents
+to be paid with pepper. If any of you have
+read ancient history, you know that when Alaric
+took Rome he demanded, among other things,
+one thousand pounds of pepper as a ransom.</p>
+
+<p>"My home was in the East Indies," said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+Pepper, "but there are members of our family
+living in the Philippines, India, Mexico,
+the West Indies, and other tropical countries."</p>
+
+<p>"Your story is a very interesting one," said
+a voice, "and now, if you care to hear it, I will
+tell something of my life."</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, do tell us," said several at once.</p>
+
+<p>"Very well, I will follow the example of
+our friend Pepper and introduce myself at once.
+I am known as Ginger. I have relatives living
+in China, in India, and in the western part of
+Africa, but I came from the West Indies. The
+Ginger family is not like that of Pepper; it
+has no lofty notions."</p>
+
+<p>Pepper seemed a little inclined to get angry,
+so Ginger hastened to say: "I mean that our
+vines do not climb trees or poles, but run along
+the ground. I was a <i>root</i> and not a <i>fruit</i>."</p>
+
+<p>"When I was about a year old I, with countless
+friends, was dug from the ground. We
+were cut from the vines and put into vats of
+scalding water."</p>
+
+<p>"That was <i>dreadful</i>," said Pepper.</p>
+
+<p>"We were treated in that way to prevent us<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+from <i>sprouting</i>," continued Ginger. "After
+being taken out of the water, we were thoroughly
+dried and then ground. We were then
+put up in cans and boxes and sold as <i>Black
+Ginger</i>. Others were scraped before being
+ground, and they were then called <i>White Ginger</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"We were placed on board a great ship and
+finally landed at New York. After remaining
+in a large store there for some time, I was
+brought to the corner grocery, and so I found
+my way to this shelf.</p>
+
+<p>"I am gradually wasting away, and I shall
+not last a great while longer. In my tropical
+home I seemed to be of no use to anybody,
+while now I am called for frequently by the
+cook, and my services seem to be appreciated,
+so I am happy."</p>
+
+<p>"To be of some real use in this world is the
+greatest joy of life," remarked a strange voice.</p>
+
+<p>There was silence for a moment, and then
+Ginger said "May we not hear from you,
+friend?"</p>
+
+<p>"Your stories almost make me believe that I
+am still in the land of my birth," was the reply.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>There was a peculiar little rattle about the
+voice, which I recognized at once as belonging to
+Cinnamon.</p>
+
+<p>"For several years I was rocked to and fro
+by gentle tropic breezes or lashed about by
+storms. From my perch I could see beautiful
+flowers, bright insects, and even serpents in the
+thicket at my feet. Birds of brilliant plumage
+often perched upon me. My home was on the
+island of Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p>"It is often said that where there is much
+bark there is no bite. In my own case that is
+not so."</p>
+
+<p>"I do not understand," said Ginger.</p>
+
+<p>"Why," said Cinnamon, laughing, "I am <i>all</i>
+bark, and I have considerable bite, as those who
+have tasted me know.</p>
+
+<p>"I was taken from one of the smaller limbs
+of a cinnamon tree. I was slipped within a
+larger piece of bark, for we each rolled up when
+stripped from the limbs. A still larger piece
+was slipped over us and so on until quite a
+bundle had been formed. Some were quite
+short, and some were three feet in length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>"</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>STORIES OF CALIFORNIA</h2>
+
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+
+<h3>ELLA M. SEXTON</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>With many illustrations</i><br /><br /></p>
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<p class="center">Cloth     &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  16mo &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;      $1.00 net<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>"As a concise and interesting history of California, it
+deserves a place in our schools and libraries, so that every
+child may read it."&mdash;<i>Pacific Churchman.</i></p>
+
+<p>"This volume comprises some excellent contributions to
+history, as it certainly comprises some notable contributions
+to romance. The little book is one which will appeal,
+therefore, to readers old and young. Several of the stories
+explain in some degree the remarkable physical characteristics
+of California, but the writer's chief aim has been to
+unfold to children and their parents the life of bygone
+days."&mdash;<i>The Outlook.</i></p>
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<p class="center">
+<big>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</big><br />
+64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK<br />
+BOSTON   &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   CHICAGO &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;     SAN FRANCISCO   &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   ATLANTA<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Tarr and McMurry's Geographies</h2>
+
+<p class="center">A New Series of Geographies in Two, Three, or Five Volumes<br />
+
+<big>By RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A.</big><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cornell University</span><br />
+<br />
+AND<br />
+<br />
+<big>FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D.</big><br />
+<span class="smcap">Teachers College, Columbia University</span><br />
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<p class="center">TWO BOOK SERIES</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ad1">
+<tr><td align="left">Introductory Geography</td><td align="right">60 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Complete Geography</td><td align="right">$1.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">THE THREE BOOK SERIES</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ad2">
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">First Book</span> (4th and 5th years) Home Geography and the Earth as a Whole</td><td align="right">60 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Second Book</span> (6th year) North America</td><td align="right">75 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Third Book</span> (7th year) Europe and Other Continents</td><td align="right">75 cents</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">THE FIVE BOOK SERIES</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ad3">
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">First Part</span> (4th year) Home Geography</td><td align="right">40 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Second Part</span> (5th year) The Earth as a Whole</td><td align="right">40 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Third Part</span> (6th year) North America</td><td align="right">75 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fourth Part</span> (7th year) Europe, South America, etc.</td><td align="right">50 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fifth Part</span> (8th year) Asia and Africa, with Review of North America (with State Supplement)</td><td align="right">50 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Without Supplement</span></td><td align="right">40 cents</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Home Geography, Greater New York Edition</td><td align="right">50 cents net</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Teachers' Manual of Method in Geography. By <span class="smcap">Charles A. McMurry</span></td><td align="right">40 cents net</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<p>To meet the requirements of some courses of study, the section from the Third
+Book, treating of South America, is bound up with the Second Book, thus bringing
+North America and South America together in one volume.</p>
+
+<p>The following Supplementary Volumes have also been prepared, and may be
+had separately or bound together with the Third Book of the Three Book Series,
+or the Fifth Part of the Five Book Series:</p>
+
+<p class="center">SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUMES</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">New York State</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">The New England States</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Utah</td><td align="right">40 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">California</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ohio</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Illinois</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">New Jersey</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kansas</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Virginia</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pennsylvania</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tennessee</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Louisiana</td><td align="right">30 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Texas</td><td align="right">35 cents</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>When ordering, be careful to specify the Book or Part and the Series desired,
+and whether with or without the State Supplement.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<p class="center">
+<big>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</big><br />
+64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK<br />
+BOSTON   &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   CHICAGO &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  ATLANTA    &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   SAN FRANCISCO<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
+<h2>Tarr and McMurry's Geographies</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><big>COMMENTS</big></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>North Plainfield, N.J.</b>&mdash;"I think it the best Geography that I have
+seen."&mdash;<span class="smcap">H. J. Wightman</span>, <i>Superintendent</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>Boston, Mass.</b>&mdash;"I have been teaching the subject in the Boston Normal
+School for over twenty years, and Book I is the book I have
+been looking for for the last ten years. It comes nearer to what I
+have been working for than anything in the geography line that I
+have yet seen. I congratulate you on the good work."&#8212;<span class="smcap">Miss L. T. Moses</span>, <i>Normal School</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>Detroit, Mich.</b>&mdash;"I am much pleased with it and have had enthusiastic
+praise for it from all the teachers to whom I have shown it. It
+seems to me to be scientific, artistic, and convenient to a marked
+degree. The maps are a perfect joy to any teacher who has been
+using the complicated affairs given in most books of the kind."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Agnes McRae</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>De Kalb, Ill.</b>&mdash;"I have just finished examining the first book of Tarr
+and McMurry's Geographies. I have read the book with care
+from cover to cover. To say that I am pleased with it is expressing
+it mildly. It seems to me just what a geography should be.
+It is correctly conceived and admirably executed. The subject is
+approached from the right direction and is developed in the right
+proportions. And those maps&mdash;how could they be any better?
+Surely authors and publishers have achieved a triumph in textbook
+making. I shall watch with interest for the appearance of
+the other two volumes."&#8212;Professor <span class="smcap">Edward C. Page</span>, <i>Northern
+Illinois State Normal School</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>Asbury Park, N.J.</b>&mdash;"I do not hesitate at all to say that I think the
+Tarr and McMurry's Geography the best in the market."
+&mdash;<span class="smcap">F. S. Shepard</span>, <i>Superintendent of Schools</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>Ithaca, N.Y.</b>&mdash;"I am immensely pleased with Tarr and McMurry's
+Geography."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Charles De Garmo</span>, <i>Professor of Pedagogy,
+Cornell University</i>.</p>
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<p class="center">
+<big>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</big><br />
+64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK<br />
+BOSTON   &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   CHICAGO &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  ATLANTA    &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   SAN FRANCISCO<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's How We are Fed, by James Franklin Chamberlain
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@@ -0,0 +1,3953 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How We are Fed, by James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How We are Fed
+       A Geographical Reader
+
+Author: James Franklin Chamberlain
+
+Release Date: February 5, 2012 [EBook #38762]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW WE ARE FED ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Peter Vachuska, Fritz Ohrenschall, Chuck Greif,
+Julia Neufeld and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's Mark]
+
+  _HOME AND WORLD SERIES_
+
+
+  HOW WE ARE FED
+
+  A GEOGRAPHICAL READER
+
+  BY
+
+  JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, ED.B., S.B.
+  DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
+  LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
+
+  New York
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+  1912
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1903,
+  BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+  Set up, electrotyped, and published June, 1903. Reprinted
+  January, June, August, 1904: July, 1905; January, 1906;
+  August, December, 1907; September, 1909; August, 1910;
+  August, 1911; June, 1912.
+
+
+  Norwood Press
+  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+  Norwood, Mass., U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the ordinary course of events, most individuals take some part in the
+manifold industries which engage the mind and the hand of man, by which
+alone our present-day civilization can be maintained. These great world
+activities touch the daily life of _every_ member of society, whether
+child or adult, worker or idler.
+
+A chain of mutual dependence, too often unrecognized, binds together the
+members of the human family, whether they belong to the same community
+or dwell on opposite sides of the earth. The links of this chain are
+made up of the articles which constitute our daily food, our clothing,
+homes, fuel, light, our means of communication and transportation, and
+only by continuous cooeperation are they kept together.
+
+The highest motive in education is to present the conditions which will
+lead to the most complete living; to build up the best possible members
+of society; to develop character. An individual who does not understand
+the life of which he finds himself a part, cannot be in full sympathy
+with its conditions and hence cannot be of the most service to himself
+or to others. Only to the extent that education and life follow the same
+general course, can each be truly successful. Far too little is done in
+our schools to acquaint children with their relations to the great
+industrial and social organization of which they are members. Even grown
+persons have, as a rule, a very indefinite knowledge of these relations.
+
+It is a recognized principle that our knowledge of geography has its
+foundation in our knowledge of the home. The natural connecting link
+between the immediate surroundings and the outside world is the _present
+daily life of the home_. Through the industries seen in the community,
+the commodities in general use, and the history of their creation and
+supply, the pupil acquires an insight into the life about him as well as
+into that of other parts of the world. He also realizes the great truth
+that the world and its people are in intimate touch with _him_. In this
+way he is led back and forth along the routes which civilization has
+followed in its progress, which it also follows to-day, as mankind clasp
+hands across oceans and continents. Thus the remote and abstract become
+immediate and concrete. Facts are seen in a setting of reason, and a
+logical and interesting basis for the study of physical, climatic, and
+human conditions is furnished.
+
+This study begins with the commodities in constant use and finally
+encompasses the whole world, but always with the home as the base of
+operations. It will create a knowledge of the interdependence of
+individuals, communities, and nations, and a genuine respect for the
+work of the hands and for the worker. The importance of this respect is
+not likely to be overestimated. Without it a true democracy cannot long
+exist.
+
+Reading should not only serve for the acquisition and the expression of
+the thought contained in the printed page; it should, in addition,
+stimulate to _new_ thought--to independent power in reasoning. On this
+account questions are inserted which the pupil is left to answer. These
+are suggestive of a much larger number, which should be worked out by
+the teacher. Too many of the questions found in books do not "stimulate
+thought" or "independent power in reasoning." They are purely
+informatory and not at all formative.
+
+No attempt has been made to treat every article of food. Those in most
+general use, as well as those which will best serve to develop a
+knowledge of geographical conditions and of man's relation to man, have
+been chosen.
+
+A given industry is pursued in somewhat different ways in different
+places. It has not been thought wise to describe each modification in
+these pages. For example, the method of handling wheat in California is
+different from that employed in Minnesota. The value of the work will be
+increased if the teacher will bring out these points.
+
+_All places mentioned should he definitely located_, both as to position
+on the map or globe and with reference to the home. When developed from
+the standpoint of direct, personal interest, a knowledge of the
+location of places as well as of other facts mentioned is most likely to
+be retained.
+
+The illustrations used have been very carefully selected for their
+_teaching value_. They give a clearness to mental pictures which can be
+derived only through observation of that which the illustrations
+symbolize. Much experience in the use of geographical illustrations has
+shown that pupils need to be directed in their examination of them. To
+secure the best results they must be made the centers of
+thought-developing questions.
+
+Thanks are due the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company of
+Minneapolis, the Swift Packing Company of Chicago, the Walter Baker
+Company of Dorchester, the United Fruit Company of New Orleans, and Dr.
+Charles U. Shepard of Pinehurst Plantation, for the excellent
+illustrations furnished by them.
+
+                                      JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN.
+
+STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,
+  LOS ANGELES, March, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                            PAGE
+
+  THE PAST AND THE PRESENT                     1
+
+  THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD                 7
+
+  HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED                    18
+
+  MARKET GARDENING                            32
+
+  DAIRY PRODUCTS                              41
+
+  BUTTER MAKING                               44
+
+  CHEESE                                      50
+
+  THE FISHING INDUSTRY                        54
+
+  OYSTER FARMING                              64
+
+  A RICE FIELD                                70
+
+  HOW SUGAR IS MADE                           77
+
+  BEET SUGAR                                  84
+
+  MAPLE SUGAR                                 87
+
+  WHERE SALT COMES FROM                       91
+
+  MACARONI AND VERMICELLI                     99
+
+  ON A COFFEE PLANTATION                     104
+
+  THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA                   113
+
+  A CUP OF COCOA                             120
+
+  A CRANBERRY BOG                            131
+
+  THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC        139
+
+  A BUNCH OF BANANAS                         146
+
+  HOW DATES GROW                             155
+
+  THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   165
+
+  A VISIT TO A VINEYARD                      174
+
+  NUTTING                                    184
+
+  A WALNUT VACATION                          187
+
+  CHESTNUTS                                  193
+
+  A BAG OF PEANUTS                           195
+
+  ASSORTED NUTS                              201
+
+  A STRANGE CONVERSATION                     206
+
+
+
+
+HOW WE ARE FED
+
+
+
+
+THE PAST AND THE PRESENT
+
+
+Long, long ago people did not live as we do to-day. Their homes were
+very different from ours, for they were made of the skins of wild
+animals, of the limbs and bark of trees, or of tall grasses. There were
+no stoves, chairs, tables, or beds in their houses. Instead of lamps,
+gas, or electricity, a fire on the dirt floor or in front of the house,
+furnished the light.
+
+The clothing of these people was as simple as their homes. It was made
+of skins and furs in cold countries and in warm countries of braided
+grasses and the fibers of certain plants. You may be sure that tailors
+and dressmakers were not consulted as to the latest styles, for the
+styles did not change and there were neither tailors nor dressmakers to
+talk to. Each family made its own clothing, and there was not a sewing
+machine to be found.
+
+How would you like to use a bone for a needle? Sometimes, instead of
+sharpened bones, long thorns were used. The sinews of the deer, or of
+some other animal, usually furnished the thread.
+
+When the people were in need of food, they went into the forest and
+gathered roots, nuts, and fruits. Wild animals were killed by means of
+such weapons as bows and arrows and spears, and fish were caught in the
+lakes and streams.
+
+The food was not cooked as ours is; for, as I have told you, there were
+no stoves. Sometimes the meat was broiled over the fire, sometimes baked
+in a hole filled with ashes and coals, but it was often eaten raw. It
+was not easy to have a variety of food, and there were times when it was
+very difficult to obtain anything. When food was abundant, the people
+feasted, and when it was scarce, they were often hungry. How would you
+like to wait for your breakfast while your father went to the woods or
+to the river in search of something to eat?
+
+When the meals were prepared, they were not neatly served as yours are,
+but each person took his portion and sat on the ground while he ate it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Indians at Dinner.]
+
+All of this seems very strange to you, I know. If you live in the city,
+you are accustomed to seeing the butcher, the baker, the milkman, and
+the grocer call every day. There are stores where people can buy
+whatever they want to eat, drink, or wear. You wonder how any one could
+live in such a way as I have described, but there _are_ people who live
+in this fashion to-day, although you have never seen any of them. They
+are _uncivilized_. Where do you think they are to be found? When people
+live in this way, it takes most of their time to provide themselves with
+the things that are necessary to life. They have little opportunity to
+improve their ways of living and of thinking.
+
+Civilized people divide their work. Some provide food, some make
+clothing, some build houses, and some furnish fuel. Each one does his or
+her part. In this way, you see, they learn to do their work better and
+better, because each gives much time and thought to one kind of work.
+This plan gives each one time to study and to learn something about the
+world and its people. Think how much better our homes, our clothing, and
+our food are, than are those of uncivilized people, and how many other
+advantages we have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--White People at Dinner.]
+
+It is only possible to live as we do, when each one works for others as
+well as for himself. If any one fails to do his part, the rest must
+suffer until some one is found to take his place. It is to prepare
+yourself to do _your part_ in some useful work for others, that you are
+going to school day by day. You do not now know just what that work is
+to be, but I want you to remember that _all_ honest work is noble. It is
+not so important _what work_ you do, as it is that you should do your
+work _well_. No matter what your work may be, you can carry sunshine in
+your face and helpfulness in your heart. If you do this, you will be
+known and loved. Hard work, coarse clothes, and lack of money can never
+hide these things, neither will the finest of clothing cover a selfish
+or untruthful nature.
