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+Project Gutenberg's The Moral Instruction of Children, by Felix Adler
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Moral Instruction of Children
+
+Author: Felix Adler
+
+Release Date: January 31, 2012 [EBook #38730]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MORAL INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN ***
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+
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+International Education Series
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+EDITED BY
+
+WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A.M., LL.D.
+
+_Volume XXI._
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES.
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+
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+
+     Vol. XX.--ROUSSEAU'S ÉMILE. By W. H. PAYNE. Price, $1.50.
+
+     Vol. XXI.--ETHICAL TRAINING IN SCHOOLS. By FELIX ADLER.
+
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+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES
+
+THE MORAL INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN
+
+BY
+FELIX ADLER
+
+NEW YORK
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+1892
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1892,
+BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
+
+ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED
+AT THE APPLETON PRESS, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+Moral education is everywhere acknowledged to be the most important part
+of all education; but there has not been the same agreement in regard to
+the best means of securing it in the school. This has been due in part
+to a want of insight into the twofold nature of this sort of education;
+for instruction in morals includes two things: the formation of right
+ideas and the formation of right habits. Right ideas are necessary to
+guide the will, but right habits are the product of the will itself.
+
+It is possible to have right ideas to some extent without the
+corresponding moral habits. On this account the formation of correct
+habits has been esteemed by some to be the chief thing. But unconscious
+habits--mere use and wont--do not seem to deserve the title of moral in
+its highest sense. The moral act should be a considerate one, and rest
+on the adoption of principles to guide one's actions.
+
+To those who lay stress on the practical side and demand the formation
+of correct habits, the school as it is seems to be a great ethical
+instrumentality. To those who see in theoretical instruction the only
+true basis of moral character, the existing school methods seem sadly
+deficient.
+
+The school as it is looks first after its discipline, and next after its
+instruction. Discipline concerns the behavior, and instruction concerns
+the intellectual progress of the pupil. That part of moral education
+which relates to habits of good behavior is much better provided for in
+the school than any part of intellectual education.
+
+There is, however, a conflict here between old and new ideals. The
+old-fashioned school regarded obedience to authority the one essential;
+the new ideal regards insight into the reasonableness of moral commands
+the chief end. It is said, with truth, that a habit of unreasoning
+obedience does not fit one for the exigencies of modern life, with its
+partisan appeals to the individual and its perpetual display of grounds
+and reasons, specious and otherwise, in the newspapers. The unreasoning
+obedience to a moral guide in school may become in after life
+unreasoning obedience to a demagogue or to a leader in crime.
+
+It is not obedience to external authority that we need so much as
+enlightened moral sense, and yet there remains and will remain much good
+in the old-fashioned habit of implicit obedience.
+
+The new education aims at building up self-control and individual
+insight. It substitutes the internal authority of conscience for the
+external authority of the master. It claims by this to educate the
+citizen fitted for the exercise of suffrage in a free government. He
+will weigh political and social questions in his mind, and decide for
+himself. He will be apt to reject the scheme of the demagogue. While the
+old-fashioned school-master relied on the rod to sustain his external
+authority, he produced, it is said, a reaction against all authority in
+the minds of strong-willed pupils. The new education saves the
+strong-willed pupil from this tension against constituted authority, and
+makes him law-abiding from the beginning.
+
+It will be admitted that the school under both its forms--old as well as
+new--secures in the main the formation of the cardinal moral habits. It
+is obliged to insist on regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry
+as indispensable for the performance of its school tasks. A private
+tutor may permit his charge to neglect all these things, and yet secure
+some progress in studies carried on by fits and starts, with noise and
+zeal to-day, followed by indolence to-morrow. But a school, on account
+of its numbers, must insist on the semi-mechanical virtues of
+regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry. Although these are
+semi-mechanical in their nature, for with much practice they become
+unconscious habits, yet they furnish the very ground-work of all
+combinations of man with his fellow-men. They are fundamental conditions
+of social life. The increase of city population, consequent on the
+growth of productive industry and the substitution of machines for hand
+labor, renders necessary the universal prevalence of these cardinal
+virtues of the school.
+
+Even the management of machines requires that sort of alertness which
+comes from regularity and punctuality. The travel on the railroad, the
+management of steam-engines, the necessities of concerted action,
+require punctuality and rhythmic action.
+
+The school habit of silence means considerate regard for the rights of
+fellow-workmen. They must not be interfered with; their attention must
+not be distracted from their several tasks. A rational self-restraint
+grows out of this school habit--rational, because it rests on
+considerateness for the work of others. This is a great lesson in
+co-operation. Morals in their essence deal with the relation of man to
+his fellow-men, and rest on a considerateness for the rights of others.
+"Do unto others," etc., sums up the moral code.
+
+Industry, likewise, takes a high rank as a citizen's virtue. By it man
+learns to re-enforce the moments by the hours, and the days by the
+years. He learns how the puny individual can conquer great obstacles.
+The school demands of the youth a difficult kind of industry. He must
+think and remember, giving close and unremitting attention to subjects
+strange and far off from his daily life. He must do this in order to
+discover eventually that these strange and far-off matters are connected
+in a close manner to his own history and destiny.
+
+There is another phase of the pupil's industry that has an important
+bearing on morals. All his intellectual work in the class has to do with
+critical accuracy, and respect for the truth. Loose statements and
+careless logical inference meet with severe reproof.
+
+Finally, there is an enforced politeness and courtesy toward teachers
+and fellow-pupils--at least to the extent of preventing quarrels. This
+is directly tributary to the highest of virtues, namely, kindness and
+generosity.
+
+All these moral phases mentioned have to do with the side of school
+discipline rather than instruction, and they do not necessarily have any
+bearing on the theory of morals or on ethical philosophy, except in the
+fact that they make a very strong impression on the mind of the youth,
+and cause him to feel that he is a member of a moral order. He learns
+that moral demands are far more stern than the demands of the body for
+food or drink or repose. The school thus does much to change the pupil
+from a natural being to a spiritual being. Physical nature becomes
+subordinated to the interests of human nature.
+
+Notwithstanding the fact that the school is so efficient as a means of
+training in moral habits, it is as yet only a small influence in the
+realm of moral theory. Even our colleges and universities, it must be
+confessed, do little in this respect, although there has been of late an
+effort to increase in the programmes the amount of time devoted to
+ethical study. The cause of this is the divorce of moral theory from
+theology. All was easy so long as ethics was directly associated with
+the prevailing religious confession. The separation of Church and
+State, slowly progressing everywhere since the middle ages, has at
+length touched the question of education.
+
+The attempt to find an independent basis for ethics in the science of
+sociology has developed conflicting systems. The college student is
+rarely strengthened in his faith in moral theories by his theoretic
+study. Too often his faith is sapped. Those who master a spiritual
+philosophy are strengthened; the many who drift toward a so-called
+"scientific" basis are led to weaken their moral convictions to the
+standpoint of fashion, or custom, or utility.
+
+Meanwhile the demand of the age to separate Church from State becomes
+more and more exacting. Religious instruction has almost entirely ceased
+in the public schools, and it is rapidly disappearing from the
+programmes of colleges and preparatory schools, and few academies are
+now scenes of religious revival, as once was common.
+
+The publishers of this series are glad, therefore, to offer a book so
+timely and full of helpful suggestions as this of Mr. Adler. It is hoped
+that it may open for many teachers a new road to theoretic instruction
+in morality, and at the same time re-enforce the study of literature in
+our schools.
+
+W. T. HARRIS.
+
+WASHINGTON, D.C., _July, 1892_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE.
+
+
+The following lectures were delivered in the School of Applied Ethics
+during its first session in 1891, at Plymouth, Mass. A few of the
+lectures have been condensed, in order to bring more clearly into view
+the logical scheme which underlies the plan of instruction here
+outlined. The others are published substantially as delivered.
+
+I am deeply conscious of the difficulties of the problem which I have
+ventured to approach, and realize that any contribution toward its
+solution, at the present time, must be most imperfect. I should, for my
+part, have preferred to wait longer before submitting my thought to
+teachers and parents. But I have been persuaded that even in its present
+shape it may be of some use. I earnestly hope that, at all events, it
+may serve to help on the rising tide of interest in moral education, and
+may stimulate to further inquiry.
+
+FELIX ADLER.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY LECTURES.
+                                                                  PAGE
+   I. The Problem of Unsectarian Moral Instruction                   3
+
+  II. The Efficient Motives of Good Conduct                         17
+
+ III. Opportunities for Moral Training in the Daily School          27
+
+  IV. The Classification of Duties                                  37
+
+   V. The Moral Outfit of Children on entering School               47
+
+
+PRIMARY COURSE.
+
+  VI. The Use of Fairy Tales                                        64
+
+ VII. The Use of Fables                                             80
+
+VIII. Supplementary Remarks on Fables                               96
+
+  IX. Selected Stories from the Bible                              106
+
+   X. The Odyssey and the Iliad                                    146
+
+
+GRAMMAR COURSE.
+
+LESSONS ON DUTY.
+
+  XI. The Duty of acquiring Knowledge                              169
+
+ XII. Duties which relate to the Physical Life and the Feelings    185
+
+XIII. Duties which relate to Others (Filial and Fraternal Duties)  202
+
+ XIV. Duties toward all Men (Justice and Charity)                  218
+
+  XV. The Elements of Civic Duty                                   236
+
+ XVI. The Use of Proverbs and Speeches                             245
+
+XVII. Individualization of Moral Teaching                          249
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+      The Influence of Manual Training on Character                257
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY LECTURES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE PROBLEM OF UNSECTARIAN MORAL INSTRUCTION.
+
+
+It will be the aim of the present course of lectures to give in outline
+the subject-matter of moral instruction for children from six to
+fourteen or fifteen years of age, and to discuss the methods according
+to which this kind of instruction should be imparted. At the outset,
+however, we are confronted by what certainly is a grave difficulty, and
+to many may appear an insuperable one. The opinion is widely held that
+morality depends on religious sanctions, and that right conduct can not
+be taught--especially not to children--except it be under the authority
+of some sort of religious belief. To those who think in this way the
+very phrase, unsectarian moral teaching, is suspicious, as savoring of
+infidelity. And the attempt to mark off a neutral moral zone, outside
+the domains of the churches, is apt to be regarded as masking a covert
+design on religion itself.
+
+The principle of unsectarian moral instruction, however, is neither
+irreligious nor anti-religious. In fact--as will appear later on--it
+rests on purely educational grounds, with which the religious bias of
+the educator has nothing whatever to do. But there are also grounds of
+expediency which, at least in the United States, compel us, whether we
+care to do so or not, to face this problem of unsectarian moral
+education, and to these let us first give our attention. Even if we were
+to admit, for argument's sake, the correctness of the proposition that
+moral truths can only be taught as corollaries of some form of religious
+belief, the question would at once present itself to the educator, To
+which form of religious belief shall he give the preference? I am
+speaking now of the public schools of the United States.
+
+These schools are supported out of the general fund of taxation to which
+all citizens are compelled to contribute. Clearly it would be an act of
+gross injustice to force a citizen belonging to one denomination to pay
+for instilling the doctrines of some other into the minds of the
+young--in other words, to compel him to support and assist in spreading
+religious ideas in which he does not believe. This would be an outrage
+on the freedom of conscience. But the act of injustice would become
+simply monstrous if parents were to be compelled to help indoctrinate
+their own children with such religious opinions as are repugnant to
+them.
+
+There is no state religion in the United States. In the eyes of the
+state all shades of belief and disbelief are on a par. There are in this
+country Catholics, Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists,
+Jews, etc. They are alike citizens. They contribute alike toward the
+maintenance of the public schools. With what show of fairness, then,
+could the belief of any one of these sects be adopted by the state as a
+basis for the inculcation of moral truths? The case seems, on the face
+of it, a hopeless one. But the following devices have been suggested to
+remove, or rather to circumvent, the difficulty.
+
+_First Device._--Let representatives of the various theistic churches,
+including Catholics, Protestants, and Jews, meet in council. Let them
+eliminate all those points in respect to which they differ, and
+formulate a common creed containing only those articles on which they
+can agree. Such a creed would include, for instance, the belief in the
+existence of Deity, in the immortality of the soul, and in future reward
+and punishment. Upon this as a foundation let the edifice of moral
+instruction be erected. There are, however, two obvious objections to
+this plan. In the first place, this "Dreibund" of Catholicism,
+Protestantism, and Judaism would leave out of account the party of the
+agnostics, whose views may indeed be erroneous, or even detestable, but
+whose rights as citizens ought not the less on that account to be
+respected. "_Neminem læde_," hurt no one, is a cardinal rule of justice,
+and should be observed by the friends of religion in their dealings with
+their opponents as well as with one another. The agnostic party has
+grown to quite considerable dimensions in the United States. But, if it
+had not, if there were only a single person who held such opinions, and
+he a citizen, any attempt on the part of the majority to trample upon
+the rights of this one person would still be inexcusable. In the sphere
+of political action the majority rules, and must rule; in matters that
+touch the conscience the smallest minority possesses rights on which
+even an overwhelming majority arrayed on the opposite side can not
+afford to trespass. It is one of the most notable achievements of the
+American commonwealths that they have so distinctly separated between
+the domain of religion and of politics, adopting in the one case the
+maxim of coercion by majority rule, in the other allowing the full
+measure of individual liberty. From this standpoint there should be no
+departure.
+
+But the second objection is even more cogent. It is proposed to
+eliminate the differences which separate the various sects, and to
+formulate their points of agreement into a common creed. But does it not
+occur to those who propose this plan that the very life of a religion is
+to be found precisely in those points in which it differs from its
+neighbors, and that an abstract scheme of belief, such as has been
+sketched, would, in truth, satisfy no one? Thus, out of respect for the
+sentiments of the Jews, it is proposed to omit the doctrines of the
+divinity of Christ and of the atonement. But would any earnest Christian
+give his assent, even provisionally, to a creed from which those
+quintessential doctrines of Christianity have been left out? When the
+Christian maintains that morality must be based on religion, does he not
+mean, above all, on the belief in Christ? Is it not indispensable, from
+his point of view, that the figure of the Saviour shall stand in the
+foreground of moral inculcation and exhortation? Again, when the
+Catholic affirms that the moral teaching of the young must be based on
+religion, is it to be supposed for an instant that he would accept as
+satisfying his conception of religion a skeleton creed like that above
+mentioned, denuded of all those peculiar dogmas which make religion in
+his eyes beautiful and dear? This first device, therefore, is to be
+rejected. It is unjust to the agnostics, and it will never content the
+really religious persons of any denomination. It could prove acceptable
+only to theists pure and simple, whose creed is practically limited to
+the three articles mentioned; namely, the belief in Deity, immortality,
+and future punishment and reward. But this class constitutes a small
+fraction of the community; and it would be absurd, under the specious
+plea of reconciling the various creeds, in effect to impose the
+rationalistic opinions of a few on the whole community.
+
+The _second device_ seems to promise better results. It provides that
+religious and moral instruction combined shall be given in the public
+schools under the auspices of the several denominations. According to
+this plan, the pupils are to be divided, for purposes of moral
+instruction, into separate classes, according to their sectarian
+affiliations, and are to be taught separately by their own clergymen or
+by teachers acting under instructions from the latter. The high
+authority of Germany is invoked in support of this plan. If I am
+correctly informed, the president of one of our leading universities
+has recently spoken in favor of it, and it is likely that an attempt
+will be made to introduce it in the United States. Already in some of
+our reformatory schools and other public institutions separate religious
+services are held by the ministers of the various sects, and we may
+expect that an analogous arrangement will be proposed with respect to
+moral teaching in the common schools. It is necessary, therefore, to pay
+some attention to the German system, and to explain the reasons which
+have induced or compelled the Germans to adopt the compromise just
+described. The chief points to be noted are these: In Germany, church
+and state are united. The King of Prussia, for instance, is the head of
+the Evangelical Church. This constitutes a vital difference between
+America and Germany. Secondly, in Germany the schools existed before the
+state took charge of them. The school system was founded by the Church,
+and the problem which confronted the Government was how to convert
+church schools into state schools. An attempt was made to do this by
+limiting the influence of the clergy, which formerly had been
+all-powerful and all-pervasive, to certain branches and certain hours of
+instruction, thereby securing the supremacy of the state in respect to
+all other branches and at all other hours. In America, on the other
+hand, the state founded the schools _ab initio_. In Germany the state
+has actually encroached upon the Church, has entered church schools and
+reconstructed them in its own interest. To adopt the German system in
+America would be to permit the Church to encroach upon the state, to
+enter state schools and subordinate them to sectarian purposes. The
+example of Germany can not, therefore, be quoted as a precedent in
+point. The system of compromise in Germany marks an advance in the
+direction of increasing state influence. Its adoption in this country
+would mark a retrograde movement in the direction of increasing church
+influence.
+
+Nor can the system, when considered on its own merits, be called a happy
+one. Prof. Gneist, in his valuable treatise, Die Konfessionelle Schule
+(which may be read by those who desire to inform themselves on the
+historical evolution of the Prussian system), maintains that scientific
+instruction must be unsectarian, while religious instruction must be
+sectarian. I agree to both his propositions. But to my mind it follows
+that, if religious instruction must be sectarian, it ought not to have a
+place in state schools, at least not in a country in which the
+separation of church and state is complete. Moreover, the limitation of
+religious teaching to a few hours a week can never satisfy the earnest
+sectarian. If he wants religion in the schools at all, then he will also
+want that specific kind of religious influence which he favors to
+permeate the whole school. He will insist that history shall be taught
+from his point of view, that the readers shall breathe the spirit of his
+faith, that the science teaching shall be made to harmonize with its
+doctrines, etc. What a paltry concession, indeed, to open the door to
+the clergyman twice or three times a week, and to permit him to teach
+the catechism to the pupils, while the rest of the teaching is withdrawn
+from his control, and is perhaps informed by a spirit alien to his! This
+kind of compromise can never heartily be indorsed; it may be accepted
+under pressure, but submission to it will always be under protest.[1]
+
+The third arrangement that has been suggested is that each sect shall
+build its own schools, and draw upon the fund supplied by taxation
+proportionately to the number of children educated. But to this there
+are again two great objections: First, it is the duty of the state to
+see to it that a high educational standard shall be maintained in the
+schools, and that the money spent on them shall bear fruit in raising
+the general intelligence of the community. But the experience of the
+past proves conclusively that in sectarian schools, especially where
+there are no rival unsectarian institutions to force them into
+competition, the preponderance of zeal and interest is so markedly on
+the side of religious teaching that the secular branches unavoidably
+suffer.[2] If it is said that the state may prescribe rules and set up
+standards of its own, to which the sectarian schools shall be held to
+conform, we ask, Who is to secure such conformance? The various sects,
+once having gained possession of the public funds, would resent the
+interference of the State. The Inspectors who might be appointed would
+never be allowed to exercise any real control, and the rules which the
+State might prescribe would remain dead letter.
+
+In the second place, under such an arrangement, the highest purpose for
+which the public schools exist would be defeated. Sectarian schools tend
+to separate the members of the various denominations from one another,
+and to hinder the growth of that spirit of national unity which it is,
+on the other hand, the prime duty of the public school to create and
+foster. The support of a system of public education out of the proceeds
+of taxation is justifiable in the last analysis as a measure dictated to
+the State by the law of self-preservation. The State maintains public
+schools in order to preserve itself--i. e., its unity. And this is
+especially true in a republic. In a monarchy the strong arm of the
+reigning dynasty, supported by a ruling class, may perhaps suppress
+discord, and hold the antagonistic elements among the people in
+subjection by sheer force. In a republic only the spirit of unity among
+the people themselves can keep them a people. And this spirit is
+fostered in public schools, where children of all classes and sects are
+brought into daily, friendly contact, and where together they are
+indoctrinated into the history, tradition, and aspirations of the nation
+to which they belong.
+
+What then? We have seen that we can not encourage, that we can not
+permit, the establishment of sectarian schools at the public expense. We
+have also seen that we can not teach religion in the public schools.
+Must we, therefore, abandon altogether the hope of teaching the elements
+of morals? Is not moral education conceded to be one of the most
+important, if not the most important, of all branches of education? Must
+we forego the splendid opportunities afforded by the daily schools for
+this purpose? Is there not a way of imparting moral instruction without
+giving just offense to any religious belief or any religious believer,
+or doing violence to the rights of any sect or of any party whatsoever?
+The correct answer to this question would be the solution of the problem
+of unsectarian moral education. I can merely state my answer to-day, in
+the hope that the entire course before us may substantiate it. The
+answer, as I conceive it, is this: It is the business of the moral
+instructor in the school to deliver to his pupils the subject-matter of
+morality, but not to deal with the sanctions of it; to give his pupils a
+clearer understanding of what _is_ right and what _is_ wrong, but not to
+enter into the question why the right should be done and the wrong
+avoided. For example, let us suppose that the teacher is treating of
+veracity. He says to the pupil, Thou shalt not lie. He takes it for
+granted that the pupil feels the force of this commandment, and
+acknowledges that he ought to yield obedience to it. For my part, I
+should suspect of quibbling and dishonest intention any boy or girl who
+would ask me, Why ought I not to lie? I should hold up before such a
+child the Ought in all its awful majesty. The right to reason about
+these matters can not be conceded until after the mind has attained a
+certain maturity. And as a matter of fact every good child agrees with
+the teacher unhesitatingly when he says, It is wrong to lie. There is an
+answering echo in its heart which confirms the teacher's words. But
+what, then, is it my business as a moral teacher to do? In the first
+place, to deepen the impression of the wrongfulness of lying, and the
+sacredness of truth, by the spirit in which I approach the subject. My
+first business is to convey the spirit of moral reverence to my pupils.
+In the next place, I ought to quicken the pupil's perceptions of what is
+right and wrong, in the case supposed, of what is truth and what is
+falsehood. Accordingly, I should analyze the different species of lies,
+with a view of putting the pupils on their guard against the spirit of
+falsehood, however it may disguise itself. I should try to make my
+pupils see that, whenever they intentionally convey a false impression,
+they are guilty of falsehood. I should try to make their minds
+intelligent and their consciences sensitive in the matter of
+truth-telling, so that they may avoid those numerous ambiguities of
+which children are so fond, and which are practiced even by adults. I
+should endeavor to tonic their moral nature with respect to
+truthfulness. In the next place, I should point out to them the most
+frequent motives which lead to lying, so that, by being warned against
+the causes, they may the more readily escape the evil consequences. For
+example, cowardice is one cause of lying. By making the pupil ashamed of
+cowardice, we can often cure him of the tendency to falsehood. A
+redundant imagination is another cause of lying, envy is another cause,
+selfishness in all its forms is a principal cause, etc. I should say to
+the moral teacher: Direct the pupil's attention to the various dangerous
+tendencies in his nature, which tempt him into the ways of falsehood.
+Furthermore, explain to your pupils the consequences of falsehood: the
+loss of the confidence of our fellow-men, which is the immediate and
+palpable result of being detected in a lie; the injuries inflicted on
+others; the loosening of the bonds of mutual trust in society at large;
+the loss of self-respect on the part of the liar; the fatal necessity of
+multiplying lies, of inventing new falsehoods to make good the first,
+etc. A vast amount of good, I am persuaded, can be done in this way by
+stimulating the moral nature, by enabling the scholar to detect the
+finer shades of right and wrong, helping him to trace temptation to its
+source, and erecting in his mind barriers against evil-doing, founded on
+a realizing sense of its consequences.
+
+In a similar if not exactly the same way, all the other principal
+topics of practical morality can be handled. The conscience can be
+enlightened, strengthened, guided, and all this can be done without once
+raising the question why it is wrong to do what is forbidden. That it is
+wrong should rather, as I have said, be assumed. The ultimate grounds of
+moral obligation need never be discussed in school. It is the business
+of religion and philosophy to propose theories, or to formulate articles
+of belief with respect to the ultimate sources and sanctions of duty.
+Religion says we ought to do right because it is the will of God, or for
+the love of Christ. Philosophy says we should do right for utilitarian
+or transcendental reasons, or in obedience to the law of evolution, etc.
+The moral teacher, fortunately, is not called upon to choose between
+these various metaphysical and theological asseverations. As an
+individual he may subscribe to any one of them, but as a teacher he is
+bound to remain within the safe limits of his own province. He is not to
+explain why we should do the right, but to make the young people who are
+intrusted to his charge see more clearly what is right, and to instill
+into them his own love of and respect for the right. There is a body of
+moral truth upon which all good men, of whatever sect or opinion, are
+agreed: _it is the business of the public schools to deliver to their
+pupils this common fund of moral truth_. But I must hasten to add, to
+deliver it not in the style of the preacher, but according to the
+methods of the pedagogue--i. e., in a systematic way, the moral lessons
+being graded to suit the varying ages and capacities of the pupils, and
+the illustrative material being sorted and arranged in like manner.
+Conceive the modern educational methods to have been applied to that
+stock of moral truths which all good men accept, and you will have the
+material for the moral lessons which are needed in a public school.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Since the above was written, the draft of the _Volksschulgesetz_
+submitted to the Prussian Legislature, and the excited debates to which
+it gave rise, have supplied a striking confirmation of the views
+expressed in the text. Nothing could be more mistaken than to propose
+for imitation elsewhere the German "solution" of the problem of moral
+teaching in schools, especially at a time when the Germans themselves
+are taking great pains to make it clear that they are as far as possible
+from having found a solution.
+
+[2] During the reactionary period which followed the Revolution of 1848,
+the school regulations of Kur-Hessen provided that twenty hours a week
+be devoted in the Volkschulen to religious teaching.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE EFFICIENT MOTIVES OF GOOD CONDUCT.
+
+
+There are persons in whom moral principle seems to have completely
+triumphed; whose conduct, so far as one can judge, is determined solely
+by moral rules; but whom, nevertheless, we do not wholly admire. We feel
+instinctively that there is in their virtue a certain flaw--the absence
+of a saving grace. They are too rigorous, too much the slaves of duty.
+They lack geniality.
+
+Like religion, morality has its fanatics. Thus, there is in the
+temperance movement a class of fanatics who look at every public
+question from the point of view of temperance reform, and from that
+only. There are also woman's-rights fanatics, social purity fanatics,
+etc. The moral fanatic in every case is a person whose attention is
+wholly engrossed by some one moral interest, and who sees this out of
+its relation to other moral interests. The end he has in view may be in
+itself highly laudable, but the exaggerated emphasis put upon it, the
+one-sided pursuit of it, is a mischievous error.
+
+Observe, further, that there are degrees of moral fanaticism. The
+fanatic of the first degree, to whom Emerson addresses the words, "What
+right have you, sir, to your one virtue?" has just been described. He
+is a person who exalts some one moral rule at the expense of the others.
+A fanatic of a higher order is he who exalts the whole body of moral
+rules at the expense of human instincts and desires. He is a person who
+always acts according to rule; who introduces moral considerations into
+every detail of life; who rides the moral hobby; in whose eyes the
+infinite complexity of human affairs has only one aspect, namely, the
+moral; who is never satisfied unless at every step he feels the strain
+of the bridle of conscience; who is incapable of spontaneous action and
+of _naïve_ enjoyment. It is believed that there are not a few persons of
+this description in the United States, and especially in the New England
+States--fanatics on the moral side, examples of a one-sided development
+in the direction of moral formalism. We must be very careful, when
+insisting on the authority of moral ideas, lest we encourage in the
+young a tendency of this sort. The hearts of children are very pliable;
+it is easily possible to produce on them too deep an impression: to give
+them at the outset a fatal twist, all the more since at a certain age
+many young people are prone to exaggerated introspection and
+self-questioning. But it may be asked: Are not moral principles really
+clothed with supreme authority? Ought we not, indeed, to keep the
+standard of righteousness constantly before our eyes; in brief, is it
+possible to be too moral? Evidently we have reached a point where a
+distinction requires to be drawn.
+
+Ethics is a science of relations. The things related are human
+interests, human ends. The ideal which ethics proposes to itself is the
+unity of ends, just as the ideal of science is the unity of causes. The
+ends of the natural man are the subject-matter with which ethics deals.
+The ends of the natural man are not to be crushed or wiped out, but to
+be brought into right relations with one another. The ends of the
+natural man are to be respected from an ethical point of view, so long
+as they remain within their proper limits. The moral laws are formulas
+expressing relations of equality or subordination, or superordination.
+The moral virtue of our acts consists in the respect which we pay to the
+system of relationships thus prescribed, in the willingness with which
+we co-ordinate our interests with those of others, or subordinate them
+to those of others, as the exigencies of the moral situation may
+require.
+
+But the point on which it is now necessary to fix our attention is that
+when morality has once sanctioned any of the ends of life, the natural
+man may be left to pursue them without interference on the part of the
+moralist. When morality has marked out the boundaries within which the
+given end shall be pursued, its work so far is done; except, indeed,
+that we are always to keep an eye upon those boundaries, and that the
+sense of their existence should pervade the whole atmosphere of our
+lives.[3] A few illustrations will make my meaning clear. There is a
+moral rule which says that we should eat to live; not, conversely, live
+to eat. This means that we should regulate our food in such a way that
+the body may become a fit instrument for the higher purposes of
+existence, and that the time and attention bestowed upon the matter of
+eating shall not be so great as to divert us from other and more
+necessary objects. But, these limits being established, it does not
+follow that it is wrong or unspiritual to enjoy a meal. The senses, even
+the lowest of them, are permitted to have free play within the bounds
+prescribed. Nor, again, should we try rigidly to determine the choice of
+food according to moral considerations. It would be ridiculous to
+attempt to do so. The choice of food within a wide range depends
+entirely on taste, and has nothing to do with moral considerations
+(whether, for instance, we should have squash or beans for dinner).
+Those who are deeply impressed with the importance of moral rules are
+often betrayed into applying them to the veriest minutiæ of conduct. Did
+they remember that ethics is a science of relations, or, what amounts to
+the same thing, a science of limits, they would be saved such pedantry.
+Undoubtedly there are moral _adiaphora_. The fact that such exist has
+been a stumbling-block in the way of those who believe that morality
+ought to cover the whole of conduct. The definition of ethics as a
+science of relations or limits removes this stumbling-block. Ethics
+stands at the frontier. With what goes on in the interior it does not
+interfere, except in so far as the limitations it prescribes are an
+interference. Take another illustration. Ethics condemns vanity and
+whatever ministers to vanity--as, e. g., undue attention to dress and
+adornment of the person--on the ground that this implies an immoral
+subordination of the inner to the outer, of the higher to the lesser
+ends. But, to lay down a cast-iron rule as to how much one has a right
+to expend on dress, can not be the office of ethics, on account of the
+infinite variety of conditions and occupations which subsists among men.
+And the attempt to prescribe a single fashion of dress, by sumptuary
+laws or otherwise, would impair that freedom of taste which it is the
+business of the moralist to respect. Again, every one knows with what
+bitterness the moral rigorists of all ages have condemned the impulse
+which attracts the sexes toward one another, and how often they have
+tried, though vainly, to crush it. But here, again, the true attitude is
+indicated by the definition of ethics as a science of limits. The moral
+law prescribes bounds within which this emotional force shall be free to
+operate, and claims for it the holy name of love, so long as it remains
+within the bounds prescribed, and, being within, remains conscious of
+them. That is what is meant when we speak of spiritualizing the
+feelings. The feelings are spiritualized when they move within certain
+limits, and when the sense of the existence of these limits penetrates
+them, and thereby imparts to them a new and nobler quality. And, because
+such limitation is felt to be satisfying and elevating, the system of
+correlations which we call ethical, and which, abstractly stated, would
+fail to interest, does by this means find an entrance into the human
+heart, and awakens in it the sense of the sublimity and the blessedness
+of the moral commands.
+
+There are two defects of the moral fanatic which can now be signalized:
+First, he wrongly believes that whatever is not of morality is against
+it. He therefore is tempted to frown upon the natural pleasures; to
+banish them if he can, and, if not, to admit them only within the
+narrowest possible limits as a reluctant concession to the weakness of
+human nature. In consequence, the moral fanatic commits the enormity of
+introducing the taint of the sense of sin into the most innocent
+enjoyments, and thus perverts and distorts the conscience. Secondly, he
+is always inclined to seek a moral reason for that which has only a
+natural one; to forget that, like the great conquerors of antiquity,
+Morality respects the laws of the several realms which it unites into a
+single empire, and guarantees to each the unimpaired maintenance of its
+local customs. These remarks are intended to serve as a general caution.
+I find that young people, when they have become awakened on ethical
+subjects, often betray a tendency toward moral asceticism. I find that
+teachers, in the earnest desire to impress the laws of the moral empire,
+are sometimes betrayed into disregarding the provincial laws of the
+senses, the intellect, and the feelings; are apt to go too far in
+applying moral prescriptions to the minutiæ of conduct; are apt to leave
+the impression that pleasant things, just because they are pleasant, are
+therefore sinful.
+
+But we have now to take a further step, which will bring us close to our
+special subject for to-day, viz., the efficient motives of good conduct.
+The non-moral faculties are not only not anti-moral, as has been shown,
+but, when appealed to in the right way, they lend to Morality a
+friendly, an almost indispensable support. The æsthetic, the
+intellectual, and the emotional faculty have not in themselves a moral
+quality, but when used as auxiliaries they pave the way for moral
+considerations pure and simple, and have in this sense an immense
+propædeutic value. Without entering in this place into the philosophy of
+æsthetics, it is enough to say that the beautiful, like the good,
+results from and depends on the observance of certain limits and certain
+relations. And it will not seem far-fetched to suggest that pupils who
+have been trained to appreciate moderation, restraint and harmony of
+relations in external objects, will be predisposed to apply analogous
+measures to matters of conduct, and that a standard of valuation will
+thus be created in their minds which must prove favorable to right
+action. Æsthetics may become a pedagogue unto ethics. The same
+pedagogical function may be claimed for the intellect. The intellect
+traces the connection between causes and effects. Applied to conduct, it
+shows the connection between acts and their consequences. It is the
+faculty which counsels prudence. One does not need to accept the
+egoistic theory of morals to concede that self-interest is an ally of
+morality, that Prudence and Virtue travel hand in hand a certain
+distance on the same road. Not, indeed, until the ideal state shall have
+been reached will the dictates of the two ever coincide entirely; but to
+a certain extent the coincidence already exists, and the moral teacher
+is justified in availing himself of it as far as it goes.
+
+To take a very simple case--a child handles a knife which it has been
+told not to touch, and cuts his fingers. Morally speaking, his fault is
+disobedience. He would have been equally guilty if he had escaped
+injury. But he would hardly be so ready to obey another time, if he had
+been less sharply reminded of the usefulness of obedience. It is wrong
+to lie--wrong on purely moral grounds, with which self-interest has
+nothing to do. But for all that we can not dispense with the lesson
+contained in the well-known fable of the boy who cried, "Wolf!" It is
+wrong to steal on purely moral grounds. But even a child can be made to
+understand that the thief, as Emerson puts it, "steals from himself,"
+and that, besides being a rogue, he is deficient in enlightened
+self-interest. The maxim that honesty is the best policy is true enough
+so far as the facts are concerned, which come under the observation of
+children, though one may question whether it be true absolutely.
+
+Lastly, when we come to consider the emotional faculty, we find that
+the intimate connection between it and the moral is so generally
+conceded as to make it quite superfluous to expatiate on it. On the
+contrary, it seems necessary to expostulate with those who claim too
+much credit for the feelings, who ascribe to them a moral value which
+they by no means possess. Thus, gentleness is not necessarily a virtue;
+it may be a mere matter of temperament. Sympathetic impulses, _per se_,
+are not praiseworthy. Sympathy quite as often leads us astray as aright;
+sympathy, indeed, unless tutored and regulated by moral principles, is a
+danger against which we ought to be on our guard almost as much as
+against selfishness. Yet, no one will deny that the feelings, when
+rightly trained, are of inestimable service as auxiliaries in the task
+of moral education.
+
+To sum up, let me say that the wise teacher will appeal to the taste,
+the intelligence, and the feelings of his pupils; that he will touch
+these various springs of conduct all the time, and get from them all the
+help he can. Thus, when speaking of cleanliness, he will appeal to the
+æsthetic instinct of the children, awakening in them a feeling of
+disgust at untidiness. He will appeal to the prudential motive, by
+showing that want of cleanliness breeds disease. "You do not wish to be
+sick? You do not wish to suffer? Therefore, it is to your interest to be
+clean." But, finally, he will touch a higher motive than any of these.
+"If you are unclean, you cease to respect yourself." And the term
+self-respect expresses in a condensed form the moral motive proper. It
+implies the idea of moral personality, which it is not necessary, nor
+possible, at this stage to analyze, but which the pupil will somehow
+understand, for his conscience will respond. In many cases the appeal
+will be made chiefly to the sympathetic feelings; for through these
+feelings we become aware of the pains and joys of others, and thus of
+the consequences of the benefits we confer or the evil we inflict. The
+sympathetic feelings supply the information upon which the will can act.
+They tell us that others suffer or are glad. And yet the strength to
+labor persistently for the relief of others' suffering and the
+enhancement of others' joy--that we can derive from the moral impulse
+alone.
+
+The moral motive is the highest, it is really the only sufficient
+motive. Pray, understand me well at this point. I should say to the
+child: It is wrong to lie. That is sufficient. It is wrong, it is
+forbidden; you must yourself acknowledge the truth of my words, because
+you despise yourself when you have told a lie. But, in order to
+strengthen your weak resolution, to confirm you in well-doing, let me
+show you that it is also contrary to self-interest to lie, and likewise
+that it is disgusting to be unclean, and that a wrong done to another
+causes pain. Thus the æsthetic, intellectual, and emotional faculties
+are called in as witnesses to bear testimony to the moral truths; they
+are invited to stand up in chorus and say Amen! to the moral commands.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[3] It must be remembered also that our knowledge of the right ethical
+relations is still extremely imperfect, and that the duty of extending
+the knowledge and promoting the recognition of them is perhaps the
+highest of all--to which, on occasion, every lesser end must be
+sacrificed.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+OPPORTUNITIES FOR MORAL TRAINING IN THE DAILY SCHOOL.
+
+
+The school should be to the pupil not an intellectual drill-ground, but
+a second home; a place dear at the time, and to be gratefully remembered
+ever after; a place in which his whole nature, and especially what is
+best in him, may expand and grow. The educational aim should be, not
+merely to pave the pupil's way to future success, not merely to make of
+his mind a perfect instrument of thought, a kind of intellectual loom,
+capable of turning out the most complicated intellectual patterns. The
+aim should be, above all; to build up manhood, to develop character.
+There is no school in which moral influence is wanting. The pity is,
+that in many schools it is incidental, not purposed. And yet there are
+manifold opportunities in every school for influencing the moral life.
+Let us consider a few of these.
+
+_1._ The teaching of _science_ lends itself to the cultivation of
+truthfulness. Truthfulness may be defined as the correspondence between
+thought and word and fact. When the thought in the mind fits the fact,
+and the word on the tongue fits the thought, then the circuit of truth
+is complete. Now, with respect to the inculcating of truthfulness,
+science teaching has this advantage above other branches, that the
+palpable nature of the facts dealt with makes it possible to note and
+check the least deviation from the truth. The fact is present, right
+before the pupil, to rebuke him if he strays from it in thought or
+speech. And this circumstance may be utilized even in the humble
+beginnings of science teaching, in the so-called object-lessons. For
+instance, a bird, or the picture of one, is placed before the child. The
+teacher says, "Observe closely and tell me exactly what you see--the
+length of the neck, the curve of the beak, the colors of the plumage,"
+etc. The pupil replies. The teacher objects: "You have not observed
+accurately. The color is not what you describe it to be. Look again. The
+curve of the beak does not resemble what you have just drawn on the
+blackboard. You must tell me exactly what you see. Your words must tally
+with the facts." And the same sort of practice may be continued in the
+science-lessons of the upper classes.
+
+Scientists are distinguished from other observers by their greater
+accuracy. Intellectual honesty is that moral quality which science is
+best calculated to foster. All the great scientists have been haunted by
+a high ideal of truth, and a gleam of that ideal, however faint, may be
+made to shed its light even into the school-room. It is obvious that
+this realistic tutoring into veracity will be of special use to children
+who are led into lying by a too vivid imagination.
+
+Let me add the following remarks in regard to indirect means of
+promoting truthfulness: The teacher can do a great deal to cultivate
+respect for the truth among his pupils by frankly admitting an error
+whenever he has fallen into one. Some teachers try to save their dignity
+by glossing over their mistakes. But even young children are shrewd
+enough to estimate such trickery at its worth; while he who manfully
+confesses that he has been in the wrong, earns the respect of his class,
+and sets them an invaluable example.
+
+It is well also to observe strict accuracy even in matters which of
+themselves are of no moment. For instance, in giving an account of a
+botanizing expedition, you begin, perhaps, by saying, "It was half-past
+ten when we arrived at our destination." Suddenly you stop and correct
+yourself. "No, I was mistaken; it could not have been later than ten
+o'clock." Does this strike you as pedantic? But if you fix the time at
+all, is it not worth while to fix it with approximate exactness? True,
+it makes no difference in regard to what you are about to relate,
+whether you arrived at half-past ten or at ten. But, precisely because
+it makes no difference, it shows the value which you set on accuracy
+even in trifles. And by such little turns of phrase, by such
+insubstantial influences, coming from the teacher, the pupil's character
+is molded.
+
+_2._ _The study of history_, when properly conducted is of high moral
+value. History sets before the mind examples of heroism, of
+self-sacrifice, of love of country, of devotion to principles at the
+greatest cost. How can such examples fail to inspire, to ennoble, to
+awaken emulation? The great and good men of the past, the virtuous and
+the wise, serve as models to the young, and often arouse in them an
+enthusiastic admiration, a passionate discipleship. In the next place,
+the study of history may be used to exercise the moral judgment. The
+characters which history presents are not all good; the characters even
+of the good are by no means faultless. It is in the power of the teacher
+to train the moral judgment and to increase the moral insight of his
+pupils by leading them to enter into the motives, and to weigh the right
+and wrong of the actions which history reports. He will also find many
+an occasion to warn against being dazzled by brilliant success to such a
+degree as to condone the moral turpitude by which it is often bought.
+The study of history can thus be made the means of enlightening the
+conscience as well as of awakening generous aspirations--but, let me
+hasten to add, only in the hands of a teacher who is himself morally
+mature, and fully imbued with the responsibilities of his task. Lastly,
+the study of history among advanced pupils may be used to confirm the
+moral idea of the mission of mankind, and to set it in its true light.
+The human race, as, from the moral point of view, we are bound to
+assume, exists on earth in order to attempt the solution of a sublime
+problem--the problem of the perfect civilization, the just society, the
+"kingdom of God." But on every page of history there are facts that warn
+us that progress toward this high ideal is of necessity slow. Whether
+we review the evolution of religion, or of political institutions, or of
+industrial society, we are still forced to the same solemn conclusion,
+that in view of the ultimate goal, "a thousand years are as a day," and
+that while we may not relax our efforts to attain the ideal, we must be
+well content in case we are permitted to advance the mighty work even a
+little. This conviction is calculated to engender in us a new spirit of
+piety and self-abnegation, which yet is consistent with perfect alacrity
+in discharging the duty of the hour.
+
+There could be no better result from the study of history among young
+men and young women than if it should have the effect of impressing on
+them this new piety, this genuine historic sense, in which the average
+citizen, especially of democratic communities, is so conspicuously
+deficient. But this is a digression which I must ask you to pardon.
+
+_3._ The moral value of the _study of literature_ is as great as it is
+obvious. Literature is the medium through which all that part of our
+inner life finds expression which defies scientific formulation. In the
+text-books of science we possess the net result of the purely
+intellectual labors of the past; in universal literature we have
+composite photographs, as it were, of the typical hopes, sentiments, and
+aspirations of the race. Literature gives a voice to that within us
+which would otherwise remain dumb, and fixity to that which would
+otherwise be evanescent. The best literature, and especially the best
+poetry, is a glass in which we see our best selves reflected. There is
+a legend which tells of two spirits, the one an angel, the other a
+demon, that accompany every human being through life, and walk invisibly
+at his side. The one represents our bad self, the other our better self.
+The moral service which the best literature renders us is to make the
+invisible angel visible.
+
+_4._ I can but cast a cursory glance at some of the remaining branches
+of instruction.
+
+_Manual training_ has a moral effect upon the pupil, of which I have
+spoken at some length on another occasion.[4]
+
+_Music_, apart from its subtler influences, which can not be considered
+here, has the special function of producing in the pupil a feeling of
+oneness with others, or of social unity. This is best accomplished
+through the instrumentality of chorus singing, while particular moral
+sentiments, like charity, love of home, etc., can be inculcated by means
+of the texts.
+
+_Gymnastic_ exercises likewise have a moral effect in promoting habits
+of self-control, prompt obedience at the word of command, etc. Indeed,
+it is not difficult to show the moral bearings of the ordinary branches
+of instruction. It would, on the contrary, be difficult to find a single
+one, which, when rightly viewed, is not surrounded by a moral
+photosphere.
+
+Science, history, literature, and the other branches lend themselves in
+various ways to the development of character. But there are certain
+other opportunities which every school offers, apart from the teaching,
+and these may be utilized to the same end. The discipline of the school,
+above all, has an immense effect on the character. If it is of the right
+kind, a beneficial effect; if not, a most pernicious one.
+
+The mere working of what may be called the school machinery tends to
+inculcate habits of order, punctuality, and the like. The aggregation of
+a large number of scholars in the same building and their intercourse
+with one another under the eye of the teachers, afford frequent
+opportunities for impressing lessons of kindness, politeness, mutual
+helpfulness, etc.
+
+The recitations of lessons give occasion not only to suppress prompting,
+but to eradicate the motives which lead to it, and to impress deeply the
+duty of honesty.
+
+The very atmosphere of the class-room should be such as to encourage
+moral refinement; it should possess a sunny climate, so to speak, in
+which meanness and vulgarity can not live.
+
+But there is especially one avenue of influence, which I have much at
+heart to recommend. The teacher should join in the _games_ of his
+pupils. He will thus at once come to stand on a friendly footing with
+them, and win their confidence, without in the least derogating from his
+proper dignity. And thus will be removed that barrier which in many
+schools separates pupils and teachers to such a degree that there
+actually seem to exist side by side two worlds--the world to which the
+teacher has access, and the world from which he is shut out. Moreover,
+while they are at play, the true character of the pupils reveals itself.
+At such times the sneak, the cheat, the bully, the liar, shows his true
+colors, and the teacher has the best opportunity of studying these
+pathological subjects and of curing their moral defects. For, while
+playing with them, as one concerned in the game, he has the right to
+insist on fair dealing, to express his disgust at cowardice, to take the
+part of the weak against the strong, and his words spoken on the
+playground will have tenfold the effect of any hortatory address which
+he might deliver from the platform. The greatest and most successful of
+teachers have not disdained to use this device.
+
+Finally, let me say that the personality of the master or principal of
+the school is the chief factor of moral influence in it. Put a great,
+sound, whole-souled nature at the head of a school, and everything else
+may almost be taken for granted. In every school there exists a public
+opinion among the scholars, by which they are affected to a far greater
+degree than by the words of their superiors. The tactful master will
+direct his chief attention to shaping and improving this public opinion,
+while at the same time interfering as little as possible with the
+freedom of his pupils. He can accomplish his purpose by drawing close to
+himself those scholars who make the public opinion of the school, and
+these in turn he can win to fine and manly views only by the effect of
+his personality. The personality of the head-master is everything. It is
+the ultimate source of power in the school, the central organ which
+sends out its life-giving currents through the whole organism. And let
+me here add that, if I am in favor of excluding direct religious
+teaching from our schools, I am not in favor of excluding religious
+influence. That, too, flows from the personality of the true master. For
+if he be reverent, a truly pious soul, humble in his estimate of self,
+not valuing his petty schoolmaster's authority on its own account, but
+using it lovingly as an instrument for higher ends, he will be sure to
+communicate of his spirit to his pupils, and by that spirit will open
+their hearts, better than by any doctrinal teaching he could give, to
+the reception of the highest spiritual truths.