+
+Let us look at this dinner table loaded with good things to eat and
+drink. There are bread, butter, meat, vegetables, milk, tea, fruits, and
+other things. You see at once that many persons must have worked to
+provide this food, for only a small part of the work was done in the
+kitchen. If these things could but speak, they might tell you stories as
+wonderful as fairy tales. They have been gathered here from the fertile
+plains of the West, from the sunny South, from Brazil, from the islands
+of the Pacific Ocean, from far-off China, and even from the waters of
+the sea.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD
+
+
+In the dark granary of a farmer's barn in North Dakota once lived a
+modest family of grains of wheat. The bright, warm days of the summer
+time, during which they had been placed in this dark room, soon grew
+shorter and cooler. The swallows, whose mud nests were in the rafters
+overhead, told the wheat brothers that winter was coming, and then flew
+away to the balmy southland.
+
+Soon biting winds and blinding snow came sweeping over the level land.
+Sometimes the farmhouse was almost hidden under the drifts, and the
+farmer had to shovel out a path to the barn, so that he could feed the
+horses and cattle. By and by the days grew warmer, the snow disappeared,
+and the birds returned one by one. The farmer and his men got out their
+plows and harrows, and prepared the soil for the seeds soon to be
+planted.
+
+The wheat was now shoveled into sacks and taken to the fields. Here it
+was placed in great machines drawn by horses, which scattered it evenly
+over the land and at the same time covered it with soft soil. The men
+whistled and sang as they worked, and blackbirds, bluebirds, and larks
+flew back and forth, singing and searching for bugs and worms, as well
+as for the shining kernels of wheat.
+
+The wheat was not content to remain underground, but kept trying to push
+itself out into the world. One night there came a warm shower, and the
+next morning what looked like tiny, green blades of grass appeared all
+over the field.
+
+All through the spring and summer the wheat kept growing, and finally
+there appeared at the ends of the stalks clusters of kernels, just like
+those which the farmer had planted. Some of these kernels had produced
+families of twenty or thirty. These clusters are called _heads_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Harvesting Wheat in Southern California.]
+
+As the south wind passed over the field it brought the wheat messages
+from Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and other states, telling of
+relatives who were already turning golden in the summer sunshine. One
+day some of the kernels thought they heard a voice from California. Do
+you think they did?
+
+The grain in some of the fields was called _winter wheat_. This was
+because the grain had been sown the autumn before, and had remained in
+the ground all winter, covered by a blanket of snow. Why was it sown in
+the fall? The wheat of which I am telling you was called by the farmer
+_spring wheat_.
+
+Soon machines, each drawn by several horses, appeared. They cut the
+waving grain, and bound it up in bundles called _sheaves_. These were
+set up in double rows to dry, and afterward put into another machine
+which separated the kernels from the stalks, which were now called
+_straw_. This work the farmer calls _threshing_. See if you can find out
+how this used to be done.
+
+After threshing, the wheat was put into sacks and taken to the nearest
+railroad station. Freight cars then carried it across the level prairies
+to the beautiful city of Minneapolis, built beside the Falls of Saint
+Anthony. What river is this city on? Of what use are the falls?
+
+There are tall buildings called _elevators_ here in which the wheat was
+stored for a time. Before being put into the elevators it was examined
+and _graded_. As there was wheat from many farms it could not be kept
+separate, so each farmer was told how much he had, and how it graded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Threshing Wheat in Southern California.]
+
+Some time after this the wheat was taken to one of the great mills to be
+ground into flour. The largest of these mills manufactures about
+fifteen thousand barrels of flour every day. This is the largest flour
+mill in the world.
+
+When the kernels reached the mill, they were put into machines called
+_separators_, to be separated from all companions such as grass seed,
+mustard seed, and wild buckwheat. They were then placed in an iron box
+in which brushes were revolving rapidly, and were _scoured_ to free them
+from fuzz and dirt. Those that were very dirty were washed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Flour Mills in Minneapolis.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Largest Flour Mill in the World.]
+
+The kernels were _steamed_, in order that the coating, called _bran_,
+might not break into small pieces. This is called _tempering_. The
+kernels now thought that their trials were over, but they were mistaken.
+Soon they found themselves being _crushed_ between rollers. After they
+came out they were _sifted_, and then run between other rollers. This
+was repeated six times, and each time the flour was a little finer, for
+the rollers were closer together. The flour was then run through tubes
+of flannel. These took out whatever dust it contained. It was then
+ground still finer. The flour was then put into sacks or barrels, which
+were marked for shipment to other parts of the country.
+
+Only the wheat intended for the very best grade of flour is treated as
+carefully as this was.
+
+What industry does the use of barrels bring in?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Grinding Wheat.]
+
+From the mills the flour was sent to many parts of the land to supply
+stores, bakeries, hotels, and homes. Some of it found its way to the
+bakery near your home. The bakers, in their clean suits of white,
+weighed the flour which they were going to use, and then added a
+certain amount of water to it. Some yeast and salt were added also. This
+mixture they called _dough_. You have seen your mother mix or _knead_
+dough, I am sure. The bakers did not do the kneading with their hands,
+but by means of machinery made for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Bolting Flour.]
+
+When the dough had been thoroughly kneaded it was left to _rise_. It is
+the yeast that causes the rising. This makes the bread light and spongy.
+It was then cut into loaves and placed in the oven. The ovens in the
+bakery are very much larger than those in your kitchen stove, for many
+loaves are baked at once. When a nice shade of brown appeared on the
+loaves, the bakers took them out of the oven by means of long shovels.
+Soon the delivery wagons came and were loaded with the fresh bread to be
+delivered to stores and homes. This loaf was just left at the door and
+is still warm.
+
+So, you see, a loaf of bread has quite a history. I have told you the
+life story of this one from the time of its grandparents, who were
+raised on the plains of North Dakota. Would it not be interesting to see
+each of the people who have had something to do with its production, and
+to make the journey which the wheat and the flour made? You can do both
+in your thoughts.
+
+
+
+
+HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED
+
+
+Ramon lived in a plain, one-story house, built in the shade of some
+cottonwood trees that fringed each side of a small river in the eastern
+part of Colorado. A wide veranda extended entirely around the house, but
+there were very few flowers and no lawn. I am afraid you would not think
+it a very pleasant place for a home.
+
+Not far from the _ranch house_, as it was called, were the barn and the
+_corrals_. A corral is a yard with a strong, high fence about it, in
+which cattle or horses may be placed. On the bottom land beside the
+stream, there was a corn and an alfalfa patch, besides one containing
+some potatoes and garden vegetables.
+
+During most of the year the stream was quite shallow, and flowed quietly
+over its bed, but when heavy rains occurred it rose rapidly, spreading
+over much of the bottom land and carrying so much clay with it that it
+was almost the color of coffee.
+
+Except along the river, not a tree was in sight from Ramon's home, and
+it was many miles to the nearest house. For hundreds of miles both north
+and south, there stretched a vast plain. Little was to be seen but sand,
+grass, and sagebrush. I had almost forgotten the prairie dogs, which
+scamper across the plain or sit up straight and motionless on a little
+mound of sand beside their burrows. They watch you closely, not moving
+unless they regard you as a dangerous creature, when, quick as a flash,
+they disappear.
+
+The rainfall is very slight in this part of the country, being less than
+twenty inches a year. On this account there is little attention paid to
+farming, but instead, the settlers own great herds of cattle as well as
+many horses. Ramon's father is one of the _cattlemen_ of Colorado. He
+owns more than ten thousand head of cattle, and some of the cattlemen
+own twice that number. Of course such great herds of cattle must have
+much land to graze on. Some of the land is owned by the government and
+any one may use it. Everywhere fences are far apart. These great
+pastures are called _ranges_.
+
+Ramon's life is not much like yours. His home is far from schools,
+churches, stores, or railroads. He seldom sees strangers, but he enjoys
+long rides on his own pony, _Prince_. Sometimes he goes with his father
+and at other times he takes a gallop with one of the "cowboys" who herd
+the cattle.
+
+The "cowboys" almost live in the saddle. They are out in all kinds of
+weather and are not boys at all, but strong, hardy men. They wear
+broad-brimmed hats, and carry long ropes called lassos or _lariats_,
+with which they catch the cattle.
+
+Where there are so many herds they sometimes get mixed up. On this
+account each cattleman marks or _brands_ his animals. These brands may
+be the initial letter of the owner's name, or they may be in the form of
+a horseshoe, a cross, a circle, or a crescent.
+
+Each spring and fall the cowboys gather the cattle together. This is
+called "rounding up" the cattle. They are then counted and the calves
+born since the last "round up" are branded. In the fall, in addition to
+this work, animals are selected for the market. Why is the fall a better
+time for this than the spring?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Branding Cattle.--Point to the Lariats.]
+
+The cowboys, mounted upon their swift, strong ponies, single out the
+animals that have never been branded, and swinging their lassos over
+their heads, they throw them with such skill that the loop settles over
+the head or about the leg of the one wanted. As soon as the rope
+tightens, the pony braces its forefeet firmly and the animal is finally
+thrown to the ground. It is then branded with a hot iron and allowed to
+go. Ramon used to feel very sorry for them until his father explained
+that it hurt them very little, for only the skin was burned.
+
+Sometimes the cattle selected to be sold, are not quite fat enough for
+the market. They are then taken farther east into the _corn belt_ and
+fed for a time.
+
+When they are shipped directly from the range to the market, they are
+driven to the nearest railroad and put into yards beside the track. They
+are then made to walk up an incline with high railings ending at the
+open doors of a cattle car. The animals are arranged so that the first
+faces one side of the car, the second the other, and so on. This is done
+so that the cattle cannot hook one another, and also that they may be
+fed and watered on the way from a long iron trough which is fastened to
+each side of the car.
+
+The great cattle markets of the United States are Omaha, Kansas City,
+and Chicago. Find these cities.
+
+One day when Ramon was about fourteen years old, his father told him
+that he was going to take a train load of cattle to Chicago and that he
+might go with him. It was a happy time for Ramon, you may be sure, for
+he was very anxious to see some of the wonderful sights his father had
+told him about.
+
+At last the day when they were to start on their journey arrived. The
+afternoon before, the cowboys had driven the cattle to the railroad so
+as to load them early in the morning. Soon after breakfast Ramon kissed
+his mother and his little sister good-by, and he and his father rode off
+across the level plain.
+
+Finding the cattle already loaded in the cars, Ramon and his father were
+soon seated in the _caboose_, rolling over the miles of railroad which
+connected them with Chicago. Whenever the train stopped for a few
+minutes, they took a long stick and went from car to car making the
+cattle that had lain down get up, so that they might not be injured by
+the others.
+
+When bedtime came, they made their beds on the benches along each side
+of the caboose, which are covered with cushions. As they had brought
+blankets with them, they were fairly comfortable.
+
+Ramon did not sleep very soundly the first night. The engine shrieked
+from time to time, and the car rocked and jolted so that he was afraid
+of falling from his bed.
+
+The next day they reached a part of the country where great cornfields
+waved in the breeze. The leaves had already turned brown, and golden
+ears of grain peeped out from the ends of the husks. There were stubble
+fields, too, where wheat and oats had been harvested.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Bird's Eye View of Union Stock Yards, Chicago.]
+
+The country became more thickly settled as they went on, and the towns
+were nearer together. Streams were more common, and grass and timber
+more abundant. The young traveler wondered why this was so. Can you
+tell?
+
+Early in the morning of the fourth day the train reached Chicago. After
+much switching and backing the cars were run into the Union Stock Yards,
+and the cattle were unloaded.
+
+Ramon was thoroughly bewildered by what he saw and heard. Men were
+shouting and cracking whips; others were riding up and down the alleys
+that separate the yards; dogs were barking and turning the animals this
+way and that, and gates were swinging back and forth.
+
+The cattle were weighed and examined to see if they had any disease, and
+were then placed in charge of a _commission merchant_ to be sold. Buyers
+come to the yards and bargain with these commission merchants. When an
+unusually large number of cattle come in, the prices are likely to fall;
+when few arrive, the prices rise.
+
+When the cattle had been yarded, Ramon's father said that they would go
+and have breakfast. In the afternoon they visited the "yards," and the
+slaughter and packing houses. The "yards" cover about a square mile of
+territory. They are divided into countless pens or small yards,
+containing sheds, feeding racks, and watering troughs.
+
+Ramon asked how many cattle were unloaded in these yards daily. His
+father handed him a copy of the _Chicago Live Stock World_, and at the
+top of the first column he read that on the day previous there had been
+received 18,500 cattle, 35,000 hogs, and 18,000 sheep. He was told that
+sometimes the receipts are much larger than this and sometimes not so
+large.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Dressing Beef.]
+
+They followed the bodies of the cattle from the slaughterhouses where
+they are dressed, into the cooling rooms. These are simply great
+refrigerators. Wagons come to the cooling rooms and haul loads of the
+meat to butcher shops, hotels, and depots. Within a few hours it finds
+its way to smaller cities and towns in all directions. A great deal of
+meat is shipped even to Europe. Why does not Europe produce its own
+meat?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Cooling Beef.]
+
+When the meat has thoroughly hardened in the cooling rooms, it is sent
+to the curing rooms, where it is cut up and packed. Each person here
+does his particular work from morning until night.
+
+Ramon learned, to his surprise, that every part of the animal is used.
+Hair, hide, horns, hoofs, teeth, bones, and even blood, are made use of.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Splitting Backbone of Hogs.]
+
+Most of the hogs which enter the great meat-packing cities are raised in
+the corn belt.
+
+The sheep need much pasturage, and so the largest flocks are found in
+the Western and Southwestern states. A single herder may take care of
+several thousand sheep. His faithful companions and helpers are
+intelligent shepherd dogs. After a great flock of sheep has fed on an
+area, hardly a green thing is left. The people in the part of the West
+where there is little rainfall, object to the pasturing of sheep around
+the head waters of streams, because when the vegetation is removed the
+water runs off too quickly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Curing Pork in Salt.]
+
+In the evening our friends watched the men, women, and children march
+out of the "yards." They were told that not less than thirty-five
+thousand persons were employed in the various establishments. There is
+but one city in Colorado which contains so many people.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Chopping Sausage Meat.]
+
+As they sat at breakfast next morning, Ramon wondered how many of the
+people of Chicago were eating steaks from cattle which he had seen on
+his father's ranch. The thought was a new one to him. His trip had shown
+him that the cattlemen who lived and worked on those far-away plains
+were doing their part in supplying people all over our country with
+meat. Their lonely life, with all of its disadvantages, now had a new
+meaning for him, and he went back to his Western home content with it,
+yet very glad to have had this glimpse of another side of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Packing Poultry.]
+
+
+
+
+MARKET GARDENING
+
+
+Think of the immense quantities of fruits and vegetables that are used
+daily on the tables of a great city such as New York or Chicago. As we
+travel up and down the streets of any great city, we see rows of
+buildings, sometimes built in solid blocks and sometimes a little
+distance apart. Some have trees and small lawns in front of them; others
+are without even this touch of nature. Nowhere, except in the outskirts,
+do we find gardens.
+
+_These people depend upon others to furnish them with their vegetable
+food._
+
+Now let us make some excursions into the region surrounding one of these
+cities. For miles and miles we see on every hand _truck farms_ or
+_market gardens_. The main business of those who live in these districts
+is to furnish food for the people of the city, so that the latter may
+devote their time to their various occupations.
+
+We see growing potatoes, cabbages, tomatoes, beans, peas, squashes,
+turnips, onions, sweet corn, celery, melons, and many other things.
+Usually all of these will be found in one garden, but sometimes the
+farmer raises only a few kinds, or perhaps but one.
+
+Market gardening is very common in Germany, Holland, Italy, China, and
+in other densely populated countries. Therefore we often find people who
+have come from these countries to America engaged in this business.
+Chinese gardeners are seldom seen in the East, but on the Pacific coast
+they raise most of the vegetables used in the cities and towns.
+
+In the early spring, before the ground is warm enough to make seeds
+grow, the gardener starts his plants in "hotbeds." These are long wooden
+boxes, or frames, without bottoms, covered with glass. They are usually
+placed on the south side of some building or high fence. The glass
+covers allow the warm sunshine to enter the "beds" freely, but they
+prevent the rapid escape of the heat. You see now why they are called
+"hotbeds." They are like small greenhouses.
+
+A little later in the spring the fields are thoroughly cultivated and
+the plants transplanted. Of course only the vegetables desired for the
+early market are started in this way. What advantage is there in having
+the vegetables ready for the market very early in the season?
+
+Vegetable farming is not easy work, although it is a pleasure to see
+things grow day by day as you care for them, and as nature supplies her
+sunshine and her rain. The fields must be cultivated almost constantly,
+to keep the soil loose, as well as to remove the weeds. Much of the
+weeding has to be done by hand, which is tedious work.
+
+We want our vegetables fresh every morning; and as the truck farms are
+at some distance from the city, the farmer must load up his wagon the
+night before. Of course much produce is sent to the cities on trains,
+but where farmers live near enough to deliver it themselves, their crops
+are more profitable to them. Why?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Market Scene.]
+
+Everything is put in readiness before dark; and while others are still
+in bed, the farmer mounts his wagon to start toward the sleeping city. I
+have often ridden ten or fifteen miles on such a load before the stars
+faded away.
+
+It is a novel experience. At first the night seems strangely still, but
+soon you are able to distinguish many voices coming from various places.
+The frogs croak from the ponds by the roadside; crickets and locusts
+send their shrill notes from grass and tree; a night owl startles you by
+his dismal hoot; the lamps of the fireflies gleam, then disappear only
+to shine out again a little farther on.
+
+At last a faint glow appears in the eastern sky, which grows brighter
+and brighter until the shining face of the sun is pushed above the
+horizon. Do you not think such a ride would be more enjoyable than a
+street car ride?
+
+In the cities there are market places where produce from the country is
+taken. In Chicago there is a very busy street where much of the buying
+and selling is done. Study the picture carefully. Here the buyers from
+hotels, restaurants, and stores, as well as the men who wish to peddle
+the produce from house to house, go for their daily supplies. There are
+also commission merchants whose stores are on this street. They sell the
+produce for those who ship it to the city by train.