+
+By all these means--by the culture of the intellect, the taste, and the
+feelings, by his daily dealings with the young, in work and play--the
+teacher helps to create in them certain moral habits. Why, then, should
+not these habits suffice? What need is there of specific moral
+instruction? And what is the relation of moral instruction to the habits
+thus engendered?
+
+The function of moral instruction is to clinch the habits. The function
+of moral instruction is to explicate in clear statements, fit to be
+grasped by the intellect, the laws of duty which underlie the habits.
+The value of such intellectual statements is that they give a rational
+underpinning to moral practice, and, furthermore, that they permit the
+moral rules to be applied to new cases not heretofore brought within the
+scope of habit. This thought will be more fully developed and explained
+as we proceed.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] In the address on the subject, reprinted in the Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF DUTIES.
+
+
+The topics of which moral instruction treats are the duties of life. To
+teach the duties, however, we must adopt some system of classification.
+To which system shall we give the preference? The difficulty which we
+encountered at the outset seems to meet us here in a new guise.
+
+For most if not all of the systems of classification commonly proposed
+are based upon some metaphysical theory or some theological doctrine. To
+adopt any one of these would be tantamount to adopting the theory or
+theology on which it is founded; would be equivalent to introducing
+surreptitiously a particular philosophy or creed into the minds of the
+pupils; and this would be a plain departure from the unsectarian
+principle to which we are pledged. Thus, Plato's fourfold division of
+the virtues into the so-called cardinal virtues of temperance, courage,
+justice, wisdom, is based on his psychology. Aristotle's division of the
+virtues into dianoetic and what he calls ethical virtues is clearly
+dependent on what may be termed Aristotle's intellectualism--i. e., the
+supreme importance which he assigns to the functions of the intellect,
+or [Greek: nous], in the attainment of the perfect life.
+
+Kant's division of duties into complete and incomplete is an outgrowth
+of the ideas developed in his Critique of Pure Reason; the philosopher
+Herbart's fivefold classification reflects his metaphysical theory of
+reality; while the systems of ethical classification which are to be
+found in theological handbooks betray still more clearly the bias of
+their authors.
+
+We can, I think, find a simple way out of this difficulty by proceeding
+in the following manner: Let us take for our guidance the objects to
+which duty relates, and disregard the sources from which it flows. It is
+conceded on all hands that every one is to himself an object of duty,
+that he has certain duties to perform with respect to himself, as, for
+instance, the duty of intellectual development; furthermore, that every
+person owes certain duties to his fellow-men generally, in virtue of the
+fact that they are human beings; again, that there are special duties
+which we owe to particular persons, such as parents, brothers, and
+sisters; finally, that there are certain duties, into which, so to
+speak, we are born, like the ones last mentioned, and others which we
+can freely assume or not, like the conjugal duties, but which, once
+assumed, become as binding as the former. Thus the very structure of
+human society suggests a scheme of classification. And this scheme has
+the advantage of being a purely objective one. It keeps close to the
+facts, it is in harmony with the unsectarian principle, and it is
+perfectly fair. It leaves the problem of first principles entirely
+untouched. That we have such duties to perform with respect to self and
+others, no one questions. Let philosophers differ as to the ultimate
+motives of duty. Let them reduce the facts of conscience to any set of
+first principles which may suit them. It is our part as instructors to
+interpret the facts of conscience, not to seek for them an ultimate
+explanation.
+
+Let me briefly indicate how the different duties may be made to fall
+into line according to the plan of classification which has just been
+suggested. The whole field of duty may be divided into three main
+provinces:[5] those duties which relate to ourselves, those which we owe
+to all men, and those which arise in the special relations of the
+family, the state, etc.:
+
+I. The Self-regarding Duties.
+
+These may again be subdivided into duties relating to our physical
+nature, to the intellect, and to the feelings.
+
+Under the head of physical duties belong the prohibition of suicide, and
+the duties of physical culture, temperance, and chastity.
+
+Intellectual Duties.--Under this head may be ranged the duty of
+acquiring knowledge and the subsidiary duties of order, diligence,
+perseverance in study; while, for those who are beyond the school age,
+special stress should be laid on the duty of mental genuineness. This
+may be expressed in the words: To thine own mental self be true. Study
+thine own mental bent. Try to discover in what direction thy proper
+talent lies, and make the most of it. Work thine own mine: if it be a
+gold-mine, bring forth gold; if it be a silver-mine, bring forth silver;
+if it be an iron-mine, bring forth iron. Endeavor to master some one
+branch of knowledge thoroughly well. It is for thee the key which opens
+the gates of all knowledge. The need of general culture is felt by all,
+but the concentration of intellectual efforts on special studies is not
+inconsistent with it. On the contrary, special studies alone enable us
+to gain a foothold in the realm of knowledge. A branch of knowledge
+which we have mastered, however small, may be compared to a strong
+fortress in an enemy's country, from which we can sally forth at will to
+conquer the surrounding territory. Knowledge may also be likened to a
+sphere. From every point of the circumference we can, by persistent
+labor, dig down to the center. He who has reached the center commands
+the sphere.
+
+Duties which relate to the Feelings.--The principal duty under this head
+may be expressed in the twofold command--control and purify thy
+feelings! The feelings which need to be repressed are anger, fear,
+self-complacency. Let the teacher, when he reaches this point, dwell
+upon the causes and the consequences of anger. Let him speak of certain
+helps which have been found useful for the suppression of angry passion.
+Let him distinguish anger from moral indignation.
+
+In dealing with fear let him pursue the same method. Let him distinguish
+physical from moral cowardice, brute courage from moral courage, courage
+from fortitude.
+
+In dealing with self-complacency let him discriminate between vanity and
+pride, between pride and dignity. Let him show that humility and dignity
+are consistent with one another, yes, that they are complementary
+aspects of one and the same moral quality. Not the least advantage to be
+reaped from lessons on duty is the fixing in the pupil's mind of the
+moral vocabulary. The moral terms as a rule are loosely used, and this
+can not but lead to confusion in their application. Precise definitions,
+based on thorough discussion, are an excellent means of moral
+training.[6]
+
+II. The duties which we owe to all men are Justice and Charity:
+
+Be just is equivalent to--Do not hinder the development of any of thy
+fellow-men. Be charitable is equivalent to--Assist the development of
+thy fellow-men. Under the head of charity the teacher will have
+occasion to speak not only of almsgiving, the visitation of the sick,
+and the like, but of the thousand charities of the fireside, of the
+charity of bright looks, of what may be called intellectual charity,
+which consists in opening the eyes of the mentally blind, and of the
+noblest charity of all, which consists in coming to the aid of those who
+are deep in the slough of moral despond, in raising the sinful and
+fallen.
+
+III. Special social duties:
+
+Under this head belong the duties which arise in the family: the
+conjugal, the parental, the filial, the fraternal duties.
+
+Under the head of duties peculiar to the various avocations should be
+discussed the ethics of the professions, the ethics of the relations
+between employers and laborers, etc.
+
+The consideration of the duties of the citizen opens up the whole
+territory of political ethics.
+
+Lastly, the purely elective relationships of friendship and religious
+fellowship give rise to certain fine and lofty ethical conceptions, the
+discussion of which may fitly crown the whole course.
+
+I have thus mentioned some of the main topics of practical ethics, from
+which we are to make our selection for the moral lessons.
+
+But a selective principle is needed. The field being spread out before
+us, the question arises, At what point shall we enter it? What topics
+shall we single out? It would be manifestly absurd, for instance, to
+treat of international ethics, or of conjugal ethics, in a course
+intended for children. But especially the order in which the different
+topics are to follow each other needs to be determined. The order
+followed in the above sketch is a purely logical one, and the logical
+arrangement of a subject, as every educator knows, is not usually the
+one most suitable for bringing it within reach of the understanding of
+children. It would not be in the present instance. Clearly a selective
+principle is wanted.
+
+Let me here interrupt myself for a moment to say that the problem which
+we are attacking, so far from being solved, has heretofore hardly even
+been stated. And this is due to the fact that moral instruction has been
+thus far almost entirely in the hands of persons whose chief interest
+was religious, and who, whatever their good intentions might be, were
+hardly qualified to look at the subject from the educator's point of
+view. The work of breaking ground in the matter of moral instruction has
+still to be done. As to the selective principle which I have in view I
+feel a certain confidence in its correctness; but I am aware that the
+applications of it will doubtless require manifold amendment and
+correction, for which purpose I invoke the experience and honest
+criticism of my fellow-teachers. This being understood, I venture to ask
+your attention to the following considerations:
+
+The life of every human being naturally divides itself into distinct
+periods--infancy, childhood, youth, etc. Each period has a set of
+interests and of corresponding duties peculiar to itself. The moral
+teaching should be graded according to periods. The teaching
+appropriate to any period is that which bears upon the special duties of
+that period. To illustrate, the ethics of childhood may be summarized as
+follows: The personal duties of a child are chiefly the observance of a
+few simple rules of health and the curbing of its temper. It owes social
+duties to parents, brothers and sisters, and kinsfolk, to its playmates,
+and to servants. The child is not yet a citizen, and the ethics of
+politics, therefore, lie far beyond its horizon; it does not yet require
+to be taught professional ethics, and does not need to learn even the
+elements of intellectual duty, because its energies are still absorbed
+in physical growth and play. The duties of childhood can be readily
+stated. The peculiar duties of the subsequent stages of development, for
+instance, of middle life and old age, are complex, and not so easy to
+define. But I believe that the attempt to describe them will throw light
+on many recondite problems in ethics.
+
+My first point therefore is, that the moral teaching at a given period
+should be made to fit the special duties of that period. Secondly--and
+this touches the core of the matter--in every period of life there is
+some one predominant duty around which all the others may be grouped, to
+which as a center they may be referred. Thus, the paramount duty of the
+young child is to reverence and obey its parents. The relation of
+dependence in which it stands naturally prescribes this duty, and all
+its other duties can be deduced from and fortified by this one. The
+correctness of its personal habits and of its behavior toward others
+depends primarily on its obedience to the parental commands. The child
+resists the temptation to do what is wrong, chiefly because it respects
+the authority and desires to win the approbation of father and mother.
+Secondary motives are not wanting, but reverence for parents is the
+principal one.
+
+Thirdly, in each new period there emerges a new paramount ethical
+interest, a new center of duties. But with the new system of duties thus
+created the previous ethical systems are to be brought into line, into
+harmonious correlation. And this will be all the more feasible, because
+the faithful performance of the duties of any one period is the best
+preparation for the true understanding and fulfillment of those of the
+next. From these statements the following conclusions may be drawn with
+respect to the question under discussion--namely, the proper sequence of
+the topics of duty in a course of moral lessons.
+
+The moral lessons being given in school, must cover the duties which are
+peculiar to the school age. The paramount duty should be placed in the
+foreground. Now the paramount duty of children between six and fourteen
+years of age is to acquire knowledge. Hence we begin the lessons with
+the subject of intellectual duty. In the next place, the duties learned
+in the previous periods are to be brought into line with the duties of
+the school age. At each new step on the road of ethical progress the
+moral ideas already acquired are to be reviewed, confirmed, and to
+receive a higher interpretation.
+
+We have already seen that, before the child enters school, its personal
+duties are such as relate to the physical life and the feelings, and its
+chief social duties are the filial and fraternal.
+
+Therefore, the order of topics for the lessons thus far stands: The duty
+of acquiring knowledge; the duties which relate to the physical life;
+the duties which relate to the feelings; the filial duties; the
+fraternal duties.
+
+Again, a child that has learned to respect the rights of its brothers
+and sisters, and to be lovingly helpful to them, will in school take the
+right attitude toward its companions. The fraternal duties are typical
+of the duties which we owe to all our companions, and, indeed, to all
+human beings.
+
+The next topic of the lessons, therefore, will be the duties which we
+owe to all human beings.
+
+Finally, life in school prepares for life in society and in the state,
+and so this course of elementary moral lesson will properly close with
+"The elements of civic duty."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] It may be urged by some that duties toward God ought to be included
+in such a scheme of moral lessons as we are proposing. I should say,
+however, that the discussion of these duties belongs to the
+Sunday-schools, the existence of which alongside the daily schools is
+_presupposed throughout the present course of lectures_.
+
+[6] The duties which relate to the moral nature, as a whole, such for
+instance as the duty of self-scrutiny, may be considered either at the
+end of the chapter on self-regarding duties, or at the close of the
+whole course.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+THE MORAL OUTFIT OF CHILDREN ON ENTERING SCHOOL.
+
+
+It is difficult to trace the beginnings of the moral life in children.
+The traveler who attempts to follow some great river to its source
+generally finds himself confused by the number of ponds and springs
+which are pointed out to him with the assurance in the case of each that
+this and no other is the real source. In truth, the river is fed not
+from one source but from many, and does not attain its unity and
+individuality until it has flowed for some distance on its way. In like
+manner, the moral life is fed by many springs, and does not assume its
+distinctive character until after several years of human existence have
+elapsed. The study of the development of conscience in early childhood
+is a study of origins, and these are always obscure. But, besides, the
+attention hitherto given to this subject has been entirely inadequate,
+and even the attempts to observe in a systematic way the moral
+manifestations of childhood have been few.
+
+Parents and teachers should endeavor to answer such questions as these:
+When do the first stirrings of the moral sense appear in the child? How
+do they manifest themselves? What are the emotional and the
+intellectual equipments of the child at different periods, and how do
+these correspond with its moral outfit? At what time does conscience
+enter on the scene? To what acts or omissions does the child apply the
+terms right and wrong? If observations of this kind were made with care
+and duly recorded, the science of education would have at its disposal a
+considerable quantity of material from which no doubt valuable
+generalizations might be deduced. Every mother especially should keep a
+diary in which to note the successive phases of her child's physical,
+mental, and moral growth; with particular attention to the moral; so
+that parents may be enabled to make a timely forecast of their
+childrens' characters, to foster in them every germ of good, and by
+prompt precautions to suppress, or at least restrain, what is bad.
+
+I propose in the present lecture to cast a glance at the moral training
+which the normal child receives before it enters school, and the moral
+outfit which it may be expected to bring with it at the time of
+entering. Fortunately, it is not necessary to go very deeply into the
+study of development of conscience for this purpose. A few main points
+will suffice for our guidance.
+
+_First Point._--The moral training of a child can be begun in its
+cradle. Regularity is favorable to morality. Regularity acts as a check
+on impulse. A child should receive its nourishment at stated intervals;
+it should become accustomed to sleep at certain hours, etc. If it
+protests, as it often does vigorously enough, its protests should be
+disregarded. After a while its cries will cease, it will learn to submit
+to the rule imposed, and the taking of pleasure in regularity and the
+sense of discomfort when the usual order is interrupted become
+thenceforth a part of its mental life. I do not maintain that regularity
+itself is moral, but that it is favorable to morality because it curbs
+inclination. I do not say that rules are always good, but that the life
+of impulse is always bad. Even when we do the good in an impulsive way
+we are encouraging in ourselves a vicious habit. Good conduct consists
+in regulating our life according to good principles; and a willingness
+to abide by rules is the first, the indispensable condition of moral
+growth. Now, the habit of yielding to rules may be implanted in a child
+even in the cradle.
+
+_Second Point._--A very young child--one not older than a year and a
+half--can be taught to obey, to yield to the parent's will. A child a
+year and a half old is capable of adhering to its own will in defiance
+of the expressed will of father or mother. In this case it should be
+constrained to yield. We shall never succeed in making of it a moral
+person if it does not realize betimes that there exists a higher law
+than the law of its will. And of this higher law, throughout childhood,
+the parent is, as it were, the embodiment. When I say that obedience can
+be exacted of a child of such tender age, that a child so young is
+capable of deliberately opposing the will of the parent, I speak from
+experience. I know a certain little lady who undertook a struggle with
+her father precisely in the way described. The struggle lasted fully
+thirty-five minutes by the clock. But when it was over, the child
+stretched out her little arms and put up her lips to be kissed, and for
+days after fairly clung to her father, showing him her attachment in the
+most demonstrative manner. Nor should this increase of affectionateness
+excite surprise--it is the proper result of a conflict of this sort
+between father and child when conducted in the right spirit. The child
+is happy to be freed from the sway of its wayward caprice, to feel that
+its feeble will has been taken up into a will larger and stronger than
+its own.
+
+_Third Point._--What is called conscience does not usually begin to show
+itself until the child is about three years old. At this age the concept
+self usually emerges, and the child begins to use the personal pronoun
+I. This is one of these critical turning points in human development, of
+which there are several. The beginning of adolescence marks another. I
+am inclined to suspect that there is one at or about thirty-three. There
+seem to be others later on. At any rate the first turning point--that
+which occurs at three--is marked unmistakably. At this time, as we have
+just said, the child begins to be distinctly self-conscious; it says
+"I," and presently "you," "he," and "they." Now, moral rules formulate
+the relations which ought to subsist between one's self and others, and
+to comprehend the rules it is clearly necessary to be able to hold apart
+in the mind and to contrast with one another the persons related. It is
+evident, therefore, that the emergence of the concept self must have a
+decided effect on moral development.
+
+I feel tempted to pause here a moment and to say a word in passing about
+the extreme importance of the constituent elements of the concept self.
+For it must not be supposed that the pronoun "I" means the same thing on
+the lips of every person who uses it. "I" is a label denoting a mass of
+associated ideas, and as these ideas are capable of almost endless
+variation, so the notion of selfhood is correspondingly diversified in
+different individuals. In the case of children, perhaps the principal
+constituents of the concept are supplied by their outward appearance and
+environment. When a child speaks of itself, it thinks primarily of its
+body, especially its face, then of the clothes it usually wears, the
+house it lives in, the streets through which it habitually walks, its
+parents, brothers, sisters, school-masters, etc.[7] If we analyze the
+meaning of "I" in the case of two children, the one well-born and well
+brought up, the other without these advantages, we shall perhaps find
+such differences as the following: "I" in the one case will mean a being
+living in a certain decent and comfortable house, always wearing neat
+clothing, surrounded by parents, brothers, and sisters who speak kindly
+to one another and have gentle manners, etc. In the other case, the
+constituents of the concept self may be very different. "I" in the case
+of the second child may mean a creature that lives in a dark, filthy
+hovel and walks every day through narrow streets, reeking with garbage.
+"I" may mean the child of a father who comes home drunk and strikes the
+mother when the angry fit is upon him. "I" stands for a poor waif that
+wears torn clothes, and when he sits in school by the side of
+well-dressed children is looked at askance and put to shame. It is
+obvious that the elements which go to make up the concept self affect
+the child's moral nature by lowering or raising its self-esteem. I
+remember the case of one, who as a boy was the laughing-stock of his
+class on account of the old-fashioned, ill-fitting clothes which he was
+compelled to wear, and who has confessed that even late in life he could
+not entirely overcome the effect of this early humiliation, and that he
+continued to be painfully aware in himself, in consequence, of a certain
+lack of ease and self-possession. Hence we should see to it that the
+constituent elements of the concept self are of the right kind. It is a
+mistake to suppose that the idea of selfhood stands off independently
+from the elements of our environment. The latter enter into, and when
+they are bad eat into, the very kernel of our nature.
+
+We have seen that the development of the intellect as it appears in the
+growing distinctness of self-consciousness exercises an important
+influence on the development of the moral faculty. But there is still
+another way in which this influence becomes apparent. The function of
+conscience further depends on the power of keeping alternative courses
+of action before the mind. Angels capable only of the good, or fiends
+actuated exclusively by malice, could not be called moral creatures. A
+moral act always presupposes a previous choice between two possible
+lines of action. And until the power of holding the judgment in
+suspense, of hesitating between alternative lines of conduct, has been
+acquired, conscience, strictly speaking, does not manifest itself. We
+may say that the voice of conscience begins to be heard when, the parent
+being absent, the child hesitates between a forbidden pleasure and
+obedience to the parental command. Of course, not every choice between
+alternative courses is a moral act. If any one hesitates whether to
+remain at home or to go for a walk, whether to take a road to the right
+or to the left, the decision is morally indifferent. But whenever one of
+the alternative courses is good and the other bad, conscience does come
+into play.
+
+At this point, however, the question forcibly presents itself, How does
+it come to pass in the experience of children that they learn to regard
+certain lines of action as good and others as bad? You will readily
+answer, The parent characterizes certain acts as good and others as bad,
+and the child accepts his definition; and this is undoubtedly true. The
+parent's word is the main prop of the budding conscience. But how comes
+the parent's word to produce belief? This is indeed the crucial
+question touching the development of the moral faculty. Mr. Bain says
+that the child fears the punishment which the parent will inflict in
+case of disobedience; that the essential form and defining quality of
+conscience from first to last is of the nature of dread. He seems to
+classify the child's conscience with the criminal conscience, the rebel
+conscience which must be energized by the fear of penalties. But this
+explanation seems very unsatisfactory. Every one, of course, must admit
+that the confirmations of experience tend greatly to strengthen the
+parent's authority. The parent says, You must be neat. The child, if it
+does as it is bidden, finds an æsthetic pleasure in its becoming
+appearance. The parent says, You must not strike your little brother,
+but be kind to him; and the child, on restraining its anger, is
+gratified by the loving words and looks which it receives in return. The
+parent says, You must not touch the stove, or you will be burned. The
+disobedient child is effectually warned by the pain it suffers to be
+more obedient in future. But all such confirmations are mere external
+aids to parental authority. They do not explain the feeling of reverence
+with which even a young child, when rightly brought up, is wont to look
+up to his father's face. To explain this sentiment of reverence, I must
+ask you to consider the following train of reasoning. It has been
+remarked already that the parent should be to the child the visible
+embodiment of a higher law. This higher law shining from the father's
+countenance, making its sublime presence felt in the mother's eye,
+wakens an answering vibration in the child's heart. The child feels the
+higher presence and bows to it, though it could not, if it tried,
+analyze or explain what it feels. We should never forget that children
+possess the capacity for moral development from the outset. It is indeed
+the fashion with some modern writers to speak of the child as if it were
+at first a mere animal, and as if reflection and morality were
+mechanically superadded later on. But the whole future man is already
+hidden, not yet declared, but latent all the same in the child's heart.
+The germs of humanity in its totality exist in the young being. Else how
+could it ever unfold into full-grown morality? It will perhaps serve to
+make my meaning clearer if I call attention to analogous facts relating
+to the intellectual faculty. The formula of causality is a very abstract
+one, which only a thoroughly trained mind can grasp. But even very young
+children are constantly asking questions as to the causes of things.
+What makes the trees grow? what makes the stars shine?--i. e., what is
+the cause of the trees growing and the stars shining? The child is
+constantly pushing, or rather groping, its way back from effects to
+causes. The child's mind acts under what maybe called the causative
+instinct long before it can apprehend the law of causation. In the same
+way young children perfectly follow the process of syllogistic
+reasoning. If a father says, on leaving the house for a walk: I can take
+with me only a child that has been good; now, you have not been good
+to-day; the child without any difficulty draws the conclusion, Therefore
+I can not go out walking with my father to-day. The logical laws are, as
+it were, prefigured in the child's mind long before, under the chemical
+action of experience they come out in the bright colors of
+consciousness. Or, to use another figure, they exert a pressure on the
+child of which he himself can give no account. And in like manner the
+moral law--the law which prescribes certain relations between self and
+others--is, so to speak, prefigured in the child's mind, and when it is
+expressed in commands uttered by the parent, the pressure of external
+authority is confirmed by a pressure coming from within. We can
+illustrate the same idea from another point of view. Whenever a man of
+commanding moral genius appears in the world and speaks to the multitude
+from his height, they are for the moment lifted to his level and feel
+the afflatus of his spirit. This is so because he expresses
+potentialities of human nature which also exist in them, only not
+unfolded to the same degree as in him. It is a matter of common
+observation that persons who under ordinary circumstances are content to
+admire what is third rate and fourth rate are yet able to appreciate
+what is first rate when it is presented to them--at least to the extent
+of recognizing that it is first rate. And yet their lack of development
+shows itself in the fact that presently they again lose their hold on
+the higher standard of excellence, and are thereafter content to put up
+with what is inferior as if the glimpses of better things had never been
+opened to them. Is it not because, though capable of rising to the
+higher level, they are not capable of maintaining themselves on it
+unassisted. Now, the case of the parent with respect to the child is
+analogous. He is on a superior moral plane. The child feels that he is,
+without being able to understand why. It feels the afflatus of the
+higher spirit dwelling in the parent, and out of this feeling is
+generated the sentiment of reverence. And there is no greater benefit
+which father or mother can confer on their offspring than to deepen this
+sentiment. It is by this means that they can most efficiently promote
+the development of the child's conscience, for out of this reverence
+will grow eventually respect for all rightly constituted authority,
+respect and reverence for law, human and divine. The essential form and
+defining quality of conscience is not, therefore, as Bain has it--fear
+of punishment. In my opinion such fear is abject and cowardly. The
+sentiment engendered by fear is totally different from the one we are
+contemplating, as the following consideration will serve to show: A
+child fears its father when he punishes it in anger; and the more
+violent his passion, the more does the child fear him. But, no matter
+how stern the penalty may be which he has to inflict, the child reveres
+its father in proportion as the traces of anger are banished from his
+mien and bearing, in proportion as the parent shows by his manner that
+he acts from a sense of duty, that he has his eye fixed on the sacred
+measures of right and wrong, that he himself stands in awe of the
+sublime commands of which he is, for the time being, the exponent.
+
+To recapitulate briefly the points which we have gone over: regular
+habits can be inculcated and obedience can be taught even in infancy. By
+obedience is meant the yielding of a wayward and ignorant will to a firm
+and enlightened one. The child between three and six years of age learns
+clearly to distinguish self from others, and to deliberate between
+alternative courses of action. It is highly important to control the
+elements which enter into the concept self. The desire to choose the
+good is promoted chiefly by the sentiment of reverence.
+
+We are thus prepared to describe in a general way the moral outfit of
+the child on entering school. We have, indeed, already described it. The
+moral acquirements of the child at the age of which we speak express
+themselves in habits. The normal child, under the influences of parental
+example and command, has acquired such habits as that of personal
+cleanliness, of temperance in eating, of respect for the truth. Having
+learned to use the pronouns I and thou, it also begins to understand the
+difference between _meum_ and _tuum_. The property sense begins to be
+developed. It claims its own seat at table, its own toys against the
+aggression of others. It has gained in an elementary way the notion of
+rights.
+
+This is a stock of acquirements by no means inconsiderable. The next
+step in the progress of conscience must be taken in the school. Until
+now the child has been aware of duties relating only or principally to
+persons whom it loves and who love it. The motive of love is now to
+become less prominent. A part of that reverence which the child has felt
+for the parents whom it loves is now to be transferred to the teacher. A
+part of that respect for the rights of equals which has been impressed
+upon it in its intercourse with brothers and sisters, to whom it is
+bound by the ties of blood, is now to be transferred to its school
+companions, who are at first strangers to it. Thus the conscience of the
+child will be expanded, thus it will be prepared for intercourse with
+the world. Thus it will begin to gain that higher understanding of
+morality, according to which authority is to be obeyed simply because it
+is rightful, and equals are to be treated as equals, even when they are
+not and can not be regarded with affection.
+
+I have in the above used the word habits advisedly. The morality of the
+young child assumes the concrete form of habits; abstract principles are
+still beyond its grasp. Habits are acquired by imitation and repetition.
+Good examples must be so persistently presented and so often copied that
+the line of moral conduct may become the line of least resistance. The
+example of parents and teachers is indeed specially important in this
+respect. But after all it is not sufficient. For the temptations of
+adults differ in many ways from those of children, and on the other
+hand in the lives of older persons occasions are often wanting for
+illustrating just the peculiar virtues of childhood. On this account it
+is necessary to set before the child ideal examples of the virtues of
+children and of the particular temptations, against which they need to
+be warned. Of such examples we find a large stock ready to hand in the
+literature of fairy tales, fables, and stories. In our next lecture
+therefore we shall begin to consider the use of fairy tales, fables, and
+stories as means of creating in children those habits which are
+essential to the safe guarding and unfolding of their moral life.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[7] So important is environment in supporting self-consciousness, that
+even adults, when suddenly transported into entirely new surroundings,
+often experience a momentary doubt as to their identity.
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY COURSE.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+THE USE OF FAIRY TALES.
+
+
+There has been and still is considerable difference of opinion among
+educators as to the value of fairy tales. I venture to think that, as in
+many other cases, the cause of the quarrel is what logicians call an
+_undistributed middle_--in other words, that the parties to the dispute
+have each a different kind of fairy tale in mind. This species of
+literature can be divided broadly into two classes--one consisting of
+tales which ought to be rejected because they are really harmful, and
+children ought to be protected from their bad influence, the other of
+tales which have a most beautiful and elevating effect, and which we can
+not possibly afford to leave unutilized.
+
+The chief pedagogic value they possess is that they exercise and
+cultivate the imagination. Now, the imagination is a most powerful
+auxiliary in the development of the mind and will. The familiar anecdote
+related of Marie Antoinette, who is said to have asked why the people
+did not eat cake when she was told that they were in want of bread,
+indicates a deficiency of imagination. Brought up amid the splendor of
+courts, surrounded by luxury, she could not put herself in the place of
+those who lack the very necessaries. Much of the selfishness of the
+world is due not to actual hard-heartedness, but to a similar lack of
+imaginative power. It is difficult for the happy to realize the needs of
+the miserable. Did they realize those needs, they would in many cases be
+melted to pity and roused to help. The faculty of putting one's self in
+the place of others is therefore of great, though indirect, service to
+the cause of morality, and this faculty may be cultivated by means of
+fairy tales. As they follow intently the progress of the story, the
+young listeners are constantly called upon to place themselves in the
+situations in which they have never been, to imagine trials, dangers,
+difficulties, such as they have never experienced, to reproduce in
+themselves, for instance, such feelings as that of being alone in the
+wide world, of being separated from father's and mother's love, of being
+hungry and without bread, exposed to enemies without protection, etc.
+Thus their sympathy in a variety of forms is aroused.
+
+In the next place, fairy tales stimulate the idealizing tendency. What
+were life worth without ideals! How could hope or even religion
+germinate in the human heart were we not able to confront the
+disappointing present with visions which represent the fulfillment of
+our desires. "Faith," says Paul, "is the confidence of things hoped for,
+the certainty of things not seen." Thus faith itself can not abide
+unless supported by a vivid idealism. It is true, the ideals of
+childhood are childish. In the story called Das Marienkind we hear of
+the little daughter of a poor wood-cutter who was taken up bodily into
+heaven. There she ate sweetmeats and drank cream every day and wore
+dresses made of gold, and the angels played with her. Sweetmeats and
+cream in plenty and golden dresses and dear little angels to play with
+may represent the ideals of a young child, and these are materialistic
+enough. But I hold nevertheless that something--nay, much--has been
+gained if a child has learned to take the wishes out of its heart, as it
+were, and to project them on the screen of fancy. As it grows up to
+manhood, the wishes will become more spiritual, and the ideals, too,
+will become correspondingly elevated. In speaking of fairy tales I have
+in mind chiefly the German _Märchen_ of which the word fairy tale is but
+an inaccurate rendering. The _Märchen_ are more than mere tales of
+helpful fairies. They have, as is well-known, a mythological background.
+They still bear distinct traces of ancient animism, and the myths which
+center about the phenomena of the storm, the battle of the sun with the
+clouds, the struggle of the fair spring god with the dark winter demons,
+are in them leading themes. But what originally was the outgrowth of
+superstition has now, to a great extent at least, been purified of its
+dross and converted into mere poetry. The _Märchen_ come to us from a
+time when the world was young. They represent the childhood of mankind,
+and it is for this reason that they never cease to appeal to children.
+The _Märchen_ have a subtile flavor all their own. They are pervaded by
+the poetry of forest life, are full of the sense of mystery and awe,
+which is apt to overcome one on penetrating deeper and deeper into the
+woods, away from human habitations. The _Märchen_ deal with the
+underground life of nature, which weaves in caverns and in the heart of
+mountains, where gnomes and dwarfs are at work gathering hidden
+treasures. And with this underground life children have a marvelous
+sympathy. The _Märchen_ present glowing pictures of sheltered firesides,
+where man finds rest and security from howling winds and nipping cold.
+But perhaps their chief attraction is due to their representing the
+child as living in brotherly fellowship with nature and all creatures.
+Trees, flowers, animals wild and tame, even the stars, are represented
+as the comrades of children. That animals are only human beings in
+disguise is an axiom in the fairy tales. Animals are humanized--i. e.,
+the kinship between animal and human life is still strongly felt, and
+this reminds us of those early animistic interpretations of nature,
+which subsequently led to doctrines of metempsychosis. Plants, too, are
+often represented as incarnations of human spirits. Thus the twelve
+lilies are inhabited by the twelve brothers, and in the story of
+Snow-white and Rose-red the life of the two maidens appears to be bound
+up with the life of the white and red rosebush. The kinship of all life
+whatsoever is still realized. This being so, it is not surprising that
+men should understand the language of animals, and that these should
+interfere to protect the heroes and heroines of the _Märchen_ from
+threatened dangers. In the story of the faithful servant John, the
+three ravens flying above the ship reveal the secret of the red horse,
+the sulphurous shirt, and the three drops of blood, and John, who
+understands their communications, is thereby enabled to save his
+master's life. What, again, can be more beautiful than the way in which
+the tree and the two white doves co-operate to secure the happiness of
+the injured Cinderella! The tree rains down the golden dresses with
+which she appears at the ball, and the doves continue to warn the prince
+as he rides by that he has chosen the wrong bride until Cinderella
+herself passes, when they light on her shoulders, one on her right and
+the other on her left, making, perhaps, the loveliest picture to be
+found in all fairy lore. The child still lives in unbroken communion
+with the whole of nature; the harmony between its own life and the
+enveloping life has not yet been disturbed, and it is this harmony of
+the human with the natural world that reflects itself in the atmosphere
+of the _Märchen_, and makes them so admirably suited to satisfy the
+heart of childhood.
+
+But how shall we handle these _Märchen_ and what method shall we employ
+in putting them to account for our special purpose? I have a few
+thoughts on this subject, which I shall venture to submit in the form of
+counsels.
+
+My _first counsel_ is: Tell the story; do not give it to the child to
+read. There is an obvious practical reason for this. Children are able
+to benefit by hearing fairy tales before they can read. But that is not
+the only reason. It is the childhood of the race, as we have seen, that
+speaks in the fairy story to the child of to-day. It is the voice of an
+ancient, far-off past that echoes from the lips of the story-teller. The
+words "once upon a time" open up a vague retrospect into the past, and
+the child gets its first indistinct notions of history in this way. The
+stories embody the tradition of the childhood of mankind. They have on
+this account an authority all their own, not indeed that of literal
+truth, but one derived from their being types of certain feelings and
+longings which belong to childhood as such. The child as it listens to
+the _Märchen_, looks up with wide-opened eyes to the face of the person
+who tells the story, and thrills responsive as the touch of the earlier
+life of the race thus falls upon its own. Such an effect, of course, can
+not be produced by cold type. Tradition is a living thing, and should
+use the living voice for its vehicle.
+
+My _second counsel_ is also of a practical nature, and I make bold to
+say quite essential to the successful use of the stories. Do not take
+the moral plum out of the fairy-tale pudding, but let the child enjoy it
+as a whole. Do not make the story taper toward a single point, the moral
+point. You will squeeze all the juice out of it if you try. Do not
+subordinate the purely fanciful and naturalistic elements of the story,
+such as the love of mystery, the passion for roving, the sense of
+fellowship with the animal world, in order to fix attention solely on
+the moral element. On the contrary, you will gain the best moral effect
+by proceeding in exactly the opposite way. Treat the moral element as
+an incident; emphasize, it indeed, but incidentally. Pluck it as a
+wayside flower. How often does it happen that, having set out on a
+journey with a distinct object in mind, something occurs on the way
+which we had not foreseen, but which in the end leaves the deepest
+impression on the mind. The object which we had in view is long
+forgotten, but the incident which happened by the way is remembered for
+years after. So the moral result of the _Märchen_ will not be less sure
+because gained incidentally. An illustration will make plain what I
+mean. In the story of the Frog King we are told that there was once a
+young princess who was so beautiful that even the Sun, which sees a
+great many things, had never seen anything so beautiful as she was. A
+golden ball was her favorite plaything. One day, as she sat by a well
+under an old linden tree, she tossed the ball into the air and it fell
+into the well. She was very unhappy, and cried bitterly. Presently a
+frog put his ugly head out of the water, and offered to dive for the
+ball, on condition, however, that she would promise to take him for her
+playmate, to let him eat off her golden plate and drink out of her
+golden cup and sleep in her little snow-white bed. The princess promised
+everything. But no sooner had the frog brought her the ball than she
+scampered away, heedless of his cries. The next day as the royal family
+sat at dinner a knock was heard at the door. The princess opened and
+beheld the ugly toad claiming admittance. She screamed with fright and
+hastily shut the door in his face. But when the king, her father, had
+questioned her, he said, "What you have promised, you must keep"; and
+she obeyed her father, though it was sorely against her inclination to
+do so. That was right, children, was it not? One must always obey, even
+if one does not like what one is told to do. So the toad was brought in
+and lifted to the table, and he ate off the little golden plate and
+drank out of the golden cup. And when he had had enough, he said, "I am
+tired now, put me into your little snow-white bed." And again when she
+refused her father said: "What you have promised you must keep. Ugly
+though he is, he helped you when you were in distress, and you must not
+despise him now." And the upshot of the story is that the ugly toad,
+having been thrown against the wall, was changed into a beautiful
+prince, and of course some time after the prince and the princess were
+married.
+
+The naturalistic element of the story is the changing of the prince into
+a toad and back again from a toad into a prince. Children are very fond
+of disguises. It is one of their greatest pleasures to imagine things to
+be other than they are. And one of the chief attractions of such stories
+as the one we have related is that they cater to the fondness of the
+little folks for this sort of masquerading. The moral elements of the
+story are obvious. They should be touched on in such a manner as not to
+divert the interest from the main story.
+
+My _third counsel_ is to eliminate from the stories whatever is merely
+superstitious, merely a relic of ancient animism, and of course whatever
+is objectionable on moral grounds. For instance, such a story as that of
+the idle spinner, the purport of which seems to be that there is a
+special providence watching over lazy people. Likewise all those stories
+which turn upon the success of trickery and cunning. A special question
+arising under this head, and one which has been the subject of much
+vexed discussion, is in how far we should acquaint children with the
+existence of evil in the world, and to what extent we can use stories in
+which evil beings and evil motives are introduced. My own view is that
+we should speak in the child's hearing only of those lesser forms of
+evil, physical or moral, with which it is already acquainted, but
+exclude all those forms of evil which lie beyond its present experience.
+On this ground I should reject the whole brood of step-mother stories,
+or rather, as this might make too wide a swath, I should take the
+liberty of altering stories in which the typical bad step-mother occurs,
+but which are otherwise valuable. There is no reason why children should
+be taught to look on step-mothers in general as evilly disposed persons.
+The same applies to stories in which unnatural fathers are mentioned. I
+should also rule out such stories as that of The Wolf and The Seven
+Little Goats. The mother goat, on leaving the house, warns her little
+ones against the wolf, and gives them two signs by which they can
+detect him--his hoarse voice and black paws. The wolf knocks and finds
+himself discovered. He thereupon swallows chalk to improve his voice and
+compels the miller to whiten his paws. Then he knocks again, is
+admitted, leaps into the room, and devours the little goats one by one.
+The story, as used in the nursery, has a transparent purpose. It is
+intended to warn little children who are left at home alone against
+admitting strangers. The wolf represents evil beings in general--tramps,
+burglars, people who come to kidnap children, etc. Now I, for one,
+should not wish to implant this fear of strangers into the minds of the
+young. Fear is demoralizing. Children should look with confidence and
+trust upon all men. They need not be taught to fear robbers and
+burglars. Even the sight of wild animals need not awaken dread. Children
+naturally admire the beauty of the tiger's skin, and the lion in their
+eyes is a noble creature, of whose ferocity they have no conception. It
+is time enough for them later on to familiarize themselves with the fact
+that evil of a sinister sort exists within human society and outside of
+it. And it will be safe for them to face this fact then only, when they
+can couple with it the conviction that the forces of right and order in
+the world are strong enough to grapple with the sinister powers and hold
+them in subjection.
+
+And now let us review a number of the _Märchen_ against which none of
+these objections lie, which are delicious food for children's minds, and
+consider the place they occupy in a scheme of moral training. It has
+been already stated that each period of human life has a set of duties
+peculiar to itself. The principal duties of childhood are: Obedience to
+parents, love and kindness toward brothers and sisters, a proper regard
+for the feelings of servants, and kindness toward animals. We can
+classify the fairy tales which we can use under these various heads. Let
+us begin with the topic last mentioned.
+
+
+_Tales illustrating Kindness toward Animals._
+
+The House in the Woods.--The daughter of a poor wood-cutter is lost in
+the woods, and comes at night to a lonely house. An old man is sitting
+within. Three animals--a cow, a cock, and a chicken--lie on the hearth.
+The child is made welcome, and is asked to prepare supper. She cooks for
+the old man and herself, but forgets the animals. The second daughter
+likewise goes astray in the woods, comes to the same house, and acts in
+the same way. The third daughter, a sweet, loving child, before sitting
+down to her own meal, brings in hay for the cow and barley for the cock
+and chicken, and by this act of kindness to animals breaks the spell
+which had been cast upon the house. The old man is immediately
+transformed into a prince, etc.
+
+The Story of the Dog Sultan.--Sultan is old, and about to be shot by his
+master. The wolf, seeing his cousin the dog in such distress, promises
+to help him. He arranges that on the morrow he will seize a sheep
+belonging to Sultan's master. The dog is to run after him, and he, the
+wolf, will drop the sheep and Sultan shall get the credit of the rescue.
+Everything passes off as prearranged, and Sultan's life is spared by his
+grateful owner. Some time after the wolf comes prowling around the
+house, and, reminding his friend that one good turn deserves another,
+declares that he has now come for mutton in good earnest. But the dog
+replies that nothing can tempt him to betray the interests of his
+master. The wolf persists, but Sultan gives the alarm and the thief
+receives his due in the shape of a sound beating.
+
+The point of special interest in the beautiful story of Snow-white and
+Rose-red above referred to is the incident of the bear. One cold
+winter's night some one knocks at the door. Snow-white and Rose-red go
+to open, when a huge black bear appears at the entrance and begs for
+shelter. He is almost frozen with the cold, he says, and would like to
+warm himself a bit. The two little girls are at first frightened, but,
+encouraged by their mother, they take heart and invite the bear into the
+kitchen. Soon a cordial friendship springs up between Bruin and the
+children. They brush the snow from his fur, tease, and caress him by
+turns. After this the bear returns every night, and finally turns out to
+be a beautiful prince.
+
+The Story of the Queen Bee tells about three brothers who wander through
+the world in search of adventures. One day they come to an ant-hill.
+The two older brothers are about to trample upon the ants "just for the
+fun of it." But the youngest pleads with them, saying: "Let them live;
+their life is as dear to them as ours is to us." Next they come to a
+pond in which many ducks are swimming about. The two older brothers are
+determined to shoot the ducks "just for the fun of it." The youngest
+again pleads as before, "Let them live," etc. Finally, he saves a
+bee-hive from destruction in the same manner. Thus they journey on until
+they come to an enchanted castle. To break the spell, it is necessary to
+find and gather up a thousand pearls which had fallen on the
+moss-covered ground in a certain wood. Five thousand ants come to help
+the youngest to find the pearls. The second task imposed is to find a
+golden key which had been thrown into a pond near the castle. The
+grateful ducks bring up the key from the bottom. The third task is the
+most difficult. In one of the interior chambers of the castle there are
+three marble images--three princesses, namely, who had been turned into
+stone. Before the spell took effect they had partaken, respectively, of
+sugar, sirup, and honey. To restore them to life it is necessary to
+discover which one had eaten the honey. The Queen Bee comes in with all
+her swarm and lights on the lips of the youngest and so solves the
+problem. The enchantment is immediately dissolved. All these stories
+illustrate kindness to animals.
+
+Among stories which illustrate the _respect due to the feelings of
+servants_ may be mentioned the tale of Faithful John, who understood the
+language of the ravens and saved his master from the dangers of the red
+horse, etc., a story which in addition impresses the lesson that we
+should confide in persons who have been found trustworthy, even if we do
+not understand their motives. In the popular tale of Cinderella the
+points especially to be noted are: The pious devotion of Cinderella to
+her mother's memory, and the fact that the poor kitchen drudge,
+underneath the grime and ashes which disfigure her, possesses qualities
+which raise her far above the proud daughters of the house. The lesson
+taught by this story that we should distinguish intrinsic worth from the
+accidents of rank and condition, is one which can not be impressed too
+early or too deeply.
+
+Under the heading of _brotherly and sisterly love_ belongs the lovely
+tale of Snow-white. The little dwarfs are to all intents and purposes
+her brothers. They receive and treat her as a sister, and she returns
+their affection in kind.
+
+The story of the Twelve Brothers, whom their sister redeems by seven
+years of silence at the peril of her own life, is another instance of
+tenderest sisterly devotion combined with self-control. This story,
+however, needs to be slightly altered. In place of the cruel father (we
+must not mention cruel fathers) who has got ready twelve coffins for his
+sons, in order that all the wealth of his kingdom may descend to his
+daughter, let us substitute the steward of the palace, who hopes by
+slaying the sons and winning the hand of the daughter, to become king
+himself.
+
+Finally the story of Red Riding Hood illustrates the cardinal virtue of
+childhood--_obedience to parents_. Children must not loiter on the way
+when they are sent on errands. And Riding Hood loiters, and hence all
+the mischief which follows. She is sent to bring wine and cake to her
+grandmother. The example of such attentions as this serves to quicken in
+children the sentiment of reverence for the aged. Children learn
+reverence toward their parents in part by the reverence which these
+display toward the grandparents. Another point is that Red Riding Hood,
+to quiet her conscience, when she strays from the straight path deceives
+herself as to her motives. She says, "I will also gather a bunch of wild
+flowers to please grandmother." But her real purpose is to enjoy the
+freedom of the woods, and the proof is that presently she forgets all
+about grandmother. There is one objection that has sometimes been urged
+against this story, viz., the part which the wolf plays in it. But the
+wolf is not really treated as a hostile or fearful being. He meets Red
+Riding Hood on the way, and they chat confidentially together. He
+appears rather in the light of a trickster. But, it is objected, that he
+devours the grandmother and, later on, Red Riding Hood herself. Very
+true; but the curious fact is that, when his belly is cut open, the
+grandmother and Red Riding Hood come out intact. They have evidently not
+been injured. Children have very defective notions of the human body,
+with the exception of such external parts as hands, feet, and face. In
+an examination recently conducted by Prof. G. Stanley Hall in regard to
+the contents of childrens' minds at the time they enter school, it was
+found that ninety per cent of those questioned had no idea where the
+heart is located, eighty-one per cent did not know anything about the
+lungs, ninety per cent could not tell where their ribs are situated,
+etc. Of the internal organs children have no idea. Hence when the story
+says that the grandmother is swallowed by the wolf, the impression
+created is that she has been forced down into a sort of dark hole, and
+that her situation, while rather uncomfortable, no doubt, is not
+otherwise distressing. The ideas of torn and mangled flesh are not
+suggested. Hence the act of devouring arouses no feeling of horror, and
+the story of Red Riding Hood, that prime favorite of all young children,
+may be related without any apprehension as to its moral effect.