+
+We go to the stores and get what we want each day, or the peddlers bring
+it to the door. You see how necessary it is to have special workers to
+supply us with the different kinds of food. We consider it very
+important that we should have vegetables and fruits fresh daily. The
+work of supplying us with this food is very important. Remember that
+those who till the soil are entitled to as great respect as are those
+who do not work with their hands. Contact with nature makes men and
+women better, and many of the noblest souls that the world has known
+have lived in the country and plowed, planted, and harvested the
+products of the soil.
+
+[Illustration: Market Scene. Chicago.]
+
+[Illustration: Market Scene. New York.]
+
+
+
+
+DAIRY PRODUCTS
+
+
+Uncle Ben lives on a dairy farm in the western part of New York State.
+It is a beautiful _rolling_ country with cultivated fields, woodland,
+and pastures, and here and there a sparkling stream winding its way
+through the lowlands. The farmhouses are large and well built, and are
+surrounded by grand old maple, beech, and elm trees. Most of the barns
+are painted red with white trimmings.
+
+There are many dairy farms in the neighborhood. Some of the farmers send
+their milk to the towns to be used directly, some sell it to creameries,
+and some to cheese factories.
+
+Last summer I spent my vacation on Uncle Ben's farm, and Cousin Frank
+and I had happy times, you may be sure.
+
+Every day, just before sundown, we went to the pasture for the cows.
+There were about twenty-five of them, and they always seemed perfectly
+contented after the long day of feasting on rich grass and clover.
+
+After we drove them into the barnyard Uncle Ben helped us fasten them in
+their _stanchions_ in the barn. Then the men brought the bright pails
+and cans to begin milking. Cousin Frank and I always helped, although he
+can milk much faster than I. Some of the cows gave but two or three
+quarts, while others gave as many gallons.
+
+We strained the milk into cans holding eight gallons each, and put them
+into tanks of water to cool. After milking was finished we turned the
+cattle into the barnyard for the night.
+
+In the morning we commenced milking about sunrise. After breakfast the
+cans were loaded into a spring wagon and Uncle Ben drove to the depot.
+Here they were put on the "milk train," which took them to the city.
+
+Many other people sent milk on this same train. It was sent to bakeries,
+to hotels and restaurants, and to milkmen, who delivered it from house
+to house. Usually the milkmen put the milk into pint or quart bottles
+for people who like to have it in that form. Uncle Ben told us that
+much of the milk that is sent to New York City is bottled before it is
+sent. The bottling is done by machinery. He also told us that, because
+of the great importance of having pure milk, there are, in all cities,
+inspectors who carefully examine the milk and report to the Board of
+Health. The cows also are inspected, and if any are sick, they are
+usually killed.
+
+Each evening some one drove to the depot again to get empty cans which
+the milk train had brought home. These were always carefully washed in
+hot water before being used again.
+
+
+
+
+BUTTER MAKING
+
+
+One day, after I had been on the farm about a week, Uncle Ben took Frank
+and me to the _creamery_. A creamery is a place where the milk and cream
+are separated and butter is made.
+
+We found several wagonloads of milk being unloaded. The milk was weighed
+as it was received, for it is sold by weight.
+
+The milk was then strained into a large galvanized iron tub, from which
+a pipe carried it into a circular machine called the _separator_. The
+separator revolves rapidly, throwing the milk, which is heavier than the
+cream, to the outer edge, where it passes through small holes into a
+compartment by itself. The cream rises along the center and passes
+through another set of openings into a special compartment. A pipe
+carries it to a large vat, while another pipe conveys the milk to large
+tanks.
+
+Uncle Ben told me that when people make their own butter, they must wait
+for the cream to _rise_ on the milk. The cream is then skimmed off, and
+the milk is called _skimmed milk_. Although the milk in the creamery is
+not skimmed, the same name is used for it.
+
+I asked if the skimmed milk was used for anything. Uncle Ben gave me a
+cupful of it to taste. It was very good. He then told me that the
+separator takes out only the part needed in making butter, leaving all
+of the sugar. I did not know before that milk contains sugar.
+
+The farmers take home loads of this milk to feed it to their hogs. For
+each hundred pounds of milk delivered, they get back seventy-five pounds
+of skimmed milk, besides the pay for their cream.
+
+The creamery man told me that he made from four to six pounds of butter
+from one hundred pounds of milk.
+
+The cream remains in the large vat about twenty-four hours before it is
+churned. The churn, as you see by the picture, is a great barrel made
+to revolve by machinery. It takes from thirty-five minutes to one hour
+to churn. The man told me that I might look at the book in which he kept
+the record of the churning. I saw that he made from two hundred fifty to
+six hundred pounds of butter at a churning. He said that some churns
+would produce more than one thousand pounds at a churning.
+
+Not all of the cream is made into butter. There is left in the bottom of
+the churn a liquid called _buttermilk_. This is drawn off, and the
+butter is washed and _worked_ before being taken out of the churn. The
+working is done by means of paddles in the churn. It continues for six
+or eight minutes and squeezes the liquid out of the butter.
+
+While the butter is being worked, it is salted. Some of the butter is
+unsalted, but most of it is salted. When butter is made in the home, it
+must be churned by hand. Only a few pounds at a time can be made in this
+way.
+
+When the butter was taken out of the churn, the men packed it solidly in
+wooden boxes about two feet square and four inches deep. The bottom
+of each box consisted of strips as wide as a _square_ of butter. These
+were held together by a clamp, and the sides were hooked to the bottom
+and to one another. When the butter is to be cut into squares, these
+sides are removed and zinc ones take their places. In these there are
+slits running from top to bottom. Through these slits a wire saw is run,
+and so the butter is quickly cut into one or two pound squares. The
+butter is then wrapped in fancy papers upon which the name of the butter
+or of the creamery is stamped.
+
+[Illustration: A Separator.]
+
+[Illustration: A Churn.]
+
+Of course some of the butter is packed in wooden tubs and shipped in
+that form. This butter is a little cheaper than that put up in squares.
+
+
+
+
+CHEESE
+
+
+I was so much pleased with my visit to the creamery, that Uncle Ben
+promised to show me how cheese is made. So one morning just after
+breakfast he, Cousin Frank, and I started out. After a pleasant ride of
+about five miles we reached the factory.
+
+The first process here was the same as that at the creamery. After the
+milk was weighed it was run into great zinc-lined vats. There were four
+of these in the factory, each of which held about five thousand pounds.
+
+Uncle Ben explained that the milk must _curdle_ before cheese can be
+made. In order to make it curdle quickly, a little less than a pound of
+a substance called _rennet_ was put into each vat.
+
+A man worked at each vat with a long wooden rake, stirring the milk
+constantly. I saw a glass tube standing in the milk and asked what it
+was. Uncle Ben told me to look at it closely. I saw that it was a
+thermometer, and that it registered eighty degrees. A little while after
+I looked again, when it showed a temperature of ninety degrees. The milk
+is kept warm, so as to help it to curdle quickly.
+
+In about an hour I could see the curd very plainly, but the men kept on
+stirring and cutting it. Presently one of them carried a piece of the
+curd to a table. He heated a small iron rod and touched it with the
+curd. When he pulled the curd away, little threads were drawn out to the
+length of half an inch or more. This he called the "acid test," which
+showed that the curd was in the right condition to be made into cheese.
+
+Of course only a part of the milk had turned into curd; the rest was
+_whey_, that was drawn off and run into tanks. Each man who had
+delivered one hundred pounds of milk was given a check for seventy-five
+pounds of the whey. It is fed to hogs. About two hours from the time
+that the milk was put into the vats, the whey was drawn off.
+
+One of the men now took a long knife and cut the curd into oblong cakes.
+These he frequently lifted and turned over. After continuing this for
+about twenty minutes, the pieces of curd were put into a small mill,
+placed on a board over the vat, and the curd was chopped into strips
+from one to six inches long and from one-half an inch to an inch thick.
+Salt was scattered over the mass by one man, while another pitched it
+about with a three-pronged wooden fork. The man told me that he used
+three pounds of salt to each thousand pounds of milk.
+
+Next, a piece of cloth was placed on a board about sixteen inches
+square. Two circular metal frames or bands, about six inches high, were
+fitted one within the other and placed on the cloth. The frame was
+filled with curd, covered by a cloth, and another set placed on top of
+it until there were five. They were then put on a table directly under a
+block which was fastened to a screw. By turning the screw the block was
+pressed against the top board, and so each frame of curd was pressed. I
+saw the whey running out as the squeezing went on. The superintendent
+told us that the curd would be left in the press until the next day.
+
+We were then taken into the room where the cheese "ripens." Here we saw
+large racks reaching nearly to the ceiling, filled with double rows of
+cheeses. The smallest ones weighed but three pounds, while the largest
+weighed fifty pounds. It may take but a few days and it may take many
+months to "ripen" a cheese. It depends upon the flavor wanted. The man
+said that in England "strong" cheese is generally liked, while in our
+country "mild" cheese is preferred.
+
+I asked how much cheese five thousand pounds of milk would make, and was
+told that it would make between four and five hundred pounds.
+
+On the way home Uncle Ben told us that although our country is a great
+dairy country, we import certain kinds of cheese from Europe. He told us
+how the Swiss people pasture their cattle on the steep mountain sides,
+and that in every little mountain valley cheese is made, some of which
+finds its way over the mountains and across the sea to the United
+States.
+
+
+
+
+THE FISHING INDUSTRY
+
+
+Have you ever stood by the side of a stream and watched the fish dart
+from one shadow of overhanging rock into another, or swim lazily at the
+bottom of some deep pool? How gracefully they move and turn! How like
+water jewels they flash as the sunlight falls upon them!
+
+Most streams and lakes, like the ocean, contain fish. So we have
+fresh-water and salt-water fish. There are a few bodies of water so full
+of salt that fish cannot live in them. Do you know of any such bodies of
+water?
+
+Most of the fish used as food come from the ocean. In this, and in most
+other countries, there are many men who do nothing but fish, in order
+that other people may be supplied with this sort of food. They do not
+depend upon hook and line alone, but use nets also.
+
+Nets are great sacks made of cord, knotted or woven together in such a
+way as to leave spaces or _meshes_. These meshes are not big enough to
+allow large fish to escape. Sometimes the fishermen go out in rowboats
+some distance from shore and then throw the net into the water. Corks or
+floats keep the upper edge of the net near the surface, while weights
+hold the lower edge on the bottom. Ropes are fastened to each end, and
+so it is drawn toward the shore. How the fishermen wish that they could
+see to the bottom of the restless water and know what their harvest is
+to be! When the boats have almost reached the shore, horses are
+sometimes driven into the water and hitched to the ropes. At last the
+net is dragged out upon the sands and the uncertainty is past.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Drying Nets.]
+
+Look! Within the folds of the net is a countless number of fishes, each
+jumping, squirming, wriggling, trying to get back to its ocean home.
+They are of many sizes, shapes, and colors. Those not good for food,
+together with the smallest ones, are thrown back into the water.
+
+Sometimes a net called a "dip-net" is dropped from a fishing schooner
+and drawn about a "school" of fish. I have seen many barrels of fish
+brought up at one time in this way.
+
+The fishermen keep a close watch for the appearance of these "schools,"
+you may be sure. Whales and dolphins pursue them, and gulls and
+cormorants circle overhead, for they, too, are fishers. Their
+appearance helps the men to tell where the "schools" are. There is a
+great rush for the fishing grounds when they are sighted. The
+white-sailed schooners skim over the waters almost like a flock of
+birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A Fishing Schooner.]
+
+Large quantities of fish are caught by a method called _trawl fishing_.
+This may be carried on miles from the shore. How do you suppose it is
+done? To a very long and strong line, many shorter ones, each with a
+hook at the end, are attached. These lines, to which large buoys are
+fastened, are left in the water for several hours, and then fishermen in
+flat-bottomed boats called _dories_ row out from the schooner and
+examine them. The lines are then reset and the fish taken to the
+schooner to be dressed. This is a common method of catching codfish,
+which is carried on during summer and winter alike. Storms and fogs are
+likely to occur while the men are out in their little boats, making
+their work full of danger as well as of hardship.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Splitting Codfish.]
+
+Many of the fish are packed in ice and sold fresh, while others are
+cured on the boats or on shore. Some of the fishing schooners carry
+great quantities of salt when they start out on a trip. The fish are
+dressed and packed in this. Sometimes they are packed in brine, and
+along the shores of some countries they are strung on poles to dry.
+
+Codfish are dried in great quantities along the New England coast by
+placing them on frames made of strips of wood and raised a little above
+the wharf, so that the air can circulate freely. When the skin and bones
+are removed and the flesh cut into strips, it is called "shredded"
+codfish.
+
+The principal food-fish are the cod, mackerel, herring, halibut, shad,
+salmon, sardines, and whitefish. Whitefish are caught in the Great
+Lakes. To this list the lobster may be added, although it is not a fish.
+
+A common method of catching lobsters is to sink a box made of lath to
+the bottom, where they crawl about on the rocks. A fish head is placed
+in the box for bait. The lobsters crawl in and are likely to remain
+until the box is examined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Drying Codfish.]
+
+Lobster steamers, fitted up with tanks containing salt water, run from
+Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to Boston and New York. Here those not
+wanted are placed on cars containing similar tanks and sent to interior
+cities. In this way fresh lobsters are served thousands of miles from
+where they were caught.
+
+A lobster that would cost us from twenty-five to seventy-five cents
+brings the fisherman not more than ten cents.
+
+Along our New England coast there are many towns engaged extensively in
+fishing. Portland, Gloucester, Boston, and Provincetown are among the
+number. Gloucester is the most important fishing town in the United
+States. From it fishing schooners go as far as Newfoundland, Greenland,
+Iceland, and even to the coast of Ireland. There are also important
+fisheries on the Pacific coast, from San Francisco to Alaska. Here the
+salmon are taken in great numbers. They weigh from twenty to one hundred
+pounds. The fish are canned and shipped to all parts of the country.
+Besides being caught in nets and traps and on lines many are caught in
+"fish wheels." These are fastened to the stern of a boat and revolve in
+the water. The fish are caught in pockets and dropped in the boat as the
+wheel brings them up over it.
+
+There are very extensive fisheries along the shores of the British Isles
+and on the western coast of Europe. Fishing is the chief industry in
+the towns along the coast of Norway. The air is full of the odor of
+fish, while drying fish, nets, and boats are everywhere in sight.
+
+Although the supply of fish in the ocean is very great, it is
+diminishing, especially near the shore. Most countries now pay
+considerable attention to the raising of both fresh and salt water
+fishes, and they have passed laws regulating fishing. Eggs are hatched
+in great _hatcheries_, from which the young fish are taken where they
+are most needed.
+
+The great ocean is free to all to sail over or fish in at will. There is
+a narrow strip along the shore three miles wide, which belongs to the
+country which it borders. The men of other countries are not allowed to
+fish there.
+
+The fisherman is a brave and sturdy man. His life is full of danger. He
+battles constantly with the winds and the waves. Fogs may hide the sharp
+rocks which seem to wait for a chance to destroy his little vessel.
+Sometimes icebergs or great ocean steamers sink his boat and he is never
+seen again.
+
+When storms are raging and night has settled over sea and land, and
+angry waves are dashing themselves into foam against the shore, the
+mothers, wives, and children look anxiously from their cottage windows
+toward the sea, and pray that their loved ones may return to them in
+safety.
+
+
+
+
+OYSTER FARMING
+
+
+It sounds strange to speak of farming in the ocean, but there are many
+and large oyster farms all along our coast. Some of these farms are
+covered by water all of the time and some are uncovered when the tide is
+low. Oyster farms are far more profitable than are those upon which corn
+and wheat are raised.
+
+This is a new industry in our country because civilized people have not
+lived here very long, but it is a very old one in some parts of the
+world. As long ago as the seventh century a Roman knight raised oysters
+for the market, and it is said that the business made him very wealthy.
+
+You will understand better about the cultivation of oysters, if I tell
+you first how they live and grow in their natural homes.
+
+Except during the first few days of their lives, oysters are prisoners.
+They cannot move about freely from place to place as fishes and most
+animals can, but they are attached to rocks, to the shells of their dead
+relatives, and to other objects. How, then, do you suppose they get
+their food? They grow in immense numbers, and they crowd one another
+more than people do in the tenement houses in our great cities. In fact
+most of them are soon crowded out, and they die, leaving room for the
+rest to grow upon their empty homes. In this way the oyster beds spread
+out.
+
+These oyster beds are not found in very deep water, but rather along the
+shore, generally near the mouth of some river. As I have told you, they
+often live where they are uncovered when the tide goes out. You can see
+from this that it is not very difficult to gather oysters, so that,
+partly on this account, man has used them for food for ages.
+
+When the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the shores of New England, they found
+that the Indians used oysters very commonly. All along the coast were
+great heaps of the shells. At the very first Thanksgiving dinner given
+in America, oysters were served.
+
+Oysters used to be so plentiful on these natural beds that they were
+very cheap. In some places where the winter weather was cold enough to
+freeze the water along the shore, people cut holes in the ice and
+gathered them by means of long-handled rakes.
+
+In a single year an oyster will produce more than a million young ones.
+Just think of it! If all of this family grew up, they would fill a room
+fourteen feet in each dimension.
+
+These young oysters are _very_ small. They are called "spat." Most of
+them are drifted away by waves and currents, or devoured by larger sea
+animals. The few that escape soon attach themselves to some object, so
+getting a chance to begin the battle of life.
+
+If oysters are caught at all times of the year it does not give them a
+chance to produce their young, and this, as well as catching the young
+ones themselves, has destroyed many of the natural beds. In order to
+keep up the supply of this food men commenced oyster farming. You see
+how our daily needs and desires lead to the establishment of great
+industries.
+
+The oyster farmer prepares his farm in various ways. He places clean
+oyster shells, stones, trays, bundles of sticks, and other things on the
+bottom, so that the oysters may find something to which to attach
+themselves. Then he places the young oysters or "spat" on these objects.
+When trays are used, several are placed one upon another and bound
+together by means of a chain. These trays are taken up from time to time
+in order to gather the oysters that are ready for market.