+
+Then there are other stories, such as that of the man who went abroad to
+learn the art of shuddering--an excellent example of bravery; the story
+of the seven Suabians--a persiflage of cowardice; the story of the
+_Marienkind_ which contains a wholesome lesson against obstinacy, etc. I
+have not, of course, attempted to cover the whole ground, but only to
+mention a few examples sufficient to show along what lines the selection
+may be made. The ethical interests peculiar to childhood are the heads
+under which the whole material can be classified.
+
+The value of the fairy tales is that they stimulate the imagination;
+that they reflect the unbroken communion of human life with the life
+universal, as in beasts, fishes, trees, flowers, and stars; and that
+incidentally, but all the more powerfully on that account, they quicken
+the moral sentiments.
+
+Let us avail ourselves freely of the treasures which are thus placed at
+our disposal. Let us welcome _das Märchen_ into our primary course of
+moral training, that with its gentle bands, woven of "morning mist and
+morning glory," it may help to lead our children into the bright realms
+of the ideal.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+THE USE OF FABLES.
+
+
+The collection of fables which figures under the name of Æsop has to a
+very remarkable degree maintained its popularity among children, and
+many of its typical characters have been adopted into current
+literature, such as the Dog in the Manger, the Wolf in Sheep's Clothing,
+King Log, and King Stork, and others. Recent researches have brought to
+light the highly interesting fact that these fables are of Asiatic
+origin. A collection of Indian and, it is believed, Buddhist fables and
+stories traveled at an early period into Persia, where it became known
+as the Pancha-Tantra. The Pancha-Tantra was translated into Arabic, and
+became the source of the voluminous Kalilah-wa-Dimnah literature. The
+Arabic tales in turn migrated into Europe at the time of the Crusades
+and were rendered into Greek, Hebrew, and Latin. In this form they
+became accessible to the nations of Europe, were extensively circulated,
+and a collection of them was wrongly, but very naturally, ascribed to a
+famous story-teller of the ancient Greeks--i. e., to Æsop. The arguments
+on which this deduction is based may be found in Rhys Davids's
+introduction to his English translation of the Jataka Tales.[8] This
+author speaks of Æsop's fables as a first moral lesson-book for our
+children in the West. We shall have to consider in how far this
+description is correct--that is to say, in how far we can use the fables
+for moral purposes. The point to be kept in mind is their Asiatic
+origin, as this will at once help us to separate the fables which we can
+use from those which must be rejected. A discrimination of this sort is
+absolutely necessary. I am of the opinion that it is a serious mistake
+to place the whole collection as it stands in the hands of children.
+
+To decide this question we must study the _milieu_ in which the fables
+arose, the spirit which they breathe, the conditions which they reflect.
+The conditions they reflect are those of an Oriental despotism. They
+depict a state of society in which the people are cruelly oppressed by
+tyrannical rulers, and the weak are helpless in the hands of the strong.
+The spirit which they breathe is, on the whole, one of patient and
+rather hopeless submission. The effect upon the reader as soon as he has
+caught this clew, this _Leitmotiv_, which occurs in a hundred
+variations, is very saddening. I must substantiate this cardinal point
+by a somewhat detailed analysis. Let us take first the fable of the Kite
+and the Pigeons. A kite had been sailing in the air for many days near a
+pigeon-house with the intention of seizing the pigeons; at last he had
+recourse to stratagem. He expressed his deep concern at their unjust and
+unreasonable suspicions of himself, as if he intended to do them an
+injury. He declared that, on the contrary, he had nothing more at heart
+than the defense of their ancient rights and liberties, and ended by
+proposing that they should accept him as their protector, their king.
+The poor, simple pigeons consented. The kite took the coronation oath in
+a very solemn manner. But much time had not elapsed before the good kite
+declared it to be a part of the king's prerogative to devour a pigeon
+now and then, and the various members of his family adhered to the same
+view of royal privilege. The miserable pigeons exclaimed: "Ah, we
+deserve no better. Why did we let him in!"
+
+The fable of the Wolf in Sheep's Clothing conveys essentially the same
+idea. The fable of the Lion and the Deer illustrates the exorbitant
+exactions practiced by despots. A fat deer was divided into four parts.
+His majesty the lion proposed that they be suitably apportioned. The
+first part he claimed for himself on account of his true hereditary
+descent from the royal family of Lion; the second he considered properly
+his own because he had headed the hunt; the third he took in virtue of
+his prerogative; and finally he assumed a menacing attitude, and dared
+any one to dispute his right to the fourth part also.
+
+In the fable of the Sick Lion and the Fox, the fox says: "I see the
+footprints of beasts who have gone into the cave, but of none that have
+come out." The fable of the Cat and the Mice expresses the same thought,
+namely, that it is necessary to be ever on one's guard against the
+mighty oppressors even when their power seems for the time to have
+deserted them. The cat pretends to be dead, hoping by this means to
+entice the mice within her reach. A cunning old mouse peeps over the
+edge of the shelf, and says: "Aha, my good friend, are you there? I
+would not trust myself with you though your skin were stuffed with
+straw."
+
+The fable of King Log and King Stork shows what a poor choice the people
+have in the matter of their kings. First they have a fool for their
+king, a mere log, and they are discontented. Then Stork ascends the
+throne, and he devours them. It would have been better if they had put
+up with the fool. The injustice of despotic rulers is exemplified in the
+fable of the Kite and the Wolf. The kite and the wolf are seated in
+judgment. The dog comes before them to sue the sheep for debt. Kite and
+wolf, without waiting for the evidence, give sentence for the plaintiff,
+who immediately tears the poor sheep into pieces and divides the spoil
+with the judges. The sort of thanks which the people get when they are
+foolish enough to come to the assistance of their masters, is
+illustrated by the conduct of the wolf toward the crane. The wolf
+happened to have a bone sticking in his throat, and, howling with pain,
+promised a reward to any one who should relieve him. At last the crane
+ventured his long neck into the wolf's throat and plucked out the bone.
+But when he asked for his reward, the wolf glared savagely upon him, and
+said: "Is it not enough that I refrained from biting off your head?" How
+dangerous it is to come at all into close contact with the mighty, is
+shown in the fable of the Earthen and the Brazen Pot. The brazen pot
+offers to protect the earthen one as they float down stream. "Oh,"
+replies the latter, "keep as far off as ever you can, if you please;
+for, whether the stream dashes you against me or me against you, I am
+sure to be the sufferer."
+
+The fables which we have considered have for their theme the character
+of the strong as exhibited in their dealings with the weak. A second
+group is intended to recommend a certain policy to be pursued by the
+weak in self-protection. This policy consists either in pacifying the
+strong by giving up to them voluntarily what they want, or in flight,
+or, if that be impossible, in uncomplaining submission. The first
+expedient is recommended in the fable of the Beaver. A beaver who was
+being hard pressed by a hunter and knew not how to escape, suddenly,
+with a great effort, bit off the part which the hunter desired, and,
+throwing it toward him, by this means escaped with his life. The
+expedient of flight is recommended in the fable of Reynard and the Cat.
+Reynard and the cat one day were talking politics in the forest. The fox
+boasted that though things might turn out never so badly, he had still a
+thousand tricks to play before they should catch him. The cat said: "I
+have but one trick, and if that does not succeed I am undone." Presently
+a pack of hounds came upon them full cry. The cat ran up a tree and hid
+herself among the top branches. The fox, who had not been able to get
+out of sight, was overtaken despite his thousand tricks and torn to
+pieces by the hounds. The fable of the Oak and the Reed teaches the
+policy of utter, uncomplaining submission. The oak refuses to bend, and
+is broken. The supple reed yields to the blast, and is safe. Is it not a
+little astonishing that this fable should so often be related to
+children as if it contained a moral which they ought to take to heart?
+To make it apply at all, it is usually twisted from its proper
+signification and explained as meaning that one should not be
+fool-hardy, not attempt to struggle against overwhelming odds. But this
+is not the true interpretation. The oak is by nature strong and firm,
+while it is the nature of the reed to bend to every wind. The fable
+springs out of the experience of a people who have found resistance
+against oppression useless. And this sort of teaching we can not, of
+course, wish to give to our children. I should certainly prefer that a
+child of mine should take the oak, and not the reed, for his pattern.
+The same spirit is again inculcated in the fable of the Wanton Calf. The
+wanton calf sneers at the poor ox who all day long bears the heavy yoke
+patiently upon his neck. But in the evening it turns out that the ox is
+unyoked, while the calf is butchered. The choice seems to lie between
+subserviency and destruction. The fable of the Old Woman and her Maids
+suggests the same conclusion, with the warning added that it is useless
+to rise against the agents of tyranny so long as the tyrants themselves
+can not be overthrown. The cock in the fable represents the agents of
+oppression. The killing of the cock serves only to bring the mistress
+herself on the scene, and the lot of the servants becomes in consequence
+very much harder than it had been before.
+
+We have now considered two groups of fables: those which depict the
+character of the mighty, and those which treat of the proper policy of
+the weak. The subject of the third group is, the consolations of the
+weak. These are, first, that even tyrannical masters are to a certain
+extent dependent upon their inferiors, and can be punished if they go
+too far; secondly, that the mighty occasionally come to grief in
+consequence of dissensions among themselves; thirdly, that fortune is
+fickle. A lion is caught in the toils, and would perish did not a little
+mouse come to his aid by gnawing asunder the knots and fastenings. The
+bear robs the bees of their honey, but is punished and rendered almost
+desperate by their stings. An eagle carries off the cub of a fox; but
+the fox, snatching a fire-brand, threatens to set the eagle's nest on
+fire, and thus forces him to restore her young one. This is evidently a
+fable of insurrection. The fable of the Viper and the File shows that it
+is not safe to attack the wrong person--in other words, that tyrants
+sometimes come to grief by singling out for persecution some one who is
+strong enough to resist them though they little suspect it. The fable of
+the four bulls shows the effect of dissensions among the mighty. Four
+bulls had entered into a close alliance, and agreed to keep always near
+one another. A lion fomented jealousies among them. The bulls grew
+distrustful of one another, and at last parted company. The lion had now
+obtained his end, and seized and devoured them singly. The fickleness of
+fortune is the theme of the fable of the Horse and the Ass. The horse,
+richly caparisoned and champing his foaming bridle, insults an ass who
+moves along under a heavy load. Soon after the horse is wounded, and,
+being unfit for military service, is sold to a carrier. The ass now
+taunts the proud animal with his fallen estate. The horse in this fable
+is the type of many an Eastern vizier, who has basked for a time in the
+sunshine of a despot's favor only to be suddenly and ignominiously
+degraded. The ass in the fable represents the people. There remains a
+fourth group of fables, which satirize certain mean or ridiculous types
+of characters, such as are apt to appear in social conditions of the
+kind we have described. Especially do the fables make a target of the
+folly of those who affect the manners of the aristocratic class, or who
+try to crowd in where they are not wanted, or who boast of their high
+connections. The frog puffs himself up so that he may seem as large as
+the ox, until he bursts. The mouse aspires to marry the young lioness,
+and is in fact well received; but the young lady inadvertently places
+her foot on her suitor and crushes him. The jackdaw picks up feathers
+which have fallen from the peacocks, sticks them among his own, and
+introduces himself into the assembly of those proud birds. They find him
+out, strip him of his plumes, and with their sharp bills punish him as
+he deserves. A fly boasts that he frequents the most distinguished
+company, and that he is on familiar terms with the king, the priests,
+and the nobility. Many a time, he says, he has entered the royal
+chamber, has sat upon the altar, and has even enjoyed the privilege of
+kissing the lips of the most beautiful maids of honor. "Yes," replies an
+ant, "but in what capacity are you admitted among all these great
+people? One and all regard you as a nuisance, and the sooner they can
+get rid of you the better they are pleased."
+
+Most of the fables which thus far have been mentioned we can not use.
+The discovery of their Asiatic origin sheds a new, keen light upon their
+meaning. They breathe, in many cases, a spirit of fear, of abject
+subserviency, of hopeless pessimism. Can we desire to inoculate the
+young with this spirit? The question may be asked why fables are so
+popular with boys. I should say, Because school-boy society reproduces
+in miniature to a certain extent the social conditions which are
+reflected in the fables. Among unregenerate school-boys there often
+exists a kind of despotism, not the less degrading because petty. The
+strong are pitted against the weak--witness the fagging system in the
+English schools--and their mutual antagonism produces in both the
+characteristic vices which we have noted above. The psychological study
+of school-boy society has been only begun, but even what lies on the
+surface will, I think, bear out this remark. Now it has come to be one
+of the commonplaces of educational literature, that the individual of
+to-day must pass through the same stages of evolution as the human race
+as a whole. But it should not be forgotten that the advance of
+civilization depends on two conditions: first, that the course of
+evolution be accelerated, that the time allowed to the successive stages
+be shortened; and, secondly, that the unworthy and degrading elements
+which entered into the process of evolution in the past, and at the time
+were inseparable from it, be now eliminated. Thus the fairy-tales which
+correspond to the myth-making epoch in human history must be purged of
+the dross of superstition which still adheres to them, and the fables
+which correspond to the age of primitive despotisms must be cleansed of
+the immoral elements they still embody.
+
+The fables which are fit for use may be divided into two classes: those
+which give illustrations of evil,[9] the effect of which on the young
+should be to arouse disapprobation, and those which present types of
+virtue. The following is a list of some of the principal ones in each
+category:
+
+_An Instance of Selfishness._ The porcupine having begged for
+hospitality and having been invited into a nest of snakes,
+inconveniences the inmates and finally crowds them out. When they
+remonstrate, he says, "Let those quit the place that do not like it."
+
+_Injustice._ The fable of the Kite and the Wolf, mentioned above.
+
+_Improvidence._ The fable of the Ant and the Grasshopper; also the fable
+entitled One Swallow does not make Summer, and the fable of the Man who
+Killed the Goose that laid the Golden Eggs.
+
+_Ingratitude._ The fable of the snake which bit the countryman who had
+warmed it in his breast.
+
+_Cowardice._ The fable of the Stag and the Fawn, and of the Hares in the
+Storm.
+
+_Vanity._ The fables of the Peacock and the Crane, and of the Crow who
+lost his Cheese by listening to the flattery of the fox.
+
+_Contemptuous Self-confidence._ The Hare and the Tortoise.
+
+_The Evil Influence of Bad Company._ The Husbandman and the Stork.
+
+_Cruelty to Animals._ The Fowler and the Ringdove; the Hawk and the
+Pigeons.
+
+_Greediness._ The Dog and the Shadow.
+
+_Lying._ The fable of the boy who cried "Wolf!"
+
+_Bragging._ The fable of the Ass in the Lion's Skin.
+
+_Deceit._ The fable of the Fox without a Tail.
+
+_Disingenuousness._ The fable of the Sour Grapes.
+
+_A Discontented Spirit._ The fable of the Peacock's Complaint.
+
+_Equal Graces are not given to all._ The fable of the Ass who leaped
+into his Master's Lap.
+
+_Borrowed Plumes._ The fable of the Jackdaw and the Peacocks, mentioned
+above.
+
+_Malice._ The fable of the Dog in the Manger, who would not eat, neither
+let others eat.
+
+_Breaking Faith._ The fable of the Traveler and the Bear.
+
+_To Fan Animosity is even Worse than to Quarrel._ The fable of the
+Trumpeter.
+
+The value of these fables, as has been said, consists in the reaction
+which they call forth in the minds of the pupils. Sometimes this
+reaction finds expression in the fable itself; sometimes the particular
+vice is merely depicted in its nakedness, and it becomes the business of
+the teacher distinctly to evoke the feeling of disapprobation, and to
+have it expressly stated in words. The words tend to fix the feeling.
+Often, when a child has committed some fault, it is useful to refer by
+name to the fable that fits it. As, when a boy has made room in his seat
+for another, and the other crowds him out, the mere mention of the fable
+of the Porcupine is a telling rebuke; or the fable of the Hawk and the
+Pigeons may be called to mind when a boy has been guilty of mean
+excuses. On the same principle that angry children are sometimes taken
+before a mirror to show them how ugly they look. The fable is a kind of
+mirror for the vices of the young.
+
+Of the fables that illustrate virtuous conduct, I mention that of
+Hercules and the Cart-driver, which teaches self-reliance. Hercules
+helps the driver as soon as the latter has put his own shoulders to the
+wheel. Also the fable of the Lark. So long as the farmer depends on his
+neighbors, or his kinsmen, the lark is not afraid; but when he proposes
+to buckle to himself, she advises her young that it is time to seek
+another field. The fable of the Wind and the Sun shows that kindness
+succeeds where rough treatment would fail. The fable of the Bundle of
+Sticks exemplifies the value of harmony. The fable of the Wolf, whom the
+dog tries to induce to enter civilization, expresses the sentiment that
+lean liberty is to be preferred to pampered servitude. The fable of the
+Old Hound teaches regard for old servants. Finally, the fable of the
+Horse and the Loaded Ass, and of the Dove and the Ant, show that
+kindness pays on selfish principles. The horse refuses to share the
+ass's burden; the ass falls dead under his load; in consequence, the
+horse has to bear the whole of it. On the other hand the dove rescues
+the ant from drowning, and the ant in turn saves the dove from the
+fowler's net.
+
+The last remark throws light on the point of view from which the fables
+contemplate good and evil. It is to be noted that a really moral spirit
+is wanting in them; the moral motives are not appealed to. The appeal
+throughout is to the bare motive of self-interest. Do not lie, because
+you will be found out, and will be left in the lurch when you depend for
+help on the confidence of others. Do not indulge in vanity, because you
+will make yourself ridiculous. Do not try to appear like a lion when you
+can not support the character, because people will find out that you are
+only an ass. Do not act ungratefully, because you will be thrust out of
+doors. Even when good conduct is inculcated, it is on the ground that it
+pays. Be self-reliant, because if you help yourself others will help
+you. Be kind, because by gentle means you can gain your purpose better
+than by harshness. Agree with your neighbors, because you can then, like
+the bundle of sticks, resist aggression from without. That lying is
+wrong on principle; that greediness is shameful, whether you lose your
+cheese or not; that kindness is blessed, even when it does not bring a
+material reward; that it is lovely for neighbors to dwell together in
+peace, is nowhere indicated. The beauty and the holiness of right
+conduct lie utterly beyond the horizon of the fable. Nevertheless, as we
+have seen when speaking of the efficient motives of conduct,
+self-interest as a motive should not be underrated, but should be
+allowed the influence which belongs to it as an auxiliary to the moral
+motive. It is well, it is necessary, for children to learn that lying,
+besides being in itself disgraceful, does also entail penalties of a
+palpable sort; that vanity and self-conceit, besides being immoral, are
+also punished by the contempt of one's fellows; that those who are
+unkind, as the horse was to the ass, may have to bear the ass's burden.
+The checks and curbs supplied by such considerations as these serve the
+purpose of strengthening the weak conscience of the young, and are not
+to be dispensed with, provided always they are treated not as
+substitutes for but as auxiliaries to the moral motives, properly
+speaking.
+
+As to the place in the primary course which I have assigned to the
+fables, I have the following remark to offer: In speaking of fairy
+tales, it was stated that the moral element should be touched on
+incidentally, and that it should not be separated from the other, the
+naturalistic elements. The pedagogical reason which leads me to assign
+to the fables the second place in the course, is that each fable deals
+exclusively with one moral quality, which is thus isolated and held up
+to be contemplated. In the stories which will occupy the third place a
+number of moral qualities are presented in combination. We have,
+therefore, what seems to be a logical and progressive order--first,
+fairy tales in which the moral is still blended with other elements;
+secondly, a single moral quality set off by itself; then, a combination
+of such qualities.
+
+The peculiar value of the fables is that they are instantaneous
+photographs, which reproduce, as it were, in a single flash of light,
+some one aspect of human nature, and which, excluding everything else,
+permit the entire attention to be fixed on that one.
+
+As to the method of handling them, I should say to the teacher: Relate
+the fable; let the pupil repeat it in his own words, making sure that
+the essential points are stated correctly. By means of questions elicit
+a clean-cut expression of the point which the fable illustrates; then
+ask the pupil to give out of his experience other instances illustrating
+the same point. This is precisely the method pursued in the so-called
+primary object lessons. The child, for instance, having been shown a red
+ball, is asked to state the color of the ball, and then to name other
+objects of the same color; or to give the shape of the ball, and then to
+name other objects having the same shape. In like manner, when the pupil
+has heard the fable of the Fox and the Wolf, and has gathered from it
+that compassion when expressed merely in words is useless, and that it
+must lead to deeds to be really praiseworthy, it will be easy for him
+out of his own experience to multiply instances which illustrate the
+same truth. The search for instances makes the point of the fable
+clearer, while the expression of the thought in precise language, on
+which the teacher should always insist, tends to drive it home. It will
+be our aim in the present course of lectures to apply the methods of
+object teaching, now generally adopted in other branches, to the
+earliest moral instruction of children--an undertaking, of course, not
+without difficulties.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] Buddhist Birth Stories; or Jataka Tales, translated by T. W. Rhys
+Davids.
+
+[9] I remarked above that fables should be excluded if the moral they
+inculcate is bad, not if they depict what is bad. In the latter case
+they often may serve a useful purpose.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON FABLES.
+
+
+Apart from the collection which figures under the name of Æsop, there
+are other fables, notably the so-called Jataka tales, which deserve
+attention. The Jataka tales contain deep truths, and are calculated to
+impress lessons of great moral beauty. The tale of the Merchant of Seri,
+who gave up all that he had in exchange for a golden dish, embodies much
+the same idea as the parable of the Priceless Pearl, in the New
+Testament. The tale of the Measures of Rice illustrates the importance
+of a true estimate of values. The tale of the Banyan Deer, which offered
+its life to save a roe and her young, illustrates self-sacrifice of the
+noblest sort. The Kulavaka-Jataka contains the thought that a forgiving
+spirit toward one's enemies disarms even the evil-minded. The tale of
+the Partridge, the Monkey, and the Elephant teaches that the best seats
+belong not to the nobles or the priests, to the rich or the learned, not
+even to the most pious, but that reverence and service and respect and
+civility are to be paid according to age, and for the aged the best
+seat, the best water, the best rice, are to be reserved. The tale of
+Nanda, or the Buried Gold, is a rebuke to that base insolence which
+vulgar natures often exhibit when they possess a temporary advantage.
+The tale of the Sandy Road is one of the finest in the collection. It
+pictures to us a caravan wandering through the desert under the
+starlight. The guide, whose duty it was to pilot them through this sea
+of sand, has, it appears, fallen asleep at his post from excessive
+weariness, and at dawn the travelers discover that they have gone
+astray, and that far and wide no water is in sight wherewith to quench
+their burning thirst. At this moment, however, the leader espies a small
+tuft of grass on the face of the desert, and, reasoning that water must
+be flowing somewhere underneath, inspires his exhausted followers to new
+exertions. A hole sixty feet deep is dug under his direction, but at
+length they come upon hard rock, and can dig no farther. But even then
+he does not yield to despair. Leaping down, he applies his ear to the
+rock. Surely, it is water that he hears gurgling underneath! One more
+effort, he cries, and we are saved! But of all his followers one only
+had strength or courage enough left to obey. This one strikes a heavy
+blow, the rock is split open, and lo! the living water gushes upward in
+a flood. The lesson is that of perseverance and presence of mind in
+desperate circumstances. The tale entitled Holding to the Truth narrates
+the sad fate of a merchant who suffered himself to be deceived by a
+mirage into the belief that water was near, and emptied the jars which
+he carried with him in order to reach the pleasant land the sooner. The
+Jataka entitled On True Divinity contains a very beautiful story about
+three brothers, the Sun prince, the Moon prince, and the future Buddha
+or Bodisat. The king, their father, expelled the Moon prince and the
+future Buddha in order to secure the succession to the Sun prince alone.
+But the Sun prince could not bear to be separated from his brothers, and
+secretly followed them into exile. They journeyed together until they
+came to a certain lake. This lake was inhabited by an evil spirit, to
+whom power had been given to destroy all who entered his territory
+unless they could redeem their lives by answering the question, "What is
+truly divine?" So the Sun prince was asked first, and he answered, "The
+sun and the moon and the gods are divine." But that not being the
+correct answer, the evil spirit seized and imprisoned him in his cave.
+Then the Moon prince was asked, and he answered, "The far-spreading sky
+is called divine." But he, too, was carried away to the same place to be
+destroyed. Then the future Buddha was asked, and he answered: "Give ear,
+then, attentively, and hear what divine nature is;" and he uttered the
+words--
+
+
+     "The pure in heart who fear to sin,
+     The good, kindly in word and deed,
+     These are the beings in the world
+     Whose nature should be called divine."
+
+
+And when the evil spirit heard these words, he bowed, and said: "I will
+give up to you one of your brothers." Then the future Buddha said, "Give
+me the life of my brother, the Sun prince, for it is on his account
+that we have been driven away from our home and thrust into exile." The
+evil spirit was overcome by this act of generosity, and said, "Verily, O
+teacher, thou not only knowest what is divine, but hast acted divinely."
+And he gave him the life of both his brothers, the Sun prince as well as
+the Moon prince.
+
+I could not resist the temptation of relating a few of these tales. They
+are, as every one must admit, nobly conceived, lofty in meaning, and
+many a helpful sermon might be preached from them as texts. But, of
+course, not all are fit to be used in a primary course. Some of them
+are, some are not. The teacher will have no difficulty in making the
+right selection. To the former class belongs also No. 28 of the
+collection,[10] which is excellently adapted to impress the lesson of
+kindness to animals. Long ago the Buddha came to life in the shape of a
+powerful bull. His master, a Brahman, asserted that this bull of his
+could move a hundred loaded carts ranged in a row and bound together.
+Being challenged to prove his assertion, he bathed the bull, gave him
+scented rice, hung a garland of flowers around his neck, and yoked him
+to the first cart. Then he raised his whip and called out, "Gee up, you
+brute. Drag them along, you wretch!" The bull said to himself, "He calls
+me wretch; I am no wretch." And keeping his forelegs as firm as steel,
+he stood perfectly still. Thereupon the Brahman, his master, was
+compelled to pay a forfeit of a thousand pieces of gold because he had
+not made good his boast. After a while the bull said to the Brahman, who
+seemed very much dispirited: "Brahman, I have lived a long time in your
+house. Have I ever broken any pots, or have I rubbed against the walls,
+or have I made the walks around the premises unclean?" "Never, my dear,"
+said the Brahman. "Then why did you call me wretch? But if you will
+never call me wretch again, you shall have two thousand pieces for the
+one thousand you have lost." The Brahman, hearing this, called his
+neighbors together, set up one hundred loaded carts as before, then
+seated himself on the pole, stroked the bull on the back, and called
+out, "Gee up, my beauty! Drag them along, my beauty!" And the bull, with
+a mighty effort, dragged along the whole hundred carts, heavily loaded
+though they were. The bystanders were greatly astonished, and the
+Brahman received two thousand pieces on account of the wonderful feat
+performed by the bull.
+
+The 30th Jataka corresponds to the fable of the Ox and the Calf in the
+Æsop collection. The 33d, like the fable of the Bundle of Sticks,
+teaches the lesson of unity, but in a form a little nearer to the
+understanding of children. Long ago, when Brahmadatta was reigning in
+Benares, the future Buddha came to life as a quail. At that time there
+was a fowler who used to go to the place where the quails dwelt and
+imitate their cry; and when they had assembled, he would throw his net
+over them. But the Buddha said to the quails: "In future, as soon as he
+has thrown the net over us, let each thrust his head through a mesh of
+the net, then all lift it together, carry it off to some bush, and
+escape from underneath it." And they did so and were saved. But one day
+a quail trod unawares on the head of another, and a disgraceful quarrel
+ensued. The next time the fowler threw his net over them, each of the
+quails pretended that the others were leaving him to bear the greatest
+strain, and cried out, "You others begin, and then I will help." The
+consequence was that no one began, and the net was not raised, and the
+fowler bagged them all. The 26th Jataka enforces the truth that evil
+communications corrupt good manners, and contains more particularly a
+warning against listening to the conversation of wicked people. Thus
+much concerning the Jataka tales.
+
+There exists also a collection of Hindu fairy tales and fables, gathered
+from oral tradition by M. Frere, and published under the title of Old
+Deccan Days. A few of these are very charming, and well adapted for our
+purpose. For example, the fable of King Lion and the Sly Little Jackals.
+The story is told with delightful _naïveté_. Singh-Rajah, the lion-king,
+is very hungry. He has already devoured all the jackals of the forest,
+and only a young married couple, who are extremely fond of each other,
+remain. The little jackal-wife is terribly frightened when she hears in
+their immediate vicinity the roar of Singh-Rajah. But the young husband
+tries to comfort her, and to save their lives he hits on the following
+expedient: He makes her go with him straight to the cave of the terrible
+lion. Singh-Rajah no sooner sees them than he exclaims: "It is well you
+have arrived at last. Come here quickly, so that I may eat you." The
+husband says: "Yes, your Majesty, we are entirely ready to do as you bid
+us, and, in fact, we should have come long ago, as in duty bound, to
+satisfy your royal appetite, but there is another Singh-Rajah mightier
+than you in the forest, who would not let us come." "What!" says the
+lion, "another Singh-Rajah mightier than I! That is impossible." "Oh!
+but it is a fact," say the young couple in a breath; "and he is really
+much more terrible than you are." "Show him to me, then," says
+Singh-Rajah, "and I will prove to you that what you say is false--that
+there is no one to be compared with me in might." So the little jackals
+ran on together ahead of the lion, until they reached a deep well. "He
+is in there," they said, pointing to the well. The lion looked down
+angrily and saw his own image, the image of an angry lion glaring back
+at him. He shook his mane; the other did the same. Singh-Rajah
+thereupon, unable to contain himself, leaped down to fight his
+competitor, and, of course, was drowned. The fable clothes in childlike
+language the moral that anger is blind, and that the objects which
+excite our anger are often merely the outward reflections of our own
+passions. In the fable of the Brahman, the Tiger, and the Six Judges,
+we have a lesson against ingratitude, and also against useless
+destruction of animal life. In the fable of the Camel and the Jackal,
+the latter does not appear in the same favorable light as above. The
+jackal and the camel were good friends. One day the jackal said to his
+companion: "I know of a field of sugar-cane on the other side of the
+river, and near by there are plenty of crabs and small fishes. The crabs
+and fishes will do for me, while you can make a fine dinner off the
+sugar-cane. If there were only a way of getting across!" The camel
+offered to swim across, taking the jackal on his back, and in this way
+they reached the opposite bank. The jackal ate greedily, and had soon
+finished his meal; thereupon he began to run up and down, and to
+exercise his voice, screaming lustily. The camel begged him to desist,
+but in vain. Presently the cries of the jackal roused the villagers.
+They came with sticks and cudgels and cruelly beat the camel, and drove
+him out of the field before he had had time to eat more than a few
+mouthfuls. When the men were gone at last, the jackal said, "Let us now
+go home." "Very well," said the camel, "climb on my back." When they
+were midway between the two banks, the camel said to the jackal: "Why
+did you make such a noise and spoil my dinner, bringing on those cruel
+men, who beat me so that every bone in my body aches? Did I not beg you
+to stop?" "Oh," said the jackal, "I meant no harm. I was only singing a
+bit. I always sing after dinner, just for amusement." They had by this
+time reached the place where the water was deepest. "Well," said the
+camel, "I also like innocent amusements. For instance, it is my custom
+to lie on my back after dinner and to stretch myself a bit." With that
+he turned over, and the jackal fell into the stream. He swallowed
+pailfuls of water, and it was only with the utmost difficulty that he
+succeeded in reaching the bank. He had received a salutary lesson on the
+subject of inconsiderate selfishness--a fault very common with children,
+which such a story as this may help to correct.
+
+As to the modern fables, I fear they will yield us but a scanty harvest.
+The fables of La Fontaine, where they depart from Æsopian originals, are
+hardly suitable for children, and those of the German poet Gellert
+impress me, on the whole, in the same way, though a few of them may be
+added to our stock. For instance, the fable of the Greenfinch and the
+Nightingale. These two birds occupy the same cage before the window of
+Damon's house. Presently the voice of the nightingale is heard, and then
+ceases. The father leads his little boy before the cage and asks him
+which of the two he believes to have been the sweet musician, the
+brightly colored greenfinch or the outwardly unattractive nightingale.
+The child immediately points to the former, and is then instructed as to
+his error. The lesson, of course, is that fine clothes and real worth do
+not always go together. The fable of the Blind and the Lame Man teaches
+the advantages of co-operation. The Carriage Horse and the Cart Horse
+is a fable for the rich. Possibly the fable of the Peasant and his Son,
+which is directed against lies of exaggeration, may also be utilized,
+though I realize that there are objections to it.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[10] Buddhist Birth Stories; or Jataka Tales.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+STORIES FROM THE BIBLE.
+
+
+_Introduction._--It will have been noticed that in choosing our
+illustrative material we have confined ourselves to what may be called
+classical literature. The German _Märchen_ has lived in the traditions
+of the German people for centuries, and is as fresh to-day as Snow-white
+herself when she woke from her trance. The fables, as has been shown,
+have been adopted into the language and literature of Persia, of Arabia,
+of the nations of Europe, and are still found in the hands of our own
+children. Let us continue to pursue the same method of selection.
+Instead of relying on juvenile literature just produced, or attempting
+to write moralizing stories specially adapted for the purpose in hand,
+let us continue, without excluding invention altogether, to rely mainly
+on that which has stood the test of time. In the third part of our
+primary course we shall use selected stories from the classical
+literature of the Hebrews, and later on from that of Greece,
+particularly the Odyssey and the Iliad. The stories to which I refer
+possess a perennial vitality, an indestructible charm. I am, I trust, no
+blind worshiper of antiquity. The mere fact that a thing has existed for
+a thousand or two thousand years is not always proof that it is worth
+preserving. But the fact that after having been repeated for two
+thousand years a story still possesses a perfectly fresh attraction for
+the child of to-day, does indeed prove that there is in it something of
+imperishable worth. How is this unique charm of the classical literature
+to be explained? What quality exists in Homer, in the Bible, enabling
+them, despite the changes of taste and fashion, to hold their own? The
+novels of the last century are already antiquated; few care to read
+them. The poetry of the middle ages is enjoyed only by those who
+cultivate a special taste for it. Historical and scientific works hardly
+have time to leave an impression before new books appear to crowd them
+out. But a few great masterpieces have survived, and the truth and
+beauty of these the lapse of ages, it seems, has left unaltered. Mr.
+Jebb remarks[11] that Homer aims at the lucid expression of primary
+motives, and refrains from multiplying individual traits which might
+interfere with their effect, and that this typical quality in Homer's
+portraiture has been one secret of its universal impressiveness. The
+Homeric outlines are in each case brilliantly distinct, while they leave
+to the reader a certain liberty of private conception, and he can fill
+them in so as to satisfy his own ideal. We may add that this is just as
+true of the Bible as of Homer. The biblical narrative, too, depicts a
+few essential traits of human nature, and refrains from multiplying
+minor traits which might interfere with the main effect. The Bible, too,
+draws its figures in outline, and leaves every age free to fill them in
+so as to satisfy its own ideal. Thus the biblical story, as conceived in
+the mind of Milton, reflects the Puritan ideal; the same story, narrated
+in a modern pulpit or Sunday-school, will inevitably reflect, to a
+greater or less degree, the modern humanitarian ideal, and this liberty
+of interpretation is one cause of the vitality of the Bible. But it may
+be asked further, How did Homer, how did the biblical writers, succeed
+in producing such universal types, in drawing their figures so correctly
+that, however the colors may thenceforth be varied, the outlines remain
+forever true? He who should attempt at the present day to give
+expression to the most universal traits of human nature, freed from the
+complex web of conditions, disengaged from the thousand-fold minor
+traits which modify the universal in particular instances, would find it
+difficult to avoid one or the other of two fatal errors. If he keeps his
+eyes fixed on the universal, he is in danger of producing a set of
+bloodless abstractions, pale shadows of reality, which will not live for
+a day, much less for a thousand years. If, on the other hand, he tries
+to keep close to reality he will probably produce more or less accurate
+copies of the types that surround him, but the danger will always be
+that the universal will be lost amid the particulars. By what quality in
+themselves or fortunate constellation of circumstances did Homer and the
+biblical writers succeed in avoiding both these errors, in creating
+types of the utmost universality and yet imparting to them the breath of
+life, the gait and accent of distinctive individuality? I imagine that
+they succeeded because they lived at a time when life was much less
+complex than it is at present, when the conversation, the manners, the
+thoughts, the motives of men were simple. They were enabled to
+individualize the universal because the most universal, the simplest
+motives, still formed the mainspring in the conduct of individuals. It
+was not necessary for them to enter into the barren region of
+abstraction and generalization to discover the universal. They pictured
+what they actually saw. The universal and the individual were still
+blended in that early dawn of human history.
+
+We have thus far spoken of Homer and the Bible jointly. But let us now
+give our particular attention to the biblical narrative. The narrative
+of the Bible is fairly saturated with the moral spirit; the moral issues
+are everywhere in the forefront. Duty, guilt and its punishment, the
+conflict of conscience with inclination, are the leading themes. The
+Hebrew people seem to have been endowed with what may be called "a moral
+genius," and especially did they emphasize the filial and fraternal
+duties to an extent hardly equaled elsewhere. Now it is precisely these
+duties that must be impressed on young children, and hence the biblical
+stories present us with the very material we require. They can not, in
+this respect, be replaced; there is no other literature in the world
+that offers what is equal to them in value for the particular object we
+have now in view. Before proceeding, however, to discuss the stories in
+detail, let me remind you that in studying them a larger tax is made on
+the attention of children, and a higher development of the moral
+judgment is presupposed, than in the previous parts of our course; for
+in them a succession of acts and their consequences are presented to the
+scholar, on each of which his judgment is to be exercised. Those who
+teach the biblical stories merely because it has been customary to
+regard the Bible as the text-book of morals and religion, without,
+however, being clear as to the place which belongs to it in a scheme of
+moral education, will always, I doubt not, achieve a certain result. The
+stories will never entirely fail of their beneficial effect, but I can
+not help thinking that this effect will be greatly heightened if their
+precise pedagogic value is distinctly apprehended, and if the
+preparatory steps have been taken in due course. It seems to me that the
+moral judgment should first be exercised on a single moral quality as
+exhibited in a single act before it is applied to a whole series of
+acts; and hence that the fable should precede the story.
+
+In making our selection from the rich material before us we need only
+keep in mind the principle already enunciated in the introductory
+lectures--that the moral teaching at any period should relate to the
+duties of that period.
+
+
+_Adam and Eve in Paradise._
+
+This is a wonderful story for children. It deserves to be placed at the
+head of all the others, for it inculcates the cardinal virtue of
+childhood--obedience. It is also a typical story of the beginning, the
+progress, and the culmination of temptation. Will you permit me to
+relate the story as I should tell it to little children? I shall
+endeavor to keep true to the outlines, and if I depart from the received
+version in other respects, may I not plead that liberty of
+interpretation to which I have referred above.
+
+Once upon a time there were two children, Adam and Eve. Adam was a fine
+and noble-looking lad. He was slender and well built, and fleet of foot
+as a young deer. Eve was as beautiful as the dawn, with long golden
+tresses, and blue eyes, and cheeks like the rose. They lived in the
+loveliest garden that you have ever heard of. There were tall trees in
+it, and open meadows where the grass was as smooth as on a lawn, and
+clear, murmuring brooks ran through the woods. And there were dense
+thickets filled with the perfume of flowers, and the flowers grew in
+such profusion, and there were so many different kinds, each more
+beautiful than the rest, that it was a perfect feast for the eyes to
+look at them. It was so warm that the children never needed to go
+in-doors, but at night they would just lie down at the foot of some
+great tree and look at the stars twinkling through the branches until
+they fell asleep. And when it rained they would find shelter in some
+beautiful cavern, spreading leaves and moss upon the ground for a bed.
+The garden where they lived was called Paradise. And there were ever so
+many animals in it--all kinds of animals--elephants, and tigers, and
+leopards, and giraffes, and camels, and sheep, and horses, and cows; but
+even the wild animals did them no harm. But the children were not alone
+in that garden: their Father lived with them. And every morning when
+they woke up their first thought was to go to him and to look up into
+his mild, kind face for a loving glance, and every evening before they
+went to sleep he would bend over them. And once, as they lay under the
+great tree, looking at a star shining through the branches, Adam said to
+Eve: "Our Father's eye shines just like that star."
+
+One day their Father said to them: "My children, there is one tree in
+this beautiful garden the fruit of which you must not eat, because it is
+hurtful to you. You can not understand why, but you know that you must
+obey your Father even when you do not understand. He loves you and knows
+best what is for your good." So they promised, and for a time
+remembered. But one day it happened that Eve was passing near the tree
+of the fruit of which she knew she must not eat, when what should she
+hear but a snake talking to her. She did not see it, but she heard its
+voice quite distinctly. And this is what the snake said: "You poor Eve!
+you must certainly have a hard time. Your Father is always forbidding
+you something. How stern he is! I am sure that other children can have
+all the fruit they want." Eve was frightened at first. She knew that her
+Father was kind and good, and that the snake was telling a falsehood. He
+did not always forbid things. But still he had forbidden her to eat of
+the fruit, and she thought that was a little hard; and she could not
+understand at all why he had done so. Then the snake spoke again:
+"Listen, Eve! He forbade you to eat only of it. It can do no harm just
+to look at it. Go up to it. See how it glistens among the branches! How
+golden it looks!" And the snake kept on whispering: "How good it must be
+to the taste! Just take one bite of it. Nobody sees you. Only one bite;
+that can do no harm." And Eve glanced around, and saw that no one was
+looking, and presently with a hasty movement she seized the fruit and
+ate of it. Then she said to herself: "Adam, too, must eat of it. I can
+never bear to eat it alone." So she ran hastily up to Adam, and said:
+"See, I have some of the forbidden fruit, and you, too, must eat." And
+he, too, looked at it and was tempted, and ate. But that evening they
+were very much afraid. They knew they had done wrong, and their
+consciences troubled them. So they hurried away into the wood where it
+was deepest, and hid themselves in the bushes. But soon they heard their
+Father calling to them; and it was strange, their Father's voice had
+never sounded so sad before. And in a few moments he found them where
+they were hiding. And he said to them: "Why do you hide from me?" And
+they were very much confused, and stammered forth all sorts of excuses.
+But he said: "Come hither, children." And he looked into their eyes, and
+said: "Have you eaten of the fruit of which I told you not to eat?" And
+Adam, who was thoughtless and somewhat selfish, spoke up, and said:
+"Yes, but it was Eve who gave me of it; she led me on." And Eve hung her
+head, and said: "It was the snake that made me eat." Now the snake, you
+know, was no real snake at all; she never saw it, she only heard its
+voice. And, you know, when we want to do anything wicked, there is
+within every one of us something bad, that seems to whisper: "Just look!
+Mere looking will do no harm"; and then: "Just taste; no one sees you."
+So the snake was the bad feeling in Eve's heart. And their Father took
+them by the hand, and said: "Tomorrow, when it is dawn, you will have to
+leave this place. In this beautiful Paradise no one can stay who has
+once disobeyed. You, Adam, must learn to labor; and, you, Eve, to be
+patient and self-denying for others. And, perhaps, after a long, long
+time, some day, you will come back with me into Paradise again."
+
+It is a free rendering, I admit. I have filled in the details so as to
+bring it down to the level of children's minds, but the outlines, I
+think, are there. The points I have developed are all suggested in the
+Bible. The temptation begins when the snake says with characteristic
+exaggeration: "Is it true that of _all_ the fruit you are forbidden to
+eat?" Exaggerating the hardships of the moral command is the first step
+on the downward road. The second step is Eve's approach to look at the
+fruit--"and she saw that it was good for food, and pleasant to the
+eyes." The third step is the actual enjoyment of what is forbidden. The
+fourth step is the desire for companionship in guilt, so characteristic
+of sin--"and she gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat."
+The next passage describes the working of conscience, the fear, the
+shame, the desire to hide, and then comes the moral verdict: You are
+guilty, both of you. You have lost your paradise. Try to win it back by
+labor and suffering.
+
+
+     NOTE.--I would add to what has been said in the text, that the
+     pupils are expected to return to the study of the Bible, to read
+     and re-read these stories, and to receive a progressively higher
+     interpretation of their meaning as they grow older. If in the above
+     I have spoken in a general way of a Father and his two children, it
+     will be easy for the Sunday-school teacher to add later on that the
+     Father in the story was God.
+
+
+
+_Cain and Abel._
+
+In teaching the story of the two brothers Cain and Abel the following
+points should be noted. The ancients believed that earthly prosperity
+and well-being depended on the favor of God, or the gods, and that the
+favor of the gods could be secured by sacrifice. If any one brought a
+sacrifice and yet prosperity did not set in, this was supposed to be a
+sign that his sacrifice had not been accepted. On the other hand, to say
+of any person that his sacrifice had been accepted, was tantamount to
+saying that he was happy and prosperous. Applying this to the story of
+Cain and Abel, we may omit all mention of the bringing of the
+sacrifices, which presents a great and needless difficulty to children's
+minds, and simply make the equivalent statement that Abel was prosperous
+and Cain was not.
+
+Again, Cain is not represented as an intentional murderer. The true
+interpretation of the story depends on our bearing this in mind. It is
+erroneous to suppose that a brand was fixed on Cain's forehead. The
+passage in question, correctly understood, means that God gave Cain a
+sign to reassure him that he should not be regarded by men as a common
+murderer. With these prefatory remarks the story may be told somewhat as
+follows:
+
+Long ago there lived two brothers. The name of the elder was Cain, and
+of the younger Abel. Cain was a farmer. He toiled in the sweat of his
+brow, tilling the stubborn ground, taking out stones, building fences.
+Winter and summer he was up before the sun, and yet, despite all his
+labor, things did not go well with him. His crops often failed through
+no fault of his. He never seemed to have an easy time. Moreover, Cain
+was of a proud disposition. Honest he was, and truthful, but taciturn,
+not caring much to talk to people whom he met, but rather keeping to
+himself. Abel, on the other hand, was a shepherd. He led, or seemed to
+lead, the most delightfully easy life. He followed his flocks from one
+pasture to another, watching them graze; and at noon he would often lie
+down in the shade of some leafy tree and play on his flute by the hour.
+He was a skillful musician, a bright, talkative companion, and
+universally popular. He was a little selfish too, as happy people
+sometimes are. He liked to talk about his successes, and, in a perfectly
+innocent way, which yet stung Cain to the quick, he would rattle on to
+his brother about the increase of his herds, about his plans and
+prospects, and the pleasant things that people were saying of him. Cain
+grew jealous of his brother Abel. He did not like to confess it to
+himself, but yet it was a fact. He kept comparing his own life of
+grinding toil with the easy, lazy life of the shepherd--it was not quite
+so lazy, but so it seemed to Cain--his own poverty with the other's
+wealth, his own loneliness with Abel's popularity. And a frown would
+often gather on his brow, and he grew more and more moody and silent. He
+knew that he was not in the right state of mind. There was a voice
+within him that said: "Sin is at thy door, but thou canst become master
+over it." Sin is like a wild beast crouching outside the door of the
+heart. Open the door ever so little, and it will force its way in, and
+will have you in its power. Keep the door shut, therefore; do not let
+the first evil thought enter into your heart. Thus only can you remain
+master of yourself. But Cain was already too far gone to heed the
+warning voice. One day he and Abel were walking together in the fields.
+Abel, no doubt, was chatting in his usual gay and thoughtless manner.
+The world was full of sunshine to him; and he did not realize in the
+least what dark shadows were gathering about his brother's soul. Perhaps
+the conversation ran somewhat as follows: He had just had an addition to
+his herd, the finest calf one could imagine: would not Cain come to
+admire it? And then, to-morrow evening he was to play for the dancers on
+the green, at the village feast: would not Cain join in the
+merry-making? When the solitary, embittered Cain heard such talk as this
+the angry feeling in his heart rose up like a flood. Overmastered by his
+passion, with a few wild, incoherent words of rage he turned upon his
+brother and struck him one fierce blow. Ah, that was a relief! The
+pent-up feeling had found vent at last. The braggart had received the
+chastisement he deserved! And Cain walked on; and for a time continued
+to enjoy his satisfaction. He had just noticed that Abel, when struck,
+had staggered and fallen, but he did not mind that. "Let him lie there
+for a while; he will pick himself up presently. He may be lame for a few
+days, and his milk-white face may not be so fair at the feast, but that
+will be all the better for him. It will teach him a lesson."
+Nevertheless, when he had walked on for some distance he began to feel
+uneasy. He looked around from time to time to see whether Abel was
+following him, and the voice of conscience began to be heard, saying,
+"Cain, where is thy brother?" But he silenced it by saying to himself,
+"Am I my brother's keeper? Is he such a child that he can not take care
+of himself--that he can not stand a blow?" But he kept looking back more
+and more often, and when he saw no one coming, he came at last to a dead
+halt. His heart was beating violently by this time; the beads of
+perspiration were gathered on his brow. He turned back to seek his
+missing brother. Then, as he did not meet him, he began to run, and
+faster and faster he ran, until at last, panting and out of breath, with
+a horrible fear hounding him on, he arrived at the place where he had
+struck the blow. And there he saw--a pool of blood, and the waxen face
+of his brother, and the glazed, broken eyes! And then he realized what
+he had done. And it is this situation which the Bible has in view in the
+words, "Behold, thy brother's blood cries up from the earth against
+thee." And then as he surveyed his deed in stony despair, he said to
+himself, "I am accursed from the face of the earth"--I am unworthy to
+live. The earth has no resting-place for such as I. But a sign was given
+him to show him that his life would not be required of him. He had not
+committed willful murder. He had simply given the reins to his violent
+passion. He must go into another land, where no one knew him, there
+through years of penance to try to regain his peace of soul. The moral
+of the story is: Do not harbor evil thoughts in the mind. If you have
+once given them entrance, the acts to which they lead are beyond your
+control. Cain's sin consisted in not crushing the feeling of envy in the
+beginning; in comparing his own lot with that of his more favored
+brother and dwelling on this comparison, until, in a fit of insane
+passion, he was led on to the unspeakable crime which, indeed, he had
+never contemplated, to which he had never given an inward assent. The
+story also illustrates the vain subterfuges with which we still seek to
+smother the consciousness of guilt after we have done wrong, until the
+time comes when our eyes are opened and we are compelled to face the
+consequences of our deeds and to realize them in all their bearings. The
+story of Cain and Abel is thus a further development of the theme
+already treated in simpler fashion in the story of Adam and Eve, only
+that, while in the latter case the filial duty of obedience to parents
+is in the foreground, attention is here directed to the duty which a
+brother owes to a brother. It is a striking tale, striking in the
+vividness with which it conjures up the circumstances before our minds
+and the clearness with which the principal motives are delineated; and
+it contains an awful warning for all time.
+
+The question here presents itself, whether we should arrange the
+biblical stories according to subjects--e. g., grouping together all
+those which treat of duty to parents, all those which deal with the
+relations of brothers to brothers, etc.--or whether we should adopt the
+chronological arrangement. On the whole, I am in favor of the latter. It
+is expected that the pupils, as they grow older, will undertake a more
+comprehensive study of the Bible, and for this they will be better
+prepared if they have been kept to the chronological order from the
+outset. Another more practical reason is, that children tire of one
+subject if it is kept before their minds too long. It is better,
+therefore, to arrange the stories in groups or cycles, each of which
+will afford opportunity to touch on a variety of moral topics. It will
+be impossible to continue to relate _in extenso_ the stories which I
+have selected, and I shall therefore content myself in the main with
+giving the points of each story upon which the teacher may lay stress.
+
+
+_The Story of Noah and his Sons._
+
+Describe the beauty of the vine, and of the purple grapes hanging in
+clusters amid the green leaves. How sweet is this fruit to the taste!
+But the juice of it has a dangerous property. Once there lived a man,
+Noah, who had three sons. He planted a vine, plucked the grapes, but did
+not know the dangerous property of the juice. The second son, on seeing
+his father in a state of intoxication, allowed his sense of the
+ridiculous to overcome his feeling of reverence. But the eldest and the
+youngest sons acted differently. They took a garment, covered their
+father with it, and averted their faces so as not to see his disgrace.
+The moral is quite important. An intelligent child can not help
+detecting a fault now and then even in the best of parents. But the
+right course for him to take is to throw the mantle over the fault, and
+to turn away his face. He should say to himself: Am I the one to judge
+my parents--I who have been the recipient of so many benefits at their
+hands, and who see in them so many virtues, so much superior wisdom? By
+such reasoning the feeling of reverence is even deepened. The momentary
+superiority which the child feels serves only to bring out his general
+inferiority.
+
+
+_The Abraham Cycle._
+
+There is a whole series of stories belonging to this group, illustrating
+in turn the virtues of brotherly harmony, generosity toward the weak,
+hospitality toward strangers, and maternal love. Abraham and Lot are
+near kinsmen. Their servants quarrel, and to avoid strife the former
+advises a separation. "If thou wilt go to the left," he says, "I will
+turn to the right; if thou preferrest the land to the right, I will take
+the left." Abraham, being the older, was entitled to the first choice,
+but he waived his claim. Lot chose the fairer portion, and Abraham
+willingly assented. "Let there be no strife between us, for we be
+brethren." The lesson is, that the older and wiser of two brothers or
+kinsmen may well yield a part of his rights for harmony's sake.
+
+Abraham's conduct toward the King of Sodom is an instance of generosity.
+The story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah may be introduced by
+describing the Dead Sea and the surrounding scene of desolation. The
+moral lies in the circumstance that ill treatment of strangers brought
+down the doom. Hospitality toward strangers is one of the shining
+virtues of the Old Testament heroes. Even at the present day strangers
+are still despised and ridiculed by the vulgar, their foreign manners,
+language, and habits seeming contemptible; the lesson of hospitality is
+not yet superfluous.
+
+The story of _Hagar and her Child_ I should recast in such a way as to
+exclude what in it is repellent, and retain the touching picture of
+maternal affection. I should relate it somewhat as follows: There was
+once a little lad whose name was Ishmael. He had lost his father and had
+only his mother to cling to. She was a tall, beautiful lady, with dark
+eyes which were often very sad, but they would light up, and there was
+always a sweet smile on her lips whenever she looked at her darling boy.
+Ishmael and his mother, Hagar, had never been separated; they were all
+in all to each other. One day it happened that they walked away from
+their home, which was near the great, sandy desert. Ishmael's mother was
+in deep distress, there was something troubling her, and every now and
+then a tear would steal down her cheeks. Ishmael was sad, too, because
+his mother was, but he did not dare to ask her what it was that grieved
+her, fearing to give her pain. So they walked on and on, holding each
+other's hands in silence. But at last they saw that they had lost their
+way; and they tried first one direction, and then another, thinking that
+it would bring them back toward home, but they only got deeper and
+deeper into the vast, lonely desert. And the sun burned hot and hotter
+above their heads, and little Ishmael, who had tried to keep up like a
+brave lad, at last became so parched with thirst, and so faint with want
+of food, and so tired with walking--for they had wandered about for
+many, many hours--that he could go on no farther. Then his mother took
+him up in her arms and laid him under a bush, where there was a little
+shade. And then, oh then, how her poor heart was wrung, and how she wept
+to see her darling in such suffering, and how she cried for help! Then
+she sat down on the glaring sand at some distance away, and turned her
+face in the direction opposite to where Ishmael was lying; for she said,
+"I can not bear to see my boy die." But just as she had given up all
+hope, suddenly she saw a noble-looking man, wearing the dress of the
+Bedouins, approach her. He had come from behind one of the sand hills,
+and it seemed to her as if he had come down straight from the sky. He
+asked her why she was in such grief, and when she told him, and pointed
+to her little son, he said: "It is fortunate that you have come to this
+place. There is a beautiful oasis close by." An oasis, children, is a
+spot of fruitful green earth right in the midst of the desert, like an
+island in the ocean. And the man took the boy up and carried him in his
+arms, and Hagar followed after him. And presently, when they came to the
+oasis, they found a cool, clear spring, full of the most delicious
+water, and palm-trees with ever so many dates on them, and all the
+people who lived there gathered around them. And the man who had been
+so kind proved to be the chief. And he took charge of Ishmael's
+education, showed him how to shoot with the bow and how to hunt, and was
+like a real father to him. And when Ishmael grew up he became a great
+chief of the Bedouins. But he always remained true to his mother, and
+loved her with all his heart.
+
+I am strongly in favor of omitting the story of the _Sacrifice of
+Isaac_. I do not think we can afford to tell young children that a
+father was prepared to draw the knife against his own son, even though
+he desisted in the end. I should not be willing to inform a child that
+so horrible an impulse could have been entertained even for a moment in
+a parent's heart. I regard the story, indeed, as, from an historical
+point of view, one of the most valuable in the Bible; it has a deep
+meaning; but it is not food fit for children. A great mistake has been
+made all along in supposing that whatever is true in religion must be
+communicated to children; and that if anything be very true and very
+important we ought to hasten to give it to children as early as
+possible; but there must be preparatory training. And the greatest
+truths are often of such a kind as only the mature mind, ripe in thought
+and experience, is fitted to assimilate.
+
+One of the most charming idyls of patriarchal times is the story of
+_Rebecca at the Well_. It illustrates positively, as the story of Sodom
+does negatively, the duty of hospitality toward strangers. "Drink, lord,
+and I will give thy camels drink also," is a pleasant phrase which is
+apt to stick in the memory. Moreover, the story shows the high place
+which the trusted servant occupied in the household of his master, and
+offers to the teacher an opportunity of dwelling on the respect due to
+faithful servants.
+
+
+_The Jacob Cycle._
+
+What treatment shall Jacob receive at our hands, he, the sly trickster,
+who cheats his brother of his birthright and steals a father's blessing?
+Yet he is one of the patriarchs, and is accorded the honorable title of
+"champion of God." To hold him up to the admiration of the young is
+impossible. To gloss over his faults and try to explain them away were a
+sorry business, and honesty forbids. The Bible itself gives us the right
+clew. His faults are nowhere disguised. He is represented as a person
+who makes a bad start in life--a very bad start, indeed--but who pays
+the penalty of his wrong-doing. His is a story of penitential
+discipline.
+
+In telling the story, all reference to the duplicity of Rebecca should
+be omitted, for the same reason that malicious step-mothers and cruel
+fathers have been excluded from the fairy tales.
+
+The points to be discussed may be summarized as follows:
+
+_Taking advantage of a brother in distress._--Jacob purchases the
+birthright for a mess of pottage.
+
+_Tender attachment to a helpless old father._--Esau goes out hunting to
+supply a special delicacy for his father's table. This is a point which
+children will appreciate. Unable to confer material benefits on their
+parents, they can only show their love by slight attentions.
+
+_Deceit._--Jacob simulates the appearance of his older brother and
+steals the blessing. In this connection it will be necessary to say that
+a special power was supposed to attach to a father's blessing, and that
+the words once spoken were deemed irrevocable.
+
+_Jacob's penitential discipline begins._--The deceiver is deceived, and
+made to feel in his own person the pain and disappointment which deceit
+causes. He is repeatedly cheated by his master Laban, especially in the
+matter which is nearest to him, his love for Rachel.
+
+_The forgiveness of injuries._--Esau's magnanimous conduct toward his
+brother.
+
+_The evil consequences of tale-bearing and conceit._--It is a
+significant fact that Joseph is not a mere coxcomb. He is a man of
+genius, as his later career proves, and the stirrings of his genius
+manifest themselves in his early dreams of future greatness. Persons of
+this description are not always pleasant companions, especially in their
+youth. They have not yet accomplished anything to warrant distinction,
+and yet they feel within themselves the presentiment of a destiny and of
+achievements above the ordinary. Their faults, their arrogance, their
+seemingly preposterous claims, are not to be excused, but neither is
+the envy they excite excusable. One of the hardest things to learn is to
+recognize without envy the superiority of a brother.
+
+_Moral cowardice._--Reuben is guilty of moral cowardice. He was an
+opportunist, who sought to accomplish his ends by diplomacy. If he, as
+the oldest brother, had used his authority and boldly denounced the
+contemplated crime, he might have averted the long train of miseries
+that followed.
+
+_Strength and depth of paternal love._--"Joseph is no more: an evil
+beast has devoured him. I will go mourning for my son Joseph into the
+grave." It is a piece of poetic justice that Jacob, who deceived his
+father in the matter of the blessing by covering himself with the skin
+of a kid, is himself deceived by the blood of a kid of the goats with
+which the coat of Joseph had been stained.
+
+In speaking of the temptation of Joseph in the house of Potiphar, it is
+enough to say that the wife conspired against her husband, and
+endeavored to induce Joseph to betray his master. A pretty addition to
+the story is to be found in the Talmud, to the effect that Joseph saw in
+imagination the face of his father before him in the moment of
+temptation, and was thereby strengthened to resist.
+
+_The light of a superior mind can not be hidden even in a
+prison._--Joseph wins the favor of his fellow-prisoners, and an
+opportunity is thus opened to him to exercise his talents on the largest
+scale.
+
+_Affliction chastens._--The famine had in the mean time spread to
+Palestine. The shadow of the grief for Joseph still lay heavily on the
+household of the patriarch. Joseph is lost; shall Benjamin, too, perish?
+It is pleasant to observe that the character of the brothers in the mean
+time has been changed for the better. There is evidently a lurking sense
+of guilt and a desire to atone for it in the manner in which Judah
+pledges himself for the safety of the youngest child. And the same
+marked change is visible in the conduct of all the brothers on the
+journey. The stratagem of the cup was cunningly devised to test their
+feelings. They might have escaped by throwing the blame on Benjamin.
+Instead of that, they dread nothing so much as that he may have to
+suffer, and are willing to sacrifice everything to save him. When this
+new spirit has become thoroughly apparent, the end to which the whole
+group of Jacob stories pointed all along is reached; the work of moral
+regeneration is complete. Jacob himself has been purified by affliction,
+and the brothers and Joseph have been developed by the same hard
+taskmaster into true men. The scene of recognition which follows, when
+the great vice-regent orders his attendants from the apartment and
+embraces those who once attempted his life, with the words, "I am
+Joseph, your brother: does my father still live?" is touching in the
+extreme, and the whole ends happily in a blaze of royal pomp, like a
+true Eastern tale.
+
+A word as to the _method_ which should be used in teaching these
+stories. If the fairy tale holds the moral element in solution, if the
+fable drills the pupil in distinguishing one moral trait at a time, the
+biblical stories exhibit a combination of moral qualities, or, more
+precisely, the interaction of moral causes and effects; and it is
+important for the teacher to give expression to this difference in the
+manner in which he handles the stories. Thus, in the fables we have
+simply one trait, like ingratitude, and its immediate consequences. The
+snake bites the countryman, and is cast out; there the matter ends. In
+the story of Joseph we have, first, the partiality of the father, which
+produces or encourages self-conceit in the son; Joseph's conceit
+produces envy in the brothers. This envy reacts on all concerned--on
+Joseph, who in consequence is sold into slavery; on the father, who is
+plunged into inconsolable grief; on the brothers, who nearly become
+murderers. The servitude of Joseph destroys his conceit and develops his
+nobler nature. Industry, fidelity, and sagacity raise him to high power.
+The sight of the constant affliction of their father on account of
+Joseph's loss mellows the heart of the brothers, etc. It is this
+interweaving of moral causes and effects that gives to the stories their
+peculiar value. They are true moral pictures; and, like the pictures
+used in ordinary object lessons, they serve to train the power of
+observation. Trained observation, however, is the indispensable
+preliminary of correct moral judgment.
+
+
+_The Moses Cycle._
+
+The figures of the patriarchs and the prophets appeal to us with a fresh
+interest the moment we regard them as human beings like ourselves, who
+were tempted as we are, who struggled as we are bound to do, and who
+acted, howsoever the divine economy might supervene, on their own
+responsibility. Looked at from this point of view, the figure of Moses,
+the Liberator, approaches our sympathies at the same time that he towers
+in imposing proportions above our level. Let us briefly review his
+career. Like Arminius at a later day, he is educated at the court of the
+enemies of his people. In dress, in manners, in speech, he doubtless
+resembles the grandees of Pharaoh's court. When he approaches the well
+in Midian, the daughter of Jethro exclaims, "Behold, an Egyptian is
+coming!" But at heart he remains a Hebrew, and is deeply touched by the
+cruel sufferings of his race. His first public intervention on their
+behalf takes place when he strikes down and kills a native overseer whom
+he detects in the act of maltreating a Hebrew slave. This is
+characteristic of the manner in which reformers begin. They direct their
+first efforts against the particular consequences of some great general
+wrong. Later on they perceive the uselessness of such a procedure and
+take heart to attack the evil at its source. Moses flees into the
+desert. The lonely life he leads there is necessary to the development
+of his ideas. Solitude is essential to the growth of genius. The
+burning bush is the outward symbol of an inward fact. The fire which can
+not be quenched is in his own breast, and out of that inward burning he
+hears more and more distinctly the voice which bids him go back and free
+his people. But when he considers the means at his disposal, when in
+fancy he sees his people, a miserable horde of slaves, pitted against
+the armed hosts of Pharaoh, he is ready to despair; until he hears the
+comforting voice, which says, "The Eternal is with thee; the
+unchangeable power of right is on thy side: it will prevail!" Like
+Jeremiah, like Isaiah, like all great reformers, Moses is profoundly
+imbued with the sense of his unfitness for the task laid upon him. He
+pleads that he is heavy of speech. He can only stammer forth the message
+of freedom. But he is reassured by the thought that a brother will be
+found, that helpers will arise, that the thought which he can barely
+formulate will be translated by other lesser men into a form suitable
+for the popular understanding. He returns to Egypt to find that the
+greatest obstacle in his way is the lethargy and unbelief of the very
+people whom he wishes to help. This again is a typical feature of his
+career. The greatest trials of the reformer are due not to the open
+enmity of the oppressor, but to the meanness, the distrust and jealousy,
+of those whom oppression has degraded. At last, however, the miracle of
+salvation is wrought, the weak prevail over the mighty, the cause of
+justice triumphs against all apparent odds to the contrary. The slaves
+rise against their masters, the flower of Egyptian chivalry is
+destroyed. Pharaoh rallies his army and sets out in pursuit. But the
+Hebrews, under Moses's guidance, have gained the start, and escape into
+the wilderness in safety.
+
+Freedom is a precious opportunity--no more. Its value depends on the use
+to which it is put. And therefore, no sooner was the act of liberation
+accomplished, than the great leader turned to the task of positive
+legislation, the task of developing a higher moral life among his
+people. But here a new and keener disappointment awaited him. When he
+descended from the mount, the glow of inspiration still upon his face,
+the tablets of the law in his hand, he saw the people dancing about the
+golden calf. It is at this moment that Michel Angelo, deeply realizing
+the human element in the biblical story, has represented the form of the
+liberator in the colossal figure which was destined for Pope Julius's
+tomb. "The right foot is slightly advanced; the long beard trembles with
+the emotion which quivers through the whole frame; the eyes flash
+indignant wrath; the right hand grasps the tablets of the law; in
+another moment, we see it plainly, he will leap from his sitting posture
+and shatter the work which he has made upon the rocks." This trait, too,
+is typical. Many a leader of a noble cause has felt, in moments of deep
+disappointment, as if he could shatter the whole work of his life. Many
+a man, in like situation, has said to himself: The people are willing
+enough to hail the message of the higher law to-day, but to-morrow they
+sink back into their dull, degraded condition, as if the vision from the
+mount had never been reported to them. Let me, then, leave them to their
+dreary ways, to dance about their golden calf. But a better and stronger
+mood prevailed in Moses. He ascended once more to the summit, and there
+prostrated himself in utter self-renunciation and self-effacement. He
+asked nothing for himself, only that the people whom he loved might be
+benefited ever so little, be raised ever so slowly above their low
+condition. And again the questioning spirit came upon him, and he said,
+as many another has said: The paths of progress are dark and twisted;
+the course of history seems so often to be in the wrong direction. How
+can I be sure that there is such a thing as eternal truth--that the
+right will prevail in the end? And then there came to him that grand
+revelation, the greatest, as I think, and the most sublime in the Old
+Testament, when the eternal voice answered his doubt, and said: "Thou
+wouldst know my ways, but canst not. No living being can see my face;
+only from the rearward canst thou know me." As a ship sails through the
+waters and leaves its wake behind, so the divine Power passes through
+the world and leaves behind the traces by which it can be known. And
+what are those traces? Justice and mercy. Cherish, therefore, the divine
+element in thine own nature, and thou wilt see it reflected in the world
+about thee. Wouldst thou be sure that there is such a thing as a divine
+Power? be thyself just and merciful. And so Moses descended again to his
+people, and became exceeding charitable in spirit. The Bible says: "The
+man Moses was exceeding humble; there was no one more humble than he on
+the face of the earth." He bore with resignation their complaints, their
+murmurings, their alternate cowardice and foolhardiness. He was made to
+feel, like many another in his place, that his foes were they of his own
+household. He had an only brother and an only sister. His brother and
+sister rose up against him. His kinsmen, too, revolted from him. He
+endured all their weakness, all their follies; he sought to lift them by
+slow degrees to the height of his own aims. He set the paths of life and
+death before them, and told them that the divine word can not be found
+by crossing the seas or by searching the heavens, but must be found in
+the human heart; and if men find it not there they will find it nowhere
+else. And so, at last, his pilgrimage drew to a close. He had reached
+the confines of Palestine. Once more he sought the mountain-top, and
+there beheld the promised land stretching far away--the land which his
+eyes were to see but which he was never to enter. Few great reformers,
+indeed few men who have started a great movement in history, and have
+been the means of producing deep and permanent changes in the ideas and
+institutions of society, have lived to see those changes consummated.
+The course of evolution is slow, and the reformer can hope at best to
+see the promised land from afar--as in a dream. Happy he if, like
+Moses, he retains the force of his convictions unabated, if his
+spiritual sight remains undimmed, if the splendid vision which attended
+him in the beginning inspires and consoles him to the end.
+
+The narrative which has thus been sketched touches on some of the
+weightiest problems of human existence, and deals with motives both
+complex and lofty. I have entered into the interpretation of these
+motives for the purpose of showing that they are too complex and too
+lofty to be within the comprehension of children, and that it is an
+error, though unfortunately a common one, to attempt to use the grand
+career of a reformer and liberator as a text for the moral edification
+of the very young. They are wholly unprepared to understand, and that
+which is not understood, if forced on the attention, awakens repugnance
+and disgust. Few of those who have been compelled to study the life of
+Moses in their childhood have ever succeeded in conquering this
+repugnance, or have drawn from it, even in later life, the inspiration
+and instruction which it might otherwise have afforded them. For our
+primary course, however, we can extract a few points interesting even to
+children, thus making them familiar with the name of Moses, and
+preparing the way for a deeper interest later on. The incidents of the
+story which I should select are these: The child Moses exposed on the
+Nile; the good sister watching over his safety; the kind princess
+adopting him as her son; the sympathy manifested by him for his
+enslaved brethren despite his exemption from their misfortunes. The
+killing of the Egyptian should be represented as a crime, palliated but
+not excused by the cruelty of the overseer. Special stress may be laid
+upon the chivalric conduct of Moses toward the young girls at the well
+of Midian. The teacher may then go on to say that Moses, having
+succeeded in freeing his people from the power of the Egyptian king,
+became their chief, that many wise laws are ascribed to him, etc. The
+story of the spies, and of the end of Moses, may also be briefly told.
+
+The mention of the laws of Moses leads me to offer a suggestion. I have
+remarked above that children should be taught to observe moral pictures
+before any attempt is made to deduce moral principles; but certain
+_simple rules_ should be given even to the very young--must, indeed, be
+given them for their guidance. Now, in the legislation ascribed to Moses
+we find a number of rules fit for children, and a collection of these
+rules might be made for the use of schools. They should be committed to
+memory by the pupils, and perhaps occasionally recited in chorus. I have
+in mind such rules as these:[12]
+
+1. Ye shall not lie. (Many persons who pay attention only to the
+Decalogue, and forget the legislation of which it forms a part, seem not
+to be aware that there is in the Pentateuch [Lev. xix, 11] a distinct
+commandment against lying.)
+
+2. Ye shall not deceive one another.
+
+3. Ye shall take no bribe.
+
+4. Honor thy father and thy mother.
+
+5. Every one shall reverence his mother and his father. (Note that the
+father is placed first in the one passage and the mother first in the
+other, to indicate the equal title of both to their children's
+reverence.)
+
+6. Thou shalt not speak disrespectfully of those in authority.
+
+7. Before the hoary head thou shalt rise and pay honor to the aged.
+
+10. Thou shalt not spread false reports.
+
+11. Thou shalt not go about as a tale-bearer among thy fellows.
+
+12. Thou shalt not hate thy neighbor in thy heart, but shalt warn him of
+his evil-doing.
+
+13. Thou shalt not bear a grudge against any, but thou shalt love thy
+neighbor as thyself.
+
+8. Thou shalt not speak evil of the deaf (thinking that he can not hear
+thee), nor put an obstacle in the way of the blind.
+
+9. If there be among you a poor man, thou shalt not harden thy heart,
+nor shut thy hand from thy poor brother, but thou shalt open thy hand
+wide unto him, and shalt surely lend him sufficient for his need.
+
+14. If thou seest the property of thine enemy threatened with
+destruction, thou shalt do thy utmost to save it.
+
+15. If thou findest what is not thine own, and the owner is not known
+to thee, guard it carefully, that thou mayest restore it to its rightful
+owner.
+
+16. Thou shalt not do evil because many others are doing the same evil.
+
+Bearing grudges, lying, mocking those who (like the deaf and blind) are
+afflicted with personal defects, appropriating what is found without
+attempting to discover the owner, seeking to excuse wrong on the plea
+that many others are guilty of it--all these are forms of moral evil
+with which children are perfectly familiar, and against which they need
+to be warned. It is more than strange that such commandments as the
+sixth and eighth of the Decalogue (the commandment against murder and
+against adultery, forsooth), which are inapplicable to little children,
+should be made so much of in primary moral instruction, while those
+other commandments which do come home to them are often overlooked. The
+theory here expounded, that moral teaching should keep pace with the
+experience and intelligence of the child, should save us from such
+mistakes.
+
+To proceed with the stories, the book of Joshua offers nothing that we
+can turn to account, nor do the stories of Jael, Deborah, and Gideon
+contain moral lessons fit for the young. Sour milk is not proper food
+for children, nor do those stories afford the proper moral food in
+which, so to speak, the milk of human kindness has turned sour. The
+labors of Samson, the Hebrew Hercules, are likewise unfit to be used at
+this stage, at least for the purpose of moral instruction. The story of
+the daughter of Jephtha, the Hebrew Iphigenia, is exquisitely pathetic,
+but it involves the horrible idea of human sacrifice, and therefore had
+better be omitted. The acts and speeches of Samuel mark an epoch in the
+history of the Hebrew religion, and are of profound interest to the
+scholar. But there are certain features, such as the killing of Agag,
+which would have to be eliminated in any case; then the theological and
+moral elements are so blended that it would be difficult if not
+impossible to separate them; and altogether the character of this mighty
+ancient seer, this Hebrew Warwick, this king-maker and enemy of kings,
+is above the comprehension of primary scholars. We shall therefore omit
+the whole intervening period, and pass at once from the Moses cycle to
+
+
+_The David Cycle._
+
+The first story of this group is that of _Naomi and Ruth_, the
+ancestress of David. Upon the matchless beauty of this tale it is
+unnecessary to expatiate. I wish to remark, however, in passing that it
+illustrates as well as any other--better perhaps than any other--the
+peculiar art of the biblical narrative to which we have referred above.
+If any one at the present day were asked to decide whether a woman
+placed in Ruth's situation would act rightly in leaving her home and
+following an aged mother-in-law to a distant country, how many pros and
+cons would he have to weigh before he would be able to say yes or no?
+Are her own parents still living, and are they so situated that she is
+justified in leaving them? Are there other blood relations who have a
+prior claim on her? Has she raised expectations at home which she ought
+not to disappoint, or undertaken duties which ought not to be set aside
+in deference to a sentiment no matter how noble? Of all such side issues
+and complications of duty which would render a decision like hers
+difficult in modern times, the story as we have it before us is cleared.
+All minor traits are suppressed. It is assumed that she has a right to
+go if she pleases, and the mind is left free to dwell, unimpeded by any
+counter-considerations, upon the beauty of her choice. This choice
+derives its excellence from the fact that it was perfectly free. There
+was no tie of consanguinity between Naomi and her. The two women were
+related in such a way that the bond might either be drawn more tightly
+or severed without blame. Orpah, too, pitied her mother-in-law. She
+wept, but she returned to her home. We can not, on that account, condemn
+her. It was not her bounden duty to go. Ruth, on the other hand, might
+perhaps have satisfied her more sensitive conscience by accompanying her
+mother-in-law as far as Bethlehem, and then returning to Moab. But she
+preferred instead exile and the hardships of a life among strangers. Not
+being a daughter, she freely took upon herself the duties of a daughter;
+and it is this that constitutes the singular merit of her action. In
+telling the story it is best to follow the original as closely as
+possible. "Entreat me not to leave thee, nor to desist from following
+after thee, for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I
+will lodge: thy people shall be my people: where thou diest will I die
+and there will I be buried." Where in universal literature shall we find
+words more eloquent of tender devotion than these? It will be noticed
+that I have left out the phrase "and thy God shall be my God" for two
+reasons. No matter how much we may love another person, religious
+convictions ought to be held sacred. We have no right to give up our
+convictions even for affection's sake. Moreover, the words correctly
+understood are really nothing but an amplification of what has preceded.
+The language of Ruth refers throughout to the proposed change of
+country. "Whither thou goest, I will go; where thou lodgest, I will
+lodge: thy folk shall be my folk; where thou diest, I will die." And the
+phrase "Thy God shall be my God" has the same meaning. The ancients
+believed that every country has its God, and to say "Thy God shall be my
+God" was tantamount to saying "Thy country shall be my country." It is
+better, therefore, to omit these words. Were we to retain them, the
+impression might be created that Ruth contemplated a change of religion
+merely to please the aged Naomi, and such a step from a moral point of
+view would be unwarrantable. It was this Gentile woman Ruth who became
+the ancestress of the royal house of David.
+
+The story of _David's life_ is replete with dramatic interest. It may
+be arranged in a series of pictures. First picture: David and
+Goliath--i. e., skill pitted against brute strength, or the deserved
+punishment of a bully. Every boy takes comfort in this story. Second
+picture: David and Jonathan, their arms twined about each other's neck,
+a beautiful example of youthful friendship. Especially should the
+unselfishness of Jonathan be noted. He, the Hebrew crown prince, so far
+from being jealous of his rival, recognized the superior qualities of
+the latter and served him with the most generous fidelity. Third
+picture: David the harper, playing before the gloomy, moody king, whom
+an evil spirit has possessed. It should be noted how difficult is the
+task incumbent upon Jonathan of combining his duty to his father and his
+affection for his friend. Yet he fails in neither. Fourth picture:
+David's loyalty manifest. He has the monarch in his power in the camp,
+in the cave, and proves that there is no evil intention in his mind. The
+words of Saul are very touching, "Is it thy voice I hear, my son David?"
+Fifth picture: the battle, the tragical end of Saul and Jonathan. The
+dirge of David floats above the field: "The beauty of Israel is slain
+upon the high places. How are the mighty fallen!" etc. A second series
+of pictures now begins. David is crowned king, first by his clansmen,
+then by the united tribes. David, while besieging Bethlehem, is athirst
+and there is no water. Three of his soldiers cut their way to the well
+near the gate, which is guarded by the enemy, and bring back a cup of
+water. He refuses it, saying: "It is not water, but the blood of the men
+who have risked their lives for me." Omitting the story of Bathsheba, we
+come next to the rebellion of Absalom. The incidents of this rebellion
+may be depicted as follows: First, Absalom in his radiant beauty at the
+feast of the sheep-shearer. Next, Absalom at the gate playing the
+demagogue, secretly inciting the people to revolt. Next, David ascending
+Mount Olivet weeping, the base Shimei, going along a parallel ridge,
+flinging stones at the king and reviling him. David remarks: "If my own
+son seek my life, how shall I be angry with this Benjamite?" Next, the
+death of Absalom in the wood. Finally, David at the gate receiving the
+news of Absalom's death, and breaking forth into the piercing cry: "O my
+son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee! O
+Absalom, my son, my son!" It is the story of a rebellious and undutiful
+child, and illustrates by contrast the unfathomable depth of a father's
+love, of a love that yearns even over the wicked, over the lost.
+
+The points of the stories included in the David cycle are: skill and
+courage triumphant over brute strength, unselfish friendship, loyalty, a
+leader's generosity toward his followers, and parental love. The
+arrangement of the words in the lament of David for his son deserves to
+be specially noted. It corresponds to and vividly describes the rhythmic
+movements of the emotions excited by great sorrow. From the life of
+Solomon we select only the judgment, related in I Kings, iii. We may
+compare with it a similar story, showing, however, interesting
+variations, in the Jataka tales.
+
+With this our selections from the Old Testament narrative come to an
+end. The ideal types are exhausted, and the figures which now appear
+upon the scene stand before us in the dry light of history.
+
+From the New Testament we select for the primary course the story of the
+Good Samaritan, as illustrative of true charity. Selected passages from
+the Sermon on the Mount may also be explained and committed to memory.
+The Beatitudes, however, and the parables lie outside our present
+limits, presupposing as they do a depth of spiritual experience which is
+lacking in children.
+
+
+     NOTE.--It should be remembered that the above selections have been
+     made with a view to their being included in a course of unsectarian
+     moral instruction. Such a course must not express the religious
+     tenets of any sect or denomination. Much that has here been
+     omitted, however, can be taught in the Sunday schools, the
+     existence of which alongside of the daily schools is, as I have
+     said, presupposed in these lectures. I have simply tried to cull
+     the moral meaning of the stories, leaving, as I believe, the way
+     open for divergent religious interpretations of the same stories.
+     But I realize that the religious teacher may claim the Bible wholly
+     for his own, and may not be willing to share even a part of its
+     treasure with the moral teacher. If this be so, then these
+     selections from the Bible, for the present, at all events, will
+     have to be omitted. They can, nevertheless, be used by judicious
+     parents, and some if not all of the suggestions they contain may
+     prove acceptable to teachers of Sunday schools.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] In his Introduction to Homer.
+
+[12] I have taken the liberty of altering the language here and there,
+for reasons that will be obvious in each case.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE ODYSSEY AND THE ILIAD.
+
+
+As we leave the field of biblical literature and turn to the classic
+epic of Greece, a new scene spreads out before us, new forms and faces
+crowd around us, we breathe a different atmosphere.
+
+The poems of Homer among the Greeks occupied a place in many respects
+similar to that of the Bible among the Hebrews. At Athens there was a
+special ordinance that the Homeric poems should be recited once every
+fourth year at the great Panathenaic festival. On this occasion the
+rhapsode, standing on an elevated platform, arrayed in rich robes, with
+a golden wreath about his head, addressed an audience of many thousands.
+The poems were made the subject of mystical, allegorical, and
+rationalistic interpretation, precisely as was the case with the text of
+the Bible. As late as the first century of our era, the first book
+placed in the hands of children, the book from which they learned to
+read and write, was Homer. Xenophon in the Symposium has one of the
+guests say: "My father, anxious that I should become a good man, made me
+learn all the poems of Homer, and now I could repeat the whole Iliad
+and Odyssey by heart."[13]
+
+We shall not go quite to the same length as Xenophon. We should hardly
+think it sufficient in order to make a good man of a boy to place Homer
+in his hands. But we do believe that the knowledge of the Homeric poems,
+introduced at the right time and in the right way, will contribute to
+such a result.
+
+Let us, however, examine more closely in what the value of these poems
+consists.
+
+Ulysses is the hero of the Odyssey, Achilles of the Iliad. Ulysses is
+pre-eminently the type of resourceful intelligence, Achilles of valor.
+In what way will these types appeal to our pupils? As the boy develops
+beyond the early period of childhood, there shows itself in him a spirit
+of adventure. This has been noticed by all careful educators. Now, there
+is a marked difference between the spirit of adventure and the spirit of
+play. Play consists in the free exercise of our faculties. Its
+characteristic mark is the absence of taxing effort. The child is said
+to be at play when it frolics in the grass, when it leaps or runs a
+race, or when it imitates the doings of its elders. As soon, however, as
+the exertion required in carrying on a game becomes appreciable, the
+game is converted into a task and loses its charm. The spirit of
+adventure, on the contrary, is called forth by obstacles; it delights in
+the prospect of difficulties to be overcome; it is the sign of a fresh
+and apparently boundless energy, which has not yet been taught its
+limitations by the rough contact with realities. The spirit of adventure
+begins to develop in children when the home life no longer entirely
+contents them, when they wish to be freed from the constraint of
+dependence on others, when it seems to them as if the whole world lay
+open to them and they could dare and do almost anything. It is at this
+time that children love to read tales of travel, and especially tales of
+the sea, of shipwreck, and hair-breadth escapes, of monsters slain by
+dauntless heroes, of rescue and victory, no matter how improbable or
+impossible the means. Now success in such adventures depends largely on
+courage. And it is good for children to have examples even of physical
+courage set before them, provided it be not brutal. The craven heart
+ought to be despised. Mere good intentions ought not to count. Unless
+one has the resolute will, the fearless soul, that can face difficulties
+and danger without flinching, he will never be able to do a man's work
+in the world. This lesson should be imprinted early. A second
+prerequisite of success is presence of mind, or what has been called
+above resourceful intelligence. And this quality is closely allied with
+the former. Presence of mind is the result of bravery. The mind will act
+even in perilous situations if it be not paralyzed by fear. It is fear
+that causes the wheels of thought to stop. If one can only keep off the
+clog of fear, the mind will go on revolving and often find a way of
+escape where there seemed none. Be not a coward, be brave and
+clear-headed in the midst of peril--these are lessons the force of which
+is appreciated by the growing pupil. The Iliad and Odyssey teach them on
+every page.
+
+Bravery and presence of mind, it is true, are commonly regarded as
+worldly, rather than as, in the strict sense, moral qualities. However
+that may be--and I, for one, am inclined to rank true courage and true
+presence of mind among the highest manifestations of the moral
+nature--these qualities when they show themselves in the young soon
+exert a favorable influence on the whole character, and serve especially
+to transform the attitude of the child toward its parents. Hitherto the
+young child has been content to be the mere recipient of favors; as soon
+as the new consciousness of strength, the new sense of independence and
+manliness has developed, the son begins to feel that he would like to
+give to his parents as well as to receive from them; to be of use to his
+father, and to confer benefits, as far as he is able, in the shape of
+substantial services. These remarks will find their application in the
+analysis of the Odyssey, which we shall presently attempt.
+
+The Odyssey is a tale of the sea. Ulysses is the type of sagacity, as
+well as of bravery, his mind teems with inventions. In the boy
+Telemachus we behold a son struggling to cut loose from his mother's
+leading-strings, and laudably ambitious to be of use to his parents. In
+the Odyssey we gain a distinct advance upon the moral results obtained
+from the study of the biblical stories. In the Bible it is chiefly the
+love of parents for their children which is dwelt upon, in the Odyssey
+the devotion of children to their parents; and this, of course, marks a
+later stage. In the Odyssey, too, the conjugal relation comes into the
+foreground. In the Bible, the love of the husband for his wife is
+repeatedly touched upon. But the love of the wife for the husband is not
+equally emphasized, and the relations between the two do not receive
+particular attention. The joint authority of both parents over their
+children is the predominant fact, the delicate bonds of feeling which
+subsist between the parents themselves are not in view. And this again
+corresponds to the earlier stage of childhood. The young child perceives
+the joint love which father and mother bear toward it, and feels the
+joint authority which they exercise over it. But as the child grows up,
+its eyes are opened to perceive more clearly the love which the parents
+bear to one another, and its affection for both is fed and the desire to
+serve them is strengthened by this new insight. Thus it is in the
+Odyssey. The yearning of Ulysses for his wife, the fidelity of Penelope
+during twenty years of separation, are the leading theme of the
+narrative, and the effect of this love upon their son is apparent
+throughout the poem.
+
+Let us now consider the ethical elements of the Odyssey in some detail,
+arranging them under separate heads.
+
+1. _Conjugal affection._ Ulysses has been for seven years a prisoner in
+the cave of Calypso. The nymph of the golden hair offers him the gift of
+immortality if he will consent to be her husband, but he is proof
+against her blandishments, and asks for nothing but to be dismissed, so
+that he may see his dear home and hold his own true wife once more in
+his arms.
+
+
+     "Apart upon the shore
+     He sat and sorrowed. And oft in tears
+     And sighs and vain repinings passed the hours,
+     Gazing with wet eyes on the barren deep."[14]
+
+
+I would remark that, as the poem is too long to be read through
+entirely, and as there are passages in it which should be omitted, it is
+advisable for the teacher to narrate the story, quoting, however, such
+passages as give point to the narrative or have a special beauty of
+their own. Read the description of Calypso's cave v, 73, ff. Penelope
+meantime is patiently awaiting her husband's return. Read the passages
+which describe her great beauty, especially that lovely word-picture in
+which she is described as standing by a tall column in the hall, a maid
+on either side, a veil hiding her lustrous face, while she addresses the
+suitors. The noblest princes of Ithaca and the surrounding isles entreat
+her hand in marriage, and, thinking that Ulysses will never return, hold
+high revels in his house, and shamelessly consume his wealth. Read the
+passage ii, 116-160, describing Penelope's device to put off the
+suitors, and at the same time to avert the danger which would have
+threatened her son in case she had openly broken with the chiefs. The
+love of Penelope is further set vividly before us by many delicate
+touches. Every stranger who arrives in Ithaca is hospitably entertained
+by the queen, and loaded with gifts, in the hope that he may bring her
+some news of her absent lord, and often she is deceived by wretches who
+speculate on her credulous grief. See the passage xiv, 155. During the
+day she is busy with her household cares, overseeing her maids, and
+seeking to divert her mind by busy occupation; but at night the silence
+and the solitude become intolerable, and she weeps her eyes out on her
+lonely couch. How the love of Penelope influences her boy, who was a
+mere babe when his father left for Troy, how the whole atmosphere of the
+house is charged with the sense of expectancy of the master's return, is
+shown in the passage ii, 439, where Telemachus says:
+
+
+     "Nurse, let sweet wine be drawn into my jars,
+     The finest next to that which thou dost keep,
+     Expecting our unhappy lord, if yet
+     The nobly born Ulysses shall escape
+     The doom of death and come to us again."
+
+
+The best cheer, the finest wine, the best of everything is kept ready
+against the father's home-coming, which may be looked for any day, if
+haply he has escaped the doom of death. There is one passage in which
+we might suspect that the poet has intended to show the hardening effect
+of grief on Penelope's character, xv, 479. Penelope does not speak to
+her old servants any more; she passes them by without a word, apparently
+without seeing them. She does not attend to their wants as she used to
+do, and they, in turn, do not dare to address her. But we may forgive
+this seeming indifference inasmuch as it only shows how completely she
+is absorbed by her sorrow.
+
+A companion picture to the love of Ulysses and Penelope is to be found
+in the conjugal relation of Alcinous, king of Phæacia, and his wife
+Arete, as described in the sixth book and the following. This whole
+episode is incomparably beautiful. Was there ever a more perfect
+embodiment of girlish grace and modesty, coupled with sweetest
+frankness, than Nausicaa? And what a series of lovely pictures is made
+to pass in quick succession before our eyes as we read the story! First,
+Nausicaa, moved by the desire to prepare her wedding garments against
+her unknown lover's coming, not ashamed to acknowledge the motive to her
+own pure heart, but veiling it discreetly before her mother; then the
+band of maidens setting out upon their picnic party, Nausicaa holding
+the reins; next the washing of the garments, the bath, the game of ball,
+the sudden appearance of Ulysses, the flight of her companions, the
+brave girl being left to keep her place alone, with a courage born of
+pity for the stranger, and of virtuous womanhood.
+
+
+       "Alone
+     The daughter of Alcinous kept her place,
+     For Pallas gave her courage and forbade
+     Her limb to tremble. So she waited there."
+
+
+Who that has inhaled the fragrance of her presence from these pages can
+ever forget the white-armed Nausicaa! Then follows the picture of the
+palace, a feast for the imagination, the most magnificent description, I
+think, in the whole poem.
+
+
+     "For on every side beneath
+     The lofty roof of that magnanimous king
+     A glory shone as of the summer moons."
+
+
+Read from l. 100-128, book vii. Next we witness the splendid hospitality
+proffered to the stranger guest. For again and again in this poem the
+noble sentiment is repeated, that the stranger and the poor are sent
+from Jove. Then we see Ulysses engaged in the games, outdoing the rest,
+or standing aside and watching "the twinkle of the dancer's feet." The
+language, too, used on these occasions is strikingly noble, so courteous
+and well-chosen, so simple and dignified, conveying rich meanings in the
+fewest possible words. What can be finer, e. g., than Nausicaa's
+farewell to Ulysses?
+
+
+     "Now, when the maids
+     Had seen him bathed, and had anointed him
+     With oil, and put his sumptuous mantle on,
+     And tunic, forth he issued from the bath,
+     And came to those who sat before their wine.
+     Nausicaa, goddess-like in beauty, stood
+     Beside a pillar of that noble roof,
+     And, looking on Ulysses as he passed,
+     Admired, and said to him in winged words--
+     'Stranger, farewell, and in thy native land
+     Remember thou hast owed thy life to me.'"
+
+
+Nausicaa, it is evident, loves Ulysses; she stands beside a pillar, a
+favorite attitude for beautiful women with Homer, and as Ulysses passes,
+she addresses to him those few words so fraught with tenderness and
+renunciation. Ulysses's own speech to Arete, too, is a model of
+simplicity and dignity, possessing, it seems to me, something of the
+same quality which we admire in the speeches of Othello. But throughout
+this narrative, pre-eminent above all the other figures in it is the
+figure of the queen herself, of Arete. Such a daughter as Nausicaa could
+only come from such a mother. To her Ulysses is advised to address his
+supplication. She is the wise matron, the peace-maker who composes the
+angry feuds of the men. And she possesses the whole heart and devotion
+of her husband.