+
+Stones are sometimes piled on the bottom and the "spat" are placed in
+the crevices between them. Often stakes are planted in a somewhat
+circular form. Cords are attached to the stakes, to which bundles of
+sticks are fastened in such a way as to keep them a little above the
+bottom. Young oysters attach themselves to these sticks, which may be
+drawn up when the proper time comes.
+
+Shells are used more commonly than other things. They are taken from the
+restaurants and hotels to the farms in boat loads, to be scattered over
+the bottom.
+
+The young oysters grow at very different rates. In two years they may
+grow to be six inches in length, or it may take several years to reach
+that size. They grow more rapidly on the artificial beds, and are better
+in quality also. The starfish is one of the greatest enemies of the
+oyster, large numbers of which it destroys every year.
+
+During the fishing season the oyster men go to the beds in their boats
+and scoop the oysters up from the bottom. This is called dredging. The
+scoops with their loads of oysters are drawn to the deck of the boat by
+machinery. Sometimes the oysters are gathered by means of long tongs.
+
+As the oysters are usually in clusters, these have to be broken up. For
+this purpose a sort of a hammer known as a _culling iron_ is used. The
+oysters are broken apart and sorted. Sometimes the oyster man makes
+three grades and sometimes four.
+
+Oysters are not the only things drawn up in the dredge. Starfish,
+lobsters, and various kinds of fishes are gathered in. The starfish are
+killed and the rest thrown back.
+
+The oysters are heaped up in great piles on the deck of the boat. Sacks
+and barrels are filled with them, and many car loads are shipped daily
+from the cities near the fishing grounds. Chesapeake Bay is the center
+of the oyster industry in our country. Find it. There are oyster beds,
+however, all along both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts.
+
+Great quantities of oysters are canned near where they are caught.
+Getting them out of their shells is not an easy matter. For this purpose
+a knife is used. This work is called in the South "shucking oysters."
+Canning oysters is an important industry in the city of Baltimore. Have
+you ever seen cans of oysters that came from there?
+
+
+
+
+A RICE FIELD
+
+
+When you do not feel quite satisfied with your breakfast, dinner, or
+supper, and think that there should be a greater variety of food on the
+table, just come with me and we will visit some of the boys and girls of
+far-away China. What do you suppose _their_ chief article of food is?
+Rice. Rice in the morning, rice at noon, and rice at night. Rice from
+the beginning to the end of the year. In the poorer families a bit of
+dried fish and some vegetables are usually eaten with it. Those who can
+afford such things have bits of preserved ginger, mushrooms, and barley
+cakes with the rice. Of course the rich people have other things to eat,
+but most of the people of China are poor.
+
+In the fertile portions of China the people live very close together.
+Gardens take the place of farms. Workmen often receive no more than ten
+cents a day. On this account they cannot afford the variety of food
+that we have, but must be content with whatever is cheap and nourishing
+for their labor. If the rice crop were to fail, the Chinese would
+suffer. You will see how important this food is to them, when I tell you
+that they are forbidden by law to sell rice to other countries.
+
+Perhaps you are wondering where the rice that we use in this country
+comes from. Rice is grown in great quantities in Japan, Corea,
+Indo-China, Ceylon, India, the Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, and in
+our Gulf states.
+
+Rice is the chief food of one half the people of the world. Although we
+raise large quantities, we produce only about one half of what we use.
+It is a kind of grain which will not thrive on the fertile Western
+prairies where corn, oats, and wheat grow. It needs a warm climate and a
+great deal of water. For this reason the rice fields are found on the
+marshy lands near the coast, and by the banks of rivers, where they can
+be easily flooded. Some rice is raised on the uplands, but not so
+successfully as on the lowlands.
+
+Canals are dug from the streams through the farms, and from these
+smaller ditches branch off so as to reach all parts. They are so
+arranged that the farmer can turn the water on or off whenever he
+wishes. On some of the farms, wells furnish the water to the canals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--A Rice Field.--Observe the Canal.]
+
+In the Gulf states the fields are plowed in the winter, and the rice is
+sown between the first of April and the middle of May. Sometimes the
+seed is sown broadcast, as wheat is, and sometimes it is planted in
+regular drills or trenches about twelve inches apart.
+
+The Japanese sow the seed in gardens, and when the plants are eight or
+ten inches high, they are pulled up and transplanted to the fields. The
+men work right in the water, for the fields are flooded at the time.
+
+In our country the farmer floods the field as soon as the seeds are
+planted, allowing the water to remain five or six days. When the young
+blade of rice is a few inches high, the field is again flooded. After
+the second leaf appears on the stalk, the water is turned on and left
+for twenty or thirty days. After the land dries the crop is hoed. The
+fields are irrigated from time to time, until about eight days before
+the harvest, which generally occurs in August.
+
+When full grown, the stalks are from one to six feet in height, with
+long, slender leaves. The kernels grow much as those of wheat and oats
+do.
+
+On account of the fields being so wet, rice, in most countries, is cut
+by hand. In China and Japan small curved sickles are used, and the
+grain is bound up in very small bundles. In Louisiana and some other
+parts of the South, regular harvesters are used. They have very broad
+wheels. Why?
+
+After the grain has been bound into bundles, these are set up in double
+rows to dry. This is called _shocking_ the rice. The grain is then put
+through a thrashing machine, to separate it from the straw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Harvesting Rice.]
+
+Rice kernels are covered by a husk. Before the husk is removed the grain
+is often called _paddy rice_. Removing the hulls or husks is called
+_hulling_. The hulling machine is a long tube into one end of which the
+rice is poured. Within the tube are ribs which revolve rapidly. As the
+kernels pass between these the hulls are taken off.
+
+If you were passing through a Chinese village, you might hear sounds
+like those produced when a man pounds with a mallet on a great piece of
+timber. On searching for the sounds, you would find that they came from
+the rice mill. The mill consists of a portion of a log hollowed out and
+placed upright. In the hollow a quantity of rice is held. A piece of
+timber, fastened to a pivot, extends in a horizontal position with one
+end over the mill. To this end another timber is fastened in an upright
+position. A Chinaman gets on to the end of the long timber which is
+farthest from the mill. This raises the end with the upright. He then
+jumps off and the upright falls, striking upon the rice. In this way the
+hulls are worn off.
+
+After hulling, the grain is carefully screened, in order to remove the
+hulls, the broken and very small kernels, and the _rice flour_. This
+latter makes good cattle food.
+
+Perhaps you have noticed that rice kernels have a bluish appearance.
+This is not natural, but is the result of polishing. The polishing
+removes much of the best part of the grain, but the rice sells for a
+higher price simply on account of its appearance.
+
+The polishing machine is cylindrical or drum-like in shape. Moosehide or
+sheepskin is tacked to the cylinder. It is made to revolve rapidly, so
+that the kernels are polished as they pass over the skin. After being
+polished the kernels are run through screens and sorted. The rice is
+then put up in barrels or sacks and shipped.
+
+
+
+
+HOW SUGAR IS MADE
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Sowing Sugar Seed.]
+
+This picture represents one of the beginnings of the great industry of
+sugar making. The small objects which you see in the trenches are pieces
+of sugar cane. These "cuttings," as they are called, are covered with
+soil. They soon sprout, and from them grow the tall, waving fields of
+cane, which resemble cornfields. The canes are taller than cornstalks,
+however. How high do you think those shown in the picture are?
+
+In about ten months after planting the cane is ready to cut. In the
+Southern states this work usually begins about the middle of October.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Cutting Sugar Cane.]
+
+The canes are jointed, as cornstalks are, and the spongy substance
+between the joints is filled with a sweet juice. It is from this juice
+or sap that cane sugar is made. I have seen children chew pieces of the
+cane, and enjoy it as you do candy; for this use it is sometimes sold in
+stores in the South.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Loading Cars with Sugar Cane.]
+
+After the canes are cut they are hauled to the mill or sugarhouse on
+wagons. On the large plantations _tram cars_ sometimes run right into
+the fields.
+
+At the mill the canes are run between heavy rollers, which squeeze out
+the sap. Sometimes as many as seventy-five pounds of sap are obtained
+from one hundred pounds of cane. The crushed stalks are used in the mill
+for fuel, and the ashes are returned to the land to fertilize it.
+
+When the juice is first pressed out, it is not at all clear in color. It
+is then placed in great vats or kettles and heated. This heating causes
+the water which is in the sap to evaporate, and it also brings some of
+the impurities to the top, where they are skimmed off. When the
+evaporating has been finished, there are two products, molasses and
+brown sugar.
+
+The sugar must next be refined. For this purpose it is usually sent to
+cities outside of the sugar belt. There are great refineries in New
+Orleans, San Francisco, St. Louis, Chicago, and other cities.
+
+When the _raw sugar_, as it is called, reaches the refinery, which is
+generally a tall building, it is taken to the top story and dissolved in
+hot water. It then passes through bags which act as _filters_, and
+through a great cylinder which contains burned bones, known as
+_bone-black_. You remember that I told you that the bones of the cattle
+were saved. This is one of the uses to which they are put. When the
+liquid comes out of this bone filter it is a perfectly clear sirup,
+which is then crystallized.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--A Sugar Mill.]
+
+You know that we buy refined sugar in three forms: granulated sugar,
+loaf sugar, and pulverized sugar. When granulated sugar is wanted, the
+crystals are placed in a great drum, which revolves until they are
+thoroughly dried in the right form. To make loaf sugar, the crystals are
+pressed into molds, then dried, and cut into the size desired. In
+powdered sugar they are simply ground to a powdered condition.
+
+Think how much labor is required to produce sugar, and yet you can buy
+it for five cents a pound.
+
+There are great fields of sugar cane in the Gulf states, in Cuba, in the
+Hawaiian Islands, in the East Indies, in India, and in other warm, moist
+parts of the world. We buy a great deal of sugar from Cuba, and from the
+Hawaiian Islands. To what city do you think the sugar from the Hawaiian
+Islands is sent?
+
+
+
+
+BEET SUGAR
+
+
+Although the cane fields of the moist, hot countries yield great
+quantities of sugar, there are other sources from which this useful
+product comes. In the year 1747 a German scientist discovered that sugar
+can be made from beets, and now about two thirds of our supply come from
+these plants.
+
+The sugar beet is not just like the plant of the same name which we
+raise for table use. It is white, and sometimes weighs as much as ten or
+fifteen pounds. Beets do not need so much water nor so much heat as
+sugar cane, so they can be raised in Germany, France, Austria, Russia,
+and other countries, as well as in California, Utah, and Nebraska, in
+our own land.
+
+In some parts of California there are fields of beets stretching for
+miles. The seeds are planted in rows, which, after the plants have come
+up, are thinned. In four or five months from the time the seeds are
+planted, the beets are ready to harvest.
+
+On most of the large _ranches_ the beets are dug by machinery. Men then
+move back and forth in the fields, cutting off the leaves and a little
+of the upper part of the beet, for this contains too much mineral matter
+to be of value in making sugar. The workmen use large knives, and they
+walk on their knees.
+
+The beets are now taken to the factory in wagons, or, if it is far away,
+they are sent on trains. When the loads of beets reach the factory, they
+are weighed. The teamsters then drive up an inclined plane to a plank
+roadway. There are generally several of these. On each side of the road
+or platform are deep V-shaped trenches with wooden sides, in which
+streams of water run. When the wagon has reached the right spot, the
+platform upon which it rests is raised in a slanting position, and the
+beets fall into the trench.
+
+A basket full of beets is taken from each load and tested, to see how
+much sugar they contain, for this determines the price to be paid.
+
+The stream of water in the trench carries the beets along, just as they
+would be carried in a brook. This, you see, is a quick and easy way of
+washing them.
+
+The streams of water carry the beets into the factory, where they are
+cut up into strips by machinery. The juice is then washed out in vats
+containing warm water, and is boiled down in great tanks. The raw sugar
+is refined much as the cane sugar is. After the sugar has been dried, it
+is run through spouts into sacks held open to catch it as it comes out.
+One hundred pounds are put into each sack. One workman sews the sacks up
+and another wheels them to the wareroom. Train loads are carried away to
+be distributed in the parts of our country that do not produce sugar.
+
+
+
+
+MAPLE SUGAR
+
+
+You would enjoy helping to make some maple sugar, I am sure, so let us
+make a trip to the woods of Vermont or New York, where maple sugar is
+made from the sap of the sugar-maple tree.
+
+You will need your cap and mittens, as the sugar season is the early
+spring, when there is yet snow on the ground. Besides, some of the work
+is done at night, and you will not wish to miss that.
+
+The owner of the "sugar bush" bores holes into the trees a short
+distance from the ground, into which he slips small spouts, called
+"spiles."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Tapping a Tree.]
+
+This is called _tapping_ the trees. Underneath the spout a pail is
+placed. During the day the sap trickles out and runs into the pail.
+During the colder hours of the night the sap flows slowly, if at all.
+Sometimes it is so cold that little sap runs for two or three days at a
+time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Oxen hauling Sap.]
+
+The sap is collected in barrels and drawn on sleds to the camp or place
+where it is to be boiled down. This is done in great pans called
+_evaporators_, which may be five or six feet wide, and fifteen feet
+long. They are divided into sections, and these are connected by means
+of little openings.
+
+The sap flows into one end of the evaporator and follows a zigzag path
+through the different sections. By flowing slowly over so large a
+surface, evaporation goes on rapidly and the sap is changed to sirup by
+the time it has finished its journey.
+
+The sirup is put up in cans, or boiled down into sugar, which is molded
+into small cakes, and brings a high price.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Sap-yoke and Pails for gathering Sap.]
+
+"Sugaring off," as the boiling down of the sap is called, is quite an
+event. Often a number of people will be invited to go to the sugarhouse
+and take part in the operation.
+
+Before the modern evaporator came into use "sugaring off" always
+occurred at night. This was necessary, because during the day the sap
+buckets had to be attended to. The young people would sing songs, tell
+stories, and eat sugar.
+
+Some of the "sugar bushes" contain but a few trees and some contain one
+or two thousand or even more. A tree will yield from one to six pounds
+of sugar during a season.
+
+Our country produces great quantities of sugar every year, but we use so
+much that we have to buy much more than we manufacture at home. It was
+not always in such common use, however, because people in olden times
+did not understand how to make it cheaply.
+
+Long, long ago sugar was used only as a medicine. Don't you wish that
+all medicine to-day was as good as sugar? About seven hundred years ago
+an Italian nobleman died and left to his relatives, among other things,
+_six pounds of sugar_. His will caused considerable comment among the
+people, who said that no one family should be allowed to have so much
+sugar in its possession.
+
+
+
+
+WHERE SALT COMES FROM
+
+
+The Arab, journeying over the yellow sands, riding upon the back of his
+faithful "ship of the desert," often looks longingly for some sign of
+water to cool his parched lips. The sailor may ride upon the beautiful
+blue waters of the ocean in his white-winged ship; but although there is
+nothing but water to greet his eyes, he cannot drink it, for it is
+bitter to the taste.
+
+If you were to place a quantity of ocean water over a fire and evaporate
+it, there would remain a white substance. This is common salt. You see
+that it is as necessary to provide fresh water when one wishes to cross
+the ocean, as it is if one is going to cross the desert.
+
+Most streams and lakes contain _fresh_ water, so you will wonder why the
+waters of the ocean are briny. The rocks and soil of the earth contain
+salt, and the streams wash it from the land. Each one carries so little
+that we do not notice it, but they have worked so steadily and so long,
+that they have carried a great amount to the sea. None of it can escape,
+so the ocean gets more and more briny.
+
+No healthy person would ever think of eating salt alone as a food, and
+yet our food would taste very unsatisfactory without it. Farmers supply
+their cattle and horses with salt, and wild animals search for it in the
+forests, and lick it from the soil with their tongues.
+
+Salt is so important to us that I want to tell you about some of the
+ways in which men obtain it.
+
+Sometimes sea water is placed in great vats and evaporated. This leaves
+the salt, which is then refined. You know that the sun's heat causes the
+waters of a shallow pond to evaporate during warm weather. Shallow
+basins are often scooped out along the coast, and the waters which fill
+them are then shut off from the larger body. In time the water
+evaporates, and the salt, which has formed in thin layers, is
+collected.
+
+I said that most lakes are fresh-water bodies. There are some, however,
+that are _very_ salty. Great Salt Lake is one of these. Streams flow
+into it, but none flows out. If you were to bathe in the waters of this
+lake, you would find that your body would not sink.
+
+I have seen great piles of glistening salt along the shore of Great Salt
+Lake which had been obtained by evaporation. A railroad runs beside the
+lake, and the salt is loaded upon the cars to be hauled away. When the
+people first settled in Utah, they used to drive to the lake in wagons
+to get a supply of salt.
+
+Although the ocean and a few lakes contain immense quantities of this
+useful article, we get most of our supply from other sources.
+
+In the western part of New York State, at some distance below the
+surface of the earth, there is a thick layer of salt. Wells are drilled
+down to this; water is pumped into them, and then pumped out again as
+brine. This brine is evaporated in large pans made of iron, two quarts
+of brine yielding about a pound of salt.
+
+In China salt has been obtained in this way for hundreds and even
+thousands of years. Though they had little machinery to work with in
+those days, yet by patient, steady effort, they drilled wells two
+thousand and even three thousand feet in depth. From twenty-five to
+forty years were required to drill some of these wells. Those who
+commenced them knew that they were not likely to enjoy the fruits of
+their labor and that others must get the benefit of what they did. What
+does this show about these people? What benefits are you receiving from
+what others have done?
+
+Salt is also mined as coal and iron are. This is called _rock salt_. It
+is obtained in Germany, Poland, Austria, India, the United States, and
+in many other countries.
+
+One of the most interesting salt fields of the world is in the
+southeastern part of California. It is on the Colorado Desert, near the
+Colorado River. This was once a part of the ocean floor and the rocks
+contain much salt. Water seeping through the earth dissolves the salt
+and brings it to the surface at this place. What happens to the water?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Harvesting Salt, Salton, California. Is there
+any Water in this Field?]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Loading Cars with Salt. Salton, California.]