+
+
+       "Her Alcinous made his wife
+     And honored her as nowhere else on earth
+     Is any woman honored who bears charge
+     Over a husband's household. From their hearts
+     Her children pay her reverence, and the king
+     And all the people, for they look on her
+     As if she were a goddess. When she goes
+     Abroad into the streets, all welcome her
+     With acclamations. Never does she fail
+     In wise discernment, but decides disputes
+     Kindly and justly between man and man.
+     And if thou gain her favor there is hope
+     That thou mayst see thy friends once more."
+
+
+We have then as illustrations of conjugal fidelity: the main picture,
+Ulysses and Penelope; the companion picture, Alcinous and Arete; and, as
+a foil to set off both, there looms up every now and then in the course
+of the poem, that unhappy pair, Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, the latter,
+the type of conjugal infidelity, from which the soul of Homer revolts.
+This foil is very skillfully used. At the very end of the poem, when
+everything is hastening toward a happy consummation, Ulysses having
+slain the suitors and being about to be reunited with his wife, we are
+introduced into the world of shades, where the ghost of Agamemnon once
+more rehearses the story of Clytemnestra's treachery. At that moment the
+spirits of the suitors come flying down to Hades, and the happier
+destiny of Ulysses is thus brought into clearer relief by contrast.
+
+The next ethical element of which I have to speak is the _filial
+conduct_ of Telemachus. In him the spirit of adventure has developed
+into a desire to help his father. In the early part of the poem he
+announces that he is now a child no longer. He begins to assert
+authority. And yet in his home he continues to be treated as a child.
+The suitors laugh at him, his own mother can not bear to think that he
+should go out into the wide world alone, and the news of his departure
+is accordingly concealed from her. Very fine are the words in which her
+mother's love expresses itself when she discovers his absence:
+
+
+     "And her knees failed her and her heart
+     Sank as she heard. Long time she could not speak;
+     Her eyes were filled with tears, and her clear voice
+     Was choked; yet, finding words at length, she said:
+     'O herald! wherefore should my son have gone?'
+
+                               "... Now, my son,
+     My best beloved, goes to sea--a boy
+     Unused to hardship and unskilled to deal
+     With strangers. More I sorrow for his sake
+     Than for his father's. I am filled with fear."
+
+
+She lies outstretched upon the floor of her chamber overcome with grief
+(iv, 910). Telemachus, however, has gone forth in search of his sire. He
+finds a friend in Pisistratus, the son of Nestor, and the two youths
+join company on the journey. They come to the court of Menelaus, King of
+Sparta. There, as everywhere, Telemachus hears men speak of his great
+father in terms of the highest admiration and praise, and the desire
+mounts in his soul to do deeds worthy of such a parent. What better
+stimulation can we offer to growing children than this recital of
+Telemachus's development from boyhood into manhood? His reception at the
+court of Menelaus affords an opportunity to dwell again upon the
+generous and delicate hospitality of the ancient Greeks. First, the
+guest is received at the gates; then conducted to the bath and anointed;
+then, when he is seated on a silver or perchance a golden throne, a
+handmaiden advances with a silver ewer and a golden jug to pour water on
+his hands; then a noble banquet is set out for his delectation; and only
+then, after all these rites of hospitality have been completed, is
+inquiry made as to his name and his errand. "The stranger and the poor
+are sent from Jove." The stranger and the poor were welcome in the
+Grecian house. Telemachus returns to Ithaca, escapes the ambush which
+the murderous suitors had set for him, and arrives just in time to help
+his father in his last desperate struggle. It is he, Telemachus, who
+conveys the weapons from the hall, he who pinions the treacherous
+Melantheus and renders him harmless. He quits himself like a
+man--discreet, able to keep his counsel, and brave and quick in the
+moment of decisive action.
+
+The third element which attracts our attention is the resourceful
+intelligence of Ulysses, or his _presence of mind_ amid danger. This is
+exhibited on many occasions; for instance, in the cave of Polyphemus;
+where he saves his companions by concealing them in the fleece of the
+giant's flock, and at the time of the great shipwreck, before he reaches
+Phæacia. His raft is shattered, and he is plunged into the sea. He
+clings to one of the fragments of the wreck, but from this too is
+dislodged. For two days and nights he struggles in the black, stormy
+waters. At last he approaches the shore, but is nearly dashed to pieces
+on the rocks. He swims again out to sea, until, finding himself opposite
+the mouth of a river, he strikes out for this and lands in safety.
+Pallas Athene has guided him. But Pallas Athene is only another name for
+his own courage and presence of mind. In the same connection may be
+related the story of Ulysses's escape from the Sirens and from the twin
+perils of Scylla and Charybdis. The Sirens, with their bewitching songs,
+seek to lure him and his companions to destruction. But he stops the
+ears of his companions with wax so that they can not hear, and causes
+himself to be bound with stout cords to the mast, so that, though he may
+hear, he can not follow. There is an obvious lesson contained in this
+allegory. When about to be exposed to temptation, if you know that you
+are weak, do not even listen to the seductive voices. But no matter how
+strong you believe yourself to be, at least give such pledges and place
+yourself in such conditions that you may be prevented from yielding.
+From the monster Charybdis, too, Ulysses escapes by extraordinary
+presence of mind and courage. He leaps upward to catch the fig-tree in
+the moment when his ship disappears beneath him in the whirlpool; then,
+when it is cast up again, lets go his hold and is swept out into safe
+waters.
+
+The fourth ethical element which we select from the poem is the
+_veneration shown to grandparents_. I have already remarked, in a former
+lecture, that if parents wish to retain the reverence of their children
+they can not do better than in their turn to show themselves reverent
+toward their own aged and enfeebled parents. Of such conduct the Odyssey
+offers us a number of choice examples. Thus Achilles, meeting Ulysses in
+the realm of shades, says that the hardest part of his lot is to think
+of his poor old father, who has no one now to defend him, and who,
+being weak, is likely to be neglected and despised. If only he, the
+strong son, could return to the light of day, how he would protect his
+aged parent and insure him the respect due to his gray hairs! Penelope
+is advised to send to Laertes, Telemachus's grandfather, to secure his
+aid against the suitors. But with delicate consideration she keeps the
+bad news from him, saying: "He has enough grief to bear on account of
+the loss of his son Ulysses; let me not add to his burden." Again, how
+beautiful is the account of the meeting of Laertes and Ulysses after the
+return and triumph of the latter. On the farm, at some distance from the
+town, Ulysses seeks his aged father. Laertes is busy digging. He, a
+king, wears a peasant's rustic garb and lives a life of austere
+self-denial, grieving night and day for his absent son. When Ulysses
+mentions his name, Laertes at first does not believe. Then the hero
+approaches the bent and decrepit old man, and becomes for the moment a
+child again. He brings up recollections of his earliest boyhood; he
+reminds his father of the garden-patch which he set aside for him long,
+long ago; of the trees and vines which he gave him to plant; and then
+the father realizes that the mighty man before him is indeed his son.
+
+The structural lines of the Odyssey are clearly marked, and can easily
+be followed. First, we are shown the house of Ulysses bereft of its
+master. The noisy crowd of suitors are carousing in the hall; the
+despairing Penelope weaves her web in an upper chamber; the resolve to
+do and dare for his father's sake awakens in Telemachus's heart. Next
+Ulysses on the way home, dismissed by Calypso, arrives at Phæacia, from
+which port without further misadventures he reaches Ithaca. The stay in
+the palace of the Phæacian king gives an opportunity for a rehearsal of
+the previous sufferings and adventures of the hero. Then follow the
+preparations for the conflict with the suitors; the appearance of
+Ulysses in his own palace in the guise of a beggar; the insults and
+blows which he receives at the hands of his rivals and their menials;
+the bloody fight, etc. In relating the story I should follow the course
+of the poem, laying stress upon the ethical elements enumerated above.
+The fight which took place in the palace halls with closed doors should
+be merely mentioned, its bloody details omitted. The hanging of the
+maidens, the trick of Vulcan related in a previous book, and other minor
+episodes, which the teacher will distinguish without difficulty, should
+likewise be passed over. The recognition scenes are managed with
+wonderful skill. The successive recognitions seem to take place
+inversely in the order of previous connection and intimacy with Ulysses.
+The son, who was a mere babe when his father left and did not know him
+at all, recognizes him first. This, moreover, is necessary in order that
+his aid may be secured for the coming struggle. Next comes Argus, the
+dog.
+
+
+     "While over Argus the black night of death
+     Came suddenly as he had seen
+     Ulysses, absent now for twenty years."
+
+
+Next comes the nurse Eurycleia, who recognizes him by a scar inflicted
+by the white tusk of a boar whom he hunted on Parnassus's heights; then
+his faithful followers; last of all, and slowly and with difficulty, the
+wife who had so yearned for him. Her impetuous son could not understand
+her tardiness. Vehemently he chid her: "Mother, unfeeling mother, how
+canst thou remain aloof, how keep from taking at my father's side thy
+place to talk with him and question him? Mother, thy heart is harder
+than a stone." But she only sat opposite to Ulysses and gazed and gazed
+and wondered. Ulysses himself, at last, in despair at her impenetrable
+silence, exclaimed, "An iron heart is hers." But it was only that she
+could not believe. It seemed so incredible to her that the long waiting
+should be over; that the desire of her heart should really be fulfilled;
+that this man before her should be indeed the husband, the long-lost
+husband, and not a mocking dream. But when at last it dawned upon her,
+when he gave her the token of the mystery known only to him and to her,
+then indeed the ice of incredulity melted from her heart, and her knees
+faltered and the tears streamed from her eyes, "and she rose and ran to
+him and flung her arm about his neck and kissed his brow, and he, too,
+wept as in his arms he held his dearly loved and faithful wife." "As
+welcome as the land to those who swim the deep, tossed by the billow
+and the blast, and few are those who from the hoary ocean reach the
+shore, their limbs all crested with the brine, these gladly climb the
+sea-beach and are safe--so welcome was her husband to her eyes, nor
+would her fair white arms release his neck."
+
+And so with the words uttered by the shade of Agamemnon we may fitly
+close this retrospect of the poem:
+
+
+     "Son of Laertes, fortunate and wise,
+     Ulysses! thou by feats of eminent might
+     And valor dost possess thy wife again.
+     And nobly minded is thy blameless queen,
+     The daughter of Icarius, faithfully
+     Remembering him to whom she gave her troth
+     While yet a virgin. Never shall the fame
+     Of his great valor perish, and the gods
+     Themselves shall frame, for those who dwell on earth,
+     Sweet strains in praise of sage Penelope."
+
+
+Well might the rhapsodes in the olden days, clad in embroidered robes,
+with golden wreaths about their brows, recite such verses as these to
+the assembled thousands and ten thousands. Well might the Hellenic race
+treasure these records of filial loyalty, of maiden purity, of wifely
+tenderness and fidelity, of bravery, and of intelligence. And well may
+we, too, desire that this golden stream flowing down to us from ancient
+Greece shall enter the current of our children's lives to broaden and
+enrich them.
+
+I have not space at my command to attempt a minute analysis of the
+Iliad, and shall content myself with mentioning the main significant
+points. The Iliad is full of the noises of war, the hurtling of arrows,
+the flashing of swords, the sounding of spears on metal shields, the
+groans of the dying, "whose eyes black darkness covers." The chief
+virtues illustrated are valor, hospitality, conjugal affection, respect
+for the aged. I offer the following suggestions to the teacher. After
+describing the wrath of Achilles, relate the meeting of Diomedes and
+Glaucus, their hostile encounter, and their magnanimous embrace on
+discovering that they are great friends. Read the beautiful passage
+beginning with the words, "Even as the generations of leaves, such are
+those likewise of men." Dwell on the parting of Hector and Andromache.
+Note that she has lost her father, her lady mother, and her seven
+brothers. Hector is to her father, mother, brother, and husband, all in
+one. Note also Hector's prayer for his son that the latter may excel him
+in bravery. As illustrative of friendship, tell the story of Achilles's
+grief for Patroclus, how he lies prone upon the ground, strewing his
+head with dust; how he follows the body lamenting; how he declares that
+though the dead forget their dead in Hades, even there he would not
+forget his dear comrade. Next tell of the slaying of Hector, and how
+Achilles honors the suppliant Priam and restores to him the body of his
+son. It is the memory of his own aged father, which the sight of Priam
+recalls, that melts Achilles's heart, and they weep together, each for
+his own dead. Finally, note the tribute paid to Hector's delicate
+chivalry in the lament of Helen.[15]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] See Jebb's Introduction to Homer.
+
+[14] The quotations are taken from Bryant's translation of the Odyssey.
+
+[15] In connection with the Homeric poems selections from Greek
+mythology may be used, such as the story of Hercules, of Theseus, of
+Perseus, the story of the Argonauts, and others. These, too, breathe the
+spirit of adventure and illustrate the virtues of courage, perseverance
+amid difficulties, chivalry, etc.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMAR COURSE.
+
+LESSONS ON DUTY.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE DUTY OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE.
+
+
+In setting out on a new path it is well to determine beforehand the goal
+we hope to reach. We are about to begin the discussion of the grammar
+course, which is intended for children between twelve and fifteen years
+of age, and accordingly ask: What result can we expect to attain? One
+thing is certain, we must continue to grade our teaching, to adapt each
+successive step to the capacities of the pupils, to keep pace with their
+mental development.
+
+The due gradation of moral teaching is all-important. Whether the
+gradations we propose are correct is, of course, a matter for
+discussion; but, at all events, a point will be gained if we shall have
+brought home forcibly to teachers the necessity of a graded, of a
+progressive system.
+
+In the primary course we have set before the pupils examples of good and
+bad conduct, with a view to training their powers of moral perception.
+We are now ready to advance from percepts to concepts. We have
+endeavored to cultivate the faculty of observation, we can now attempt
+the higher task of generalization. In the primary course we have tried
+to make the pupils perceive moral distinctions; in the grammar course we
+shall try to make them reason about moral distinctions, help them to
+gain notions of duty, to arrive at principles or maxims of good conduct.
+The grammar course, therefore, will consist in the main of lessons on
+duty.
+
+What has just been said, however, requires further explanation to
+prevent misapprehension. I have remarked that the pupil is now to reach
+out toward concepts of duty, and to establish for himself maxims or
+principles of conduct. But of what nature shall these maxims be? The
+philosopher Kant has proposed the following maxim: "So act that the
+maxim underlying thy action may justify itself to thy mind as a
+universal law of conduct." According to him, the note of universality is
+the distinctive characteristic of all ethical conduct. The school of
+Bentham proposes a different maxim: "So act that the result of thy
+action shall tend to insure the greatest happiness of the greatest
+number." Theologians tell us so to act that our will may harmonize with
+the will of God. But pupils of the grammar grade are not ripe to
+understand such metaphysical and theological propositions. And,
+moreover, as was pointed out in our first lecture, it would be a grave
+injustice to teach in schools supported by all ethical first principles
+which are accepted only by some. We are not concerned with first
+principles. We exclude the discussion of them, be they philosophical or
+theological, from the school. But there are certain secondary
+principles, certain more concrete rules of behavior, which nevertheless
+possess the character of generalizations, and these will suffice for
+our purpose. And with respect to these there is really no difference of
+opinion among the different schools and sects, and on them as a
+foundation we can build.
+
+It is our business to discover such secondary principles, and in our
+instruction to lead the pupil to the recognition of them. The nature of
+the formulas of duty which we have in mind--formulas which shall express
+the generalized moral experience of civilized mankind, will appear more
+plainly if we examine the processes by which we arrive at them. An
+example will best elucidate: Suppose that I am asked to give a lesson on
+the duty of truthfulness. At the stage which we have now reached it will
+not be enough merely to emphasize the general commandment against lying.
+The general commandment leaves in the pupil's mind a multitude of doubts
+unsolved. Shall I always tell the truth--that is to say, the whole
+truth, as I know it, and to everybody? Is it never right to withhold the
+truth, or even to say what is the contrary of true, as, e. g., to the
+sick or insane. Such questions as these are constantly being asked. What
+is needed is a rule of veracity which shall leave the general principle
+of truth-speaking unshaken, and shall yet cover all these exceptional
+cases. How to arrive at such a rule? I should go about it in the
+following manner, and the method here described is the one which is
+intended to be followed throughout the entire course of lessons on duty.
+I should begin by presenting a concrete case. A certain child had broken
+a precious vase. When asked whether it had done so, it answered, "No."
+How do you characterize such a statement? As a falsehood. The active
+participation of the pupils in the discussion is essential. Properly
+questioned, they will join in it heart and soul. There must be constant
+give and take between teacher and class. Upon the fulfillment of this
+condition the value of this sort of teaching entirely depends. The
+teacher then proceeds to analyze the instance above given, or any other
+that he may select from those which the pupils offer him. The child says
+no when it should have said yes, or a person says black when he should
+have said white. In what does the falsehood of such statements consist?
+In the circumstance that the words spoken do not correspond to the
+facts. Shall we then formulate the rule of veracity as follows: Make thy
+words correspond to the facts; and shall we infer that any one whose
+words do not correspond to the facts is a liar? But clearly this is not
+so. The class is asked to give instances tending to prove the
+insufficiency of the proposed formula. Before the days of Copernicus it
+was generally asserted that the sun revolves around the earth. Should we
+be justified in setting down the many excellent persons who made such
+statements as liars? Yet their words did not correspond to the facts.
+Very true; but they did not intend to deviate from the facts--they did
+not know better. Shall we then change the formula so as to read: Intend
+that thy words shall conform to the facts? But the phrase "correspond to
+the facts" needs to be made more explicit. Cases occur in which a
+statement does correspond to the facts, or, at least, seems to do so,
+and yet a contemptible falsehood is implied. The instance of the truant
+boy is in point who entered the school-building five minutes before the
+close of the exercises, and on being asked at home whether he had been
+at school, promptly answered "Yes"; and so he had been for five minutes.
+But in this case the boy suppressed a part of the facts--and, moreover,
+the essential part--namely, that he had been absent from school for five
+hours and fifty-five minutes. Cases of mental reservation and the like
+fall under the same condemnation. The person who took an oath in court,
+using the words, "As truly as I stand on this stone," but who had
+previously filled his shoes with earth, suppressed the essential
+fact--viz., that he had filled his shoes with earth.
+
+Shall we then formulate the rule in this wise: Intend to make thy words
+correspond to the essential facts? But even this will not entirely
+satisfy. For there are cases, surely, in which we deliberately frame our
+words in such a way that they shall not correspond to the essential
+facts--for instance, if we should meet a murderer who should ask us in
+which direction his intended victim had fled, or in the case of an
+insane person intent on suicide, or of the sick in extreme danger, whom
+the communication of bad news would kill. How can we justify such a
+procedure? We can justify it on the ground that language as a means of
+communication is intended to further the rational purposes of human
+life, and not conversely are the rational purposes of life to be
+sacrificed to any merely formal principle of truth-telling. A person
+who, like the murderer, is about to use the fact conveyed to him by my
+words as a weapon with which to kill a fellow-being has no right to be
+put in possession of the fact. An insane person, who can not use the
+truthful communications of others except for irrational ends, is also
+outside the pale of those to whom such tools can properly be intrusted.
+And so are the sick, when so enfeebled that the shock of grief would
+destroy them. For the rational use of grief is to provoke in us a moral
+reaction, to rouse in us the strength to bear our heavy burdens, and, in
+bearing, to learn invaluable moral lessons. But those who are physically
+too weak to rally from the first shock of grief are unable to secure
+this result, and they must therefore be classed, for the time being, as
+persons not in a condition to make rational use of the facts of life. It
+is not from pain and suffering that we are permitted to shield them.
+Pain and suffering we must be willing both to endure and also to inflict
+upon those whom we love best, if necessary. Reason can and should
+triumph over pain. But when the reasoning faculty is impaired, or when
+the body is too weak to respond to the call of reason, the obligation of
+truth-_telling_ ceases. I am not unaware that this is a dangerous
+doctrine to teach. I should always take the greatest pains to impress
+upon my pupils that the irrational condition, which alone justifies the
+withholding of the truth, must be so obvious that there can be no
+mistake about it, as in the case of the murderer who, with knife in
+hand, pursues his victim, or of the insane, or of the sick, in regard to
+whom the physician positively declares that the shock of bad news would
+endanger life. But I do think that we are bound to face these
+exceptional cases, and to discuss them with our pupils. For the latter
+know as well as we that in certain exceptional situations the best men
+do not tell the truth, that in such situations no one tells the truth,
+except he be a moral fanatic. And unless these exceptional cases are
+clearly marked off and explained and justified, the general authority of
+truth will be shaken, or at least the obligation of veracity will become
+very much confused in the pupil's mind. In my opinion, the confusion
+which does exist on this subject is largely due to a failure to
+distinguish between inward truthfulness and truthfulness as reflected in
+speech. The law of inward truthfulness tolerates no exceptions. We
+should always, and as far as possible, be absolutely truthful, in our
+thinking, in our estimates, in our judgments. But language is a mere
+vehicle for the communication of thoughts and facts to others, and in
+communicating thoughts and facts we _are_ bound to consider in how far
+others are fit to receive them. Shall we then formulate the rule of
+veracity thus: Intend to communicate the essential facts to those who
+are capable of making a rational use of them. I think that some such
+formula as this might answer. I am not disposed to stickle for this
+particular phraseology. But the formula as stated illustrates my
+thought, and also the method by which the formulas, which we shall have
+to teach in the grammar course are to be reached. It is the inductive
+method. First a concrete case is presented, and a rule of conduct is
+hypothetically suggested, which fits this particular case. Then other
+cases are adduced. It is discovered that the rule as it stands thus far
+does not fit them. It must therefore be modified, expanded. Then, in
+succession, other and more complex cases, to which the rule may possibly
+apply are brought forward, until every case we can think of has been
+examined; and when the rule is brought into such shape that it fits them
+all, we have a genuine moral maxim, a safe rule for practical guidance,
+and the principle involved in the rule is one of those secondary
+principles in respect to which men of every sect and school can agree.
+It needs hardly to be pointed out how much a casuistical discussion of
+this sort tends to stimulate interest in moral problems, and to quicken
+the moral judgment. I can say, from an experience of over a dozen years,
+that pupils between twelve and fifteen years of age are immensely
+interested in such discussions, and are capable of making the subtilest
+distinctions. Indeed, the directness with which they pronounce their
+verdict on fine questions of right and wrong often has in it something
+almost startling to older persons, whose contact with the world has
+reconciled them to a somewhat less exacting standard.
+
+But here a caution is necessary. Some children seem to be too fond of
+casuistry. They take an intellectual pleasure in drawing fine
+distinctions, and questions of conscience are apt to become to them mere
+matter of mental gymnastics. Such a tendency must be sternly repressed
+whenever it shows itself. In fact, reasoning about moral principles is
+always attended with a certain peril. After all, the actual morality of
+the world depends largely on the moral habits which mankind have formed
+in the course of many ages, and which are transmitted from generation to
+generation. Now a habit acts a good deal like an instinct. Its force
+depends upon what has been called unconscious cerebration. As soon as we
+stop to reason about our habits, their hold on us is weakened, we
+hesitate, we become uncertain, the interference of the mind acts like a
+brake. It is for this reason that throughout the primary course, we have
+confined ourselves to what the Germans call _Anschauung_, the close
+observation of examples with a view of provoking imitation or
+repugnance, and thus strengthening the force of habit. Why, then,
+introduce analysis now, it may be asked. Why not be content with still
+further confirming the force of good habits? My answer is that the force
+of habit must be conserved and still further strengthened, but that
+analysis, too, becomes necessary at this stage. And why? Because habits
+are always specialized. A person governed by habits falls into a certain
+routine, and moves along easily and safely as long as the conditions
+repeat themselves to which his habits are adjusted. But when confronted
+by a totally new set of conditions, he is often quite lost and helpless.
+Just as a person who is solely guided by common sense in the ordinary
+affairs of life, is apt to be stranded when compelled to face
+circumstances for which his previous experience affords no precedent. It
+is necessary, therefore, to extract from the moral habits the latent
+rules of conduct which underlie them, and to state these in a general
+form which the mind can grasp and retain, and which it will be able to
+apply to new conditions as they arise. To this end analysis and the
+formulation of rules are indispensable. But in order, at the same time,
+not to break the force of habit, the teacher should proceed in the
+following manner: He should always take the moral habit for granted. He
+should never give his pupils to understand that he and they are about to
+examine whether, for instance, it is wrong or not wrong to lie. The
+commandment against lying is assumed, and its obligation acknowledged at
+the outset. The only object of the analysis is to discern more exactly
+what is meant by lying, to define the rule of veracity with greater
+precision and circumspectness, so that we may be enabled to fulfill the
+commandment more perfectly. It is implied in what I have said that the
+teacher should not treat of moral problems as if he were dealing with
+problems in arithmetic. The best thing he can do for his pupils--better
+than any particular lesson he can teach--will be to communicate to them
+the spirit of moral earnestness. And this spirit he can not communicate
+unless he be full of it himself. The teacher should consecrate himself
+to his task; he should be penetrated by a sense of the lofty character
+of the subject which he teaches. Even a certain attention to externals
+is not superfluous. The lessons, in the case of the younger children,
+may be accompanied by song; the room in which the classes meet may be
+hung with appropriate pictures, and especially is it desirable that the
+faces of great and good men and women shall look down upon the pupils
+from the walls. The instruction should be given by word of mouth; for
+the right text-books do not yet exist, and even the best books must
+always act as a bar to check that flow of moral influence which should
+come from the teacher to quicken the class. To make sure that the pupils
+understand what they have been taught, they should be required from time
+to time to reproduce the subject matter of the lessons in their own
+language, and using their own illustrations, in the form of essays.
+
+And now, after this general introduction, let us take up the lessons on
+the duties in their proper order. What is the proper order? This
+question, you will remember, was discussed in the lecture on the
+classification of duties. It was there stated that the life of man from
+childhood upward, may be divided into periods, that each period has its
+special duties, and that there is in each some one central duty around
+which the others may be grouped. During the school age the paramount
+duty of the pupil is to study. We shall therefore begin with the duties
+which are connected with the pursuit of knowledge. We shall then take up
+the duties which relate to the physical life and the feelings; next, the
+duties which arise in the family; after that the duties which we owe to
+all men; and lastly we will consider in an elementary way the civic
+duties.
+
+_The Duty of acquiring Knowledge._--In starting the discussion of any
+particular set of duties, it is advisable, as has been said, to present
+some concrete case, and biographical or historical examples are
+particularly useful. I have sometimes begun the lesson on the duty of
+acquiring knowledge by telling the story of Cleanthes and that of
+Hillel. Cleanthes, a poor boy, was anxious to attend the school of Zeno.
+But he was compelled to work for his bread, and could not spend his days
+in study as he longed to do. He was, however, so eager to learn that he
+found a way of doing his work by night. He helped a gardener to water
+his plants, and also engaged to grind corn on a hand-mill for a certain
+woman. Now the neighbors, who knew that he was poor, and who never saw
+him go to work, were puzzled to think how he obtained the means to live.
+They suspected him of stealing, and he was called before the Judge to
+explain. The Judge addressed him severely, and commanded him to tell the
+truth. Cleanthes requested that the gardener and the woman might be sent
+for, and they testified that he had been in the habit of working for
+them by night. The Judge was touched by his great zeal for knowledge,
+acquitted him of the charge, and offered him a gift of money. But Zeno
+would not permit him to take the gift. Cleanthes became the best pupil
+of Zeno, and grew up to be a very wise and learned man, indeed one of
+the most famous philosophers of the Stoic school. The story of Hillel
+runs as follows: There was once a poor lad named Hillel. His parents
+were dead, and he had neither relatives nor friends. He was anxious to
+go to school, but, though he worked hard, he did not earn enough to pay
+the tuition fee exacted at the door. So he decided to save money by
+spending only half his earnings for food. He ate little, and that little
+was of poor quality, but he was perfectly happy, because with what he
+laid aside he could now pay the door-keeper and find a place inside,
+where he might listen and learn. This he did for some time, but one day
+he was so unlucky as to lose his situation. He had now no money left to
+buy bread, but he hardly thought of that, so much was he grieved at the
+thought that he should never get back to his beloved school. He begged
+the door-keeper to let him in, but the surly man refused to do so. In
+his despair a happy thought occurred to him. He had noticed a skylight
+on the roof. He climbed up to this, and to his delight found that
+through a crack he could hear all that was said inside. So he sat there
+and listened, and did not notice that evening was coming on, and that
+the snow was beginning to fall. Next morning when the teachers and
+pupils assembled as usual, every one remarked how dark the room seemed.
+The sun too was shining again by this time quite brightly outside.
+Suddenly some one happened to look up and with an exclamation of
+surprise pointed out the figure of a boy against the skylight. Quickly
+they all ran outside, climbed to the roof, and there, covered with snow,
+quite stiff and almost dead, they found poor Hillel. They carried him
+indoors, warmed his cold limbs, and worked hard to restore him to life.
+He was at last resuscitated, and from this time on was allowed to attend
+the school without paying. Later he became a great teacher. He lived in
+Palestine at about the time of Jesus. He was admired for his learning,
+but even more for his good deeds and his unfailing kindness to every
+one. The question is now raised, Why did Cleanthes work at night instead
+of seeking rest, and why did Hillel remain outside in the bitter cold
+and snow? The pupils will readily answer, Because they loved knowledge.
+But why is knowledge so desirable? With this interrogatory we are fairly
+launched on the discussion of our subject. The points to be developed
+are these:
+
+First, knowledge is indispensable as a means of making one's way in the
+world. Show the helplessness of the ignorant. Compare the skilled
+laborer with the unskilled. Give instances of merchants, statesmen,
+etc., whose success was due to steady application and superior
+knowledge. Knowledge is power (namely, in the struggle for existence).
+
+Secondly, knowledge is honor. An ignorant person is despised. Knowledge
+wins us the esteem of our fellow-men.
+
+Thirdly, knowledge is joy in a twofold sense. As the perception of light
+to the eye of the body, so is the perception of truth to the eye of the
+mind. The mind experiences an intrinsic pleasure in seeing things in
+their true relations. Furthermore, mental growth is accompanied by the
+joy of successful effort. This can be explained even to a boy or girl of
+thirteen. Have you ever tried hard to solve a problem in algebra?
+Perhaps you have spent several hours over it. It has baffled you. At
+last, after repeated trials, you see your way clear, the solution is
+within your grasp. What a sense of satisfaction you experience then. It
+is the feeling of successful mental effort that gives you this
+satisfaction. You rejoice in having triumphed over difficulties, and the
+greater the difficulty, the more baffling and complex the problems, the
+greater is the satisfaction in solving them.
+
+Fourthly, knowledge enables us to do good to others. Speak of the use
+which physicians make of their scientific training to alleviate
+suffering and save life. Refer to the manifold applications of science
+which have changed the face of modern society, and have contributed so
+largely to the moral progress of the world. Point out that all true
+philanthropy, every great social reform, implies a superior grasp of the
+problems to be solved, as well as devotion to the cause of humanity. In
+accordance with the line of argument just sketched the rule for the
+pursuit of knowledge may be successively expanded as follows:
+
+Seek knowledge that you may succeed in the struggle for existence.
+
+Seek knowledge that you may gain the esteem of your fellow-men.
+
+Seek knowledge for the sake of the satisfaction which the attainment of
+it will give you.
+
+Seek knowledge that you may be able to do good to others.
+
+These points suffice for the present. In the advanced course we shall
+return to the consideration of the intellectual duties. I would also
+recommend that the moral teacher, not content with dwelling on the uses
+of knowledge in general, should go through the list of subjects which
+are commonly taught in school, such as geography, history, language,
+etc., and explain the value of each. This is too commonly neglected.
+
+Having stationed the duty of acquiring knowledge in the center, connect
+with it the various lesser duties of school life, such as punctual
+attendance, order, diligent and conscientious preparation of home
+lessons, etc. These are means to an end, and should be represented as
+such. He who desires the end will desire the means. Get your pupils to
+love knowledge, and the practice of these minor virtues will follow of
+itself. Other matters might be introduced in connection with what has
+been mentioned, but enough has been said to indicate the point of view
+from which the whole subject of intellectual duty should, as I think, be
+treated in the present course.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO THE PHYSICAL LIFE.
+
+
+Of the duties which relate to the physical life, the principal one is
+that of self-preservation, and this involves the prohibition of suicide.
+When one reflects on the abject life which many persons are forced to
+lead, on their poverty in the things which make existence desirable and
+the lack of moral stamina which often goes together with such
+conditions, the wonder is that the number of suicides is not much
+greater than it actually is. It is true most people cling to life
+instinctively, and have an instinctive horror of death. Nevertheless,
+the force of instinct is by no means a sufficient deterrent in all
+cases, and the number of suicides is just now alarmingly on the
+increase. If we were here considering the subject of suicide in general
+we should have to enter at large into the causes of this increase; we
+should have to examine the relations subsisting between the increase of
+suicide and the increase of divorce, and inquire into those pathological
+conditions of modern society of which both are the symptoms; but our
+business is to consider the ethics of the matter, not the causes. The
+ethics of suicide resolves itself into the question, Is it justifiable
+under any circumstances to take one's life? You may object that this is
+not a fit subject to discuss with pupils of thirteen or fourteen. Why
+not? They are old enough to understand the motives which ordinarily lead
+to suicide, and also the reasons which forbid it--especially the most
+important reason, namely, that we live not merely or primarily to be
+happy, but to help on as far as we can the progress of things, and
+therefore that we are not at liberty to throw life away like an empty
+shell when we have ceased to enjoy it. The discussion of suicide is
+indeed of the greatest use because it affords an opportunity early in
+the course of our lessons on duty to impress this cardinal truth, to
+describe upon the moral globe this great meridian from which all the
+virtues take their bearings. However, in accordance with the inductive
+method, we must approach this idea by degrees. The first position I
+should take is that while suffering is often temporary, suicide is
+final. It is folly to take precipitately a step which can not be
+recalled. Very often in moments of deep depression the future before us
+seems utterly dark, and in our firmament there appears not one star of
+hope; but presently from some wholly unexpected quarter help comes.
+Fortune once more takes us into her good graces, and we are scarcely
+able to understand our past downheartedness in view of the new happiness
+to which we have fallen heirs. Preserve thy life in view of the brighter
+chances which the future may have in store. This is a good rule as far
+as it goes, but it does not fit the more trying situations. For there
+are cases where the fall from the heights of happiness is as complete as
+it is sudden, and the hope of recovering lost ground is really shut out.
+
+Take from actual life the case of a husband who fairly idolized his
+young wife and lost her by death three months after marriage. We may
+suppose that in the course of years he will learn to submit to his
+destiny. We may even hope that peace will come back to his poor heart,
+but we can not imagine that he will ever again be happy. Another case is
+that of a person who has committed a great wrong, the consequences of
+which are irreparable, and of which he must carry the agonizing
+recollection with him to the grave. Time may assuage the pangs of
+remorse, and religion may comfort him, but happiness can never be the
+portion of such as he.
+
+Still another instance--less serious, but of more frequent
+occurrence--is that of a merchant who has always occupied a commanding
+position in the mercantile community, and who, already advanced in
+years, is suddenly compelled to face bankruptcy. The thought of the
+hardships to which his family will be exposed, of his impending
+disgrace, drives him nearly to distraction. The question is, would the
+merchant, would those others, be justified in committing suicide?
+Certainly not. The merchant, if he has the stuff of true manhood in him,
+will begin over again, at the bottom of the ladder if need be, will work
+to support his family, however narrowly. It would be the rankest
+selfishness in him to leave them to their fate. The conscience-stricken
+sinner must be willing to pay the penalty of his crime, to the end that
+he may be purified even seven times in the fire of repentance. And even
+the lover who has lost his bride will find, if he opens his eyes, that
+there is still work for him to do in life. The world is full of evils
+which require to be removed, full of burdens which require to be borne.
+If our own burden seems too heavy for us, there is a way of lightening
+it. We may add to it the burden of some one else, and ours will become
+lighter. Physically, this would be impossible, but morally it is true.
+The rule of conduct, therefore, thus far reads, Preserve thy life in
+order to perform thy share of the work of the world. But the formula,
+even in this shape, is not yet entirely adequate, for there are those
+who can not take part in the work of the world, who can only
+suffer--invalids, e. g., who are permanently incapacitated, and whose
+infirmities make them a constant drag on the healthy lives of their
+friends. Why should not these be permitted to put an end to their
+miseries? I should say that so long as there is the slightest hope of
+recovery, and even where this hope is wanting, so long as the physical
+pain is not so intense or so protracted as to paralyze the mental life
+altogether, they should hold out. They are not cut off from the true
+ends of human existence. By patient endurance, by the exercise of a
+sublime unselfishness, they may even attain on their sick-beds a height
+of spiritual development which would otherwise be impossible; and, in
+addition, they may become by their uncomplaining patience the sweetest,
+gentlest helpers of their friends, not useless, assuredly, but shining
+examples of what is best and noblest in human nature. The rule,
+therefore, should read: Preserve thy life in order to fulfill the duties
+of life, whether those duties consist in doing or in patiently
+suffering. As has been said long ago, we are placed on guard as
+sentinels. The sentinel must not desert his post. I think it possible to
+make the pupil in the grammar grade understand that suicide is selfish,
+that we are bound to live, even though life has ceased to be attractive,
+in order that we may perform our share of the world's work and help
+others and grow ourselves in moral stature. This does not, of course,
+imply any condemnation of that vast number of cases in which suicide is
+committed in consequence of mental aberration.
+
+In the advanced course we shall have to return to this subject, and
+shall there refer _in extenso_ to the views of the Stoics. The morality
+of the Stoic philosophers in general is so high, and their influence
+even to this day so great, that their defense, or rather enthusiastic
+praise of suicide,[16] needs to be carefully examined. I am of the
+opinion that we have here a case in which metaphysical speculation has
+had the effect of distorting morality. Metaphysics in this respect
+resembles religion. On the one hand the influence of religion on
+morality has been highly beneficial, on the other it has been hurtful in
+the extreme--instance human sacrifices, religious wars, the
+Inquisition, etc. In like manner, philosophy, though not to the same
+extent, has both aided morality and injured it. I regard the Stoic
+declamations on suicide as an instance of the latter sort. The Stoic
+philosophy was pantheistic. To live according to Nature was their
+principal maxim, or, more precisely, according to the reason in Nature.
+They maintained that in certain circumstances a man might find it
+impossible to live up to the rational standard; he might, for instance,
+discover himself to be morally so weak as to be unable to resist
+temptation, and in that case it would be better for him to retire from
+the scene and to seek shelter in the Eternal Reason, just as, to use
+their own simile, one who found the room in which he sat filled to an
+intolerable degree with smoke would not be blamed for withdrawing from
+it. It was their pantheism that led them to favor suicide, and in this
+respect it is my belief that the modern conscience, trained by the Old
+and New Testaments, has risen to a higher level than theirs. We moderns
+feel it impossible to admit that to the sane mind temptation can ever be
+so strong as to be truly irresistible. We always can resist if we will.
+We can, because we ought; as Kant has taught us to put it. We always can
+because we always ought.
+
+
+     NOTE.--Despite the rigorous disallowance of suicide in general
+     plainly indicated in the above, I should not wish to be understood
+     as saying that there are no circumstances whatever in which the
+     taking of one's life is permissible. In certain rare and
+     exceptional cases I believe it to be so. In the lecture as
+     delivered I attempted a brief description of these exceptional
+     cases, too brief, it appeared, to prevent most serious
+     misconception. I deem it best, therefore, to defer the expression
+     of my views on this delicate matter until an occasion arrives when
+     I shall be able to articulate my thought in full detail, such as
+     would here be impossible.
+
+
+From the commandment "Preserve thy life" it follows not only that we
+should not lay violent hands upon ourselves, but that we should do all
+in our power to develop and invigorate the body, in order that it may
+become an efficient instrument in the service of our higher aims. The
+teacher should inform himself on the subject of the gymnastic ideal of
+the Greeks and consider in how far this ideal is applicable to modern
+conditions. In general, the teacher should explore as fully as possible
+the ethical problems on which he touches. He should not be merely "one
+lesson ahead" of his pupils. Really it is necessary to grasp the whole
+of a subject before we can properly set forth its elements. A very
+thorough normal training is indispensable to those who would give moral
+instruction to the young.
+
+The duties of cleanliness and temperance fall under the same head as the
+above. In speaking of cleanliness, there are three motives--the
+egoistic, the æsthetic, and the moral--to which we may appeal. Be
+scrupulously clean for the sake of health, be clean lest you become an
+object of disgust to others, be clean in order to retain your
+self-respect. Special emphasis should be laid on secret cleanliness.
+Indolent children are sometimes neat in externals, but shockingly
+careless in what is concealed from view. The motive of self-respect
+shows itself particularly in secret cleanliness.
+
+The duty of temperance is supported by the same three motives.
+Intemperance undermines health, the glutton or the drunkard awakens
+disgust, intemperance destroys self-respect. To strengthen the
+repugnance of the pupils against intemperance in eating, contrast the
+way in which wild beasts eat with that in which human beings partake of
+their food. The beast is absorbed in the gratification of its appetite,
+eats without the use of implements, eats unsocially. The human way of
+eating is in each particular the opposite. Show especially that the act
+of eating is spiritualized by being made subservient to friendly
+intercourse and to the strengthening of the ties of domestic affection.
+The family table becomes the family altar. Call attention also to the
+effects of drunkenness; point out the injuries which the drunkard
+inflicts on wife and children by his neglect to provide for them, by the
+outbursts of violence to which he is subject under the influence of
+strong drink; describe his physical, mental, and moral degradation; lay
+stress on the fact that liquor deprives him of the use of his reason.
+With respect to temperance in food, there are one or two points to be
+noted. I say to my pupils if you are particularly fond of a certain
+dish, sweetmeats, for instance, make it a rule to partake less of that
+than if you were not so fond of it. This is good practice in
+self-restraint. I make out as strong a case as possible against the
+indulgence of the candy habit. Young people are not, as a rule, tempted
+to indulge in strong drink; but they are tempted to waste their money
+and injure their health by an excessive consumption of sweets. It is
+well to apply the lesson of temperance to the things in which they are
+tempted. For the teacher the following note may be added: Of the senses,
+some, like that of taste, are more nearly allied to the physical part of
+us; others, like sight and hearing, to our rational nature. This
+antithesis of the senses may be used in the interest of temperance.
+Appeal to the higher senses in order to subdue the lower. A band of
+kindergarten children, having been invited on a picnic, were given the
+choice between a second plate of ice cream, for which many of them were
+clamoring, and a bunch of flowers for each. Most of them were
+sufficiently interested in flowers to prefer the latter. In the case of
+young children, the force of the physical appetite may also be weakened
+by appealing to their affection. During the later stage of adolescence,
+when the dangers which arise from the awakening life of the senses
+become great and imminent, the attention should be directed to high
+intellectual aims, the social feelings should be cultivated, and a taste
+for the pleasures of the senses of sight and hearing--namely, the
+pleasures of music, painting, sculpture, etc.--should be carefully
+developed. Artistic, intellectual, and social motives should be brought
+into play jointly to meet the one great peril of this period of life.
+
+
+DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO THE FEELINGS.
+
+Under this head let me speak first of fear. There is a distinction to be
+drawn between physical and moral cowardice. Physical cowardice is a
+matter of temperament or organization. Perhaps it can hardly ever be
+entirely overcome, but the exhibition of it can be prevented by moral
+courage. Moral cowardice, on the other hand, is a fault of character. In
+attempting to formulate the rule of conduct, appeal as before to the
+egoistic motive, then to the social--i. e., the desire for the good
+opinion of others--and lastly to the moral motive, properly speaking.
+Fear paralyzes; it fascinates its victim like the fabled basilisk.
+Nothing is more common than a sense of helpless immobility under the
+influence of fear. There is a way of escape. You might run or leap for
+your life, but you can not stir a limb. What you need to do is to turn
+away your attention by a powerful effort of the will from the object
+which excites fear. So long as that object is before you the mind can
+not act; the mind is practically absent. What you need is presence of
+mind. Let the teacher adduce some of the many striking instances in
+which men in apparently desperate straits have been saved by presence of
+mind. The rule thus far would read: Be brave and suppress fear, because
+by so doing you may escape out of danger. In the next place, by so doing
+you will escape the reproaches of your fellow-men, for cowardice is
+universally condemned as shameful. Cite from Spartan history examples
+showing in the strongest light the feeling of scorn and contempt for the
+coward. There are, however, cases where death is certain, and where
+there is no support like that of public opinion to sustain courage. What
+should be the rule of duty in such cases? Take the case of a person who
+has been shipwrecked. He swims the sea alone, he is still clinging to a
+spar, but realizes that in a few minutes he must let go, his strength
+being well-nigh spent. What should be his attitude of mind in that
+supreme moment. The forces of nature are about to overwhelm him. What
+motive can there be strong enough to support bravery in that moment? The
+rule of duty for him would be: Be brave, because as a human being you
+are superior to the forces of nature, because there is something in
+you--your moral self--over which the forces of nature have no power,
+because what happens to you in your private character is not important,
+but it is important that you assert the dignity of humanity to the last
+breath.
+
+After having discussed courage, define fortitude. Point out the
+importance of strength of will. Contrast the strong will with the
+feeble, with the wayward, the irresolute, and also the obstinate will,
+for obstinacy is often the sign of weakness rather than of strength.
+See, for useful hints on this subject, Bain's The Emotions and the Will.
+
+What happens to thy little self is not important. This is the leading
+thought which shall also guide us in the discussion of _Anger_. In
+entering on the subject of anger begin by describing the effects of it.
+Quote the passage from Seneca's treatise on anger, showing how it
+disfigures the countenance. Point out that anger provokes anger in
+return, and is therefore contrary to self-interest. Call to your aid the
+social motive by showing that under the influence of anger we often
+overshoot the mark and inflict injuries on others which we had not
+intended. Finally, show that indulgence in anger is immoral. In what
+sense is it immoral? Anger is an emotional reaction against injury. When
+a child hurts its foot against a stone, it is often so unreasonably
+angry at the stone as to strike it. When an adult person receives a
+blow, his first impulse is to return it. This desire to return injury
+for injury is one of the characteristic marks of anger. Another mark is
+that anger is proportional to the injury received, and not to the fault
+implied. Every one knows that a slight fault in another may occasion a
+great injury to ourselves, while, on the other hand, a serious fault may
+only cause us a slight inconvenience. The angry person measures his
+resentment by the injury, and not by the fault. Anger is selfish. It is
+fed and pampered by the delusion that our pleasures and pains are of
+chief importance. Contrast with anger the moral feeling of indignation.
+Anger is directed against the injury received, indignation solely
+against the wrong done. The immoral feeling prompts us to hate wrong
+because it has been inflicted on us. The moral feeling prompts us to
+hate wrong because it is wrong. Now, to the extent that we sincerely
+hate wrong we shall be stirred up to diminish its power over others as
+well as over ourselves; we shall, for instance, be moved to save the
+evil doer who has just injured us from the tyranny of his evil nature;
+we shall aspire to become the moral physicians of those who have hurt
+us. And precisely because they have hurt us, they have a unique claim on
+us. We who know better than others the extent of their disease are
+called upon more than others to labor with a view to their cure. In this
+connection the rule of returning good for evil should be explained. This
+rule does not apply alike in all cases, though the spirit of it should
+always inspire our actions. If a pickpocket should steal our purse, it
+would be folly to hand him a check for twice the amount he has just
+stolen. If a hardened criminal should draw his knife and wound us in the
+back, it would be absurd to request him kindly to stab us in the breast
+also. We should in this case not be _curing_ him, but simply confirming
+him in his evil doing. The rule is: Try to free the sinner from the
+power of sin. In some cases this is best accomplished by holding his
+hand, as it were, and preventing him from carrying out the intended
+wrong. In other cases by depriving him of his liberty for a season,
+subjecting him to wholesome discipline, and teaching him habits of
+industry. Only in the case of those who have already attained a higher
+moral plane, and whose conscience is sensitive, does the rule of
+returning good for evil apply literally. If a brother has acted in an
+unbrotherly way toward you, do you on the next occasion act wholly in a
+brotherly way toward him. You will thereby show him how he ought to have
+acted and awaken the better nature in him.