+
+This salt field covers an area of about one thousand acres, to a depth
+of from one to eight inches. You can see by the picture that it looks
+more like a field of snow and ice than one of salt. The bright sunlight
+is reflected from its surface with such power that it hurts one's eyes.
+
+A great plow drawn by a steam engine moves over this dazzling field,
+and throws the salt up in furrows. It is then piled up, loaded on to
+cars, and taken to sheds, where it is purified. Indians and Japanese do
+most of the work.
+
+In order to purify the brines they are boiled in iron pans and treated
+in various ways to make them fit for table use. When evaporation is
+rapid, the salt crystals are quite small, but slower evaporation
+produces larger ones. Rock salt is dissolved in water and then
+evaporated. To get the finest of salt, the crystals must be ground. When
+salt is to be used for other purposes than to season food, not so much
+pains are taken. Name other uses of salt.
+
+In olden times, when salt was not so easily obtained as it is to-day, it
+was regarded in some countries as a luxury. This seems strange, does it
+not? At one time the Chinese made it into little cakes, stamped the
+image of the emperor upon it, and used it as money. In Arabia those who
+together ate food which had been salted, believed that this established
+a special bond of friendship between them. This led to the old saying,
+"There is salt between us."
+
+
+
+
+MACARONI AND VERMICELLI
+
+
+Have you ever wondered as you have looked at the hollow sticks of
+macaroni in the stores or as you have eaten them at the table, how they
+were made in that way, and what they were made of?
+
+In Italy macaroni is a very important article of food, and its use is
+rapidly increasing in our own country. For a long time it was not made
+outside of Italy, where the city of Genoa was the center of the
+industry. Locate this city. Do you know what great man was born there?
+Now macaroni and vermicelli are made in other countries. There are a few
+factories in the United States, but most of what we use still comes from
+Italy.
+
+In making these foods only the best hard wheat is used.
+
+After grinding the wheat, the bran is taken out and the flour is placed
+in a large wooden tub. Water is added, and the two are mixed by hand
+for a few minutes. In this tub a marble wheel about five feet in
+diameter and eighteen inches in thickness is fastened in an upright
+position. This wheel weighs about a ton.
+
+After the flour and water have been mixed, the wheel is set in motion by
+machinery, and it slowly circles around in the tub, pressing the dough
+under it.
+
+A man keeps walking in front of the wheel, moving the dough from the
+edges of the tub and placing it directly in the path of it. This work of
+pressing the flour into a paste continues for a little more than half an
+hour.
+
+The wheel is then stopped and the paste, which is quite stiff, is cut
+into cakes about a foot square and from one to three inches in
+thickness.
+
+These are put into an iron cylinder heated by steam. In the bottom of
+the cylinder is a copper plate filled with holes having the centers
+filled. A cover fitted to a great screw which turns by machinery is
+placed on top. This slowly, but steadily, presses the paste downward.
+It is thus forced through these openings, and of course comes out in the
+form of round, hollow pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Drying Macaroni in Italy.]
+
+As these pipes issue from the cylinder, they are straightened out on a
+wooden tray or platform, and with a large, sharp knife cut into lengths
+of about three feet. They are then taken to a drying room and spread on
+wire frames covered with oiled paper. Here they are left for about five
+days, after which they are placed in boxes and are ready to ship.
+
+The only difference between macaroni and vermicelli is that the pipes
+of vermicelli are very small and are not hollow.
+
+When vermicelli is wanted, two plates are placed on the bottom of the
+press. The under one is of iron and contains holes about one inch in
+diameter. The upper one is of copper and contains _groups_ of very small
+openings. There are sometimes eighty of these openings in a group. When
+the plates are screwed together, the groups of small holes are directly
+above the larger openings.
+
+As the paste is pressed, it passes through the little holes and then
+issues from the larger ones; this keeps each little group of pipes
+somewhat apart from the others.
+
+Saffron is added to the paste to color it, and the great golden mass is
+quite a pretty sight as it steadily lengthens.
+
+The workman cuts off six or seven feet of it at a time; and holding it
+above his head with one hand, he shakes it out with the other, as one
+might shake the folds of a piece of silk. The pipes tangle up very
+little. They are cut into lengths of about eighteen inches.
+
+It is then taken to the drying room and spread out on the trays just as
+the macaroni is. A handful of the vermicelli is taken at a time, and by
+a peculiar twist of the arm it is placed on the paper in a form
+something like that of the letter _n_. After drying for five days it is
+packed and shipped.
+
+
+
+
+ON A COFFEE PLANTATION
+
+
+Juan and Lupe live in a beautiful valley where palm and banana trees
+wave their broad leaves in the breeze. It is never cold there, so that
+many kinds of plants and flowers grow out of doors which we do not see
+in our country except in greenhouses. On clear days they can see lofty
+mountains far to the westward, which sometimes wear caps of white.
+
+Juan is fourteen years old and Lupe is twelve. Their skin is much darker
+than yours, and they have bright black eyes and black hair. Their father
+owns a great coffee plantation in Brazil, not far from the city of Rio
+Janeiro.
+
+There are many men, women, and children employed on the plantation, and
+Juan and Lupe enjoy roaming about from place to place and watching them
+at their work.
+
+In the nursery they see men planting the coffee seeds in the rich soil.
+There are some plants that have just come up, and some that are ready
+to transplant. They are set out in rows, six or eight feet apart each
+way, and sometimes more.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--A Coffee Nursery.]
+
+The trees would grow much taller than those you see in the picture, if
+they were not kept pruned. Do you know why they are prevented from
+growing tall? Whenever you look at a coffee plantation, you see the dark
+green foliage of the tree, which is an evergreen. Lupe is very fond of
+the blossoms. They are clear white and very fragrant.
+
+A tree will yield a small amount the second year after planting, but it
+will not produce a full crop for five or more years. Two pounds is a
+good average crop for a tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Picking Coffee.]
+
+The children like to watch the pickers as they go from tree to tree.
+Many of them are about their own age. Some carry a sack slung over the
+shoulders, and others carry baskets or pails. The _berries_ must be
+picked by hand, for they do not all ripen at once. They are dark
+scarlet in color and look a little like cranberries. A good picker
+gathers about three bushels in a day. The pickers are given a check
+every time they fill a basket. Sometimes Juan tends to this work, and he
+enjoys it very much. At the end of each week the pickers are paid
+according to the number of checks they have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Coffee Berries.]
+
+Within the berry are two kernels or seeds, with their flat sides
+together. These are called "coffee beans." It is these beans from which
+the drink is made.
+
+The picking is but a small part of the work of preparing coffee for the
+market. The first operation is removing the pulp. This used to be done
+by tramping on the berries, but now it is done in a better way.
+
+The berries are thrown into a large tank filled with water, which
+carries them through a pipe to the pulping machine. This machine removes
+the pulp and separates the beans.
+
+Next the beans are carried to a second tank, where they remain for about
+twenty-four hours, to wash off a sticky substance which covers the shell
+of the bean.
+
+If you have ever put beans or peas into a basin of water, you have
+noticed that nearly all of them sink, while a few float. These latter
+are the poor ones. This is the way in which the good and bad coffee
+beans are separated. A pipe carries off the seeds that float on the
+surface of the water.
+
+The beans are dried on cement floors upon which they are spread. This
+drying takes a long time. Before sunset each day the coffee must be
+carried under shelter, for the dew injures it. While they are drying,
+the workmen stir them. Sometimes artificial heat is used, but this is
+expensive. Juan's father has a watchman whose duty it is to guard the
+coffee at night, for it is very valuable.
+
+Each bean is covered by a strong shell, or hull, which has to be
+removed. The soaking has loosened this, and so it comes off easier than
+it otherwise would. Juan and Lupe often watch the wheels of the huller
+as they turn, moved by patient oxen.
+
+There are two wheels set upright over a circular box, into which the
+coffee is put. As it passes between the wheels and the bottom of the
+box, the hulls are removed. Underneath the hull is a thin skin, which is
+also taken off.
+
+In some countries people want the coffee dyed or colored. A bluish color
+is given to it by coating the wheels of the hulling machine with lead.
+
+The hulls are separated from the beans in a winnowing machine, and the
+coffee is then sorted. Often this is done by hand. The beans are spread
+out on a table, and girls and boys, and sometimes grown persons, sort
+it into several grades.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Sorting and sacking Coffee.]
+
+Juan's father has this work done by machinery. The coffee is put into a
+cylinder, in the bottom of which there are holes of different sizes by
+which it is graded.
+
+The last process is to sack the coffee and send it by railroad to Rio
+Janeiro. Of course it is neither roasted nor ground until it reaches its
+destination.
+
+We do not produce coffee in our country, but we are the greatest coffee
+drinkers in the world. A large part of our supply comes from Brazil.
+Trace the course of the ship from Rio Janeiro to New York. Juan has
+often done this, and his father has promised to take him with him
+sometime, when he goes with a cargo of coffee.
+
+You naturally think that coffee of different names must come from
+different countries, or at least from different trees. This is not
+always the case. Several brands may come from the same tree. The name
+depends partly upon the size and the general appearance of the beans.
+
+Coffee is a native of the far East, but it has gradually been
+transplanted to other countries, until it is now very extensively used.
+Brazil, Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, the Hawaiian Islands,
+Java, Ceylon, and Arabia are coffee-raising countries.
+
+In 1551 coffee found its way to the city of Constantinople; in 1652 it
+had reached London; and in 1720 it was planted in the West Indies. You
+see it worked its way westward rather slowly.
+
+Several hundred years ago, coffee was very expensive, so that only the
+rich could afford to use it. Instead of drinking it at home, people went
+to "coffeehouses," where it was served. To these "coffeehouses" men
+brought whatever news they had heard and told it to one another. In this
+way these places served about the same purpose that newspapers do now.
+
+
+
+
+THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA
+
+
+At the bottom of the teapot you will find some leaves. Spread one of
+them out carefully. You can see that it was once long and slender, a
+little like willow leaves. It may have grown in some garden in far-away
+China, for we get a great deal of tea from that country.
+
+I have told you how close together the people live on the fertile plains
+of eastern China. There is so little room that many live on boats on the
+rivers and in the harbors. On this account their farms are not so large
+as ours.
+
+The tea trees in the gardens are about five or six feet high. If they
+were allowed to, they would reach a height of twenty-five feet; but they
+are kept trimmed for the same reasons that the coffee trees are pruned.
+
+The trees are raised from seeds, and are generally planted on land which
+slopes toward the south. What advantage is this?
+
+In about three years after planting, the first crop of leaves can be
+gathered. In China they are usually gathered four times each year, and
+the trees continue to yield for twenty-five or thirty years.
+
+When the leaves are picked, they are full of sap or juice, and so have
+to be dried. The drying is usually done on trays made of bamboo. While
+they are drying, they are rubbed and rolled between the palms of the
+hands, so that they may dry more quickly and evenly.
+
+Next the leaves are placed, a few at a time, in iron pans over a
+charcoal fire. They are left in these but a short time, for they are
+hot. This process is called "firing." Sometimes the leaves are "fired"
+but once, and sometimes twice.
+
+The tea is then spread out, and broken bits of stems are removed. Some
+of the tea growers place the tea in baskets which are suspended over
+slow fires, for drying.
+
+If you were to look into some of the _tea-hongs_ or houses where tea is
+cured and packed, you would find the tea dried in a very curious
+fashion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Picking Tea. "Pinehurst," South Carolina.]
+
+In one of the rooms you would see several Chinamen rolling and tossing
+balls about with their bare feet. The balls are about the size of
+footballs and are partly filled with tea. Although it looks like play,
+it is hard work. As the balls are tossed about, the tea leaves are given
+their rounded or twisted appearance. From time to time the workers stop
+and tie the bags up more closely at the neck. This method is used in
+making _gunpowder tea_.
+
+Black and green teas are not different varieties, but are produced by
+different methods of handling.
+
+In the great tea-hongs there are professional _tasters_,--that is, men
+who do nothing but sip tea from small cups, so as to grade it and fix
+its value. This is considered a very particular line of work and
+requires an educated taste.
+
+The ocean atmosphere has a bad effect on tea, so that the very finest
+grades are seldom sent across the sea. When tea is to be shipped by
+water, it is placed in boxes lined with a sort of sheet lead. This
+protects the tea greatly. Most of the tea sent to the United States
+lands at San Francisco. Why? How does it get to other parts of our
+country?
+
+Great quantities of tea are pressed into the form of bricks and sent
+over mountains and across deserts into Russia.
+
+This is called "brick tea." The Russians are great tea drinkers, and
+whenever any one calls in Russia, tea is served. They call their teapot
+a _samovar_.
+
+Better tea is obtained from Ceylon and India than from China. In these
+countries Europeans have charge of most of the tea farms, and they have
+carefully studied the cultivation and handling of tea.
+
+There is a little tea raised in our own country in the state of South
+Carolina. It is very fine in quality and people are willing to pay a
+high price for it. Some of it has been sold for five dollars a pound.
+
+When tea was first brought into Europe, it was regarded as a great
+luxury, just as coffee was. People paid as much as fifty dollars a pound
+for it. It is said that some of the tea raised to-day for the royal
+family of China, is worth a hundred dollars a pound.
+
+Many people in this country do not enjoy a cup of tea unless they have
+milk and sugar in it. The Chinese do not use either in their tea. In
+Russia it is quite common to draw the tea through a lump of sugar held
+between the teeth.
+
+You know that tea parties are very common. The most celebrated tea party
+ever held was called the "Boston Tea Party." See what you can find out
+about it.
+
+
+
+
+A CUP OF COCOA
+
+
+On the eighteenth day of June, in the year 1771, this notice appeared in
+the _Essex Gazette_ of Massachusetts:--
+
+                          "AMOS TRASK,
+
+     At his House a little below the Bell-Tavern in
+
+                            DANVERS,
+
+                  Makes and sells Chocolate,
+
+     which he will warrant to be good, and takes Cocoa to grind. Those
+     who may please to favor him with their Custom may depend upon being
+     well served, and at a very cheap Rate."
+
+This seems to have been the first notice of the manufacture and sale of
+cocoa and chocolate in our country. What is peculiar about the notice?
+
+In those days the raw product was brought to Massachusetts by the
+Gloucester fishermen. They obtained it in the West Indies in exchange
+for fish and other things which they took there.
+
+When the Spanish soldier, Cortez, conquered Mexico in 1519, he found
+that the people of that country were very fond of a drink which they
+called "chocolatl." It was served to their ruler, Montezuma, in a cup of
+gold. When the Spaniards went home, they of course introduced the drink
+into their own country. For a long time it was very expensive and was
+not commonly used outside of Spain, for the Spaniards kept the secret of
+its preparation.
+
+Cocoa and chocolate are products of the seeds of a tree called the cacao
+tree. It is a tropical tree and grows in both the Old and the New World.
+
+Although the cacao tree grows wild, it is also cultivated in orchards
+much like fruit orchards which you have seen. The trees are seldom more
+than twenty feet high, but they are rather inclined to spread out. They
+require some shade, and so other trees are often planted between the
+rows to shade them. The trees begin to bear when five or six years old,
+and continue to yield for forty years. There are generally two chief
+harvests each year, but the fruit is ripening all of the time.
+
+The blossoms, which grow in clusters, are small and pink or yellow in
+color. They grow directly from the branches or the trunk of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Cocoa Pods and Leaves.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+In about four months after the tree has blossomed, you will find dark
+yellow or brown pods hanging from it. These look a little like ripe
+cucumbers, but they are more pointed at one end and are grooved or
+fluted. These pods are from six inches to a foot or more in length, with
+a rather thick, tough rind.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Native Cocoa Pickers. Ceylon. (Permission of
+WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+How do you think the pods are gathered? They are cut off by men carrying
+long poles, sometimes of bamboo, to the ends of which knives are
+fastened. Only the ripe pods are cut off and collected in a heap under
+the tree. They are left in these heaps for about twenty-four hours,
+when they are cut open and the seeds are gathered in baskets.
+
+The seeds are called "beans." There are five rows of them, about the
+size of almonds, within the pink pulp of the fruit. When fresh they are
+white, but when dried they are brown. If you taste one, you will find it
+bitter.
+
+You have often seen on packages of chocolate, as well as on the cans of
+breakfast cocoa, the picture of a young woman carrying some chocolate
+upon a tray. It is the picture of a beautiful girl who once served
+chocolate in the old city of Vienna. Her name was Anette Baldauff, and
+she married a rich count and "lived happily ever after." It is said that
+a painting of her hangs upon the walls of the great art gallery in
+Dresden. Point out the cities I have mentioned.
+
+The seeds are carried from the orchard to the sheds, where they are
+prepared for market. Here they go through a process of fermentation or
+"sweating." For this purpose they are placed in a covered box, or they
+may even be covered with earth. This is called "claying." Now the seeds
+must be dried. They are spread out on platforms, raised a little above
+the ground, so that the air can circulate underneath. You notice that
+the roofs do not cover them just now, for their only purpose is to keep
+off the dew and the rain. They are fastened to frames which have wheels
+under them. During the day they are not used, but at night they are
+rolled over the cocoa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Drying Cocoa Seed. Ceylon.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The cocoa is stirred by workmen using long shovels or rakes, so that it
+may dry quickly and evenly. Once a day the beans are shoveled into heaps
+and the workmen tread upon them with their bare feet, as you see. This
+is called "dancing the cocoa."
+
+After the seeds have dried for about two weeks they are nearly the color
+of red bricks. They are put up for shipment in canvas sacks holding one
+hundred and fifty pounds each. The name of the plantation is usually
+stamped upon the outside. Guayaquil exports more cocoa than any other
+city. Find it. A great deal comes from the island of Trinidad, and from
+the northern part of South America.
+
+When the "beans" have reached their destination, they must be cleaned,
+to rid them of dust and dirt collected on the way. They are then placed
+in a great revolving cylinder and roasted. You remember that when coffee
+is roasted it brings out a pleasant odor called its _aroma_. The same is
+true of cocoa. The roasting also helps to loosen a shell which surrounds
+the seed. The shell is next removed and the "beans" are then crushed.