+
+Certain practical rules for the control of anger may be given to the
+pupil. Suppress the signs of anger; you will thereby diminish its force.
+Try to gain time: "When you are angry, count ten before you speak; when
+you are very angry, count a hundred." Having gained time, examine
+rigorously into your own conduct. Ask yourself whether you have not been
+partly to blame. If you find that you have, then, instead of venting
+your wrath on your enemy, try rather to correct the fault which has
+provoked hostility. But if, after honest self-scrutiny, you are able to
+acquit yourself, then you can all the more readily act the part of the
+moral physician, for it is the innocent who find it easiest to forgive.
+It is also useful to cite examples of persons who, like Socrates, have
+exhibited great self-control in moments of anger; and to quote proverbs
+treating of anger, to explain these proverbs and to cause them to be
+committed to memory. I advise, indeed, that proverbs be used in
+connection with all the moral lessons. Of the manner in which they are
+to be used I shall speak later on.
+
+The last of the present group of duties which we shall discuss relates
+to the feelings of vanity, pride, humility. Vanity is a feeling of
+self-complacency based on external advantages. A person is vain of his
+dress or of his real or supposed personal charms. The peacock is the
+type of vanity. Though the admiration of others ministers to vanity, yet
+it is possible to be vain by one's self--before a mirror, for instance.
+The feeling of pride, on the other hand, depends upon a comparison
+between self and others. Pride implies a sense of one's own superiority
+and of the inferiority of others. Both feelings are anti-moral. They
+spring, like moral cowardice and anger, from the false belief that this
+little self of ours is of very great importance. There is no such thing
+as proper pride or honest pride. The word pride used in this connection
+is a misnomer. Vanity is spurious self-esteem based on external
+advantages. Pride is spurious self-esteem based on comparison with
+others. Genuine self-esteem is based on the consciousness of a
+distinction which we share with all humanity--namely, the capacity and
+the duty of rational development. This genuine self-esteem has two
+aspects--the one positive, the other negative. The positive aspect is
+called dignity, the negative humility. True dignity and true humility
+always go together. The sense of dignity arises within us when we
+remember the aims to which as human beings we are pledged; the sense of
+humility can not fail to arise when we consider how infinitely in
+practice we all fall below those aims. Thus while pride depends on a
+comparison of ourselves with others, the genuinely moral feeling is
+excited when we consider our relation to the common ends of mankind. On
+the one hand, we are indeed privileged to pursue those ends, and are
+thereby exalted above all created things and above the whole of the
+natural world with all its stars and suns. Upon this consideration is
+founded the sense of dignity. On the other hand, we can not but own how
+great is the distance which separates even the best of us from the goal,
+and this gives rise to a deep sense of humility. The rule of conduct
+which we are considering is a rule of proper self-estimation. Estimate
+thy worth not by external advantages nor by thy pre-eminence above
+others, but by the degree of energy with which thou pursuest the moral
+aims. To mark off the distinction between vanity and pride on the one
+hand and dignity on the other, the teacher may contrast in detail the
+lives of Alcibiades and Socrates.
+
+In connection with the discussion of anger and of pride, define such
+terms as hate, envy, malice. Hatred is anger become chronic. Or we may
+also say the state of mind which leads to passionate paroxysms in the
+case of anger is called hate when it has turned into a settled inward
+disposition. In other respects the characteristic marks of both are the
+same. Envy is the obverse of pride. Pride is based on real or fancied
+superiority to others. Envy is due to real or fancied inferiority. Pride
+is the vice of the strong, envy of the weak. Malice is pleasure in the
+loss of others irrespective of our gain.
+
+I have observed on a previous occasion that the feelings considered by
+themselves have no moral value. Nevertheless, we have now repeatedly
+spoken of moral feelings. The apparent contradiction disappears if we
+remember that all feelings of the higher order presuppose, and are the
+echo of complex systems of ideas. The moral feelings are those in which
+moral ideas have their resonance; and those feelings are valuable in
+virtue of the ideas which they reflect. The feeling of moral courage
+depends on the idea that the injuries we receive at the hands of fortune
+are not important, but that it is important for us to do credit to our
+rational nature. The feeling of moral indignation depends on the idea
+that the injuries we receive from our fellow-men are not important, but
+that it is important that the right be done and the wrong abated. The
+feelings of moral dignity and humility combined depend on the idea that
+it does not signify whether the shadow we cast in the world of men be
+long or short, but only that we live in the light of the moral aims.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[16] See, e. g., the famous passage in Seneca, De Ira, iii, 15.
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO OTHERS.
+
+
+FILIAL DUTIES.
+
+We began our course of moral instruction with the self-regarding duties,
+and assigned the second place to the duties which relate to others.
+There is an additional reason besides the one already given for keeping
+to this order.
+
+If we were to begin with the commandments or prohibitions which relate
+to others--e. g., the sixth, eighth, and ninth commandments of the
+Decalogue--the pupil might easily get the impression that these things
+are forbidden solely because they involve injuries to others, but that
+in cases where the injury is inconsiderable, or not apparent, the
+transgression of moral commandments is more or less excusable. There are
+many persons who seem unable to understand that it is really sinful to
+defraud the custom-house or to neglect paying one's fare in a horse-car.
+And why? Because the injury inflicted seems so insignificant. Now, it is
+of the utmost consequence to impress upon the pupil that every action
+which involves a violation of duty to others at the same time produces a
+change in the moral quality of the agent, that he suffers as well as the
+one whom he wrongs. The subjective and objective sides of transgression
+can not in point of principle and ought not in actual consciousness to
+be separated. If, therefore, we begin by enforcing such duties as
+temperance the pupil will at once feel that the violation of the law
+changes his inward condition, degrades him in his own eyes, lowers him
+in the scale of being. The true standpoint from which all moral
+transgression should be regarded will thus be gained at the outset, and
+it will be comparatively easy to maintain the same point of view when we
+come to speak of the social duties.
+
+To start discussion on the subject of the filial duties, relate the
+story of Æneas carrying his aged father, Anchises, out of burning Troy;
+also the story of Cleobis and Bito (Herodotus, i, 31). Recall the
+devotion of Telemachus to Ulysses. Tell the story of Lear and his
+daughters, contrasting the conduct of Regan and Goneril with that of
+Cordelia. An excellent story to tell, especially to young children, is
+that of Dama. Æneas and Telemachus illustrate the filial spirit as
+expressed in services rendered to parents, but opportunity to be of real
+service to parents is not often offered to the very young. The story of
+Dama exhibits the filial spirit as displayed in acts of delicacy and
+consideration, and such acts are within the power of all children. The
+story is located in Palestine, and is supposed to have occurred at the
+time when the temple at Jerusalem was still standing. Dama was a dealer
+in jewels, noted for possessing the rarest and richest collection
+anywhere to be found. It happened that it became necessary to replace a
+number of the precious stones on the breastplate of the high priest, and
+a deputation was sent from Jerusalem to wait on Dama and to select from
+his stock what was needed. Dama received his distinguished visitors with
+becoming courtesy, and on learning their mission spread out before them
+a large number of beautiful stones. But none of these were satisfactory.
+The stones must needs be of extraordinary size and brilliancy. None but
+such might be used. When Dama was informed of this he reflected a
+moment, then said that in a room occupied by his old father there was a
+cabinet in which he kept his most precious gems, and that among them he
+was sure he could find what his visitors wanted. He bade them delay a
+few moments, while he made the necessary search. But presently he
+returned without the jewels. He expressed the greatest regret, but
+declared that it was impossible to oblige them. They were astonished,
+and, believing it to be a mere trader's trick, offered him an immense
+price for the stones. He answered that he was extremely sorry to miss so
+profitable a transaction, but that it was indeed beyond his power to
+oblige them now--if they would return in an hour or two he could
+probably suit them. They declared that their business admitted of no
+delay; that the breastplate must be repaired at once, so that the priest
+might not be prevented from discharging his office. And so he allowed
+them to depart. It appears that when Dama opened the door of the room
+he saw his old father asleep on the couch. He tried to enter
+noiselessly, but the door creaked on its hinges, and the old man started
+in his sleep. Dama checked himself, and turned back. He said, "I will
+forego the gain which they offer me, but I will not disturb the slumbers
+of my father." The sleep of the old father was sacred to Dama. Children
+are often thoughtless in breaking noisily into a room where father or
+mother is resting. Such a story tends to instill the lesson of
+consideration and of reverence.
+
+Reverence is the key-note of filial duty. You will remember that Goethe,
+in Wilhelm Meister, in those chapters in which he sketches his
+pedagogical ideal, bases the entire religious and moral education of the
+young on a threefold reverence. He applies the following symbolism: The
+pupils of the ideal pedagogical institution are required to take, on
+different occasions, three different attitudes. Now they fold their arms
+on their breast, and look with open countenance upward; again they fold
+their arms on their backs, and their bright glances are directed toward
+the earth; and again they stand in a row, and their faces are turned to
+the right, each one looking at his neighbor. These three attitudes are
+intended to symbolize reverence toward what is above us, toward what is
+beneath us, and toward our equals. These three originate and culminate
+in the true self-reverence. In speaking of filial duty, we are concerned
+with reverence toward what is above us. The parent is the physical,
+mental, and moral superior of the child. It is his duty to assist the
+child's physical, mental, and moral growth; to lift it by degrees out of
+its position of inferiority, so that it may attain the fullness of its
+powers, and help to carry on the mission of mankind when the older
+generation shall have retired from the scene. The duty of the superior
+toward the inferior is to help him to rise above the plane of
+inferiority. The receptive and appreciative attitude of one who is thus
+helped is called reverence. But we must approach the nature of parental
+duty more closely, and the following reflections may put us in the way:
+No man can attain the intellectual aims of life without assistance. A
+scientist inhabiting a desert island and limited to his own mental
+resources could make little headway. The scientist of to-day utilizes
+the accumulated labors of all the generations of scientists that have
+preceded him, and depends for the value of his results on the
+co-operation and the sifting criticism of his contemporaries. And as no
+one can get much knowledge without the help of others, so no one is
+justified in seeking knowledge for his own private pleasure, or in
+seeking the kind of knowledge that happens to pique his vanity. For
+instance, it is a violation of intellectual duty to spend one's time in
+acquiring out-of-the way erudition which is useful only for display. The
+pursuit of knowledge is a public not a private end. Every scholar and
+man of science is bound to enlarge as far as he can the common stock of
+truth, to add to the scientific possessions of the human race. But in
+order to do this he must question himself closely, that he may discover
+in what direction his special talent lies, and may apply himself
+sedulously to the cultivation of that. For it is by specializing his
+efforts that he can best serve the general interests of truth. The same
+holds good with respect to the pursuit of social ends--e. g., the
+correction of social abuses and the promotion of social justice. The
+reformer of to-day stands on the shoulders of all the reformers of the
+past, and would have little prospect of success in any efforts he may
+make without the co-operation and criticism of numerous co-workers. Nor,
+again, is it right for him to take up any and every project of reform
+that may happen to strike his fancy. He ought rather to consider what
+particular measures under existing circumstances are most likely to
+advance the cause of progress, and in what capacity he is specially
+fitted to promote such measures. Justice and truth are public, not
+private ends. The highest aim of life for each one is to offer that
+contribution which he, as an individual, is peculiarly fitted to make
+toward the attainment of the public ends of mankind. The individual when
+living only for himself, absorbed in his private pleasures and pains, is
+a creature of little worth; and his existence is of little more account
+in the scheme of things than that of the summer insects, who have their
+day and perish. But the individual become the organ of humanity acquires
+a lasting worth, and his individuality possesses an inviolable sanctity.
+The sacredness of individuality in the sense just indicated is a
+leading idea of ethics--perhaps it would not be too much to say, the
+leading idea.
+
+And now we can state more exactly the nature of parental duty. It is the
+duty of the parent, remembering that he is the guardian of the permanent
+welfare of his child, to respect, to protect, to develop its
+individuality--above all, to discover its individual bent; for that is
+often latent, and requires to be persistently searched out. It is the
+duty and the privilege of the parent to put the child, as it were, in
+possession of its own soul.
+
+And upon this relationship filial reverence is founded, and from it the
+principal filial duties may be deduced. Because the child does not know
+what is best for it, in view of its destiny, as described above, it is
+bound to obey. Obedience is the first of the filial duties. Secondly,
+the child is bound to show gratitude for the benefits received at the
+hands of its parents. The teacher should discuss with his pupils the
+principal benefits conferred by parents. The parents supply the child
+with food, shelter, and raiment; they nurse it in sickness, often
+sacrificing sleep, comfort, and health for its sake. They toil in order
+that it may want nothing; they give it, in their fond affection, the
+sweet seasoning of all their other gifts. It is well to bring these
+facts distinctly before the pupil's mind. The teacher can do it with a
+better grace than the parent himself. The teacher can strengthen and
+deepen the home feeling, and it is his office to do so. The pupil
+should go home from his moral lesson in school and look upon his parents
+with a new realization of all that he owes them, with a new and deeper
+tenderness. But the duty of gratitude should be based, above all, upon
+the greatest gift which the child obtains from his parents, the help
+which it receives toward attaining the moral aim of its existence.
+
+I do not include the commandment "Love thy parents" among the rules of
+filial duty, for I do not think that love can be commanded. Love follows
+of itself if the right attitude of reverence, obedience, gratitude be
+observed. Love is the sense of union with another. And the peculiarity
+of filial love, whereby it is distinguished from other kinds of love, is
+that it springs from union with persons on whom we utterly depend, with
+moral superiors, to whom we owe the fostering of our spiritual as well
+as of our physical existence.
+
+But how shall the sentiment of filial gratitude express itself?
+Gratitude is usually displayed by a return of the kindness received. But
+the kindness which we receive from parents is such that we can never
+repay it. It is of the nature of a debt which we can never hope fully to
+cancel. We can do this much--when our parents grow old, we can care for
+them, and smooth the last steps that lead to the grave. And when we
+ourselves have grown to manhood and womanhood, and have in turn become
+parents, we can bestow upon our own offspring the same studious and
+intelligent care which our parents, according to the light they had,
+bestowed on us, and thus ideally repay them by doing for others what
+they did for us. But this is a point which concerns only adults. As for
+young children, they can show their gratitude in part by slight
+services, delicacies of behavior, the chief value of which consists in
+the sentiment that inspires them, but principally by a willing
+acceptance of parental guidance, and by earnest efforts in the direction
+of their own intellectual and moral improvement. There is no love so
+unselfish as parental love. There is nothing which true parents have
+more at heart than the highest welfare of their children. There is no
+way in which a child can please father and mother better than by doing
+that which is for its own highest good. The child's progress in
+knowledge and in moral excellence are to every parent the most
+acceptable tokens of filial gratitude. And this leads me to an important
+point, to which reference has already been made. It has been stated that
+each period of life has its distinct set of duties; furthermore, that in
+each period there is one paramount duty, around which the others may be
+grouped; and, lastly, that at each successive stage it is important to
+reach backward and to bring the ethical system of the preceding period
+into harmony with the new system. Of this last point we are now in a
+position to give a simple illustration. The paramount duty of the school
+period is to acquire knowledge; the paramount duty of the previous
+period is to reverence parents. But, as has just been shown, reverence
+toward parents at this stage is best exhibited by conscientious study,
+and thus the two systems are merged into one.[17]
+
+
+THE FRATERNAL DUTIES.
+
+Thus much concerning the filial relations. We pass on to speak of the
+fraternal duties; the duties of brothers to brothers and sisters to
+sisters; of brothers to sisters and conversely; of older to younger
+brothers and sisters and conversely. The fraternal duties are founded
+upon the respect which equals owe to equals. The brotherly relation is
+of immense pedagogic value, inasmuch as it educates us for the
+fulfillment later on of our duties toward all equals, be they kinsmen or
+not. As between brothers, the respect of each for the rights of the
+other is made comparatively easy by natural inclination. The tie of
+blood, close and constant association in the same house, common
+experience of domestic pleasures and sorrows--all this tends to link the
+hearts of the brothers together, and thus the first lessons in one of
+the hardest duties are given by Love, the gentlest of school-masters.
+But the word equality must not be misconceived. Equality is not to be
+taken in its mathematical sense. One brother is gifted and may
+eventually rise to wealth and fame, another is Nature's step-child; one
+sister is beautiful, another the opposite. If the idea of equality be
+pressed to a literal meaning, it is sure to give rise to ugly feelings
+in the hearts of the less fortunate. How, then, shall we define equality
+in the moral sense? A superior, as we have seen, renders services which
+the inferior can not adequately return. Equals are those who are so far
+on the same level as to be capable of rendering mutual services, alike
+in importance, though not necessarily the same in kind. Equals are
+correlative to one another. The services of each are complementary to
+those of the other. The idea of _mutual service_, therefore, is
+characteristic of the relation of brothers, and the rule of duty may be
+formulated simply, Serve one another. From this follow all the minor
+commands and prohibitions which are usually impressed upon children,[18]
+and also the far loftier counsels which apply only to adults.
+
+It will be perceived that the rule of mutual service, when carried to
+its highest applications, presupposes the principle of individual
+differentiation, to which we have already attached so much weight. This
+principle is fundamental to fraternal as well as to paternal and filial
+duty. For precisely to the extent that brothers are distinctly
+individualized can they supplement each other and correlate their
+mutual services. One can not indeed overlook the patent fact that
+brothers who are unlike in nature frequently repel each other, and that
+in such cases the very closeness of the relation often becomes a source
+of extreme irritation, and even of positive agony. But, on the other
+hand, there is no surer sign of moral ripeness than the ability to enter
+into, to understand, to appreciate a nature totally unlike one's own,
+and thus to some extent to appropriate its excellences. The very fact,
+therefore, that we at first feel ourselves repelled should be taken as a
+hint that this natural repulsion is to be overcome. For every type of
+character needs its opposite to correct it. The idealist, for instance,
+needs the realist, if he would keep his balance. And our uncongenial
+brothers, precisely because they are at first uncongenial, if we will
+but remember that they are, after all, our brothers, and that it is our
+duty to come into harmonious relations with them, can best help us to
+this fine self-conquest, this true enrichment and enlargement of our
+moral being.
+
+A word may be added as a caution to parents and teachers. The way to
+create brotherly feeling among the young is to treat them impartially,
+to love them with an equal love. Those who love and are beloved by the
+same person are strongly induced to love one another. In the next place,
+when disputes arise, as is perhaps unavoidable, the parent or teacher
+should, as a rule, enter patiently into the cause and not cut off
+inquiry because the whole matter seems trivial. The subject matter of
+the dispute may be insignificant enough, but the satisfaction of the
+sense of justice of the young is of the greatest significance. When the
+sense of justice is outraged, be the cause never so trivial, a feeling
+of distrust against the parent is generated, and of incipient hatred
+against the brother who may have provoked the unjust decision.
+
+I have yet to speak of the duties of older to younger brothers and
+sisters. If it is difficult to serve two masters, it is hardly pleasant
+to be asked to serve half a dozen. The youngest children in a large
+family are often placed in this position. There is, in the first place,
+the authority of the parents, which must be respected; then, in
+addition, each of the grown-up sons and daughters is apt to try to
+exercise a little authority on his or her own account. The younger ones
+naturally resent this petty despotism, and disobedience and angry
+recriminations are the unpleasant consequences. It is often necessary
+that elder sons and daughters should have partial charge of the younger.
+They can in all cases make their authority acceptable by representing it
+as delegated, by having it understood that they regard themselves merely
+as substitutes in the parents' place. There must be unity of influence
+in the home, or else the moral development of the young will be sadly
+interfered with. There must be only a single center of authority,
+represented by the parents, and all minor exercise of authority should
+be referred back to that center. "Father and mother wish me to help
+you"; "Father and mother will be pleased if you do so and so; let me
+try to show you how"--if the method of management implied in such words
+as these be adopted, the younger children will look upon the elder as
+their friends and be glad to accept advice and direction.
+
+Lastly, a word about the relation between brothers and sisters, and
+conversely. This relationship is qualified by the difference of sex. A
+certain chivalry characterizes the attitude of the brother toward the
+sister, a certain motherliness that of the sister toward the brother.
+The relation may be and often is a very beautiful one. The peculiar
+moral responsibility connected with it is that the sister is usually the
+first woman whom the brother knows at all intimately and as an equal,
+and that his notions of womanhood are largely influenced by the traits
+which he sees in her, while the brother is usually the first man whom
+the sister knows as a companion, and her ideas of men are colored by
+what she sees in him.
+
+To illustrate the fraternal relation I have been in the habit of
+recalling the stories from the Old Testament which bear upon this
+subject. I have also given an account of the life of the brothers Jacob
+and William Grimm. There was only a year's difference between them.
+Jacob Grimm, in the eulogy on William, which he delivered before the
+Berlin Academy in the year 1860, says: "During the slowly creeping years
+of our school life we slept in the same bed and occupied the same room.
+There we sat at one and the same table studying our lessons. Later on
+there were two tables and two beds in the same room; and later still,
+during the entire period of our riper manhood, we still continued to
+occupy two adjoining rooms, always under the same roof." All their
+property, and even their books, they held in common; what belonged to
+the one belonged to the other. They visited the university together in
+the same year; they both took up, in deference to their mother's wish,
+the same study, that of the law, which they alike hated, and then they
+turned in common to the study of philology, in which both delighted and
+both achieved such great distinction. They published their first
+important works in the same year; and as they slept together in the same
+bed when they were children, so now they sleep side by side in the
+grave.
+
+I refer to the story of Lear and his daughters to show that the common
+love for the parents is necessary to sustain the love of brothers and
+sisters toward one another. Lear had estranged the affection of Goneril
+and Regan through his partiality for Cordelia. The two women, who had no
+love for their father, hated each other; and Goneril, who was the first
+to cast him out, poisoned her sister.
+
+To illustrate the relations of brothers to sisters, I give an account of
+the beautiful lives of Charles and Mary Lamb. To show the redeeming
+power of womanhood as represented in a sister, I explain to older
+pupils the story which underlies Goethe's drama of Iphigenia. Orestes is
+sick; and what is his malady? His soul has been poisoned by remorse.
+Believing himself to be the executive arm of justice, he committed a
+great crime, and now he is torn by the pangs of conscience, and his mind
+is forever dwelling on that scene in which he was a fatal actor. And how
+does Iphigenia heal him? She heals him by the clear truthfulness of her
+nature, which the play is designed to bring out. With the light of
+genuine womanhood which emanates from her she illuminates anew his
+darkened path. By the force of the good which he learns to recognize in
+her he is led to a new trust in the redeeming power of the good in
+himself, and thus to start out afresh in a life of courage, hope, and
+active effort. The teacher should analyze and cause to be committed to
+memory the various beautiful proverbs which bear upon the subject of
+fraternal duty.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] It may also be pointed out to the pupil that a part of the task of
+intellectual and moral training, which originally belongs entirely to
+the parents, has by them been intrusted to the teachers, and that
+something of the reverence which belongs to the former is now due to the
+latter.
+
+[18] Do not quarrel over your respective rights; rather be more eager to
+secure the rights of your brother than your own. Do not triumph in your
+brother's disgrace or taunt him with his failings, but rather seek to
+build up his self-respect. Help one another in your tasks, etc.
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+DUTIES TOWARD ALL MEN.
+
+
+JUSTICE AND CHARITY.
+
+JUSTICE.--The subject of justice is a difficult one to treat. Justice in
+the legal sense is to be distinguished from justice in the moral sense.
+We are concerned only with the latter. How much of it can we hope to
+include in such a course of instruction as this? We can, I think,
+explain the essential principle and give a few of its most important
+applications. What is this principle? Human society is an organism, and
+the perfection of it depends upon the degree to which the parts related
+are differentiated. Unity of organization is the end, differentiation is
+the means. The serving of universal ends is the aim, the emphasizing of
+individuality the means. The principle which underlies the laws of
+justice I take to be respect for individuality of others. And this may
+be expressed in the rule, Respect the individuality of every human
+being. It might, indeed, appear at first sight as if justice had to do
+only with those points in which all men are alike, and took no notice of
+the differences that subsist between them. Thus justice enjoins respect
+for the life of others; and in regard to this all men are exactly on a
+par, all men are equally entitled to live. But justice also commands us
+to respect the convictions of others, however different they may be from
+our own. And it is but a finer sense of justice which keeps us from
+intruding on the privacy of others, which leads us to show a proper
+consideration for the ways and idiosyncrasies of others, and in general
+to refrain from encroaching on the personality of others. The principle
+of justice may also be expressed in the rule, Do not interfere with the
+individual development of any one.
+
+
+APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE.--
+
+1. _Do not kill._ By taking away the life of a human being we should of
+course cut off all chance of that person's further development. This
+requires no comment. But certain casuistical questions arise in
+connection with this command. Is it right to kill another in
+self-defense? The difficulty involved might be put in this way: A
+burglar breaks into your house by night and threatens to kill you. You
+have a weapon at hand and can save yourself by killing him. Now it is
+evident that one of two lives must be taken. But would it not be more
+moral on your part to say: I, at least, will not break the commandment.
+I would rather be killed than kill? This question serves to show to what
+absurdities a purely formal principle in ethics can lead, as we have
+already seen in the discussion of truthfulness. The problem of the duel
+and that of the taking of the life of others in war also belong under
+this head, but will be reserved for the advanced course.
+
+2. _Respect the personal liberty of others._ Slavery, under whatever
+form, is an outrage on justice. The slave is degraded to be the mere
+instrument of his master's profit or pleasure. Let the teacher point out
+in what particulars the slave is wronged, and show the evil effects of
+the institution of slavery on the character of the master as well as of
+the slave. Question--Is it right to speak of wage-slavery, for instance,
+in cases where the hours of labor are so prolonged as to leave no time
+for higher interests, or where the relations of the laborer to his
+employer are such as to impair his moral independence?
+
+3. _Respect the property of others._ Unless we are careful we may at
+this point commit a grave wrong. Upon what moral considerations shall
+the right of property be based? The school, especially the moral lessons
+which are imparted in it, should certainly not be placed in the service
+of vested interests. On the other hand, the school should not fill the
+pupils' minds with economic theories, which they are incapable of
+understanding, and of which the truth, the justice, the feasibility are
+still hotly disputed. We are therefore taking a very responsible step in
+introducing the idea of property at all into our moral lessons. And yet
+it is too great and important to be ignored. Some writers have advanced
+the theory that the right in question rests on labor, and they regard it
+as a self-evident proposition, one which, therefore, might safely be
+taught to the young, that every person is entitled to the products of
+his labor. Jules Simon says (see Paul Janet, Elements of Morals, English
+translation, p. 66): "This earth was worth nothing and produced
+nothing. I dug the soil, I brought from a distance fertilizing earth; it
+is now fertile. This fertility is my work; by fertilizing it, I made it
+mine." American writers have eloquent passages to the same effect. But
+this proposition certainly does not appear to me self-evident, nor even
+true. Chiefly for the reason that "my labor" and "my skill" are not
+original, but derivative factors in production. They are very largely
+the result of the labor and the skill of generations that have preceded
+me, that have built up in me this brain, this skill, this power of
+application. The products of my labor would indeed belong to me if my
+labor were really mine, if it were not to an incalculable extent the
+consequent of social antecedents, in regard to which I can not claim the
+least merit. The attempt to found the rewards of labor upon the merit of
+the laborer seems to me a perfectly hopeless one.
+
+Let me add that it is one thing to say that he who will not work shall
+not eat, and a very different thing to say that he who works shall enjoy
+what he has produced. The former statement merely signifies that he who
+will not contribute his share toward sustaining and improving human
+society is not entitled to any part in the advantages of the social
+order, though the charity of his fellow-men may grant him, under certain
+conditions and in the hope of changing his disposition, what he is not
+entitled to as of right. But the question what the share of the laborer
+ought to be is one that can not be settled in the rough-and-ready
+manner above suggested, and the considerations involved are, in truth,
+far too numerous and complex to be introduced at this stage. The whole
+question will be reopened later on. For the present it must suffice to
+state certain purely moral considerations on which the right of property
+may be made to rest. The following are the ideas which I should seek to
+develop: Property is justified by its uses. Its uses are to support the
+existence and promote the mental and moral growth of man. The physical
+life itself depends on property. Even in a communistic state the food
+any one eats must be his property in the sense that every one else is
+debarred from using it. The moral life of men depends on property. The
+moral life is rooted in the institution of the family, and the family
+could not exist without a separate domicile of its own and the means of
+providing for its dependent members. The independence and the growth of
+the intellect depend on property. In short, property is an indispensable
+adjunct of _personality_. This I take to be its moral basis. What I here
+indicate, however, is an ideal right which the existing state of society
+by no means reflects. By what methods we may best approach this ideal,
+whether by maintaining and improving the system of private property in
+land or by state ownership, whether by capitalistic or socialistic
+production, etc., are questions of means, not of ends, and raise
+problems in social science with which here we have not to deal.
+
+Question--If the present social arrangements are not morally
+satisfactory, if e. g., certain persons possess property to which on
+moral grounds they are not entitled, should not the commandment against
+stealing be suspended so far as they are concerned? The present system
+of rights, imperfect as it is, is the result of social evolution, and
+denotes the high-water mark of the average ethical consciousness of the
+world up to date. Respect for the existing system of rights, however,
+imperfect as it is, is the prime condition of obtaining a better system.
+
+4. _Respect the mental liberty of others._ Upon this rule of justice is
+founded the right to freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and what
+is called the freedom of conscience. Point out the limitations of these
+various rights which follow from the fact of their universality.
+
+5. _Respect the reputation of your fellow-men._ Refrain from backbiting
+and slander. Bridle your tongue. This undoubtedly is a rule of justice.
+"Who steals my purse steals trash," etc. The respect of our fellow-men
+is in itself a source of happiness and a moral prop, and, besides, the
+greatest help in achieving the legitimate purposes of life. He who has
+the confidence of others has wings to bear him along. He who is
+suspected for any reason, true or false, strikes against invisible
+barriers at every step. Nothing is so sensitive as character--a mere
+breath may tarnish it. It is therefore the gravest kind of injury to our
+neighbors to disseminate damaging rumors, to throw out dark hints and
+suggestions with respect to them, to impugn their motives. But is it
+not a duty to denounce evil and evil-doers and to put the innocent on
+their guard against wolves in sheep's clothing? Yes, if we are sure that
+our own motives are perfectly disinterested, that we are not in the
+least prompted by personal spite or prejudice. For if we dislike a
+person, as every one knows, we can not judge him fairly, we are prone to
+attribute to him all manner of evil qualities and evil intents which
+exist only in our own jaundiced imagination. Very often a person against
+whom we had at first conceived a distinct dislike proves on nearer
+acquaintance to be one whom we can esteem and even love. We should be
+warned by such experiences to hold our judgments in suspense, and not to
+allow injurious words to pass the lips. The vast moral importance of
+being able to hold one's tongue, the golden resources of silence, should
+be emphasized by the teacher.
+
+A series of lessons on good manners may be introduced at this point. The
+ceremonies of social intercourse, the various forms in which refined
+people show their deference for each other, the rule not to obtrude self
+in conversation, and the like, are so many illustrations of the respect
+which we owe to the personality of our fellow-men. Good manners are the
+æsthetic counterpart of good morals, and the connection between the two
+can easily be made plain.
+
+6. _Speak the truth._ Inward truthfulness is a self-regarding duty;
+social truthfulness is a form of justice. Words represent facts. The
+words we speak to our neighbor are used by him as building-stones in
+the architecture of his daily conduct. We have no right to defeat the
+purposes of his life, to weaken the dwelling he is erecting, by
+supplying him with worthless building material.
+
+Upon exactly the same ground is based the duty of keeping one's
+promises, viz., that our fellow-men build on our promises. Promises made
+in a legal form are called contracts and can be enforced. Promises not
+made in legal form are equally binding from a moral point of view. It
+should be borne in mind, however, that conditional promises are canceled
+when the stipulated conditions do not occur, and, furthermore, that
+there are certain tacit conditions implied in all promises whatsoever. A
+person who has promised to visit a friend on a certain day and dies in
+the interval is not supposed to have broken his promise; nor if any one
+makes a similar promise and a heavy snowstorm should block the roads or
+if he should be confined to his bed by sickness is he likely to be
+accused of breaking his promise. The physical possibility of fulfilling
+them is a tacit condition in all promises. It is also a tacit condition
+in all promises that it shall be morally possible or consistent with
+morality to keep them. A young man who has promised to join a gang of
+burglars in an attack on a bank and who repents at the last moment is
+morally justified in refusing to keep his pledge. His crime consisted in
+having made the promise in the first place, not in refusing to fulfill
+it at the last moment. A person, however, who promises to pay usurious
+interest on a loan of money and who then takes advantage of the laws
+against usury to escape payment is a double-dyed rogue, for his
+intention is to cheat, and he uses the cloak of virtue as a screen in
+order to cheat with impunity. Let the teacher discuss the casuistical
+question whether it is right to keep a promise made to robbers--e. g.,
+if we should fall into the hands of brigands, and they should make it a
+condition of our release that we shall not betray their hiding-place.
+
+Justice is based on positive respect for the individuality of others,
+but its commands may all be expressed in the negative form: Do not kill,
+do not infringe the liberty, the property of others, do not slander, do
+not lie, etc. It is often held, however, that there is a positive as
+well as a negative side to justice, and the two sides are respectively
+expressed in the formulas: Neminem laede and suum cuique--Hurt no one
+and give every one his due. Of positive or distributive justice we meet
+with such examples as the following: In awarding a prize the jury is
+bound in justice to give the award in favor of the most deserving
+competitor. The head of a department in filling a vacancy is bound in
+justice to avoid favoritism, to promote that one of his subordinates who
+deserves promotion, etc. But it seems to me that this distinction is
+unimportant. Give to each one his due is tantamount to Do not deprive
+any one of what is due him. If the prize or the place belongs to A we
+should, by withholding it from him, invade the rights of A as much as
+if we took money out of his purse. The commands are negative, but the
+virtue implied is positive enough, because it depends on positive
+respect for human nature. Do not infringe upon the sacred territory of
+another's personality is the rule of justice in all cases.
+
+CHARITY.--How shall we distinguish charity from justice? It is said that
+every one is justified in claiming from others what belongs to him as a
+matter of right, but that no one can exact charity. The characteristic
+mark of charity is supposed to be that it is freely given. But if I
+happen to be rich and can afford to supply the need of another am I not
+morally bound to do so, and has not my indigent neighbor a real claim
+upon me? Again, it has been said that the term justice is applied to
+claims which are capable of being formulated in general rules and
+imposed alike on all men in their dealings with one another, while in
+the case of charity both the measure and the object of it are to be
+freely determined by each one. We are free, according to this view, to
+decide whether a claim upon us exists or not; but, the claim once having
+been admitted, it is as binding upon us as any of the demands of
+justice. But, while this is true, I hold that nevertheless there exists
+a clear distinction between the virtues of justice and charity. We owe
+justice to our equals, charity to our inferiors. The word "inferior" is
+to be understood in a carefully limited sense. An employer owes his
+workmen, as a matter of justice, the wages he has agreed to pay. Though
+they may be socially his inferiors, in regard to this transaction they
+are his equals. They have agreed to render him certain services and he
+has agreed to return them an equivalent.
+
+Justice says Do not hinder the development of others; Charity says
+Assist the development of others. The application of the rule of charity
+will make its meaning clear.
+
+1. Justice says do not destroy life; Charity says save life. Rescue from
+the flames the inmates of a burning house; leap into the waves to save a
+drowning fellow-creature. Such persons are dependent on your help. They
+are therefore with respect to you in an inferior position.
+
+Discuss with the class the limitations of this duty. I am not bound to
+jump into the water, for instance, when I see a person drowning unless I
+can swim. In fact, it would be culpable foolhardiness in me to do so.
+Discuss the following casuistical case: A child is lying on the railroad
+track and a locomotive is rapidly approaching. Am I bound to make the
+attempt to draw it away from the track? Does it make any difference
+whether I am single or the father of a family and have others dependent
+on me? In general, the attempt to save should not be made unless there
+is a distinct chance of succeeding without the sacrifice of one's own
+life; but we are justified in taking great risks, and courage and
+self-reliance are evinced in the degree of risk we are willing to take.
+There are cases, however, in which the deliberate sacrifice of one life
+for another is in the highest degree praiseworthy when, namely, the
+life to be saved is regarded as far more precious than our own. Instance
+the soldier who intercepts the thrust which is aimed at the life of his
+general. Instance the parent who in the Johnstown flood was seen to push
+his child to a place of safety and was then swept away by the current.
+
+2. _Assist the needy._ This may be done by giving bread to the hungry,
+clothing to the naked, shelter to the homeless, by caring for the sick,
+advancing loans to those who are struggling toward self-support, etc.
+The rule of charity is based on respect for the personality of others.
+We are required to assist those who are too weak to hold their own, with
+a view of putting them on their feet again. The aim of all charity
+should be to make those who are dependent on it independent of it. From
+this point of view all mere almsgiving, all that so-called charity which
+only serves to make the dependent classes more dependent, stands
+condemned. But the true test of charity, upon which the greatest stress
+should be laid, is to be found in the way it reacts upon the charitable
+themselves. Right relations, whatever their nature, are always mutually
+beneficial. Does the deed of charity react beneficially on the doer? is
+the test question to be asked in every instance. Take the case of a
+person who gives large sums to the poor in the hope of seeing his name
+favorably mentioned in the newspapers. The motive in this case is
+vanity, and the effect of this spurious sort of charity is to increase
+the vanity of the donor. The reaction upon him, therefore, is morally
+harmful. Again, take the case of a person who gives capriciously, at the
+bidding of impulse, without considering whether his gifts are likely to
+be of lasting benefit to the recipients. He is confirmed in his habit of
+yielding to impulse, and the reaction is likewise morally injurious. On
+the other hand, the retroactive effects of true charity are most
+beneficial. In the first place, a reaction will take place in the
+direction of greater simplicity in our own lives. A person can not be
+seriously and deeply interested in the condition of the poor, can not
+truly realize the hardships which they suffer, without being moved to
+cut off superfluous expenditure. Secondly, true charity will teach us to
+enter into the problems of others, often so unlike our own; to put
+ourselves in their places; to consider how we should act in their
+circumstances; to fight their battles for them; and by this means our
+moral experience will be enlarged, and from being one, we become, as it
+were, many men. True charity will also draw closer the bond of
+fellowship between the poor and us, for we shall often discover virtues
+in them which we do not possess ourselves; and sometimes, at least, we
+shall have occasion to look up with a kind of awe to those whom we are
+aiding. In connection with the discussion of charity, let the teacher
+relate the biographies of John Howard, Sister Dora, Florence
+Nightingale, Elizabeth Fry, and others, who have been distinguished for
+their devotion to the suffering.
+
+3. _Cheer up the sad._ Explain that a bright smile may often have the
+value of an act of charity. In general, emphasize the duty of
+suppressing irritability, ill humor, and moodiness, and of contributing
+to the sunshine of our households.[19]
+
+4. _Console the bereaved._ The afflicted are for the moment weak and
+dependent; it is the office of loving charity to make them independent.
+Here the same train of reasoning is applicable as above in the case of
+the poor. It serves no useful purpose merely to sit down by the side of
+the sorrowful and to weep with them. They do need sympathy, but they
+also need, at least after the first paroxysms of grief have subsided, to
+be roused.
+
+The true cure for suffering is action. Those who suffer need to be
+nerved to action; they need to be shown, above all, the new duties which
+their situation entails. He who can point out to them the way of duty,
+and can give them of his own strength to walk in that way, is their best
+friend--he is the true consoler.
+
+5. I have yet to speak of mental charity and of moral charity. Mental
+charity is practiced by the wise teacher, who puts his pupils on the
+road to knowledge, who helps them to discover their true vocation, and
+who, when they are involved in doubt and difficulty, succeeds in giving
+them the clew by which they can find an exit into mental clearness and
+light.
+
+6. Moral charity is practiced by those who bend down to the sinful and
+the fallen, and awaken in them a new hope and trust in the good and in
+themselves. The charity which effects moral regeneration is perhaps the
+highest type of all, and of this I know no more fitting nor more sublime
+example than the dealing of Jesus with the outcasts of society.
+
+
+     NOTE.--Without attempting to forestall further philosophical
+     analysis, we may perhaps assume, as a working hypothesis, as a
+     provisional principle of deduction in ethics, the principle of
+     organization. The individual is an organ of humanity. It is his
+     duty to discharge, as perfectly as possible, his special functions;
+     hence the need of insisting on respect for individuality
+     throughout. Even the self-regarding duties would have no meaning
+     were not the complex whole in view, in the economy of which each
+     member is required to perform his part. As in every organism, so in
+     this, each separate organ serves, and is served in turn by all the
+     others, and can attain its highest development only through this
+     constant interaction. To complete the thought, it would be
+     necessary to add that certain organs are more closely connected
+     than others, and form lesser organisms within and subservient to
+     the whole. This, however, is merely thrown out as a suggestion
+     addressed to the student of ethics.
+
+
+THE DUTY OF GRATITUDE.--Upon this subject much might be said, did not
+the fact that the time at our command is nearly exhausted warn us to use
+even greater brevity than heretofore in dealing with the topics that
+remain. To bring out the right relations between benefactor and
+beneficiary, let the teacher put the question, Why is it wrong to cast
+up the benefits we have conferred to the one who has received them? And
+why, on the other hand, is it so base in the latter to show himself
+ungrateful. The reason is to be found in the respect due to the
+personality of others, to which we have so often alluded. Kant says that
+every human being is to be treated as an end in himself, and not merely
+as a means or a tool. In effect, the person who ignores benefits says to
+his benefactor: You are my tool. It is unnecessary for me to recognize
+your services, because you are not an independent person to be
+respected, but a creature to be made use of at pleasure. Ingratitude is
+a slur on the moral personality of others. On the other hand, he who
+casts up benefits practically says you have forfeited your independence
+through the favors you have accepted. I have made your personality
+tributary to mine.
+
+An excellent rule is that of Seneca. The benefactor should immediately
+forget what he has given; the beneficiary should always remember what he
+has received. True gratitude is based on the sense of our moral
+fellowship with others. The gifts received and returned are mere tokens
+of this noble relationship (as all gifts should be). You have just given
+to me. I will presently give to you twice as much again, or half as
+much, it matters not which, when occasion arises. We will further each
+other's aims as best we can, for the ends of each are sacred to the
+other.
+
+DUTIES TO SERVANTS.--Having spoken of the duties which we owe to all
+men, I may here refer to certain special duties, such as the duties
+toward servants. These may also be introduced in connection with the
+duties of the family, after the filial and fraternal duties have been
+considered. I have space only to mention the following points:
+
+1. Servants are laborers. The same respect is due to them as to all
+other laborers.
+
+2. They are not only laborers, but in a special sense helpers. They are
+members of the household in a subordinate capacity, and in many cases
+identify themselves closely with the interests of the family. They are,
+as it were, lay brothers and lay sisters of the family. From these
+considerations may be deduced the duties which we owe toward servants.
+
+DUTIES WITH REGARD TO ANIMALS.--I can not admit that we have duties
+toward animals. We can not very well speak of duties toward creatures on
+which we in part subsist; but there are duties with respect to animals.
+Man is a rational being, and as such takes a natural delight in that
+orderly arrangement and interdependence of parts which are the visible
+counterpart of the rational principle in his own nature. We ought not to
+step on or heedlessly crush under our feet even a single flower. Much
+less should we ruthlessly destroy the more perfect organism which we see
+in animals. Add to this that animals are sentient creatures, and that
+the useless infliction of pain tends to develop cruelty in us. As a
+practical means of fostering kindness toward animals, I suggest the
+following: Get your pupils interested in the habits of animals.
+Familiarity in this case will breed sympathy. Speak of the building
+instincts of bees; of the curious structures raised by those wonderful
+engineers, the beavers. Give prominence to the love for their young by
+which the brute creation is brought into closer connection with the
+human family. Mention especially the fidelity which some animals show
+toward man (the saving of human lives by St. Bernard dogs, etc.), and
+the uses which we derive from the various members of the animal
+creation. As to the fact that we use animals for our sustenance, the
+highest point of view to take, I think, is this, that man is, so to
+speak, the crucible in which all the utilities of nature are refined to
+higher spiritual uses. Man puts the whole of nature under contribution
+to serve his purposes. He takes trees from the forest in order to build
+his house, and to fashion the table at which he takes his meals; he
+brings up metal from the depths of the earth and converts it into tools;
+he takes clay and forms it into vessels. He also is permitted to pluck
+flowers wherewith to garnish his feasts, and to make them the tokens of
+his love; and in the same manner he may actually absorb the life of the
+lower animals, in order to transform and transfigure it, as it were,
+into that higher life which is possible only in human society. But it
+follows that he is a mere parasite and an interloper in nature, unless
+he actually leads the truly human life.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[19] For the teacher I add point 4. The duties mentioned under 5 and 6
+may be practiced in a simple way by the young in the form of aiding
+their backward schoolmates, and observing the right attitude toward
+those of their companions who are in disgrace.
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+THE ELEMENTS OF CIVIC DUTY.
+
+
+It should be the aim of the school not only to connect the system of
+school duties with the duties of the previous period, but also to
+prepare the pupils morally for the period which follows. The school is
+the intermediate link between life in the family and life in society and
+the state. The course of moral instruction, therefore, culminates for
+the present in the chapter on civic duties. Needless to say that at this
+stage the subject can be considered in its elements only.
+
+The claims of the state upon the moral attachment of the citizen can
+hardly be presented too warmly. Life in the state as well as in the
+family is indispensable to the full development of character. Man, in
+his progress from childhood to old age, passes successively through
+ever-widening circles of duty, and new moral horizons open upon him as
+he grows out of one into the other. One of the largest of these circles,
+and, in respect to moral opportunities, one of the richest and most
+glorious, is the state. It may be said that the whole state exists
+ideally in every true citizen, or, what amounts to the same, that the
+true citizen embraces the interests of the state, as if they were his
+own, and acts from the point of view of the total body politic.
+Increased breadth of view and elevation of purpose are the moral
+benefits which accrue to every one who even honestly attempts to be a
+citizen in this sense.
+
+Much attention is paid in some schools to the machinery of our
+government. The pupils are expected to learn the exact functions of
+mayors, city councils, and legislative bodies, the provisions relative
+to the election of the President, etc. But while these things ought to
+be known, they relate, after all, only to the externals of government;
+and it is far more important to familiarize the pupils with the
+animating spirit of political institutions, with the great ideas which
+underlie the state. There are especially three political ideas to which
+I should give prominence; these are, the idea of the supremacy of the
+law; the true idea of punishment; and the idea of nationality. After we
+have instilled these ideas, it will be time enough to dwell with greater
+particularity on the machinery by which it is sought to carry them into
+effect.
+
+What method shall we use for instilling these ideas? The same which
+modern pedagogy applies in every branch of instruction. The rule is,
+Proceed from the known to the unknown; in introducing a new notion,
+connect it with some analogous notion already in the pupil's possession.