+
+The Mexicans used to crush the seeds on a large stone, hollowed out on
+top. This they called a "matate."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Grinding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The crushing is now done by machinery. The broken bits of the cocoa are
+called "cocoa nibs." When the cocoa is ground to a powder, it is put
+into strong bags and pressed. This pressure removes a part of an oily
+substance known as "cocoa butter." Remember, then, that cocoa is the
+meal or flour made from the crushed seeds from which some of the oil has
+been removed. Chocolate differs from cocoa in that none of this oil is
+removed in making it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Moulding Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+You have often seen the words "sweet chocolate" on the labels. This is
+made by adding a quantity of pulverized sugar to the "plain" or "bitter"
+chocolate. Sometimes vanilla beans are added.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Cooling Cocoa.
+
+(Permission of WALTER BAKER & CO., Ltd.)]
+
+The pasty mass known as chocolate must be molded. When the proper amount
+has been placed in each of several metal molds which rest on a table,
+they are made to rock or shake, and this causes the chocolate to assume
+the right shape. The molds are then taken to the cooling room, where
+they are placed on frames, one above another, in long rows. Girls and
+women wrap the cakes of chocolate in the wrappers specially prepared for
+them, after which they are packed in boxes ready for shipment.
+
+At Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the Neponset River, is situated the
+largest establishment for the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate in
+America. It is interesting to know that on the very spot where these
+great mills now stand, was built, in 1765, the first one of the kind in
+this country.
+
+
+
+
+A CRANBERRY BOG
+
+
+                WAREHAM, MASSACHUSETTS, Dec. 10, 1901.
+
+DEAR FRANK: How surprised you will be to learn that I am now a country
+boy. We left Boston early last spring, and came out here to go into the
+business of cranberry raising. It seemed very strange at first to travel
+along country roads, or through woods and fields, instead of upon the
+cement walks of our city streets, but we all think the country
+delightful.
+
+A cranberry farm is a marsh or a bog, so you will see that the vines
+need a great deal of water. There are both wild and cultivated bogs.
+Those that are cultivated are provided with a system of ditches, so that
+they can be flooded from time to time. It is a good deal like irrigation
+in Southern California, I suppose. We flood the bogs to prevent the
+berries from freezing, as well as to furnish the vines with water. I
+will tell you more about that by and by.
+
+Father wanted a larger bog than the one he first bought, so, soon after
+we came, he got another small piece of marsh land which joins it on the
+west, and started vines on it.
+
+You know that willows, rosebushes, grapevines, and many other plants
+will grow from _cuttings_. It is the same with cranberry vines. The
+lower end of each cutting is pressed into the soil, and it soon begins
+to grow. They are set in rows about fourteen inches apart. One of our
+neighbors, who was starting a bog at the same time, cut the vines into
+pieces an inch or two long, and scattered them over the ground. He then
+harrowed them in. The vines multiply just as strawberry plants do, by
+putting out _runners_.
+
+They tell us that our new bog will produce a crop in three years. Do you
+have to wait that long for a crop of oranges?
+
+By the middle of June our bog was in full blossom. The flowers are quite
+small and their color is a little like that of the flesh. I read an
+interesting thing about them the other day. It seems that the berries
+used to be called "craneberries," because people thought that the
+blossoms, just before they opened fully, "resembled the neck, head, and
+bill of a crane." By dropping the _e_, we got the present name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--A Cranberry Bog. Showing the Young Vines.]
+
+During our harvest time, which lasted from the middle of September to
+the last of October, we were very busy. We did not commence to go to
+school until the berries were picked. You see, frost may occur and spoil
+the crop, so that everybody works as fast as possible until the harvest
+is over. Father had about twenty pickers some of the time, besides our
+own family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Cranberry Pickers at Work. Notice how the Bog
+is divided into Rows by Means of Cords.]
+
+When we were ready to begin picking, father took some twine and
+stretched it back and forth across the bog, fastening it to small
+stakes. This divided the field into rows. Each picker was given a row,
+and he was not allowed to change until it was finished.
+
+At first it seemed great fun to get down on the ground and strip off the
+bright berries, but when one does this day after day it gets pretty
+tiresome. It must be easy to pick oranges, because you can stand up
+while you work.
+
+Father paid the pickers twelve cents a pail. It takes about three
+pailfuls to make a bushel. I averaged about one dollar and a half each
+day. I bought a suit of clothes and all of my books for the year, and
+have considerable money left. Some of the pickers who were quite small
+did not earn very much. Do you recognize Jennie? She worked a part of
+every day.
+
+Twice during the picking season there was a sharp frost, but we saved
+the crop.
+
+The government sends out a Weather Map every day. Our teacher gets one,
+and there is one tacked up in the post office every morning. These maps
+tell what kind of weather to expect, and father watches them closely.
+When he saw that frost was likely to occur, he and the men opened the
+gates which hold back the water, in order to flood the part of the bog
+where we had not picked. The vines were buried nearly two feet beneath
+the surface of the water. Father says the water cools so slowly that its
+temperature is much above that of the surface of the ground or the air
+near it, so the berries do not get frost-bitten. Soon after sunrise the
+water was drawn off, and the next day the bog was dry enough for the
+pickers to work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--A Young Worker. Notice how the Berries are
+picked.]
+
+I wonder if the Weather Bureau is of any use to farmers in California. I
+know that the sailors watch for the flags which tell when storms are
+coming, that they may not go to sea if a violent storm is expected.
+Father says very many lives and much property are saved every year in
+this way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Winnowing and Barreling Cranberries.]
+
+I have not told you what we do with the cranberries after they are
+picked. Of course we cannot help gathering some leaves and twigs with
+the berries, and these must be taken out. For this purpose the berries
+are put into a winnowing machine. I will send you a picture of one. As
+the man turns the crank, wooden fans within turn rapidly, blowing out
+the leaves, twigs, and dirt. The berries drop through a screen and run
+out of a spout into a barrel, as you see. We then put them into crates
+or barrels for sale. Father tells me that cranberries are shipped from
+our country to Europe, because those raised here are much better than
+the European berries.
+
+There are great quantities of cranberries raised in this part of
+Massachusetts. I have been reading lately that they are produced in New
+Jersey, on Long Island, in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Canada, and
+some other sections. From what I have read, I guess they are not raised
+in Southern California. Wouldn't it seem strange if you were to eat
+berries raised on our bog, three thousand miles away?
+
+Now I want you to tell me about the orange groves of Southern
+California, for none of us have ever seen an orange growing.
+
+I wish you all a very "Merry Christmas" and a "Happy New Year."
+
+                                      Your loving friend,
+
+                                                        WILL.
+
+
+
+
+THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC
+
+
+Imagine yourself on a great ocean steamship, gliding over the blue water
+of the Pacific Ocean toward the Samoan Islands. Among the first things
+that you will see as you near the shores of these islands will be tall,
+slender, graceful trees, rising without a branch to a height of thirty
+to eighty feet. At the top is a sort of crown, composed of long,
+drooping leaves. These beautiful trees lean out over the water and toss
+their leaves in the strong and steady breeze from the ocean. They seem
+to nod a friendly greeting to you as you approach, and to wave a loving
+farewell to you as you sail away. These trees are the cocoanut palms.
+They grow on all of the tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean, in the
+West Indies, and along the shores of most warm countries, but never far
+from the sea.
+
+When the cocoanut falls into the water, it is rocked and tossed by the
+waves and drifted about by the currents, but it is safe within its
+shell, for the salt water cannot penetrate this. When it finally comes
+to rest upon some strange shore, it is ready to give to the world
+another cocoanut palm, if the climate is like that from which it sailed.
+In this way nature has helped the trees to become widely distributed.
+
+There are cocoanut plantations as well as wild groves of the trees. When
+a plantation is to be established, the planter selects the ripest nuts
+and dries them for several weeks. They are then planted, and by and by a
+little palm springs from the small end of the nut and the roots from the
+large end. When the young trees are from six months to two years old,
+they are transplanted in rows thirty or forty feet apart. They begin to
+bear nuts in about five years, but they do not yield a full crop for
+fifteen or twenty years. Do you think that a poor man could afford to go
+into the business of cocoanut raising?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A Cocoanut Grove.]
+
+As you see in the picture, cocoanuts grow in clusters. You notice
+also that they grow close to the stem instead of at the ends of the
+branches. They do not all ripen at once, but nuts may be picked at
+almost any time. A tree will produce from fifty to one hundred nuts each
+year. If you were to go into an apple, a peach, or a cherry orchard, you
+could easily pick the ripe fruit. Gathering cocoanuts is quite a
+different matter, however. Let us observe this shiny-skinned Samoan boy
+and see how he picks them. He fastens a short piece of rope in the form
+of a loop to each foot. Letting one of the loops catch on a rough place
+on the bark of the tree he places the hollow of his foot against it,
+clasps the trunk with his hands, and raises himself a little. Then the
+other loop is fastened a little higher up, and he raises himself again.
+In this way he finally reaches the nuts. With a knife he cuts off the
+ripe ones, which fall to the ground and are then piled up. They are then
+placed in baskets which are hung from a pole and carried on the
+shoulders of two men or are loaded on to donkeys and taken to the shed.
+
+The ripe cocoanut is a valuable article of food just as it is picked
+from the tree. It contains also a milk which is a nourishing drink. Most
+of the cocoanut sent to other countries, however, is in a form known as
+_copra_.
+
+At the shed the hard shell, which covers the meat, is split open by
+means of an ax. The meat is removed with a knife and is then spread out
+on mats to dry. This dried cocoanut is copra.
+
+The inhabitants of these cocoanut islands live in a much more simple
+style than we do, and the cocoanut tree supplies many of the things that
+they use daily.
+
+Let us examine the home of a native Samoan. The frame and posts of the
+house are made of the slender trunks of the cocoanut palm, while the
+roof is covered with its leaves instead of with shingles. The cups,
+bowls, dippers, and many other household utensils are made of the
+shells. If a whole shell is wanted, the "eyes" are pushed in, the milk
+is used, and ants are allowed to eat the meat. These make excellent
+water bottles. Baskets, curtains, and twine, are made from the fiber of
+the leaves, and the bark is used for fuel.
+
+From the copra an oil is pressed which is used in the manufacture of
+soap. It makes a perfectly white soap that will float on the water. It
+is also used to furnish light, and the people rub it on their bodies to
+prevent sunburn. The sap of the tree is made into sugar, vinegar, and a
+liquor.
+
+While in our country the cocoanut is important chiefly to bakers and
+confectioners, in these far-away islands it is the most useful of
+plants, and one of the chief articles of food. Would you not like to
+visit the cocoanut islands and learn more of their interesting people?
+
+
+
+
+A BUNCH OF BANANAS
+
+
+Every day, as you walk along the streets you see great bunches of
+bananas hanging in front of fruit and grocery stores. You find them at
+the corner fruit stand, and peddlers carry them from house to house.
+
+Although bananas are so common now and so cheap that all can afford to
+eat them, this was not so when your grandparents were children. In those
+days the fruit was regarded as quite a luxury, for there were few people
+engaged in carrying it from its tropical home to the cities of our
+country. Now many small but swift ships, called "fruiters," carry on
+this business. They get their cargoes of fruit in the West Indies or
+Central America, and within a week after sailing they are unloading at
+New Orleans, Baltimore, New York, or Boston. If the number of bananas
+which reach our country each year were equally distributed, each person
+would receive twenty-five.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A Banana Tree.]
+
+Let us get aboard that wonderful train upon which all may travel free of
+cost, which runs equally well upon land and water. We step off right in
+the center of a banana plantation on the island of Jamaica.
+
+Yes, these are banana trees all about you. See how long and broad the
+leaves are and how gracefully they droop! Some of them are ten or
+fifteen feet long; almost as long as the trees are tall. The trees, you
+see, are simply stalks from which the leaves unroll. Here you can see
+some just starting out. They are rolls of bright green, pointing upward,
+each starting from the center of the stalk. No, the leaves were not torn
+in that way by the pickers. The wind sometimes whips them into ribbons,
+for they are very tender.
+
+These stalks growing from the base of the main stem are called "suckers"
+here; in Costa Rica they are called "bits." You remember that there are
+no seeds in bananas. It is these "suckers" that are planted when a
+farmer wants to start a plantation. They are set out when two or three
+feet high and within a year they bear fruit. What did I tell you about
+the length of time required for the cocoanut to bear?
+
+It is but four years since the trees in this plantation were single
+"suckers," standing about fifteen feet apart. Now there are several
+stalks grouped about each parent plant, and the beautiful leaves,
+touching overhead, form shaded aisles of green.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--A Banana Plantation.]
+
+Of course a great number of "suckers" are not allowed to grow together.
+Keeping these cut down is called "cleaning the plantation."
+
+Now let us examine the fruit on this tree beside us. You see that the
+great cluster or bunch is made up of smaller bunches. These are called
+"hands," and each banana is spoken of as a "finger." Let us count the
+"hands" in this bunch. This is an unusually large one, for it contains
+thirteen. Nine "hands" make a _full bunch_. As you see, there are from
+ten to twenty "fingers" in a "hand." Buyers will seldom take bunches of
+less than six "hands."
+
+Here come the fruit cutters to help get a cargo for the "fruiter" we saw
+at anchor.
+
+Yes, the bananas are green, I know, and they are always green when
+gathered. They will ripen in the storehouses when they reach the United
+States.
+
+No, it is not a waste to cut down the stalks, for they die after bearing
+their fruit, and the smaller stalks about them will soon yield. Some of
+these stalks, you see, have but one bunch and some have two or three.
+How odd the bunches look with the "fingers" all pointing upward!
+
+The banana leaves which the men are wrapping about the bunches are to
+protect the fruit. It bruises very easily and great quantities are lost
+on this account. They are not always wrapped, however.
+
+When the fruit reaches the vessel, it is carefully inspected; and if not
+in just the right condition, it is refused. The bunches which are
+accepted, are taken into the hold of the ship and packed closely
+together. The planter receives for these from ten to thirty-five cents a
+bunch. Just think of buying eight or nine dozen of bananas for ten
+cents!
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Loading a Small Boat with Bananas to be taken
+to the "Fruiter" in the Harbor.]
+
+The men will not stop work until the ship is loaded. It may take
+twenty-four hours, and it may take twice that long, for a "fruiter" will
+carry from fifteen to twenty thousand bunches of fruit.
+
+In some parts of Central America, where there are no harbors, the
+planters float the fruit down the streams in canoes. The vessels anchor
+at some distance from the shore, and the bananas are taken out in boats
+called _dories_. They are hoisted up to the deck of the ship by means of
+pulleys, and then packed in the hold. The thousands of bunches which are
+bruised in handling are thrown into the sea.
+
+While the northern ports get most of their supply of bananas from the
+West Indies, the Pacific coast states are supplied from Central America.
+The "fruiters" unload at New Orleans into trains, which carry the fruit
+to Los Angeles, San Francisco, and other places. Banana trains also run
+from New Orleans to St. Louis, Chicago, and other parts of the country.
+
+The fruit ships have great pipes or ventilators, which carry the cool,
+fresh air from the sea down into the hold. Sometimes when they reach
+port it is so cold that the bananas cannot be taken out for a few days.
+Wagons are loaded with the fruit at the wharves, and it is taken to
+warehouses where it gradually turns yellow. I am sure you have seen
+loads of the green fruit on the streets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--A "Fruiter" taking a Cargo of Bananas.]
+
+When the wholesale merchant sells the fruit, he often incloses each
+bunch in the rough material of which gunny sacks are made, and then puts
+a light, circular frame, made of strips of wood, over it. This, you see,
+protects the bananas. The grocer or fruit man takes hold of the frame
+without danger of mashing the fruit, lifts the bunch, and hangs it upon
+a hook. The frame and sacking are then removed.
+
+Bananas grow in the tropical parts of Asia and Africa and on many of the
+islands of the Pacific Ocean. They are also raised in Florida, and they
+ripen in sheltered places in Southern California.
+
+You have seen both yellow and red bananas. The red ones usually bring
+the higher price, but they do not keep well and are not so extensively
+raised as the yellow ones.
+
+The banana is an important article of food. It is much more nourishing
+than potatoes or even good, white bread. A flour or meal can be made
+from the fruit by drying it and then grinding.
+
+
+
+
+HOW DATES GROW
+
+
+Three thousand years before the shepherds followed the star to the
+manger at Bethlehem, the beautiful date palm was cultivated beside the
+banks of the Euphrates and the Nile rivers. The date was the bread of
+the people who lived in these fertile valleys, and it is an important
+article of food in northern Africa, Arabia, and Persia to-day.
+
+Look at a map of northern Africa, and you will see that the great Sahara
+covers a large part of it. Here and there across the drifting sands wind
+caravan routes, traveled by camels ridden by strangely dressed men.
+These routes lead to beautiful garden spots called _oases_. Here are
+wells and springs, with little streams flowing in the shade of fig, date
+palm, and other trees. The people who dwell within these groves beside
+the cooling waters look out upon the desert as the inhabitants of an
+island might look upon the boundless sea. Find some of these oases and
+learn why they are fertile. The people who live in these oases depend
+upon dates for their living. The dreary journey from the coast to the
+interior is made to procure quantities of this fruit, which are wanted
+by the outside world.
+
+If you were to make a journey in a desert country, you would find that
+you could not carry such articles of food as you would have if you
+remained at home. The sunshine beats down fiercely, the springs and
+wells are far apart, and the patient animals must not be overloaded. The
+chief article of food carried is the date. A mass is packed together
+until it is so hard that pieces are chopped off with a hatchet when they
+are wanted.
+
+Like the cocoanut palm, the date palm rises to a great height, sometimes
+fifty or sixty feet, without branches. It ends in a crown of beautiful
+feathery leaves which droop downward. These leaves may be ten or fifteen
+feet long. Many of them stand edgewise. Unlike most trees, the trunk
+does not steadily increase in size, and you can tell nothing as to
+the age of the tree by its diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Date Palms loaded with Ripe Fruit, Biskra,
+Algeria. (Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1900.)]
+
+In its wild state many shoots spring from the base of the tree. These
+may grow as high as the parent stalk, so that in time a jungle or
+thicket is formed.
+
+The flowers, which are clear white, grow in clusters. There are from six
+to twenty of these clusters on a tree, each of which produces a bunch of
+dates. The female tree bears the fruit. The blossoms are pollinated both
+by the wind and by man.
+
+There are from ten to fifteen pounds of dates in a bunch. A tree will
+average from one hundred to two hundred pounds each year, although trees
+have been known to yield six hundred pounds. The trees yield when from
+four to eight years old, and continue to bear for a century.
+
+The dates, green at first, later in the year a yellowish brown, are,
+when ripe, amber or black in color.
+
+The trees require a very dry, hot climate, but moist soil. Long, long
+ago, this saying was common among the Arabs, "The date palm, the queen
+of trees, must have her feet in running water and her head in the
+burning sky."
+
+Although there are lovely date palm trees on the grounds of many
+California homes, few of them bear fruit. The temperature must average
+from eighty to ninety degrees for a considerable time in the summer, in
+order to mature it. What is the average summer temperature in your
+locality?
+
+If an ordinary tree is frost-bitten, it recovers and soon puts out a new
+growth; but if the crown of the date palm be frozen, the tree dies.
+
+When the Moors went to Spain, in the eleventh century, they introduced
+this valuable tree which the mission fathers several hundred years later
+brought to Mexico and to Southern California.
+
+How would you like to try to climb a date palm tree? Although they look
+so smooth and are without branches, the natives of the desert climb them
+without any help whatever. The trunk is always somewhat rough, and this
+makes it possible to ascend them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Date Palm Trees.]
+
+Not all of the dates in a bunch ripen at once, so they are usually
+picked by hand and only the ripe ones selected. Sometimes, however, the
+bunches are cut off. Some dates contain so much sap that the bunches
+must be hung up to allow it to drain off before they can be shipped.
+This sap is called _date honey_, and is saved. They are sent to the
+coast towns in bags or boxes called _frails_. Where dates are to be sold
+in small quantities, they are repacked in the small boxes such as you
+have seen.
+
+You know that dates are very sweet, and it is no wonder that they are,
+for they contain from fifty-five to sixty per cent of sugar.
+
+The trees are often tapped, and the sap which flows out is made into
+sugar. Vinegar and a liquor called _arrack_ are also made from it. The
+leaves of the tree are made into bags and mats; from the stones a drink
+is made which takes the place of coffee. From the leafstalks baskets are
+made, while the trunk furnishes material for houses and for fences.
+
+If the dates could speak, they could tell us many wonderful stories of
+the far East, of the river boats on the Nile, of the drifting sands
+which come so close to the river's banks, of the caravans creeping over
+the desert toward the green oases and then fading out of sight, bearing
+loads of this food to the countries where it is not produced.
+
+
+
+
+THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
+
+
+                            PASADENA, CALIFORNIA, Jan. 4, 1902.
+
+DEAR FRIEND WILL: I was very glad to receive your letter, and much
+surprised to know that you are living on a farm. I am glad that you
+described the raising of cranberries, for I did not know much about it
+before. When I told my teacher about getting the letter, she asked me to
+read it in the geography class and to show the pictures. I asked our
+grocery-man where he gets his cranberries, and found that some of them
+came from Wareham.
+
+You are having cold weather now, I know. Is the skating good? I have not
+seen ice as thick as window glass since we came to California, except
+that delivered by the iceman. Just now there is a beautiful covering of
+snow on the mountains a few miles north and east of town. Just think of
+picking roses and callas with snow in plain sight! The snow never
+remains more than a day or two on these mountains.
+
+Soon after we came to Pasadena, father bought an orange grove of
+twenty-five acres. We are picking the fruit now. People began to pick
+oranges several weeks ago, and the work will continue all winter.
+
+Orange trees are planted about twenty feet apart, but the groves do not
+look as apple orchards do in the East, for no grass is allowed to grow
+in them.
+
+The best orange section is east of here, near Redlands and Riverside,
+but some good fruit is raised near Pasadena also.
+
+Father keeps our trees pruned down rather low, so that it is easier to
+pick the oranges than it would be if they were allowed to grow very
+tall.
+
+Orange raising is like cranberry growing in one way--the land must be
+irrigated in each case. Here the water is piped from the mountain
+streams and from tunnels. We form basins about ten feet square around
+each tree and fill them with water. Most of our irrigating is done
+during the summer, as the winter is our rainy season. _You_ would not
+call it a very rainy time. Our average is about twenty inches for the
+whole year.
+
+The trees in our grove have been set out about six years, and they are
+bearing nicely now. Orange trees begin to bear when they are four years
+old; so, you see, we have to wait a little longer for a crop than you do
+for a crop of cranberries. It costs a good deal to start an orange
+grove. Trees cost from one dollar to one and one-half dollars each at
+the nurseries. A few years ago they sold for twenty cents each.
+
+I wish that you could see the trees when they are in full blossom, and
+also when they are loaded with the golden fruit. I am going to put some
+orange blossoms into the envelope, but I am afraid they will not reach
+you in very good condition. They are very fragrant, and you can smell
+their perfume some distance from a tree in blossom.
+
+To-day we picked about two hundred and fifty boxes of oranges. We always
+speak of _picking_ them, although they are not picked, but cut. You
+see, if they were picked off, the part where the stem pulled off would
+soon begin to decay.
+
+We take a wagon load of fruit boxes, and, while father drives slowly
+between the rows of trees, I throw them off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Picking Oranges in California.]
+
+Each picker carries a sack slung over one shoulder, and as fast as he
+cuts off an orange, he drops it into the sack. The sacks are emptied
+into the boxes, and these are loaded on to the wagon. Father pays five
+cents a box for picking, and a good picker will gather about forty boxes
+in a day.
+
+We sell most of our oranges to fruit companies. These companies pack and
+ship the fruit. At the packing houses the oranges are placed in tubs of
+water and scrubbed with small brushes. Many women, girls, and boys work
+at this. The washing is to take off dirt, and also _scale_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Grading and Packing Oranges.]
+
+After the oranges are washed, they are placed in a sort of trough which
+is highest at the end near the tub. They roll down this trough to the
+_grader_. This is a machine so arranged that the oranges pass through
+different openings according to their size, and come out sorted.
+
+In the warehouse close by they are wrapped and packed. Chinamen often do
+this work. Each orange is wrapped in a separate piece of paper, which
+has the brand of the company stamped upon it. It is then packed firmly
+in a box. A certain number of oranges of each grade fill a box,
+ninety-six of the largest grade, and about two hundred of the smallest.
+Those which are too small, as well as the imperfect oranges, are
+rejected. These are called _culls_. Sometimes these are sold for a low
+price, and sometimes they are thrown away by wagon loads.
+
+After the boxes are filled, they are placed in special fruit cars and
+hurried to St. Louis, Chicago, New York, Boston, and other cities.
+
+Yes, the Weather Bureau is of great help to fruit growers. Of course we
+have very little winter here, but oranges will not endure much cold. The
+mercury falls below the freezing point but a few times each season. On
+New Year's Day the temperature here was fifty-eight degrees. I looked up
+the Boston temperature for the same day and found that it was only four
+degrees above zero. When the Bureau predicts a sharp freeze, the farmers
+build small fires in their orchards, or turn on a good deal of water.
+The fires are built in small wire baskets. They make a smudge instead of
+a flame. The people in the raisin districts watch the weather reports
+pretty closely, for rain injures the drying grapes.
+
+Growers have to _spray_ or _fumigate_ the trees to destroy the scale
+that I spoke of which is a great enemy of the orange, to kill the
+insects, and to wash off dirt. This is sometimes done by putting a great
+piece of canvas over the tree, forming a sort of tent which prevents the
+fumes from escaping. It was found that the ladybugs would eat the scale
+and so they were brought into California from the East. They do a great
+deal of good, but still we have to spray the trees.
+
+Orange trees are raised from the seed, and the trees produced in this
+way are called _seedlings_. By _budding_, a fruit much better than the
+oranges grown on the seedling tree has been produced. There were five
+acres of seedlings in our grove, and father budded the trees. He cut
+off the limbs rather close to the trunk of the tree. Then he slipped
+buds from _navel_ trees into cuts made through the bark in the end of
+each limb left on the tree. He then wound cord tightly about the limb
+and put on some wax. After a time a new growth started out where these
+buds were placed. These new branches will bear much improved fruit.
+
+We have a very fine variety of oranges called Washington Navels. Trees
+of this variety were obtained by our government from Brazil. Two of
+these were brought to Riverside, a town about seventy-five miles east of
+Pasadena, and planted on a ranch belonging to a Mr. Tibbits. They did
+well, and all of the trees of this variety in Southern California were
+obtained from these two through budding. These trees are still living.
+
+California and Florida are the two important orange-growing states of
+our country. Father says the industry is much older in Florida than in
+our state. Florida growers can ship their fruit to market much cheaper
+than we can. It costs us ninety cents for each box.
+
+Mexico, the West Indies, Italy, southern France, and Spain are also
+orange producers. These countries have the advantage of cheap labor,
+father says.
+
+I wish that you could visit us. We would have fine times, I am sure.
+
+The next time I write I will tell you about some of the other fruits
+raised in California.
+
+                            Your sincere friend,
+                                               FRANK.
+
+
+
+
+A VISIT TO A VINEYARD
+
+
+                                 PASADENA, CALIFORNIA, Oct. 1, 1902.
+
+DEAR FRIEND WILL: Last week father went to Fresno, which is about three
+hundred miles northwest of here, in the San Joaquin valley. He took me
+with him, and we visited some of the great vineyards and raisin-packing
+establishments near and in that city.
+
+Raisins are simply dried grapes. Although there are many countries where
+grapes grow, there are few where raisins are made. Dew, fog, and rain
+injure the fruit, so that the San Joaquin valley, with its dry, hot
+atmosphere, is well adapted to this industry.
+
+There are a great many different kinds of grapes but only the green
+variety is used in making raisins. The raisin grapes are called
+_muscats_. If the grapes are left on the vines long enough, they become
+raisins. I have picked some pretty good raisins from the vines. Of
+course by being spread out, they dry quicker and more evenly.
+
+The sugar that you find on and in the raisins is not put there by the
+people who dry the grapes. It comes from the juice of the grape.
+
+Grapevines grow from both roots and cuttings. Of course cuttings are the
+cheaper. Often they may be had for the asking. Many think that it is
+better to set out rooted vines than cuttings.
+
+They are planted in rows from six feet apart to twelve or fifteen feet.
+During the first year the young vines will grow several feet. In the
+fall, when the flow of the sap has been checked by frost, the vines are
+pruned. A vineyard in California looks quite different from one in the
+East. During the winter it is simply so many rows of stumps several
+inches in thickness and one or two feet high. During the summer the
+branches grow from these stumps and produce their beautiful clusters of
+grapes, only to be cut off in the fall or winter.
+
+The trimmings are generally burned in the vineyard at the same time that
+they are cut off. A sort of furnace made of sheet iron is fastened
+between two wheels and drawn by horses up and down between the rows. A
+man pitches the cuttings into it, and they burn as it moves along.
+
+In the early summer men go through the vineyards sprinkling a coating of
+sulphur on the vines. This is to prevent mildew, which damages the fruit
+very much.
+
+During the last half of August and September the grapes are picked.
+Sometimes the harvest continues into October. Most of the grapes had
+been gathered when we visited the vineyards.
+
+When the juice of the grapes is one fourth sugar, they are ready to
+pick. The grower generally tells the condition by the taste and color of
+the fruit, although there are instruments for determining the amount of
+sugar.
+
+Like oranges, grapes are cut from the vines and not picked. We saw great
+companies of Chinamen going through the vineyards cutting off the
+beautiful clusters. These they placed on shallow, wooden trays to dry.
+In a week or two, when the upper side of the clusters is pretty well
+dried, the grapes are turned. We saw the workmen place an empty tray,
+upside down, over the filled one. Then, holding the two together, they
+turned them over, and the grapes dropped into the tray that had been
+placed on top.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Picking Grapes.--Notice the Mountains in the
+Background.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Drying Raisin Grapes.]
+
+During this drying time the people watch the reports of the Weather
+Bureau. In some places flags are displayed when rain is expected. As a
+rule the grape season is over before the rains begin.
+
+When the grapes are taken from the trays, they are placed in boxes
+holding about one hundred pounds each. These are called _sweat boxes_.
+Here the driest grapes absorb some of the moisture from the others, and
+the mass becomes more uniform.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--A Vineyard after being Pruned.]
+
+After the drying process has been finished, the stems are rather
+brittle. To make them softer and easier to handle, the grapes are next
+placed in a cool room and left there for a time.
+
+After visiting some of the vineyards, we drove to one of the great
+packing establishments in Fresno. These packing houses are nearly always
+in the cities and towns, because there help can be easily obtained. The
+packing house that we visited employs four hundred people, mostly girls
+and women.
+
+The raisins are first placed on wooden or metal frames the size of a
+raisin box. These are called _forms_, and the packers are paid according
+to the number of forms filled. When these are filled, the raisins are
+carefully transferred to the boxes.
+
+A box of raisins weighs twenty pounds, but there are half boxes and
+quarter boxes put up also. A paper is placed on the bottom of each box,
+and over the raisins another is placed. On top of this there is a fancy
+paper on which the name of the packer is stamped.
+
+In most establishments there are three grades of raisins, Imperial
+Clusters, London Layers, and the loose and imperfect stems.
+
+Sometimes a second crop of grapes is gathered a little later in the
+fall. Of course these do not dry so well because the days are shorter,
+it is cooler, and rains sometimes occur. On this account they are dipped
+in lye and then rinsed in water. The lye cracks the skin, and so the
+juice evaporates more quickly. These are called Valencia raisins. There
+is not a very good market for these, so that people do not dip them so
+commonly now as they used to.
+
+We saw the machine where the raisins are _stemmed_. They pass from a
+hopper into a space between two woven-wire cylinders. The inner one
+revolves within the other. In this way the raisins are broken from the
+stems. They are then run through a fanning mill which cleans them, and
+they are finally graded by passing through screens having openings of
+different sizes.
+
+Most of the seedless raisins are made from seedless grapes, but there
+are machines for removing the seeds from the grapes which contain them.
+
+The superintendent of the packing house said that nearly all of the
+raisins that we import come from Spain, and that they are exported
+chiefly from the city of Malaga.
+
+The purple and other _wine grapes_ are taken to the wineries and sold by
+the ton, to be made into wine.
+
+There are many other things that I should like to write about, but my
+letter is a pretty long one now, so I will close.
+
+                                Your loving friend,
+                                                 FRANK.
+
+
+
+
+NUTTING
+
+
+Have you ever gone into the woods on a beautiful autumn day? The bright,
+warm sunshine floods the earth where the trees are far apart and sifts
+down through the branches. All nature seems to invite you to lie down
+under a tree and dream. It was on such a day that Rip Van Winkle fell
+into his long sleep.
+
+How pretty the trees look in their fall suits of yellow, crimson, red,
+and brown! What a rustling is made as your feet tread the carpet of
+leaves!
+
+The breezes pass among the branches and whisper a message to the
+bright-colored leaves. They understand and obey. Singly, in groups, and
+in showers, they silently float downward. By night and by day they fall,
+but soon this carpet will be changed for one of white.
+
+Listen! The leaves are not the only things that are falling. You can
+hear the _thump_, _thump_ of nuts as they drop from their lofty perches
+in the walnut and hickory-nut trees.
+
+Sit down quietly on that log and you will soon see the busy nut
+gatherers. With their tails curled over their backs, they race up and
+down the trees, or spring from branch to branch, carrying their precious
+burdens to their homes in the hollows of trunk or limb. Now one sits up
+straight, holding a nut between his paws, and turning it slowly as he
+cracks and eats it. If he sees you, he whisks out of sight, or scolds
+you from a safe place far above the ground.
+
+When the winter winds are whistling through the leafless trees, and
+snows are drifting over the ground, these little nut gatherers feast to
+their hearts' content.
+
+The squirrels do not gather all of the nuts. Children and grown people
+enjoy nutting. When there are not enough nuts on the ground, the men and
+boys climb the trees to shake them off. Then everybody hunts among the
+leaves for the treasures.
+
+Some of the most important nuts are walnuts, hickory nuts, hazelnuts,
+almonds, chestnuts, Brazil nuts, pecans, and peanuts.
+
+Many of the hickory nuts fall out of their coverings bright and clean.
+Walnuts generally have to be _shucked_, and the juice stains the hands
+almost black.
+
+As hazelnuts grow on bushes, they can be easily picked. They usually
+drop out of their burs after there have been a few frosts.
+
+Many nuts are gathered in the woods, but in some places the trees are
+cultivated just as fruit trees are.
+
+We usually eat nuts between meals, or as a dessert. They are not simply
+dainties, but are very valuable articles of food. In some countries the
+poor people depend upon them for food.
+
+In almost any city of our country are to be found the nuts that I have
+mentioned, with perhaps several other kinds. These have come from
+different states, some from Canada, some from Brazil, and some from
+Spain.
+
+I am sure you will enjoy gathering nuts of different kinds, so let us
+set out on a nutting expedition.
+
+
+
+
+A WALNUT VACATION
+
+
+How would you like to have your school close for two weeks, so that you
+could gather walnuts? Every year many of the boys and girls of Southern
+California are given a vacation just for this purpose. It is called the
+"walnut vacation," and occurs in the month of October.
+
+These children do not take their baskets and go off to the woods where
+they can romp and play, watch the squirrels, and gather beautiful autumn
+leaves. They gather nuts from the trees which their parents own, for in
+Southern California there are many walnut ranches or groves. You see the
+vacation means a vacation for work instead of for play.
+
+Walnut trees are set out in rows just as apple trees are, but their
+roots and branches extend to such a distance from the trunks that they
+need to be about twice as far apart.
+
+The walnut harvest, which begins about the first of October, is a busy
+time. Men, women, boys, and girls may be seen in the groves, shaking the
+nuts from the trees, picking them up, and putting them into sacks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--A Walnut Grove.]
+
+The men shake the trees, and there is a shower of nuts to the earth. Do
+not go under the branches now unless you want to be pelted. A single
+tree has been known to yield three hundred pounds of nuts in a season.