+The school offers excellent opportunities for developing the two ideas
+of law and punishment. In every school there exists a body of rules and
+regulations, or school laws. It should be made plain to the scholars
+that these laws are enacted for their own good. The government of the
+school should be made to rest as far as possible on the consent and
+co-operation of the governed. That school which does not secure on the
+part of the scholars a willing acceptance of the system of restraints
+which is necessary for the good of the whole, is a failure. In such an
+institution the law-abiding spirit can never be fostered.
+
+The play-ground, too, affords a preliminary training for future
+citizenship. On the play-ground the scholars learn to select and to obey
+their own leaders, to maintain the rules of the game, and to put down
+any infraction of them, whether in the shape of violence or fraud. They
+also learn to defer to the will of the majority--a most important
+lesson, especially in democratic communities--and to bear defeat
+good-humoredly.[20]
+
+The true idea of punishment should be brought home to the scholars
+through the discipline of the school. The ends of punishment are the
+protection of the community and the reformation of the offender. Nowhere
+better than in the little commonwealth of the school can these moral
+aspects of punishment be impressed; nowhere better can the foundation be
+laid for the changes which are so urgently needed in the dealings of the
+state with the criminal class. Everything, of course, depends upon the
+character of the teacher. His reputation for strict justice, the moral
+earnestness he displays in dealing with offenses, his readiness to
+forbear and forgive upon the least sign of genuine repentance--these are
+the means by which he can instill right notions as to what discipline
+should be. It has been suggested that, when a particularly serious case
+of transgression occurs, the teacher can sometimes produce a profound
+moral effect on the class by submitting the case to them as a jury and
+asking for their verdict.
+
+The idea of nationality I regard as fundamental in political ethics.
+There is such a thing as national character, national genius, or
+national individuality. When we think of the Greeks, we think of them as
+pre-eminent for their achievements in art and philosophy; of the
+Hebrews, as the people of the Bible; of the Romans, as the founders of
+jurisprudence, etc. And on turning to the modern nations we find that
+the talents of the English, the Germans, the French, the Italians, etc.,
+are no less diversified. Morally speaking, it is the mission of each
+nation in correlation with others to contribute to the universal work of
+civilization its own peculiar gifts. The state may be regarded as that
+organization of the public life which is designed _to develop the
+national individuality_; to foster the national genius in whatever
+direction it may seek to express itself, whether in industry, art,
+literature, or science; to clarify its aims, and to raise it to the
+highest pitch of beneficent power.
+
+Doubtless this idea, as stated, is too abstract to be grasped by the
+young; but it can be brought down to their level in a tangible way. For
+the national genius expresses itself in the national history, and more
+especially is it incorporated in those great leaders, who arise at
+critical periods to guide the national development into new channels. It
+is at this point that we realize anew the important support which the
+teaching of history may give to the moral teaching.[21] Thus the
+political history of the United States, if I may be permitted to use
+that as an illustration of my thought, may be divided into three great
+periods. The struggle with nature occupied the earliest period--that of
+colonization; in this period we see the American man engaged in subduing
+a continent. The struggle for political freedom fills the period of the
+Revolution. The struggle for a universal moral idea lends grandeur to
+our civil war. The story of these three great struggles should be
+related with such clearness that the idea which dominated each may stand
+out in relief, and with such fervor that the pupils may conceive a more
+ardent love for their country which, at the same time that it holds out
+immeasurable prospects for the future, already possesses such glorious
+traditions. There is, however, always a great danger that patriotism may
+degenerate into Chauvinism. Against this, universal history, when taught
+in the right spirit, is the best antidote. A knowledge of universal
+history is an admirable check on spurious patriotism. In teaching it,
+it is especially desirable that the contribution which each nation has
+made to the progress of the world be noted and emphasized. Let the
+teacher speak of the early development of the literature and of the
+inventive spirit of the despised Chinese; of the high civilization which
+once flourished on the banks of the Nile; of the immortal debt we owe to
+Greece and Rome and Judea. Let the young be made acquainted with the
+important services which Ireland rendered to European culture in the
+early part of the middle ages. Let them learn, however briefly, of the
+part which France played in the overthrow of feudalism, of the wealth of
+German science and literature and philosophy; let them know how much
+mankind owes to the Parliaments of England, and to the stout heart and
+strong sense which made parliaments possible. It is not by underrating
+others, but by duly estimating and appreciating their achievements, that
+we shall find ourselves challenged to bring forth what is best in
+ourselves.
+
+There is still another reason why, especially in American schools, the
+teaching of universal history should receive far greater attention than
+hitherto has been accorded to it. The American people are imbued with
+the belief that they have a problem to solve for all mankind. They have
+set out to demonstrate in the face of doubt and adverse criticism the
+possibility of popular self-government. They have thus consecrated their
+national life to a sublime humanitarian idea. And the sense of this
+consecration, echoing in the utterances of many of their leading
+statesmen, has more or less permeated the whole people. But the mission
+thus assumed, like the burden on the shoulders of Christophorus, is
+becoming heavier at every step. The best citizens recognize that the
+problem of popular self-government, so far from being solved, is but
+beginning to disclose itself in all its vast complexity, and they
+realize more than ever how necessary it is to get every possible help
+from the example and experience of older nations. The political lessons
+of the past can not indeed be mastered in the public schools. But a
+preliminary interest in European history may be created, which will pave
+the way for profitable study later on.
+
+Furthermore, the American people have extended a most liberal invitation
+to members of other nationalities (with few restrictions, and these of
+recent origin) to come and join in working out the destinies of the new
+continent. Not only is an asylum granted to the oppressed--this were the
+lesser boon--but the gates of citizenship have been opened wide to the
+new-comers. What does this mean, if not that the foreigners who come,
+unless indeed they belong to the weak and dependent classes, are wanted;
+and wanted not only in their capacity as workers to aid in developing
+the material resources of the country, but as citizens, to help in
+perfecting what is still imperfect, to assist in building up in time, on
+American soil, the true republic.
+
+In return for this privilege the citizens of foreign birth owe it to
+their adopted country to place the best of their racial gifts at its
+service. Much that the citizens of foreign birth bring with them,
+indeed, will have to be eliminated, but, on the other hand, many of
+their traits will probably enter as constituent elements into the
+national character. The Anglo-Saxon race has now the lead, and will
+doubtless keep it. But in the melting-pot of the American commonwealths
+the elements of many diverse nationalities are being mixed anew, and a
+new nationality distinctively American is likely to be the final outcome
+of the process. Thus both the humanitarian ideal and the actual make-up
+of the people betray a cosmopolitan tendency, and it is this tendency
+which, more perhaps than anything else, gives to American political life
+its characteristic physiognomy. If this be so, if the foreign elements
+are so numerous and likely to be so influential, it is surely important
+that the foreign races, their character and their history, be studied
+and understood.
+
+Besides explaining the political ideas, I should briefly describe the
+actual functions of government. Government protects the life and
+property of its citizens against foreign aggression and violence at
+home. Government maintains the binding force of contracts. Government
+reserves to itself the coinage of money, carries the mails, supports
+public education, etc. In a word, government assumes those functions
+which can be discharged more satisfactorily or more economically by the
+joint action of the community than if left to private individuals or
+corporations. But government also undertakes the duty of protecting the
+weaker classes against oppression by the stronger, as is shown by
+factory legislation in the interest of women and minors. How far this
+function may profitably be extended is open to discussion; but that it
+has been assumed in all civilized countries is a fact which should be
+noted.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] _Vide_ Dole, "The American Citizen."
+
+[21] See remarks on this subject in the third lecture.
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+THE USE OF PROVERBS AND SPEECHES.
+
+
+For the use of my classes I have made a collection of proverbs from the
+Bible, from Buddha's Dhammapada, from the Encheiridion of Epictetus, the
+Imitation of Christ, and other ancient and modern sources. Some of these
+belong to the advanced course, others can be used in the grammar course.
+I have time to mention only a few, in order to illustrate the method of
+using them.
+
+The habit of committing proverbs or golden sayings to memory without a
+previous analysis of their meaning serves no good purpose whatever.
+Proverbs are the condensed expression of the moral experience of
+generations. The teacher should search out the experiences to which the
+proverbs refer. Proverbs may be compared to those delicate Eastern
+fabrics which can be folded up into the smallest compass, but which,
+when unfolded, are seen to cover a large space. The teacher should
+explore the territory covered by the proverb. Take, for example, such a
+saying as this, "Blessed be he who has the good eye." What is the good
+eye? The eye that sees the good in others. Is it easy to see the good in
+others? Yes, if we are fond of them; but if we are not, we are likely to
+see only the evil. But suppose there is no good to be seen, at least
+not on the surface; why, then the good eye is that which sees the good
+beneath the surface, which, like the divining-rod, shows where in human
+character gold lies buried, and helps us to penetrate to it. But even
+this does not exhaust the meaning of the proverb. The good eye is that
+which, as it were, sees the good into others, sends its good influence
+into them, makes them good by believing them to be so. The good eye is a
+creative eye. Or take the proverb, "A falsehood is like pebbles in the
+mouth." Why not say a falsehood is like a pebble? No, one falsehood is
+like many pebbles. For every falsehood tends to multiply itself, and
+each separate falsehood is like a pebble--not like bread, which we can
+assimilate, but like a stone, a foreign body, alien to our nature.
+Moreover, the proverb says, A falsehood is like pebbles in the mouth;
+which means that these stony falsehoods will choke us, choke the better
+life in us, unless we cast them out. Again, take such sayings as these
+from the Dhammapada: "As rain breaks through an ill-thatched house,
+passion will break through an unreflecting mind." Explain what kind of
+reflection is needed to keep off passion. "He who is well subdued may
+subdue others." Show what kind of self-control is meant, and in what
+sense others are to be subdued. "He who holds back anger like a rolling
+chariot, him I call a real driver; other people are but holding the
+reins." "Let a man overcome anger by love; let him overcome evil by
+good; let him overcome the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth."
+Describe the sort of brake by means of which the rolling chariot of
+anger may be checked in mid-course, and the efficacy of goodness in
+overcoming evil. From the Encheiridion it occurs to me to mention the
+saying, "Everything has two handles: the one by which it can be borne,
+the other by which it can not be borne." Epictetus himself gives an
+illustration: "If your brother acts unjustly toward you, do not lay hold
+of the act by that handle wherein he acts unjustly, for that is the
+handle by which it can not be borne; but lay hold of the other, that he
+is your brother, and you will lay hold of the thing by that handle by
+which it can be borne." There are also many other illustrations of this
+noble maxim. Disappointment has two handles, the one by which it can be
+borne, the other by which it can not. Affliction has two handles.
+Illustrate profusely; search out the meaning in detail.
+
+There is a mine of practical wisdom in these sayings. There exist
+proverbs relating to all the various duties which have been discussed in
+our course; proverbs relating to the pursuit of knowledge; many and
+beautiful proverbs on the filial and fraternal duties, on courage, on
+humility, on the importance of keeping promises, on kindness to animals,
+on the moral end of civil society. Proverbs should be classified under
+their proper heads and used as occasion offers. Permit me, however, to
+add one word of caution. It is a mistake to teach too many proverbs at a
+time, to overload the pupil's mind with them. The proverbs selected
+should be brief, pithy, and profoundly significant. But there should not
+be too many at a time. It is better to return to the same proverb often,
+and to penetrate deeper into its meaning every time. The value of the
+proverbs is that they serve as pegs in the memory, to which long chains
+of moral reflection can be attached. They are guide-posts pointing with
+their short arms to the road of duty; they are voices of mankind
+uttering impressive warnings, and giving clear direction in moments when
+the promptings of self-interest or the mists of passion would be likely
+to lead us astray.
+
+It may also be well to select a number of speeches which embody high
+moral sentiments, like some of the speeches of Isaiah, the speech of
+Socrates before his judges, and others, and, after having explained
+their meaning, to cause them to be recited by the pupils. Just as the
+delivery of patriotic speeches is found useful for inculcating patriotic
+sentiments, so such speeches as these will tend to quicken the moral
+sentiments. He who repeats the speech of another for the time being puts
+on the character of the other. The sentiments which are uttered by the
+lips live for the moment in the heart, and leave their mark there.
+
+
+
+
+XVII.
+
+THE INDIVIDUALIZATION OF MORAL TEACHING.
+
+
+This subject is of the greatest importance. It really requires extended
+and careful treatment, but a few hints must suffice. The teacher should
+remember that he is educating not boys and girls in general, but
+particular boys and girls, each of whom has particular faults needing to
+be corrected and actual or potential virtues to be developed and
+encouraged. Therefore a conscientious study of the character of the
+pupils is necessary. This constitutes an additional reason why moral
+instruction should be given in a daily school rather than in a Sunday
+school, the opportunities for the study of character being vastly better
+in the former than they can possibly be in the latter. The teacher who
+gives the moral lessons, in undertaking this study, should solicit the
+co-operation of all the other teachers of the school. He should request
+from time to time from each of his fellow-teachers reports stating the
+good and bad traits observed in each pupil, or rather the facts on which
+the various teachers base their estimates of the good and bad qualities
+of the scholars; for the opinions of teachers are sometimes unreliable,
+are sometimes discolored by prejudice, while facts tell their own
+story. These facts should be collated by the moral teacher, and, with
+them as a basis, he may endeavor to work out a kind of chart of the
+character of each of his pupils. It goes without saying, that he should
+also seek the co-operation of the parents, for the purpose of
+discovering what characteristic traits the pupil displays at home; and
+if the reputation which a pupil bears among his companions, can be
+ascertained without undue prying, this, too, will be found of use in
+forming an estimate of his disposition. The teacher who knows the
+special temptations of his pupils will have many opportunities, in the
+course of the moral lessons, to give them pertinent warnings and advice,
+without seeming to address them in particular or exposing their faults
+to the class. He will also be able to exercise a helpful surveillance
+over their conduct in school, and to become in private their friend and
+counselor. Moreover, the material thus collected will in time prove
+serviceable in helping us to a more exact knowledge of the different
+varieties of human character--a knowledge which would give to the art of
+ethical training something like a scientific basis.[22]
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[22] See some remarks on types of character in my lecture on the
+Punishment of Children.
+
+
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+
+Let us now briefly review the ground we have gone over in the present
+course. In the five introductory lectures we discussed the problem of
+unsectarian moral teaching, the efficient motives of good conduct, the
+opportunities of moral influence in schools, the classification of
+duties, and the moral status of the child on entering school.
+
+In mapping out the primary course we assumed as a starting-point the
+idea that the child rapidly passes through the same stages of evolution
+through which the human race has passed, and hence we endeavored to
+select our material for successive epochs in the child's life from the
+literature of the corresponding epochs in the life of the race.
+
+In regard to the method of instruction, we observed that in the fairy
+tales the moral element should be touched on incidentally; that in
+teaching the fables isolated moral qualities should be presented in such
+a way that the pupil may always thereafter be able to recognize them;
+while the stories display a number of moral qualities in combination and
+have the value of moral pictures.
+
+In the primary course the object has been to train the moral
+perceptions; in the grammar course, to work out moral concepts and to
+formulate rules of conduct. The method of getting at these rules may
+again be described as follows: Begin with some concrete case, suggest a
+rule which apparently fits that case or really fits it, adduce other
+cases which the rule does not fit, change the rule, modify it as often
+as necessary, until it has been brought into such shape that it will fit
+every case you can think of.
+
+In planning the lessons on duty which make up the subject matter of the
+grammar course, we took the ground that each period of life has its
+specific duties, that in each period there is one paramount duty around
+which the others may be grouped, and that each new system of duties
+should embrace and absorb the preceding one.
+
+It remains for me to add that the illustrations which I have used in the
+grammar course are intended merely to serve as specimens, and by no
+means to exclude the use of different illustrative matter which the
+teacher may find more suitable. Furthermore, I desire to express the
+hope that it may be possible, without too much difficulty, to eliminate
+whatever subjective conceptions may be found to have crept into these
+lessons, and that, due deduction having been made, there may remain a
+substratum of objective truth which all can accept. It should be
+remembered that these lectures are not intended to take the place of a
+text-book, but to serve as a guide to the teacher in preparing his
+lessons.
+
+I hope hereafter to continue the work which has thus been begun. In the
+advanced course, which is to follow the present one, we shall have to
+reconsider from a higher point of view many of the subjects already
+treated, and in addition to take up such topics as the ethics of the
+professions, the ethics of friendship, conjugal ethics, etc., which have
+here been omitted.
+
+I shall also attempt to indicate the lines for a systematic study of
+biographies, and to lay out a course of selected readings from the best
+ethical literature of ancient and modern times.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON CHARACTER.[23]
+
+
+Manual training has recently been suggested as one of the means of
+combating the criminal tendency in the young, and this suggestion is
+being received with increasing favor. But until now the theory of manual
+training has hardly begun to be worked out. The confidence which is
+expressed in it is based, for the most part, on unclassified experience.
+But experience without theory is altogether insufficient. Theory, it is
+true, without experience is without feet to stand. But experience
+without the guiding and directing help of theory is without eyes to see.
+I shall now offer, in a somewhat tentative way, a few remarks intended
+to be a contribution to the philosophy of manual training as applied to
+the reformation of delinquent children. I shall confine myself, however,
+to one type of criminality in children--a not uncommon type--that of
+moral deterioration arising from weakness of the will.
+
+In the first place, let us distinguish between feeling, desiring, and
+willing. A person who is without food feels hunger. A person who, being
+hungry, calls up in his mind images of food, will experience a desire. A
+person who adopts means to obtain food performs an act of the will. A
+Russian prisoner in Siberia who suffers from the restraints of
+confinement is in a state of feeling. The same person, when he recalls
+images of home and friends, is in a state of desire; but when he sets
+about adopting the means to effect his escape, concerts signals with his
+fellow-prisoners, undermines the walls of his dungeon, etc., he is
+performing acts of the will. Permit me to call particular attention to
+the fact that the will is characterized at its birth by the intellectual
+factor which enters into it; for the calculation of means to ends is an
+intellectual process, and every conscious act of volition involves such
+a process. If the will is thus characterized at its birth, we can at
+once anticipate the conclusion that any will will be strong in
+proportion as the intellectual factor in it predominates. It was said by
+one of the speakers that "an ounce of affection is better than a ton of
+intellect." Give me a proper mixture of the two. Give me at least an
+ounce of intellect together with an ounce of affection. There is great
+danger lest we exaggerate the importance of the emotions for morality.
+The opinion is widely entertained that good feeling, kind feeling,
+loving feeling, is the whole of morality, or, at least, the essential
+factor in it. But this opinion is surely erroneous. The will may be
+compared to the power which propels a ship through the waves. Feeling is
+the rudder. The intellect is the helmsman.
+
+Let me give illustrations to bring into view the characteristics of a
+strong and of a weak will. Great inventors, great statesmen, great
+reformers, illustrate strength of will. We note in them especially
+tenacity of purpose and a marvelous faculty for adjusting and
+readjusting means to ends. Persons who are swayed by the sensual
+appetites illustrate weakness of will. We note in them vacillation of
+purpose, and the power of adjusting means to ends only in its
+rudimentary form. The ideas of virtue are complex. No one can illustrate
+virtue on a high plane unless he is capable of holding in mind long
+trains and complex groups of ideas. The lowest vices, on the other hand,
+are distinguished by the circumstance that the ends to which they look
+are simple, and the means employed often of the crudest kind. Thus,
+suppose that a person of weak will is hungry. He knows that gold will
+buy food. He adopts the readiest way to get gold. Incapable of that long
+and complex method of attaining his end, which is exhibited, for
+instance, by the farmer who breaks the soil, plants the corn, watches
+his crops, and systematizes his labors from the year's beginning to its
+end, he takes the shortest road toward the possession of gold--he
+stretches forth his hand and takes it where he finds it. The man of weak
+will, who has a grudge against his rival, is not capable of putting
+forth a sustained and complex series of efforts toward obtaining
+satisfaction, for instance, by laboring arduously to outstrip his rival.
+He is, furthermore, incapable of those larger considerations, those
+complex groups of ideas relating to society and its permanent interests,
+which check the angry passions in the educated. He gives free and
+immediate rein to the passion as it rises. He takes the readiest means
+of getting satisfaction: he draws the knife and kills. The man of weak
+will, who burns with sensual desire, assaults the object of his desire.
+The virtues depend in no small degree on the power of serial and complex
+thinking. Those vices which are due to weakness of will are
+characterized by the crudeness of the aim and the crudeness of the
+means.
+
+To strengthen the will, therefore, it is necessary to give to the person
+of weak will the power to think connectedly, and especially to reach an
+end by long and complex trains of means.
+
+Let us pause here for a moment to elucidate this point by briefly
+considering a type of criminality which is familiar to all guardians of
+delinquent children. This type is marked by a group of salient traits,
+which may be roughly described as follows: Mental incoherency is the
+first. The thoughts of the child are, as it were, slippery, tending to
+glide past one another without mutual attachments. A second trait is
+indolence. A third, deficiency in the sense of shame; to which may be
+added that the severest punishments fail to act as deterrents.
+
+Mental incoherency is the leading trait, and supplies the key for the
+understanding of the others. Lack of connectedness between ideas is the
+radical defect. Each idea, as it rises, becomes an impulse, and takes
+effect to the full limit of its suggestions. A kind thought rises in the
+mind of such a child, and issues in a demonstrative impulse of
+affection. Shortly after, a cruel thought may rise in the mind of the
+same child; and the cruel thought will, in like manner, take effect in a
+cruel act. Children answering to this type are alternately kind,
+affectionate, and cruel. The child's indolence is due to the same
+cause--lack of connectedness between ideas. It is incapable of sustained
+effort, because every task implies the ability to pass from one idea to
+related ideas. The child is deficient in shame, because the sense of
+shame depends on a vivid realization of the idea of self. The idea of
+self, however, is a complex idea, which is not distinctly and clearly
+present to such a child. Lastly, the most severe punishments fail to act
+as deterrents for the same reason. The two impressions left in the mind,
+"I did a wrong," "I suffered a pain," lie apart. The memory of one does
+not excite the recollection of the other. The thought of the wrong does
+not lift permanently into consciousness the thought of the pain which
+followed. The punishment, as we say, is quickly forgotten. If,
+therefore, we wish to remedy a deep-seated defect of this kind, if we
+wish to cure a weak will, in such and all similar cases we must seek to
+establish a closer connection between the child's ideas.
+
+The question may now be asked, Why should we not utilize to this end the
+ordinary studies of the school curriculum--history, geography,
+arithmetic, etc.? All of these branches exercise and develop the faculty
+of serial and complex thinking. Any sum in multiplication gives a
+training of this kind. Let the task be to multiply a multiplicand of
+four figures by a multiplier of three. First the child must multiply
+every figure in the multiplicand by the units of the multiplier and
+write down the result; then by the tens, and then by the hundreds, and
+combine these results. Here is a lesson in combination, in serial, and,
+for a young child, somewhat complex thinking. Let the task be to bound
+the State of New York. The child must see the mental picture of the
+State in its relation to other States and parts of States, to lakes and
+rivers and mountains--a complex group of ideas. Or, let it be required
+to give a brief account of the American Revolution. Here is a whole
+series of events, each depending on the preceding ones. Why, then, may
+we not content ourselves with utilizing the ordinary studies of the
+school curriculum? There are two reasons.
+
+First, because history, geography, and arithmetic are not, as a rule,
+interesting to young children, especially not to young children of the
+class with which we are now dealing. These listless minds are not easily
+roused to an interest in abstractions. Secondly, it is a notorious fact
+that intellectual culture, pure and simple, is quite consistent with
+weakness of the will. A person may have very high intellectual
+attainments, and yet be morally deficient. I need hardly warn my
+reflective hearers that, when emphasizing the importance for the will of
+intellectual culture, I had in mind the intellectual process as applied
+to acts. To cultivate the intellect in its own sphere of contemplation
+and abstraction, apart from action, may leave the will precisely as
+feeble as it was before.
+
+And now, all that has been said thus far converges upon the point that
+has been in view from the beginning--the importance of manual training
+as an element in disciplining the will. Manual training fulfills the
+conditions I have just alluded to. It is interesting to the young, as
+history, geography, and arithmetic often are not. Precisely those pupils
+who take the least interest or show the least aptitude for literary
+study are often the most proficient in the workshop and the
+modeling-room. Nature has not left these neglected children without
+beautiful compensations. If they are deficient in intellectual power,
+they are all the more capable of being developed on their active side.
+Thus, manual training fulfills the one essential condition--it is
+interesting. It also fulfills the second. By manual training we
+cultivate the intellect in close connection with action. Manual training
+consists of a series of actions which are controlled by the mind, and
+which react on it. Let the task assigned be, for instance, the making of
+a wooden box. The first point to be gained is to attract the attention
+of the pupil to the task. A wooden box is interesting to a child, hence
+this first point will be gained. Lethargy is overcome, attention is
+aroused. Next, it is important to keep the attention fixed on the task:
+thus only can tenacity of purpose be cultivated. Manual training enables
+us to keep the attention of the child fixed upon the object of study,
+because the latter is concrete. Furthermore, the variety of occupations
+which enter into the making of the box constantly refreshes this
+interest after it has once been started. The wood must be sawed to line.
+The boards must be carefully planed and smoothed. The joints must be
+accurately worked out and fitted. The lid must be attached with hinges.
+The box must be painted or varnished. Here is a sequence of means
+leading to an end, a series of operations all pointing to a final object
+to be gained, to be created. Again, each of these means becomes in turn
+and for the time being a secondary end; and the pupil thus learns, in an
+elementary way, the lesson of subordinating minor ends to a major end.
+And, when finally the task is done, when the box stands before the boy's
+eyes a complete whole, a serviceable thing, sightly to the eyes, well
+adapted to its uses, with what a glow of triumph does he contemplate his
+work! The pleasure of achievement now comes in to crown his labor; and
+this sense of achievement, in connection with the work done, leaves in
+his mind a pleasant after-taste, which will stimulate him to similar
+work in the future. The child that has once acquired, in connection with
+the making of a box, the habits just described, has begun to master the
+secret of a strong will, and will be able to apply the same habits in
+other directions and on other occasions.
+
+Or let the task be an artistic one. And let me here say that manual
+training is incomplete unless it covers art training. Many otherwise
+excellent and interesting experiments in manual training fail to give
+satisfaction because they do not include this element. The useful must
+flower into the beautiful, to be in the highest sense useful. Nor is it
+necessary to remind those who have given attention to the subject of
+education how important is the influence of the beautiful is in
+refining the sentiments and elevating the nature of the young. Let the
+task, then, be to model a leaf, a vase, a hand, a head. Here again we
+behold the same advantages as in the making of the box. The object is
+concrete, and therefore suitable for minds incapable of grasping
+abstractions. The object can be constantly kept before the pupil's eyes.
+There is gradual approximation toward completeness, and at last that
+glow of triumph! What child is not happy if he has produced something
+tangible, something that is the outgrowth of his own activity,
+especially if it be something which is charming to every beholder?
+
+And now let me briefly summarize certain conclusions to which reflection
+has led me in regard to the subject of manual training in reformatory
+institutions. Manual training should be introduced into every
+reformatory. In New York city we have tested a system of work-shop
+lessons for children between six and fourteen. There is, I am persuaded,
+no reason why manual training should not be applied to the youngest
+children in reformatories. Manual training should always include art
+training. The labor of the children of reformatories should never be let
+to contractors. I heartily agree with what was said on that subject this
+morning. The pupils of reformatories should never make heads of pins or
+the ninetieth fraction of a shoe. Let there be no machine work. Let the
+pupils turn out complete articles, for only thus can the full
+intellectual and moral benefits of manual training be reaped.
+Agriculture, wherever the opportunities are favorable, offers, on the
+whole, the same advantages as manual training, and should be employed
+if possible, in connection with it.
+
+I have thus far attempted to show how the will can be made strong. But a
+strong will is not necessarily a good will. It is true, there are
+influences in manual training, as it has been described, which are
+favorable to a virtuous disposition. Squareness in things is not without
+relation to squareness in action and in thinking. A child that has
+learned to be exact--that is, truthful--in his work will be predisposed
+to be scrupulous and truthful in his speech, in his thought, in his
+acts. The refining and elevating influence of artistic work I have
+already mentioned. But, along with and over and above all these
+influences, I need hardly say to you that, in the remarks which I have
+offered this evening, I have all along taken for granted the continued
+application of those tried and excellent methods which prevail in our
+best reformatories. I have taken for granted that isolation from
+society, which shuts out temptation; that routine of institutional life,
+which induces regularity of habit; that strict surveillance of the whole
+body of inmates and of every individual, which prevents excesses of the
+passions, and therefore starves them into disuse. I have taken for
+granted the cultivation of the emotions, the importance of which I am
+the last to undervalue. I have taken for granted the influence of good
+example, good literature, good music, poetry, and religion. All I have
+intended to urge is that between good feeling and the realization of
+good feeling there exists, in persons whose will-power is weak, a
+hiatus, and that manual training is admirably adapted to fill that
+hiatus.
+
+There is another advantage to be noted in connection with manual
+training--namely, that it develops the property sense. What, after all,
+apart from artificial social convention, is the foundation of the right
+of property? On what basis does it rest? I have a proprietary right in
+my own thoughts. I have a right to follow my tastes in the adornment of
+my person and my house. I have a right to the whole sphere of my
+individuality, my selfhood; and I have a right in _things_ so far as I
+use them to express my personality. The child that has made a wooden box
+has put a part of himself into the making of that box--his thought, his
+patience, his skill, his toil--and therefore the child feels that that
+box is in a certain sense his own. And as only those who have the sense
+of ownership are likely to respect the right of ownership in others, we
+may by manual training cultivate the property sense of the child; and
+this, in the case of the delinquent child, it will be admitted, is no
+small advantage.
+
+I have confined myself till now to speaking of the importance of manual
+training in its influence on the character of delinquent children. I
+wish to add a few words touching the influence of manual training on
+character in general, and its importance for children of all classes of
+society. I need not here speak of the value of manual training to the
+artisan class. That has been amply demonstrated of late by the many
+technical and art schools which the leading manufacturing nations of
+Europe have established and are establishing. I need not speak of the
+value of manual training to the future surgeon, dentist, scientist, and
+to all those who require deftness of hand in the pursuit of their
+vocations. But I do wish to speak of the value of manual training to the
+future lawyer and clergyman, and to all those who will perhaps never be
+called upon to labor with their hands. Precisely because they will not
+labor with their hands is manual training so important for them--in the
+interest of an all-round culture--in order that they may not be entirely
+crippled on one side of their nature. The Greek legend says that the
+giant Antæus was invincible so long as his feet were planted on the
+solid earth. We need to have a care that our civilization shall remain
+planted on the solid earth. There is danger lest it may be developed too
+much into the air--that we may become too much separated from those
+primal sources of strength from which mankind has always drawn its
+vitality. The English nobility have deliberately adopted hunting as
+their favorite pastime. They follow as a matter of physical exercise, in
+order to keep up their physical strength, a pursuit which the savage man
+followed from necessity. The introduction of athletics in colleges is a
+move in the same direction. But it is not sufficient to maintain our
+physical strength, our brute strength, the strength of limb and muscle.
+We must also preserve that spiritualized strength which we call
+skill--the tool-using faculty, the power of impressing on matter the
+stamp of mind. And the more machinery takes the place of human labor,
+the more necessary will it be to resort to manual training as a means of
+keeping up skill, precisely as we have resorted to athletics as a means
+of keeping up strength.
+
+There is one word more I have to say in closing. Twenty-five years ago,
+as the recent memories of Gettysburg recall to us, we fought to keep
+this people a united nation. Then was State arrayed against State.
+To-day class is beginning to be arrayed against class. The danger is not
+yet imminent, but it is sufficiently great to give us thought. The chief
+source of the danger, I think, lies in this, that the two classes of
+society have become so widely separated by difference of interests and
+pursuits that they no longer fully understand one another, and
+misunderstanding is the fruitful source of hatred and dissension. This
+must not continue. The manual laborer must have time and opportunity for
+intellectual improvement. The intellectual classes, on the other hand,
+must learn manual labor; and this they can best do in early youth, in
+the school, before the differentiation of pursuits has yet begun. Our
+common schools are rightly so named. The justification of their support
+by the State is not, I think, as is sometimes argued, that the State
+should give a sufficient education to each voter to enable him at least
+to read the ballot which he deposits. This is but a poor equipment for
+citizenship at best. The justification for the existence of our common
+schools lies rather in the bond of common feeling which they create
+between the different classes of society. And it is this bond of common
+feeling woven in childhood that has kept and must keep us a united
+people. Let manual training, therefore, be introduced into the common
+schools; let the son of the rich man learn, side by side with the son of
+the poor man, to labor with his hands; let him thus practically learn to
+respect labor; let him learn to understand what the dignity of manual
+labor really means, and the two classes of society, united at the root,
+will never thereafter entirely grow asunder.
+
+A short time ago I spent an afternoon with a poet whose fame is familiar
+to all. There was present in the company a gentleman of large means,
+who, in the course of conversation, descanted upon the merits of the
+protective system, and spoke in glowing terms of the growth of the
+industries of his State and of the immense wealth which is being
+accumulated in its large cities. The aged poet turned to him, and said:
+"That is all very well. I like your industries and your factories and
+your wealth; but, tell me, do they turn out men down your way?" That is
+the question which we are bound to consider. _Is this civilization of
+ours turning out men_--manly men and womanly women? Now, it is a
+cheering and encouraging thought that technical labor, which is the
+source of our material aggrandizement, may also become, when employed in
+the education of the young, the means of enlarging their manhood,
+quickening their intellect, and strengthening their character.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[23] An address delivered before the National Conference of Charities
+and Correction, at Buffalo, July, 1888.
+
+
+
+
+D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS WORKS OF HERBERT SPENCER.
+
+
+_EDUCATION: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical._ 12mo. Paper, 50 cents;
+cloth, $1.25.
+
+     CONTENTS: What Knowledge is of most Worth?--Intellectual
+     Education.--Moral Education.--Physical Education.
+
+
+_SOCIAL STATICS._ By HERBERT SPENCER. New and revised edition, including
+"The Man _versus_ the State," a series of essays on political tendencies
+heretofore published separately. 12mo. 420 pages. Cloth, $2.00.
+
+     Having been much annoyed by the persistent quotation from the old
+     edition of "Social Statics," in the face of repeated warnings, of
+     views which he had abandoned, and by the misquotation of others
+     which he still holds, Mr. Spencer some ten years ago stopped the
+     sale of the book in England and prohibited its translation. But the
+     rapid spread of communistic theories gave new life to these
+     misrepresentations; hence Mr. Spencer decided to delay no longer a
+     statement of his mature opinions on the rights of individuals and
+     the duty of the state.
+
+     CONTENTS: Happiness as an Immediate Aim.--Unguided Expediency.--The
+     Moral-Sense Doctrine.--What is Morality?--The Evanescence
+     [? Diminution] of Evil.--Greatest Happiness must be sought
+     indirectly.--Derivation of a First Principle.--Secondary Derivation
+     of a First Principle.--First Principle.--Application of this First
+     Principle.--The Right of Property.--Socialism.--The Right of
+     Property in Ideas.--The Rights of Women.--The Rights of
+     Children.--Political Rights.--The Constitution of the State.--The
+     Duty of the State.--The Limit of State-Duty.--The Regulation of
+     Commerce.--Religious Establishments.--Poor-Laws.--National
+     Education.--Government Colonization.--Sanitary
+     Supervision.--Currency Postal Arrangements, etc.--General
+     Considerations.--The New Toryism.--The Coming Slavery.--The Sins of
+     Legislators.--The Great Political Superstition.
+
+
+_THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY._ The fifth volume in the International
+Scientific Series. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.
+
+     CONTENTS: Our Need of it--Is there a Social Science?--Nature of the
+     Social Science.--Difficulties of the Social Science.--Objective
+     Difficulties.--Subjective Difficulties, Intellectual.--Subjective
+     Difficulties, Emotional.--The Educational Bias--The Bias of
+     Patriotism.--The Class-Bias.--The Political Bias.--The Theological
+     Bias.--Discipline.--Preparation in Biology.--Preparation in
+     Psychology.--Conclusion.
+
+
+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+     "This work marks an epoch in the history-writing of this
+     country."--_St. Louis Post-Dispatch._
+
+[Illustration: COLONIAL COURT-HOUSE. PHILADELPHIA, 1707.]
+
+_THE HOUSEHOLD HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS PEOPLE._ FOR YOUNG
+AMERICANS. By EDWARD EGGLESTON. Richly illustrated with 350 Drawings, 75
+Maps, etc. Square 8vo. Cloth, $2.50.
+
+
+_FROM THE PREFACE._
+
+The present work is meant, in the first instance, for the young--not
+alone for boys and girls, but for young men and women who have yet to
+make themselves familiar with the more important features of their
+country's history. By a book for the young is meant one in which the
+author studies to make his statements clear and explicit, in which
+curious and picturesque details are inserted, and in which the writer
+does not neglect such anecdotes as lend the charm of a human and
+personal interest to the broader facts of the nation's story. That
+history is often tiresome to the young is not so much the fault of
+history as of a false method of writing by which one contrives to relate
+events without sympathy or imagination, without narrative connection or
+animation. The attempt to master vague and general records of kiln-dried
+facts is certain to beget in the ordinary reader a repulsion from the
+study of history--one of the most important of all studies for its
+widening influence on general culture.
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN'S TRAP.]
+
+     "Fills a decided gap which has existed for the past twenty years in
+     American historical literature. The work is admirably planned and
+     executed, and will at once take its place as a standard record of
+     the life, growth, and development of the nation. It is profusely
+     and beautifully illustrated."--_Boston Transcript._
+
+     "The book in its new dress makes a much finer appearance than
+     before, and will be welcomed by older readers as gladly as its
+     predecessor was greeted by girls and boys. The lavish use the
+     publishers have made of colored plates, woodcuts, and photographic
+     reproductions, gives an unwonted piquancy to the printed page,
+     catching the eye as surely as the text engages the mind."--_New
+     York Critic._
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL PUTNAM.]
+
+     "The author writes history as a story. It can never be less than
+     that. The book will enlist the interest of young people, enlighten
+     their understanding, and by the glow of its statements fix the
+     great events of the country firmly in the mind."--_San Francisco
+     Bulletin._
+
+
+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Moral Instruction of Children, by Felix Adler
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+Project Gutenberg's The Moral Instruction of Children, by Felix Adler
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+Title: The Moral Instruction of Children
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+Author: Felix Adler
+
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+author of "The Art of School Management." Price, $1.50.</p>
+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+Authorized translation from the second French edition, by <span class="smcap">J.
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+
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+
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+Berlin. Translated and accompanied by comparative statistics by <span class="smcap">L.
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+
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+Quick</span>, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge; formerly Assistant Master
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+rewritten in 1890.</i> Price, $1.50.</p>
+
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+
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+
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+
+<p>Vol. XXI.&mdash;ETHICAL TRAINING IN SCHOOLS. By <span class="smcap">Felix Adler</span>.</p>
+
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+SCHOOLS. By <span class="smcap">Isaac Sharpless</span>, LL.D. Price, $1.00.</p>
+
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+
+<p class="center"><i>Circular, describing the volumes more in detail, mailed to any address
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+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p class="center">New York: D. APPLETON &amp; CO., Publishers, 1, 3, &amp; 5 Bond Street.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="bold">INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES</p>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<h1><span>THE<br />MORAL INSTRUCTION<br />OF CHILDREN</span><br /><br /><span id="id1">BY</span> <span>FELIX ADLER</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">NEW YORK<br />D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br />1892</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1892,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span> D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Electrotyped and Printed<br />
+at the Appleton Press, U.S.A.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>EDITOR'S PREFACE.</span></h2>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p>Moral education is everywhere acknowledged to be the most important part
+of all education; but there has not been the same agreement in regard to
+the best means of securing it in the school. This has been due in part
+to a want of insight into the twofold nature of this sort of education;
+for instruction in morals includes two things: the formation of right
+ideas and the formation of right habits. Right ideas are necessary to
+guide the will, but right habits are the product of the will itself.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible to have right ideas to some extent without the
+corresponding moral habits. On this account the formation of correct
+habits has been esteemed by some to be the chief thing. But unconscious
+habits&mdash;mere use and wont&mdash;do not seem to deserve the title of moral in
+its highest sense. The moral act should be a considerate one, and rest
+on the adoption of principles to guide one's actions.</p>
+
+<p>To those who lay stress on the practical side and demand the formation
+of correct habits, the school as it is seems to be a great ethical
+instrumentality. To those who see in theoretical instruction the only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
+true basis of moral character, the existing school methods seem sadly
+deficient.</p>
+
+<p>The school as it is looks first after its discipline, and next after its
+instruction. Discipline concerns the behavior, and instruction concerns
+the intellectual progress of the pupil. That part of moral education
+which relates to habits of good behavior is much better provided for in
+the school than any part of intellectual education.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, a conflict here between old and new ideals. The
+old-fashioned school regarded obedience to authority the one essential;
+the new ideal regards insight into the reasonableness of moral commands
+the chief end. It is said, with truth, that a habit of unreasoning
+obedience does not fit one for the exigencies of modern life, with its
+partisan appeals to the individual and its perpetual display of grounds
+and reasons, specious and otherwise, in the newspapers. The unreasoning
+obedience to a moral guide in school may become in after life
+unreasoning obedience to a demagogue or to a leader in crime.</p>
+
+<p>It is not obedience to external authority that we need so much as
+enlightened moral sense, and yet there remains and will remain much good
+in the old-fashioned habit of implicit obedience.</p>
+
+<p>The new education aims at building up self-control and individual
+insight. It substitutes the internal authority of conscience for the
+external authority of the master. It claims by this to educate the
+citizen fitted for the exercise of suffrage in a free <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>government. He
+will weigh political and social questions in his mind, and decide for
+himself. He will be apt to reject the scheme of the demagogue. While the
+old-fashioned school-master relied on the rod to sustain his external
+authority, he produced, it is said, a reaction against all authority in
+the minds of strong-willed pupils. The new education saves the
+strong-willed pupil from this tension against constituted authority, and
+makes him law-abiding from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>It will be admitted that the school under both its forms&mdash;old as well as
+new&mdash;secures in the main the formation of the cardinal moral habits. It
+is obliged to insist on regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry
+as indispensable for the performance of its school tasks. A private
+tutor may permit his charge to neglect all these things, and yet secure
+some progress in studies carried on by fits and starts, with noise and
+zeal to-day, followed by indolence to-morrow. But a school, on account
+of its numbers, must insist on the semi-mechanical virtues of
+regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry. Although these are
+semi-mechanical in their nature, for with much practice they become
+unconscious habits, yet they furnish the very ground-work of all
+combinations of man with his fellow-men. They are fundamental conditions
+of social life. The increase of city population, consequent on the
+growth of productive industry and the substitution of machines for hand
+labor, renders necessary the universal prevalence of these cardinal
+virtues of the school.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p><p>Even the management of machines requires that sort of alertness which
+comes from regularity and punctuality. The travel on the railroad, the
+management of steam-engines, the necessities of concerted action,
+require punctuality and rhythmic action.</p>
+
+<p>The school habit of silence means considerate regard for the rights of
+fellow-workmen. They must not be interfered with; their attention must
+not be distracted from their several tasks. A rational self-restraint
+grows out of this school habit&mdash;rational, because it rests on
+considerateness for the work of others. This is a great lesson in
+co-operation. Morals in their essence deal with the relation of man to
+his fellow-men, and rest on a considerateness for the rights of others.
+"Do unto others," etc., sums up the moral code.</p>
+
+<p>Industry, likewise, takes a high rank as a citizen's virtue. By it man
+learns to re-enforce the moments by the hours, and the days by the
+years. He learns how the puny individual can conquer great obstacles.