+
+When the trees have been given a good shaking, there are still some nuts
+clinging to the branches. These are obtained by shaking the limbs
+separately, by means of long poles, to the ends of which wire hooks are
+fastened. As all of the nuts do not ripen at the same time, the trees
+are sometimes gone over two or three times.
+
+Now the boys, girls, and women go to work filling pails and baskets and
+emptying them into sacks, for they can do this work as well as men.
+
+Usually the nuts drop out of their covering or _shuck_ when they strike
+the ground; but if they do not, the _shuck_ must be removed. Sometimes
+the covering is cut off. If you handle the nuts with your bare hands,
+they will be stained almost black, and you will have to let the color
+wear off.
+
+The days are bright and warm, and this sort of nutting becomes rather
+tiresome before sundown. The work must be done and the vacation is not a
+very long one, so each does his part cheerfully.
+
+When the nuts have been gathered, they are taken to the shed or place
+where they are to be washed. Here they are poured into a large wire
+cylinder which revolves in a tank filled with water. The machine is
+turned by a horse walking round and round, and it both washes and grades
+the nuts. The smaller ones pass through the meshes in the wire and are
+called _second grade_. The larger ones are known as _first grade_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Washing, Drying, and Sacking Walnuts.]
+
+When the walnuts come out of the washer, they are spread out on shallow,
+wooden trays to dry. Sometimes several thousand trays may be seen on
+one ranch. They are loaded on to a small car and pushed to the part of
+the field where they are wanted.
+
+If there is no foggy or cloudy weather, they will dry in about five
+days, but if there is, it may take ten.
+
+After the nuts are thoroughly dried, the trays are placed on the car and
+pushed to the _bleacher_. This is a large box made of tarred paper. It
+is placed over the trays, and a quantity of sulphur is burned in it.
+This is simply to whiten the shells, for they sell for a higher price
+when they are bleached. Sometimes the nuts are whitened by dipping them
+into a liquid preparation.
+
+The nuts are now sacked and marked, ready to ship. Soon after the boys
+and girls have finished their "walnut vacation," the nuts are on their
+way to the eastern part of the United States.
+
+Most of the walnuts raised in California have soft shells. Some have
+such thin shells that they are called "paper shells." The walnuts that
+grow in the woods of Indiana, Illinois, and other states have hard
+shells. They are dark in color and are called _black walnuts_. The trees
+are quite valuable, as the wood is used in making furniture.
+
+
+
+
+CHESTNUTS
+
+
+Let us go on a chestnutting expedition to the southern part of France.
+We can gather the nuts in many of the states of our own country, but the
+trip to a strange land will be enjoyed by all.
+
+The chestnut trees, many of which are very old, spread their branches to
+great distances. The nuts, as you see, are inclosed in a _bur_ or coat
+which covers the shell. There are generally two nuts in each bur.
+
+When _you_ eat chestnuts, you eat them as a sort of dainty, not as a
+regular article of food. This is not the case in the home of Jean, the
+boy who is helping his father fill those sacks. In his home, as in many
+homes in southern Europe, the nuts form one of the chief articles of
+daily food.
+
+In the winter Jean sells the freshly roasted nuts on a street corner in
+the city of Lyons. He gets a good many pennies each noon from workmen
+and poor people generally, who use them for their midday meal. He sells
+ten nuts for a penny.
+
+This is not the only way in which they are eaten. Jean's mother boils
+them with celery and mashes them as we do potatoes. The nuts are also
+ground into a flour from which bread is made. They are often used in the
+dressing for fowls.
+
+Confectioners use great quantities of chestnuts. In Lyons there are
+establishments where as many as two hundred persons are employed in
+preparing them.
+
+The nuts are first peeled, and then boiled in clear water, which removes
+the thin coating next the kernel. They are then placed in a sirup
+flavored with Mexican vanilla, in which they remain for about three
+days. After draining, they are coated with vanilla or chocolate and
+packed in attractive boxes. In this form they are worth forty-five or
+fifty cents a pound.
+
+
+
+
+A BAG OF PEANUTS
+
+
+Last summer Harry's parents took him with them on a visit to Virginia.
+Harry has always lived in New York City, and the country life of the
+South was very interesting to him.
+
+They visited friends who live on a beautiful _plantation_, as the farms
+in the South are called. A driveway lined with grand old trees leads
+through the flower-studded lawn up to the retired manor house, whose
+wide verandas completely circle it round.
+
+Beyond the house are the stables where work horses, driving horses, and
+saddle horses are kept; and beyond these is the pretty little boathouse,
+standing on the bank of a small river that winds its way through the
+plantation.
+
+The morning after Harry arrived, his friend Bert asked him if he would
+like to go across the river to see the men harvest peanuts.
+
+Now whenever Harry had wanted peanuts, he had always gone to a stand
+and bought a sack. He had never thought about where they came from. He
+had heard of shaking nuts from trees, so he supposed that they were
+going to the woods.
+
+He was therefore much surprised when Bert took him to a field across the
+river where men were plowing vines from the ground.
+
+"Do peanuts grow in the ground?" he asked.
+
+"Why, of course they do," answered Bert.
+
+"I thought that nuts grew on trees," said Harry.
+
+"Father says that the peanut is not a _real_ nut," replied his friend.
+"He says they should be called _ground nuts_ or _ground peas_." He
+pulled up one of the vines, and the boys threw themselves down under a
+tree to examine it.
+
+When the small clods of soil clinging to the roots of the plant had been
+removed, Harry saw a number of pods which he recognized as peanuts.
+
+Opening one of the pods, Bert took out the kernels.
+
+"These," said he, "are the _seeds_, and they are planted much as other
+seeds are.
+
+"Before they are planted the shell must be removed, but we have to be
+careful not to break the thin skin that covers the kernel. If that be
+broken, the seed will not grow.
+
+"The kernels are planted about one foot apart, in rows that are, as you
+see, about three feet apart. Sometimes they are planted by hand and
+sometimes by machinery."
+
+"I wonder if peanuts are raised in the country around New York," said
+Harry.
+
+"No, I think not," replied Bert, "for they are very easily killed by
+frost. Great quantities are raised in North Carolina and in Tennessee.
+Father says that the negroes of western Africa raised them long, long
+before they were known in the United States. He says that they are a
+very important article of food there, and that whole villages take part
+in the planting and harvesting.
+
+"After the vines blossom," continued Bert, "a very strange thing
+happens."
+
+"What is it?" asked Harry.
+
+"The flower stalks bend downward and push themselves right into the
+soil, and on these the pods develop. If the stalks do not enter the
+earth within a few hours after the flowers fall, they die."
+
+Harry now watched the plowing. The plows were drawn up and down the rows
+and ran directly under the vines, lifting them out of the soil. After
+they had been plowed out about two hours, men took them upon pitchforks
+and piled them up. Harry noticed that some of the piles were covered
+with corn fodder, and asked why this was. Bert told him that it was to
+keep out the rain.
+
+"What happens to the nuts after the vines have been piled up?" said
+Harry.
+
+"They remain in the piles fifteen or twenty days, and are then spread
+out on the ground or hauled to the barn, where the nuts are picked off,"
+answered Bert. "Sometimes they are picked by hand and sometimes by
+machinery. Let us go to the lower field; we have an earlier variety
+there, and the nuts are being picked now."
+
+They found men, women, and children picking the pods one by one and
+dropping them into baskets. These were emptied into sacks. Harry tried
+to lift one of these, and was surprised to find it so heavy. Bert told
+him that it weighed about one hundred pounds.
+
+"Do you burn the vines after the nuts are picked?" asked Harry.
+
+"No," said Bert, "they are fed to the cattle. We call the vines _peanut
+hay_."
+
+Bert explained that his father sold the sacks of nuts to the factory,
+where they were cleaned and sorted.
+
+The next day the boys went to town and visited the peanut factory.
+
+The nuts were first put through a machine which removed the dirt. They
+were then polished and sorted into four grades. The poorest grade is
+used in making peanut candy. The nuts were then sacked, and were ready
+to be shipped to the North.
+
+Harry learned that an oil is made from the nuts which is used as olive
+oil is used, and also that peanut butter is produced from them. He
+found that many men were employed on plantations all through Virginia
+and other states of the South, in raising the peanuts that are sold on
+the streets of every city and town in our country.
+
+
+
+
+ASSORTED NUTS
+
+
+After the Thanksgiving dinner had been eaten, the nuts were passed, and
+the children asked Uncle John to tell them something about a few of
+them.
+
+"All right," said he. "You pick out the ones that you want to know
+about."
+
+Frank handed him an almond.
+
+"This nut," said Uncle John, "came from sunny Spain. It grew not far
+from the blue Mediterranean. Almonds are raised in most parts of
+southern Europe and in the northern part of Africa. Ages ago they grew
+in the Holy Land, and are mentioned in the Bible."
+
+"Do almonds grow in any part of our country?" asked Helen.
+
+"I think they grow in California," said Frank.
+
+"You are right," said Uncle John. "There are many almond orchards in the
+southern part of the state.
+
+"An almond tree in full bloom is a beautiful sight. The blossoms are
+white, tinted with pink, and as they appear before the leaves do, there
+is nothing to hide them."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Almond Trees in Full Bloom.]
+
+"Does the nut have a covering?" inquired Mary.
+
+"Yes," replied Uncle John. "When the nut is ripe, the shuck opens
+gradually, and sometimes the nuts fall out.
+
+"When people have large orchards, they spread pieces of canvas under
+the trees and then shake them or beat them by means of long poles.
+
+"The nuts that do not fall out of the shucks are obtained by opening the
+shuck with a knife. The nuts are then dried, and are ready for market."
+
+As soon as Uncle John had finished, Mary handed him a hazelnut. "Please
+tell about this one," said she.
+
+"I have often gone hazel nutting when I was a boy," said her uncle.
+"Hazelnuts grow on bushes in thickets. They are six or eight feet high
+and very slender. Baskets are sometimes made of them, and I have often
+used them for arrows.
+
+"Sometimes the nuts grow singly, and sometimes in groups of two or
+three. A bur covers the nut, which sticks very closely until it is ripe.
+Then the nuts often fall out.
+
+"After I had gathered the hazelnuts, I used to spread them out on the
+roof of the wood house to dry."
+
+"Nuts that look just like these are called filberts," said Helen.
+
+"Filberts are cultivated hazelnuts," replied Uncle John; "they are
+larger than the wild ones."
+
+"I would like to know how this nut grows," said Helen, handing her uncle
+a black nut shaped like a triangular prism.
+
+"This," said Uncle John, "came from Brazil, and is called a Brazil nut.
+Do you know where Brazil is?"
+
+"It is in the northeastern part of South America," replied Helen.
+
+"The great Amazon River is in Brazil, and it flows through tropical
+forests," said Mary.
+
+"Much of our coffee comes from Brazil," said Frank.
+
+Uncle John then told the children that Brazil nuts come from the
+northern part of Brazil and from the Orinoco valley.
+
+Helen asked if they grow as walnuts and hickory nuts do.
+
+"No," answered her uncle, "they grow inside of a great case or shell.
+There are from eighteen to twenty-five in one shell, which is nearly as
+large as a man's head."
+
+"How are the nuts got out of the shells?" asked Mary.
+
+"When they fall, men break them open and take out the nuts," replied
+Uncle John. "Most of them are sent down the Amazon to the city of Para
+and from there shipped to the United States and other countries."
+
+None of the children knew where Para is situated, so they all went to
+the library to look at the atlas. After they had located it, Uncle John
+told them of his visit to the city and of the wonderful things which he
+saw on a steamboat trip up the Amazon River.
+
+
+
+
+A STRANGE CONVERSATION
+
+
+One evening after I had been reading for some time, I went to the
+kitchen to get a drink of water. That part of the house was dark and
+quiet, and as I stepped through the doorway, I heard low, musical
+voices, apparently in the pantry. I was very much surprised, you may be
+sure, and I kept perfectly still, and listened.
+
+"Yes," said a voice, which I could barely hear, "I am a long way from
+home indeed, and sometimes it makes me quite lonely when I think of it."
+
+"Tell us about your home, and how you lived," said another low voice.
+
+"Well," began the first speaker, "my name is _Pepper_. With twenty-five
+or thirty brothers and sisters I grew in a cluster on a vine. We were
+but a small part of the family, for there were similar clusters all over
+our vine. We were about as large as peas, and grew somewhat after the
+fashion of currants.
+
+"All about were other vines to which friends and relatives were
+attached. Pepper vines are always anxious to get to the top, and so some
+of these vines climbed trees and some twined themselves about poles,
+which men had set in the ground for this purpose. Our vine was three or
+four years old when we appeared on it."
+
+"How long did you live on the vine?" asked a voice that I had not heard
+before.
+
+"Only a few months," replied Pepper. "You see, we had to make room for
+another set of berries. Two sets appear each year for twenty years or
+more.
+
+"Under the influence of the tropical sunshine and the warm rains we grew
+day by day, and we were as happy as the butterflies and birds about us.
+By and by we began to turn red. All of this time a _hull_ or coat was
+forming on the outside of our bodies.
+
+"Before we became entirely red, workmen came to the field, and, by
+rubbing us between their hands, separated us from the stems to which we
+lovingly clung.
+
+"After having been picked, I was, with many others, placed upon a mat to
+dry. These mats were all about us, each covered with berries. After
+being thoroughly dried we were put into a mill and ground, and I became
+what I am now, _Black Pepper_."
+
+"Are there other kinds of pepper?" asked some one.
+
+"Oh, yes," said Pepper, "there is _White Pepper_, and _Red_, or _Cayenne
+Pepper_. Some of my friends were made into White Pepper. They were
+soaked in limewater for about two weeks, and this, of course, softened
+and wrinkled their hulls which had always fitted so nicely. This was bad
+enough, but it was not the worst."
+
+"What happened next?" said several voices.
+
+"They were then," continued Pepper, "trodden under the bare feet of
+dark-skinned men, and this rubbed off their hulls completely. After this
+they were ground as we had been.
+
+"Cayenne Pepper is not a member of our family at all, although it has
+the same name. I have looked up its genealogy, and I find that it
+received its name from the city of Cayenne, in French Guiana, near which
+it grows. It is in the form of bell-shaped pods, and grows on low, bushy
+plants instead of vines.
+
+"The pods are green at first, but red when ripe. No doubt you have seen
+strings of them hanging in the grocery store when you were on the
+shelves. People sometimes use the pods as they are, but usually they are
+dried, ground, mixed with yeast, and baked into flat cakes like
+crackers. When these cakes are ground, Red, or Cayenne Pepper, is
+produced. It is put up in little boxes just as we are.
+
+"Pepper used to be regarded as a great luxury," the speaker went on.
+"Until the eighteenth century the Portuguese handled almost all of it.
+It was not uncommon for rents to be paid with pepper. If any of you have
+read ancient history, you know that when Alaric took Rome he demanded,
+among other things, one thousand pounds of pepper as a ransom.
+
+"My home was in the East Indies," said Pepper, "but there are members
+of our family living in the Philippines, India, Mexico, the West Indies,
+and other tropical countries."
+
+"Your story is a very interesting one," said a voice, "and now, if you
+care to hear it, I will tell something of my life."
+
+"Yes, do tell us," said several at once.
+
+"Very well, I will follow the example of our friend Pepper and introduce
+myself at once. I am known as Ginger. I have relatives living in China,
+in India, and in the western part of Africa, but I came from the West
+Indies. The Ginger family is not like that of Pepper; it has no lofty
+notions."
+
+Pepper seemed a little inclined to get angry, so Ginger hastened to say:
+"I mean that our vines do not climb trees or poles, but run along the
+ground. I was a _root_ and not a _fruit_."
+
+"When I was about a year old I, with countless friends, was dug from the
+ground. We were cut from the vines and put into vats of scalding water."
+
+"That was _dreadful_," said Pepper.
+
+"We were treated in that way to prevent us from _sprouting_," continued
+Ginger. "After being taken out of the water, we were thoroughly dried
+and then ground. We were then put up in cans and boxes and sold as
+_Black Ginger_. Others were scraped before being ground, and they were
+then called _White Ginger_.
+
+"We were placed on board a great ship and finally landed at New York.
+After remaining in a large store there for some time, I was brought to
+the corner grocery, and so I found my way to this shelf.
+
+"I am gradually wasting away, and I shall not last a great while longer.
+In my tropical home I seemed to be of no use to anybody, while now I am
+called for frequently by the cook, and my services seem to be
+appreciated, so I am happy."
+
+"To be of some real use in this world is the greatest joy of life,"
+remarked a strange voice.
+
+There was silence for a moment, and then Ginger said "May we not hear
+from you, friend?"
+
+"Your stories almost make me believe that I am still in the land of my
+birth," was the reply.
+
+There was a peculiar little rattle about the voice, which I recognized
+at once as belonging to Cinnamon.
+
+"For several years I was rocked to and fro by gentle tropic breezes or
+lashed about by storms. From my perch I could see beautiful flowers,
+bright insects, and even serpents in the thicket at my feet. Birds of
+brilliant plumage often perched upon me. My home was on the island of
+Ceylon.
+
+"It is often said that where there is much bark there is no bite. In my
+own case that is not so."
+
+"I do not understand," said Ginger.
+
+"Why," said Cinnamon, laughing, "I am _all_ bark, and I have
+considerable bite, as those who have tasted me know.
+
+"I was taken from one of the smaller limbs of a cinnamon tree. I was
+slipped within a larger piece of bark, for we each rolled up when
+stripped from the limbs. A still larger piece was slipped over us and so
+on until quite a bundle had been formed. Some were quite short, and some
+were three feet in length."
+
+
+
+
+                   STORIES OF CALIFORNIA
+
+                            BY
+
+                       ELLA M. SEXTON
+
+                _With many illustrations_
+
+              Cloth      16mo      $1.00 net
+
+"As a concise and interesting history of California, it deserves a place
+in our schools and libraries, so that every child may read
+it."--_Pacific Churchman._
+
+"This volume comprises some excellent contributions to history, as it
+certainly comprises some notable contributions to romance. The little
+book is one which will appeal, therefore, to readers old and young.
+Several of the stories explain in some degree the remarkable physical
+characteristics of California, but the writer's chief aim has been to
+unfold to children and their parents the life of bygone days."--_The
+Outlook._
+
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