+The school demands of the youth a difficult kind of industry. He must
+think and remember, giving close and unremitting attention to subjects
+strange and far off from his daily life. He must do this in order to
+discover eventually that these strange and far-off matters are connected
+in a close manner to his own history and destiny.</p>
+
+<p>There is another phase of the pupil's industry that has an important
+bearing on morals. All his intellectual work in the class has to do with
+critical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> accuracy, and respect for the truth. Loose statements and
+careless logical inference meet with severe reproof.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, there is an enforced politeness and courtesy toward teachers
+and fellow-pupils&mdash;at least to the extent of preventing quarrels. This
+is directly tributary to the highest of virtues, namely, kindness and
+generosity.</p>
+
+<p>All these moral phases mentioned have to do with the side of school
+discipline rather than instruction, and they do not necessarily have any
+bearing on the theory of morals or on ethical philosophy, except in the
+fact that they make a very strong impression on the mind of the youth,
+and cause him to feel that he is a member of a moral order. He learns
+that moral demands are far more stern than the demands of the body for
+food or drink or repose. The school thus does much to change the pupil
+from a natural being to a spiritual being. Physical nature becomes
+subordinated to the interests of human nature.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the fact that the school is so efficient as a means of
+training in moral habits, it is as yet only a small influence in the
+realm of moral theory. Even our colleges and universities, it must be
+confessed, do little in this respect, although there has been of late an
+effort to increase in the programmes the amount of time devoted to
+ethical study. The cause of this is the divorce of moral theory from
+theology. All was easy so long as ethics was directly associated with
+the prevailing religious <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>confession. The separation of Church and
+State, slowly progressing everywhere since the middle ages, has at
+length touched the question of education.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to find an independent basis for ethics in the science of
+sociology has developed conflicting systems. The college student is
+rarely strengthened in his faith in moral theories by his theoretic
+study. Too often his faith is sapped. Those who master a spiritual
+philosophy are strengthened; the many who drift toward a so-called
+"scientific" basis are led to weaken their moral convictions to the
+standpoint of fashion, or custom, or utility.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the demand of the age to separate Church from State becomes
+more and more exacting. Religious instruction has almost entirely ceased
+in the public schools, and it is rapidly disappearing from the
+programmes of colleges and preparatory schools, and few academies are
+now scenes of religious revival, as once was common.</p>
+
+<p>The publishers of this series are glad, therefore, to offer a book so
+timely and full of helpful suggestions as this of Mr. Adler. It is hoped
+that it may open for many teachers a new road to theoretic instruction
+in morality, and at the same time re-enforce the study of literature in
+our schools.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">W. T. Harris.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Washington, D.C.</span>, <i>July, 1892</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>PREFATORY NOTE.</span></h2>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p>The following lectures were delivered in the School of Applied Ethics
+during its first session in 1891, at Plymouth, Mass. A few of the
+lectures have been condensed, in order to bring more clearly into view
+the logical scheme which underlies the plan of instruction here
+outlined. The others are published substantially as delivered.</p>
+
+<p>I am deeply conscious of the difficulties of the problem which I have
+ventured to approach, and realize that any contribution toward its
+solution, at the present time, must be most imperfect. I should, for my
+part, have preferred to wait longer before submitting my thought to
+teachers and parents. But I have been persuaded that even in its present
+shape it may be of some use. I earnestly hope that, at all events, it
+may serve to help on the rising tide of interest in moral education, and
+may stimulate to further inquiry.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Felix Adler.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>CONTENTS</span></h2>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<table summary="CONTENTS">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="center">INTRODUCTORY LECTURES.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"></td>
+    <td><span class="smaller">PAGE</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>I.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Problem of Unsectarian Moral Instruction</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>II.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Efficient Motives of Good Conduct</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>III.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Opportunities for Moral Training in the Daily School</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>IV.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Classification of Duties</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>V.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Moral Outfit of Children on entering School</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="center">PRIMARY COURSE.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>VI.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Use of Fairy Tales</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>VII.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Use of Fables</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>VIII.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Supplementary Remarks on Fables</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>IX.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Selected Stories from the Bible</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>X.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Odyssey and the Iliad</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="center">GRAMMAR COURSE.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="center"><span class="smcap">Lessons on Duty.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>XI.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Duty of acquiring Knowledge</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>XII.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Duties which relate to the Physical Life and the Feelings</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>XIII.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Duties which relate to Others (Filial and Fraternal Duties)</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>XIV.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Duties toward all Men (Justice and Charity)</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>XV.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Elements of Civic Duty</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>XVI.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Use of Proverbs and Speeches</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>XVII.</td>
+    <td class="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Individualization of Moral Teaching</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="center">APPENDIX.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2" class="left">The Influence of Manual Training on Character</td>
+    <td><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>INTRODUCTORY LECTURES.</span></h2>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>I.</span> <span class="smaller">THE PROBLEM OF UNSECTARIAN MORAL INSTRUCTION.</span></h2>
+
+<p>It will be the aim of the present course of lectures to give in outline
+the subject-matter of moral instruction for children from six to
+fourteen or fifteen years of age, and to discuss the methods according
+to which this kind of instruction should be imparted. At the outset,
+however, we are confronted by what certainly is a grave difficulty, and
+to many may appear an insuperable one. The opinion is widely held that
+morality depends on religious sanctions, and that right conduct can not
+be taught&mdash;especially not to children&mdash;except it be under the authority
+of some sort of religious belief. To those who think in this way the
+very phrase, unsectarian moral teaching, is suspicious, as savoring of
+infidelity. And the attempt to mark off a neutral moral zone, outside
+the domains of the churches, is apt to be regarded as masking a covert
+design on religion itself.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of unsectarian moral instruction, however, is neither
+irreligious nor anti-religious. In fact&mdash;as will appear later on&mdash;it
+rests on purely educational grounds, with which the religious bias of
+the educator has nothing whatever to do. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> there are also grounds of
+expediency which, at least in the United States, compel us, whether we
+care to do so or not, to face this problem of unsectarian moral
+education, and to these let us first give our attention. Even if we were
+to admit, for argument's sake, the correctness of the proposition that
+moral truths can only be taught as corollaries of some form of religious
+belief, the question would at once present itself to the educator, To
+which form of religious belief shall he give the preference? I am
+speaking now of the public schools of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>These schools are supported out of the general fund of taxation to which
+all citizens are compelled to contribute. Clearly it would be an act of
+gross injustice to force a citizen belonging to one denomination to pay
+for instilling the doctrines of some other into the minds of the
+young&mdash;in other words, to compel him to support and assist in spreading
+religious ideas in which he does not believe. This would be an outrage
+on the freedom of conscience. But the act of injustice would become
+simply monstrous if parents were to be compelled to help indoctrinate
+their own children with such religious opinions as are repugnant to
+them.</p>
+
+<p>There is no state religion in the United States. In the eyes of the
+state all shades of belief and disbelief are on a par. There are in this
+country Catholics, Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists,
+Jews, etc. They are alike citizens. They contribute alike toward the
+maintenance of the public schools. With what show of fairness, then,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+could the belief of any one of these sects be adopted by the state as a
+basis for the inculcation of moral truths? The case seems, on the face
+of it, a hopeless one. But the following devices have been suggested to
+remove, or rather to circumvent, the difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><i>First Device.</i>&mdash;Let representatives of the various theistic churches,
+including Catholics, Protestants, and Jews, meet in council. Let them
+eliminate all those points in respect to which they differ, and
+formulate a common creed containing only those articles on which they
+can agree. Such a creed would include, for instance, the belief in the
+existence of Deity, in the immortality of the soul, and in future reward
+and punishment. Upon this as a foundation let the edifice of moral
+instruction be erected. There are, however, two obvious objections to
+this plan. In the first place, this "Dreibund" of Catholicism,
+Protestantism, and Judaism would leave out of account the party of the
+agnostics, whose views may indeed be erroneous, or even detestable, but
+whose rights as citizens ought not the less on that account to be
+respected. "<i>Neminem l&aelig;de</i>," hurt no one, is a cardinal rule of justice,
+and should be observed by the friends of religion in their dealings with
+their opponents as well as with one another. The agnostic party has
+grown to quite considerable dimensions in the United States. But, if it
+had not, if there were only a single person who held such opinions, and
+he a citizen, any attempt on the part of the majority to trample upon
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> rights of this one person would still be inexcusable. In the sphere
+of political action the majority rules, and must rule; in matters that
+touch the conscience the smallest minority possesses rights on which
+even an overwhelming majority arrayed on the opposite side can not
+afford to trespass. It is one of the most notable achievements of the
+American commonwealths that they have so distinctly separated between
+the domain of religion and of politics, adopting in the one case the
+maxim of coercion by majority rule, in the other allowing the full
+measure of individual liberty. From this standpoint there should be no
+departure.</p>
+
+<p>But the second objection is even more cogent. It is proposed to
+eliminate the differences which separate the various sects, and to
+formulate their points of agreement into a common creed. But does it not
+occur to those who propose this plan that the very life of a religion is
+to be found precisely in those points in which it differs from its
+neighbors, and that an abstract scheme of belief, such as has been
+sketched, would, in truth, satisfy no one? Thus, out of respect for the
+sentiments of the Jews, it is proposed to omit the doctrines of the
+divinity of Christ and of the atonement. But would any earnest Christian
+give his assent, even provisionally, to a creed from which those
+quintessential doctrines of Christianity have been left out? When the
+Christian maintains that morality must be based on religion, does he not
+mean, above all, on the belief in Christ? Is it not indispensable, from
+his point<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> of view, that the figure of the Saviour shall stand in the
+foreground of moral inculcation and exhortation? Again, when the
+Catholic affirms that the moral teaching of the young must be based on
+religion, is it to be supposed for an instant that he would accept as
+satisfying his conception of religion a skeleton creed like that above
+mentioned, denuded of all those peculiar dogmas which make religion in
+his eyes beautiful and dear? This first device, therefore, is to be
+rejected. It is unjust to the agnostics, and it will never content the
+really religious persons of any denomination. It could prove acceptable
+only to theists pure and simple, whose creed is practically limited to
+the three articles mentioned; namely, the belief in Deity, immortality,
+and future punishment and reward. But this class constitutes a small
+fraction of the community; and it would be absurd, under the specious
+plea of reconciling the various creeds, in effect to impose the
+rationalistic opinions of a few on the whole community.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>second device</i> seems to promise better results. It provides that
+religious and moral instruction combined shall be given in the public
+schools under the auspices of the several denominations. According to
+this plan, the pupils are to be divided, for purposes of moral
+instruction, into separate classes, according to their sectarian
+affiliations, and are to be taught separately by their own clergymen or
+by teachers acting under instructions from the latter. The high
+authority of Germany is invoked in support of this plan. If I am
+correctly informed, the president<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> of one of our leading universities
+has recently spoken in favor of it, and it is likely that an attempt
+will be made to introduce it in the United States. Already in some of
+our reformatory schools and other public institutions separate religious
+services are held by the ministers of the various sects, and we may
+expect that an analogous arrangement will be proposed with respect to
+moral teaching in the common schools. It is necessary, therefore, to pay
+some attention to the German system, and to explain the reasons which
+have induced or compelled the Germans to adopt the compromise just
+described. The chief points to be noted are these: In Germany, church
+and state are united. The King of Prussia, for instance, is the head of
+the Evangelical Church. This constitutes a vital difference between
+America and Germany. Secondly, in Germany the schools existed before the
+state took charge of them. The school system was founded by the Church,
+and the problem which confronted the Government was how to convert
+church schools into state schools. An attempt was made to do this by
+limiting the influence of the clergy, which formerly had been
+all-powerful and all-pervasive, to certain branches and certain hours of
+instruction, thereby securing the supremacy of the state in respect to
+all other branches and at all other hours. In America, on the other
+hand, the state founded the schools <i>ab initio</i>. In Germany the state
+has actually encroached upon the Church, has entered church schools and
+reconstructed them in its own interest. To adopt the German system<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> in
+America would be to permit the Church to encroach upon the state, to
+enter state schools and subordinate them to sectarian purposes. The
+example of Germany can not, therefore, be quoted as a precedent in
+point. The system of compromise in Germany marks an advance in the
+direction of increasing state influence. Its adoption in this country
+would mark a retrograde movement in the direction of increasing church
+influence.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can the system, when considered on its own merits, be called a happy
+one. Prof. Gneist, in his valuable treatise, Die Konfessionelle Schule
+(which may be read by those who desire to inform themselves on the
+historical evolution of the Prussian system), maintains that scientific
+instruction must be unsectarian, while religious instruction must be
+sectarian. I agree to both his propositions. But to my mind it follows
+that, if religious instruction must be sectarian, it ought not to have a
+place in state schools, at least not in a country in which the
+separation of church and state is complete. Moreover, the limitation of
+religious teaching to a few hours a week can never satisfy the earnest
+sectarian. If he wants religion in the schools at all, then he will also
+want that specific kind of religious influence which he favors to
+permeate the whole school. He will insist that history shall be taught
+from his point of view, that the readers shall breathe the spirit of his
+faith, that the science teaching shall be made to harmonize with its
+doctrines, etc. What a paltry concession, indeed, to open the door to
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>clergyman twice or three times a week, and to permit him to teach
+the catechism to the pupils, while the rest of the teaching is withdrawn
+from his control, and is perhaps informed by a spirit alien to his! This
+kind of compromise can never heartily be indorsed; it may be accepted
+under pressure, but submission to it will always be under protest.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The third arrangement that has been suggested is that each sect shall
+build its own schools, and draw upon the fund supplied by taxation
+proportionately to the number of children educated. But to this there
+are again two great objections: First, it is the duty of the state to
+see to it that a high educational standard shall be maintained in the
+schools, and that the money spent on them shall bear fruit in raising
+the general intelligence of the community. But the experience of the
+past proves conclusively that in sectarian schools, especially where
+there are no rival unsectarian institutions to force them into
+competition, the preponderance of zeal and interest is so markedly on
+the side of religious teaching that the secular branches unavoidably
+suffer.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> If it is said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> that the state may prescribe rules and set up
+standards of its own, to which the sectarian schools shall be held to
+conform, we ask, Who is to secure such conformance? The various sects,
+once having gained possession of the public funds, would resent the
+interference of the State. The Inspectors who might be appointed would
+never be allowed to exercise any real control, and the rules which the
+State might prescribe would remain dead letter.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, under such an arrangement, the highest purpose for
+which the public schools exist would be defeated. Sectarian schools tend
+to separate the members of the various denominations from one another,
+and to hinder the growth of that spirit of national unity which it is,
+on the other hand, the prime duty of the public school to create and
+foster. The support of a system of public education out of the proceeds
+of taxation is justifiable in the last analysis as a measure dictated to
+the State by the law of self-preservation. The State maintains public
+schools in order to preserve itself&mdash;i. e., its unity. And this is
+especially true in a republic. In a monarchy the strong arm of the
+reigning dynasty, supported by a ruling class, may perhaps suppress
+discord, and hold the antagonistic elements among the people in
+subjection by sheer force. In a republic only the spirit of unity among
+the people themselves can keep them a people.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> And this spirit is
+fostered in public schools, where children of all classes and sects are
+brought into daily, friendly contact, and where together they are
+indoctrinated into the history, tradition, and aspirations of the nation
+to which they belong.</p>
+
+<p>What then? We have seen that we can not encourage, that we can not
+permit, the establishment of sectarian schools at the public expense. We
+have also seen that we can not teach religion in the public schools.
+Must we, therefore, abandon altogether the hope of teaching the elements
+of morals? Is not moral education conceded to be one of the most
+important, if not the most important, of all branches of education? Must
+we forego the splendid opportunities afforded by the daily schools for
+this purpose? Is there not a way of imparting moral instruction without
+giving just offense to any religious belief or any religious believer,
+or doing violence to the rights of any sect or of any party whatsoever?
+The correct answer to this question would be the solution of the problem
+of unsectarian moral education. I can merely state my answer to-day, in
+the hope that the entire course before us may substantiate it. The
+answer, as I conceive it, is this: It is the business of the moral
+instructor in the school to deliver to his pupils the subject-matter of
+morality, but not to deal with the sanctions of it; to give his pupils a
+clearer understanding of what <i>is</i> right and what <i>is</i> wrong, but not to
+enter into the question why the right should be done and the wrong
+avoided. For example, let us suppose that the teacher is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>treating of
+veracity. He says to the pupil, Thou shalt not lie. He takes it for
+granted that the pupil feels the force of this commandment, and
+acknowledges that he ought to yield obedience to it. For my part, I
+should suspect of quibbling and dishonest intention any boy or girl who
+would ask me, Why ought I not to lie? I should hold up before such a
+child the Ought in all its awful majesty. The right to reason about
+these matters can not be conceded until after the mind has attained a
+certain maturity. And as a matter of fact every good child agrees with
+the teacher unhesitatingly when he says, It is wrong to lie. There is an
+answering echo in its heart which confirms the teacher's words. But
+what, then, is it my business as a moral teacher to do? In the first
+place, to deepen the impression of the wrongfulness of lying, and the
+sacredness of truth, by the spirit in which I approach the subject. My
+first business is to convey the spirit of moral reverence to my pupils.
+In the next place, I ought to quicken the pupil's perceptions of what is
+right and wrong, in the case supposed, of what is truth and what is
+falsehood. Accordingly, I should analyze the different species of lies,
+with a view of putting the pupils on their guard against the spirit of
+falsehood, however it may disguise itself. I should try to make my
+pupils see that, whenever they intentionally convey a false impression,
+they are guilty of falsehood. I should try to make their minds
+intelligent and their consciences sensitive in the matter of
+truth-telling, so that they may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> avoid those numerous ambiguities of
+which children are so fond, and which are practiced even by adults. I
+should endeavor to tonic their moral nature with respect to
+truthfulness. In the next place, I should point out to them the most
+frequent motives which lead to lying, so that, by being warned against
+the causes, they may the more readily escape the evil consequences. For
+example, cowardice is one cause of lying. By making the pupil ashamed of
+cowardice, we can often cure him of the tendency to falsehood. A
+redundant imagination is another cause of lying, envy is another cause,
+selfishness in all its forms is a principal cause, etc. I should say to
+the moral teacher: Direct the pupil's attention to the various dangerous
+tendencies in his nature, which tempt him into the ways of falsehood.
+Furthermore, explain to your pupils the consequences of falsehood: the
+loss of the confidence of our fellow-men, which is the immediate and
+palpable result of being detected in a lie; the injuries inflicted on
+others; the loosening of the bonds of mutual trust in society at large;
+the loss of self-respect on the part of the liar; the fatal necessity of
+multiplying lies, of inventing new falsehoods to make good the first,
+etc. A vast amount of good, I am persuaded, can be done in this way by
+stimulating the moral nature, by enabling the scholar to detect the
+finer shades of right and wrong, helping him to trace temptation to its
+source, and erecting in his mind barriers against evil-doing, founded on
+a realizing sense of its consequences.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar if not exactly the same way, all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> other principal
+topics of practical morality can be handled. The conscience can be
+enlightened, strengthened, guided, and all this can be done without once
+raising the question why it is wrong to do what is forbidden. That it is
+wrong should rather, as I have said, be assumed. The ultimate grounds of
+moral obligation need never be discussed in school. It is the business
+of religion and philosophy to propose theories, or to formulate articles
+of belief with respect to the ultimate sources and sanctions of duty.
+Religion says we ought to do right because it is the will of God, or for
+the love of Christ. Philosophy says we should do right for utilitarian
+or transcendental reasons, or in obedience to the law of evolution, etc.
+The moral teacher, fortunately, is not called upon to choose between
+these various metaphysical and theological asseverations. As an
+individual he may subscribe to any one of them, but as a teacher he is
+bound to remain within the safe limits of his own province. He is not to
+explain why we should do the right, but to make the young people who are
+intrusted to his charge see more clearly what is right, and to instill
+into them his own love of and respect for the right. There is a body of
+moral truth upon which all good men, of whatever sect or opinion, are
+agreed: <i>it is the business of the public schools to deliver to their
+pupils this common fund of moral truth</i>. But I must hasten to add, to
+deliver it not in the style of the preacher, but according to the
+methods of the pedagogue&mdash;i. e., in a systematic way, the moral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> lessons
+being graded to suit the varying ages and capacities of the pupils, and
+the illustrative material being sorted and arranged in like manner.
+Conceive the modern educational methods to have been applied to that
+stock of moral truths which all good men accept, and you will have the
+material for the moral lessons which are needed in a public school.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Since the above was written, the draft of the
+<i>Volksschulgesetz</i> submitted to the Prussian Legislature, and the
+excited debates to which it gave rise, have supplied a striking
+confirmation of the views expressed in the text. Nothing could be more
+mistaken than to propose for imitation elsewhere the German "solution"
+of the problem of moral teaching in schools, especially at a time when
+the Germans themselves are taking great pains to make it clear that they
+are as far as possible from having found a solution.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> During the reactionary period which followed the Revolution
+of 1848, the school regulations of Kur-Hessen provided that twenty hours
+a week be devoted in the Volkschulen to religious teaching.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>II.</span> <span class="smaller">THE EFFICIENT MOTIVES OF GOOD CONDUCT.</span></h2>
+
+<p>There are persons in whom moral principle seems to have completely
+triumphed; whose conduct, so far as one can judge, is determined solely
+by moral rules; but whom, nevertheless, we do not wholly admire. We feel
+instinctively that there is in their virtue a certain flaw&mdash;the absence
+of a saving grace. They are too rigorous, too much the slaves of duty.
+They lack geniality.</p>
+
+<p>Like religion, morality has its fanatics. Thus, there is in the
+temperance movement a class of fanatics who look at every public
+question from the point of view of temperance reform, and from that
+only. There are also woman's-rights fanatics, social purity fanatics,
+etc. The moral fanatic in every case is a person whose attention is
+wholly engrossed by some one moral interest, and who sees this out of
+its relation to other moral interests. The end he has in view may be in
+itself highly laudable, but the exaggerated emphasis put upon it, the
+one-sided pursuit of it, is a mischievous error.</p>
+
+<p>Observe, further, that there are degrees of moral fanaticism. The
+fanatic of the first degree, to whom Emerson addresses the words, "What
+right<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> have you, sir, to your one virtue?" has just been described. He
+is a person who exalts some one moral rule at the expense of the others.
+A fanatic of a higher order is he who exalts the whole body of moral
+rules at the expense of human instincts and desires. He is a person who
+always acts according to rule; who introduces moral considerations into
+every detail of life; who rides the moral hobby; in whose eyes the
+infinite complexity of human affairs has only one aspect, namely, the
+moral; who is never satisfied unless at every step he feels the strain
+of the bridle of conscience; who is incapable of spontaneous action and
+of <i>na&iuml;ve</i> enjoyment. It is believed that there are not a few persons of
+this description in the United States, and especially in the New England
+States&mdash;fanatics on the moral side, examples of a one-sided development
+in the direction of moral formalism. We must be very careful, when
+insisting on the authority of moral ideas, lest we encourage in the
+young a tendency of this sort. The hearts of children are very pliable;
+it is easily possible to produce on them too deep an impression: to give
+them at the outset a fatal twist, all the more since at a certain age
+many young people are prone to exaggerated introspection and
+self-questioning. But it may be asked: Are not moral principles really
+clothed with supreme authority? Ought we not, indeed, to keep the
+standard of righteousness constantly before our eyes; in brief, is it
+possible to be too moral? Evidently we have reached a point where a
+distinction requires to be drawn.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p><p>Ethics is a science of relations. The things related are human
+interests, human ends. The ideal which ethics proposes to itself is the
+unity of ends, just as the ideal of science is the unity of causes. The
+ends of the natural man are the subject-matter with which ethics deals.
+The ends of the natural man are not to be crushed or wiped out, but to
+be brought into right relations with one another. The ends of the
+natural man are to be respected from an ethical point of view, so long
+as they remain within their proper limits. The moral laws are formulas
+expressing relations of equality or subordination, or superordination.
+The moral virtue of our acts consists in the respect which we pay to the
+system of relationships thus prescribed, in the willingness with which
+we co-ordinate our interests with those of others, or subordinate them
+to those of others, as the exigencies of the moral situation may
+require.</p>
+
+<p>But the point on which it is now necessary to fix our attention is that
+when morality has once sanctioned any of the ends of life, the natural
+man may be left to pursue them without interference on the part of the
+moralist. When morality has marked out the boundaries within which the
+given end shall be pursued, its work so far is done; except, indeed,
+that we are always to keep an eye upon those boundaries, and that the
+sense of their existence should pervade the whole atmosphere of our
+lives.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> A few illustrations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> will make my meaning clear. There is a
+moral rule which says that we should eat to live; not, conversely, live
+to eat. This means that we should regulate our food in such a way that
+the body may become a fit instrument for the higher purposes of
+existence, and that the time and attention bestowed upon the matter of
+eating shall not be so great as to divert us from other and more
+necessary objects. But, these limits being established, it does not
+follow that it is wrong or unspiritual to enjoy a meal. The senses, even
+the lowest of them, are permitted to have free play within the bounds
+prescribed. Nor, again, should we try rigidly to determine the choice of
+food according to moral considerations. It would be ridiculous to
+attempt to do so. The choice of food within a wide range depends
+entirely on taste, and has nothing to do with moral considerations
+(whether, for instance, we should have squash or beans for dinner).
+Those who are deeply impressed with the importance of moral rules are
+often betrayed into applying them to the veriest minuti&aelig; of conduct. Did
+they remember that ethics is a science of relations, or, what amounts to
+the same thing, a science of limits, they would be saved such pedantry.
+Undoubtedly there are moral <i>adiaphora</i>. The fact that such exist has
+been a stumbling-block in the way of those who believe that morality
+ought to cover the whole of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>conduct. The definition of ethics as a
+science of relations or limits removes this stumbling-block. Ethics
+stands at the frontier. With what goes on in the interior it does not
+interfere, except in so far as the limitations it prescribes are an
+interference. Take another illustration. Ethics condemns vanity and
+whatever ministers to vanity&mdash;as, e. g., undue attention to dress and
+adornment of the person&mdash;on the ground that this implies an immoral
+subordination of the inner to the outer, of the higher to the lesser
+ends. But, to lay down a cast-iron rule as to how much one has a right
+to expend on dress, can not be the office of ethics, on account of the
+infinite variety of conditions and occupations which subsists among men.
+And the attempt to prescribe a single fashion of dress, by sumptuary
+laws or otherwise, would impair that freedom of taste which it is the
+business of the moralist to respect. Again, every one knows with what
+bitterness the moral rigorists of all ages have condemned the impulse
+which attracts the sexes toward one another, and how often they have
+tried, though vainly, to crush it. But here, again, the true attitude is
+indicated by the definition of ethics as a science of limits. The moral
+law prescribes bounds within which this emotional force shall be free to
+operate, and claims for it the holy name of love, so long as it remains
+within the bounds prescribed, and, being within, remains conscious of
+them. That is what is meant when we speak of spiritualizing the
+feelings. The feelings are spiritualized when they move within certain
+limits, and when the sense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> of the existence of these limits penetrates
+them, and thereby imparts to them a new and nobler quality. And, because
+such limitation is felt to be satisfying and elevating, the system of
+correlations which we call ethical, and which, abstractly stated, would
+fail to interest, does by this means find an entrance into the human
+heart, and awakens in it the sense of the sublimity and the blessedness
+of the moral commands.</p>
+
+<p>There are two defects of the moral fanatic which can now be signalized:
+First, he wrongly believes that whatever is not of morality is against
+it. He therefore is tempted to frown upon the natural pleasures; to
+banish them if he can, and, if not, to admit them only within the
+narrowest possible limits as a reluctant concession to the weakness of
+human nature. In consequence, the moral fanatic commits the enormity of
+introducing the taint of the sense of sin into the most innocent
+enjoyments, and thus perverts and distorts the conscience. Secondly, he
+is always inclined to seek a moral reason for that which has only a
+natural one; to forget that, like the great conquerors of antiquity,
+Morality respects the laws of the several realms which it unites into a
+single empire, and guarantees to each the unimpaired maintenance of its
+local customs. These remarks are intended to serve as a general caution.
+I find that young people, when they have become awakened on ethical
+subjects, often betray a tendency toward moral asceticism. I find that
+teachers, in the earnest desire to impress the laws of the moral empire,
+are sometimes betrayed into disregarding the provincial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> laws of the
+senses, the intellect, and the feelings; are apt to go too far in
+applying moral prescriptions to the minuti&aelig; of conduct; are apt to leave
+the impression that pleasant things, just because they are pleasant, are
+therefore sinful.</p>
+
+<p>But we have now to take a further step, which will bring us close to our
+special subject for to-day, viz., the efficient motives of good conduct.
+The non-moral faculties are not only not anti-moral, as has been shown,
+but, when appealed to in the right way, they lend to Morality a
+friendly, an almost indispensable support. The &aelig;sthetic, the
+intellectual, and the emotional faculty have not in themselves a moral
+quality, but when used as auxiliaries they pave the way for moral
+considerations pure and simple, and have in this sense an immense
+prop&aelig;deutic value. Without entering in this place into the philosophy of
+&aelig;sthetics, it is enough to say that the beautiful, like the good,
+results from and depends on the observance of certain limits and certain
+relations. And it will not seem far-fetched to suggest that pupils who
+have been trained to appreciate moderation, restraint and harmony of
+relations in external objects, will be predisposed to apply analogous
+measures to matters of conduct, and that a standard of valuation will
+thus be created in their minds which must prove favorable to right
+action. &AElig;sthetics may become a pedagogue unto ethics. The same
+pedagogical function may be claimed for the intellect. The intellect
+traces the connection between causes and effects. Applied to conduct, it
+shows the connection between acts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> and their consequences. It is the
+faculty which counsels prudence. One does not need to accept the
+egoistic theory of morals to concede that self-interest is an ally of
+morality, that Prudence and Virtue travel hand in hand a certain
+distance on the same road. Not, indeed, until the ideal state shall have
+been reached will the dictates of the two ever coincide entirely; but to
+a certain extent the coincidence already exists, and the moral teacher
+is justified in availing himself of it as far as it goes.</p>
+
+<p>To take a very simple case&mdash;a child handles a knife which it has been
+told not to touch, and cuts his fingers. Morally speaking, his fault is
+disobedience. He would have been equally guilty if he had escaped
+injury. But he would hardly be so ready to obey another time, if he had
+been less sharply reminded of the usefulness of obedience. It is wrong
+to lie&mdash;wrong on purely moral grounds, with which self-interest has
+nothing to do. But for all that we can not dispense with the lesson
+contained in the well-known fable of the boy who cried, "Wolf!" It is
+wrong to steal on purely moral grounds. But even a child can be made to
+understand that the thief, as Emerson puts it, "steals from himself,"
+and that, besides being a rogue, he is deficient in enlightened
+self-interest. The maxim that honesty is the best policy is true enough
+so far as the facts are concerned, which come under the observation of
+children, though one may question whether it be true absolutely.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, when we come to consider the emotional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> faculty, we find that
+the intimate connection between it and the moral is so generally
+conceded as to make it quite superfluous to expatiate on it. On the
+contrary, it seems necessary to expostulate with those who claim too
+much credit for the feelings, who ascribe to them a moral value which
+they by no means possess. Thus, gentleness is not necessarily a virtue;
+it may be a mere matter of temperament. Sympathetic impulses, <i>per se</i>,
+are not praiseworthy. Sympathy quite as often leads us astray as aright;
+sympathy, indeed, unless tutored and regulated by moral principles, is a
+danger against which we ought to be on our guard almost as much as
+against selfishness. Yet, no one will deny that the feelings, when
+rightly trained, are of inestimable service as auxiliaries in the task
+of moral education.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up, let me say that the wise teacher will appeal to the taste,
+the intelligence, and the feelings of his pupils; that he will touch
+these various springs of conduct all the time, and get from them all the
+help he can. Thus, when speaking of cleanliness, he will appeal to the
+&aelig;sthetic instinct of the children, awakening in them a feeling of
+disgust at untidiness. He will appeal to the prudential motive, by
+showing that want of cleanliness breeds disease. "You do not wish to be
+sick? You do not wish to suffer? Therefore, it is to your interest to be
+clean." But, finally, he will touch a higher motive than any of these.
+"If you are unclean, you cease to respect yourself." And the term
+self-respect expresses in a condensed form the moral motive proper. It
+implies the idea of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> moral personality, which it is not necessary, nor
+possible, at this stage to analyze, but which the pupil will somehow
+understand, for his conscience will respond. In many cases the appeal
+will be made chiefly to the sympathetic feelings; for through these
+feelings we become aware of the pains and joys of others, and thus of
+the consequences of the benefits we confer or the evil we inflict. The
+sympathetic feelings supply the information upon which the will can act.
+They tell us that others suffer or are glad. And yet the strength to
+labor persistently for the relief of others' suffering and the
+enhancement of others' joy&mdash;that we can derive from the moral impulse
+alone.</p>
+
+<p>The moral motive is the highest, it is really the only sufficient
+motive. Pray, understand me well at this point. I should say to the
+child: It is wrong to lie. That is sufficient. It is wrong, it is
+forbidden; you must yourself acknowledge the truth of my words, because
+you despise yourself when you have told a lie. But, in order to
+strengthen your weak resolution, to confirm you in well-doing, let me
+show you that it is also contrary to self-interest to lie, and likewise
+that it is disgusting to be unclean, and that a wrong done to another
+causes pain. Thus the &aelig;sthetic, intellectual, and emotional faculties
+are called in as witnesses to bear testimony to the moral truths; they
+are invited to stand up in chorus and say Amen! to the moral commands.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> It must be remembered also that our knowledge of the right
+ethical relations is still extremely imperfect, and that the duty of
+extending the knowledge and promoting the recognition of them is perhaps
+the highest of all&mdash;to which, on occasion, every lesser end must be
+sacrificed.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>III.</span> <span class="smaller">OPPORTUNITIES FOR MORAL TRAINING IN THE DAILY SCHOOL.</span></h2>
+
+<p>The school should be to the pupil not an intellectual drill-ground, but
+a second home; a place dear at the time, and to be gratefully remembered
+ever after; a place in which his whole nature, and especially what is
+best in him, may expand and grow. The educational aim should be, not
+merely to pave the pupil's way to future success, not merely to make of
+his mind a perfect instrument of thought, a kind of intellectual loom,
+capable of turning out the most complicated intellectual patterns. The
+aim should be, above all; to build up manhood, to develop character.
+There is no school in which moral influence is wanting. The pity is,
+that in many schools it is incidental, not purposed. And yet there are
+manifold opportunities in every school for influencing the moral life.
+Let us consider a few of these.</p>
+
+<p><i>1.</i> The teaching of <i>science</i> lends itself to the cultivation of
+truthfulness. Truthfulness may be defined as the correspondence between
+thought and word and fact. When the thought in the mind fits the fact,
+and the word on the tongue fits the thought, then the circuit of truth
+is complete. Now, with respect to the inculcating of truthfulness,
+science<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> teaching has this advantage above other branches, that the
+palpable nature of the facts dealt with makes it possible to note and
+check the least deviation from the truth. The fact is present, right
+before the pupil, to rebuke him if he strays from it in thought or
+speech. And this circumstance may be utilized even in the humble
+beginnings of science teaching, in the so-called object-lessons. For
+instance, a bird, or the picture of one, is placed before the child. The
+teacher says, "Observe closely and tell me exactly what you see&mdash;the
+length of the neck, the curve of the beak, the colors of the plumage,"
+etc. The pupil replies. The teacher objects: "You have not observed
+accurately. The color is not what you describe it to be. Look again. The
+curve of the beak does not resemble what you have just drawn on the
+blackboard. You must tell me exactly what you see. Your words must tally
+with the facts." And the same sort of practice may be continued in the
+science-lessons of the upper classes.</p>
+
+<p>Scientists are distinguished from other observers by their greater
+accuracy. Intellectual honesty is that moral quality which science is
+best calculated to foster. All the great scientists have been haunted by
+a high ideal of truth, and a gleam of that ideal, however faint, may be
+made to shed its light even into the school-room. It is obvious that
+this realistic tutoring into veracity will be of special use to children
+who are led into lying by a too vivid imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Let me add the following remarks in regard to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> indirect means of
+promoting truthfulness: The teacher can do a great deal to cultivate
+respect for the truth among his pupils by frankly admitting an error
+whenever he has fallen into one. Some teachers try to save their dignity
+by glossing over their mistakes. But even young children are shrewd
+enough to estimate such trickery at its worth; while he who manfully
+confesses that he has been in the wrong, earns the respect of his class,
+and sets them an invaluable example.</p>
+
+<p>It is well also to observe strict accuracy even in matters which of
+themselves are of no moment. For instance, in giving an account of a
+botanizing expedition, you begin, perhaps, by saying, "It was half-past
+ten when we arrived at our destination." Suddenly you stop and correct
+yourself. "No, I was mistaken; it could not have been later than ten
+o'clock." Does this strike you as pedantic? But if you fix the time at
+all, is it not worth while to fix it with approximate exactness? True,
+it makes no difference in regard to what you are about to relate,
+whether you arrived at half-past ten or at ten. But, precisely because
+it makes no difference, it shows the value which you set on accuracy
+even in trifles. And by such little turns of phrase, by such
+insubstantial influences, coming from the teacher, the pupil's character
+is molded.</p>
+
+<p><i>2.</i> <i>The study of history</i>, when properly conducted is of high moral
+value. History sets before the mind examples of heroism, of
+self-sacrifice, of love of country, of devotion to principles at the
+greatest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> cost. How can such examples fail to inspire, to ennoble, to
+awaken emulation? The great and good men of the past, the virtuous and
+the wise, serve as models to the young, and often arouse in them an
+enthusiastic admiration, a passionate discipleship. In the next place,
+the study of history may be used to exercise the moral judgment. The
+characters which history presents are not all good; the characters even
+of the good are by no means faultless. It is in the power of the teacher
+to train the moral judgment and to increase the moral insight of his
+pupils by leading them to enter into the motives, and to weigh the right
+and wrong of the actions which history reports. He will also find many
+an occasion to warn against being dazzled by brilliant success to such a
+degree as to condone the moral turpitude by which it is often bought.
+The study of history can thus be made the means of enlightening the
+conscience as well as of awakening generous aspirations&mdash;but, let me
+hasten to add, only in the hands of a teacher who is himself morally
+mature, and fully imbued with the responsibilities of his task. Lastly,
+the study of history among advanced pupils may be used to confirm the
+moral idea of the mission of mankind, and to set it in its true light.
+The human race, as, from the moral point of view, we are bound to
+assume, exists on earth in order to attempt the solution of a sublime
+problem&mdash;the problem of the perfect civilization, the just society, the
+"kingdom of God." But on every page of history there are facts that warn
+us that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> progress toward this high ideal is of necessity slow. Whether
+we review the evolution of religion, or of political institutions, or of
+industrial society, we are still forced to the same solemn conclusion,
+that in view of the ultimate goal, "a thousand years are as a day," and
+that while we may not relax our efforts to attain the ideal, we must be
+well content in case we are permitted to advance the mighty work even a
+little. This conviction is calculated to engender in us a new spirit of
+piety and self-abnegation, which yet is consistent with perfect alacrity
+in discharging the duty of the hour.</p>
+
+<p>There could be no better result from the study of history among young
+men and young women than if it should have the effect of impressing on
+them this new piety, this genuine historic sense, in which the average
+citizen, especially of democratic communities, is so conspicuously
+deficient. But this is a digression which I must ask you to pardon.</p>
+
+<p><i>3.</i> The moral value of the <i>study of literature</i> is as great as it is
+obvious. Literature is the medium through which all that part of our
+inner life finds expression which defies scientific formulation. In the
+text-books of science we possess the net result of the purely
+intellectual labors of the past; in universal literature we have
+composite photographs, as it were, of the typical hopes, sentiments, and
+aspirations of the race. Literature gives a voice to that within us
+which would otherwise remain dumb, and fixity to that which would
+otherwise be evanescent. The best literature, and especially the best
+poetry, is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> glass in which we see our best selves reflected. There is
+a legend which tells of two spirits, the one an angel, the other a
+demon, that accompany every human being through life, and walk invisibly
+at his side. The one represents our bad self, the other our better self.
+The moral service which the best literature renders us is to make the
+invisible angel visible.</p>
+
+<p><i>4.</i> I can but cast a cursory glance at some of the remaining branches
+of instruction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manual training</i> has a moral effect upon the pupil, of which I have
+spoken at some length on another occasion.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Music</i>, apart from its subtler influences, which can not be considered
+here, has the special function of producing in the pupil a feeling of
+oneness with others, or of social unity. This is best accomplished
+through the instrumentality of chorus singing, while particular moral
+sentiments, like charity, love of home, etc., can be inculcated by means
+of the texts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnastic</i> exercises likewise have a moral effect in promoting habits
+of self-control, prompt obedience at the word of command, etc. Indeed,
+it is not difficult to show the moral bearings of the ordinary branches
+of instruction. It would, on the contrary, be difficult to find a single
+one, which, when rightly viewed, is not surrounded by a moral
+photosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Science, history, literature, and the other branches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> lend themselves in
+various ways to the development of character. But there are certain
+other opportunities which every school offers, apart from the teaching,
+and these may be utilized to the same end. The discipline of the school,
+above all, has an immense effect on the character. If it is of the right
+kind, a beneficial effect; if not, a most pernicious one.</p>
+
+<p>The mere working of what may be called the school machinery tends to
+inculcate habits of order, punctuality, and the like. The aggregation of
+a large number of scholars in the same building and their intercourse
+with one another under the eye of the teachers, afford frequent
+opportunities for impressing lessons of kindness, politeness, mutual
+helpfulness, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The recitations of lessons give occasion not only to suppress prompting,
+but to eradicate the motives which lead to it, and to impress deeply the
+duty of honesty.</p>
+
+<p>The very atmosphere of the class-room should be such as to encourage
+moral refinement; it should possess a sunny climate, so to speak, in
+which meanness and vulgarity can not live.</p>
+
+<p>But there is especially one avenue of influence, which I have much at
+heart to recommend. The teacher should join in the <i>games</i> of his
+pupils. He will thus at once come to stand on a friendly footing with
+them, and win their confidence, without in the least derogating from his
+proper dignity. And thus will be removed that barrier which in many
+schools<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> separates pupils and teachers to such a degree that there
+actually seem to exist side by side two worlds&mdash;the world to which the
+teacher has access, and the world from which he is shut out. Moreover,
+while they are at play, the true character of the pupils reveals itself.
+At such times the sneak, the cheat, the bully, the liar, shows his true
+colors, and the teacher has the best opportunity of studying these
+pathological subjects and of curing their moral defects. For, while
+playing with them, as one concerned in the game, he has the right to
+insist on fair dealing, to express his disgust at cowardice, to take the
+part of the weak against the strong, and his words spoken on the
+playground will have tenfold the effect of any hortatory address which
+he might deliver from the platform. The greatest and most successful of
+teachers have not disdained to use this device.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, let me say that the personality of the master or principal of
+the school is the chief factor of moral influence in it. Put a great,
+sound, whole-souled nature at the head of a school, and everything else
+may almost be taken for granted. In every school there exists a public
+opinion among the scholars, by which they are affected to a far greater
+degree than by the words of their superiors. The tactful master will
+direct his chief attention to shaping and improving this public opinion,
+while at the same time interfering as little as possible with the
+freedom of his pupils. He can accomplish his purpose by drawing close to
+himself those scholars who make the public opinion of the school, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+these in turn he can win to fine and manly views only by the effect of
+his personality. The personality of the head-master is everything. It is
+the ultimate source of power in the school, the central organ which
+sends out its life-giving currents through the whole organism. And let
+me here add that, if I am in favor of excluding direct religious
+teaching from our schools, I am not in favor of excluding religious
+influence. That, too, flows from the personality of the true master. For
+if he be reverent, a truly pious soul, humble in his estimate of self,
+not valuing his petty schoolmaster's authority on its own account, but
+using it lovingly as an instrument for higher ends, he will be sure to
+communicate of his spirit to his pupils, and by that spirit will open
+their hearts, better than by any doctrinal teaching he could give, to
+the reception of the highest spiritual truths.</p>
+
+<p>By all these means&mdash;by the culture of the intellect, the taste, and the
+feelings, by his daily dealings with the young, in work and play&mdash;the
+teacher helps to create in them certain moral habits. Why, then, should
+not these habits suffice? What need is there of specific moral
+instruction? And what is the relation of moral instruction to the habits
+thus engendered?</p>
+
+<p>The function of moral instruction is to clinch the habits. The function
+of moral instruction is to explicate in clear statements, fit to be
+grasped by the intellect, the laws of duty which underlie the habits.
+The value of such intellectual statements is that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> give a rational
+underpinning to moral practice, and, furthermore, that they permit the
+moral rules to be applied to new cases not heretofore brought within the
+scope of habit. This thought will be more fully developed and explained
+as we proceed.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In the address on the subject, reprinted in the Appendix.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>IV.</span> <span class="smaller">CLASSIFICATION OF DUTIES.</span></h2>
+
+<p>The topics of which moral instruction treats are the duties of life. To
+teach the duties, however, we must adopt some system of classification.
+To which system shall we give the preference? The difficulty which we
+encountered at the outset seems to meet us here in a new guise.</p>
+
+<p>For most if not all of the systems of classification commonly proposed
+are based upon some metaphysical theory or some theological doctrine. To
+adopt any one of these would be tantamount to adopting the theory or
+theology on which it is founded; would be equivalent to introducing
+surreptitiously a particular philosophy or creed into the minds of the
+pupils; and this would be a plain departure from the unsectarian
+principle to which we are pledged. Thus, Plato's fourfold division of
+the virtues into the so-called cardinal virtues of temperance, courage,
+justice, wisdom, is based on his psychology. Aristotle's division of the
+virtues into dianoetic and what he calls ethical virtues is clearly
+dependent on what may be termed Aristotle's intellectualism&mdash;i. e., the
+supreme importance which he assigns to the functions of the intellect,
+or &#957;&#959;&#8017;&#962; [Greek: noûs], in the attainment of the perfect life.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p><p>Kant's division of duties into complete and incomplete is an outgrowth
+of the ideas developed in his Critique of Pure Reason; the philosopher
+Herbart's fivefold classification reflects his metaphysical theory of
+reality; while the systems of ethical classification which are to be
+found in theological handbooks betray still more clearly the bias of
+their authors.</p>
+
+<p>We can, I think, find a simple way out of this difficulty by proceeding
+in the following manner: Let us take for our guidance the objects to
+which duty relates, and disregard the sources from which it flows. It is
+conceded on all hands that every one is to himself an object of duty,
+that he has certain duties to perform with respect to himself, as, for
+instance, the duty of intellectual development; furthermore, that every
+person owes certain duties to his fellow-men generally, in virtue of the
+fact that they are human beings; again, that there are special duties
+which we owe to particular persons, such as parents, brothers, and
+sisters; finally, that there are certain duties, into which, so to
+speak, we are born, like the ones last mentioned, and others which we
+can freely assume or not, like the conjugal duties, but which, once
+assumed, become as binding as the former. Thus the very structure of
+human society suggests a scheme of classification. And this scheme has
+the advantage of being a purely objective one. It keeps close to the
+facts, it is in harmony with the unsectarian principle, and it is
+perfectly fair. It leaves the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> problem of first principles entirely
+untouched. That we have such duties to perform with respect to self and
+others, no one questions. Let philosophers differ as to the ultimate
+motives of duty. Let them reduce the facts of conscience to any set of
+first principles which may suit them. It is our part as instructors to
+interpret the facts of conscience, not to seek for them an ultimate
+explanation.</p>
+
+<p>Let me briefly indicate how the different duties may be made to fall
+into line according to the plan of classification which has just been
+suggested. The whole field of duty may be divided into three main
+provinces:<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> those duties which relate to ourselves, those which we owe
+to all men, and those which arise in the special relations of the
+family, the state, etc.:</p>
+
+<p>I. The Self-regarding Duties.</p>
+
+<p>These may again be subdivided into duties relating to our physical
+nature, to the intellect, and to the feelings.</p>
+
+<p>Under the head of physical duties belong the prohibition of suicide, and
+the duties of physical culture, temperance, and chastity.</p>
+
+<p>Intellectual Duties.&mdash;Under this head may be ranged the duty of
+acquiring knowledge and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> subsidiary duties of order, diligence,
+perseverance in study; while, for those who are beyond the school age,
+special stress should be laid on the duty of mental genuineness. This
+may be expressed in the words: To thine own mental self be true. Study
+thine own mental bent. Try to discover in what direction thy proper
+talent lies, and make the most of it. Work thine own mine: if it be a
+gold-mine, bring forth gold; if it be a silver-mine, bring forth silver;
+if it be an iron-mine, bring forth iron. Endeavor to master some one
+branch of knowledge thoroughly well. It is for thee the key which opens
+the gates of all knowledge. The need of general culture is felt by all,
+but the concentration of intellectual efforts on special studies is not
+inconsistent with it. On the contrary, special studies alone enable us
+to gain a foothold in the realm of knowledge. A branch of knowledge
+which we have mastered, however small, may be compared to a strong
+fortress in an enemy's country, from which we can sally forth at will to
+conquer the surrounding territory. Knowledge may also be likened to a
+sphere. From every point of the circumference we can, by persistent
+labor, dig down to the center. He who has reached the center commands
+the sphere.</p>
+
+<p>Duties which relate to the Feelings.&mdash;The principal duty under this head
+may be expressed in the twofold command&mdash;control and purify thy
+feelings! The feelings which need to be repressed are anger, fear,
+self-complacency. Let the teacher, when he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> reaches this point, dwell
+upon the causes and the consequences of anger. Let him speak of certain
+helps which have been found useful for the suppression of angry passion.
+Let him distinguish anger from moral indignation.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with fear let him pursue the same method. Let him distinguish
+physical from moral cowardice, brute courage from moral courage, courage
+from fortitude.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with self-complacency let him discriminate between vanity and
+pride, between pride and dignity. Let him show that humility and dignity
+are consistent with one another, yes, that they are complementary
+aspects of one and the same moral quality. Not the least advantage to be
+reaped from lessons on duty is the fixing in the pupil's mind of the
+moral vocabulary. The moral terms as a rule are loosely used, and this
+can not but lead to confusion in their application. Precise definitions,
+based on thorough discussion, are an excellent means of moral
+training.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>II. The duties which we owe to all men are Justice and Charity:</p>
+
+<p>Be just is equivalent to&mdash;Do not hinder the development of any of thy
+fellow-men. Be charitable is equivalent to&mdash;Assist the development of
+thy fellow-men. Under the head of charity the teacher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> will have
+occasion to speak not only of almsgiving, the visitation of the sick,
+and the like, but of the thousand charities of the fireside, of the
+charity of bright looks, of what may be called intellectual charity,
+which consists in opening the eyes of the mentally blind, and of the
+noblest charity of all, which consists in coming to the aid of those who
+are deep in the slough of moral despond, in raising the sinful and
+fallen.</p>
+
+<p>III. Special social duties:</p>
+
+<p>Under this head belong the duties which arise in the family: the
+conjugal, the parental, the filial, the fraternal duties.</p>
+
+<p>Under the head of duties peculiar to the various avocations should be
+discussed the ethics of the professions, the ethics of the relations
+between employers and laborers, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The consideration of the duties of the citizen opens up the whole
+territory of political ethics.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the purely elective relationships of friendship and religious
+fellowship give rise to certain fine and lofty ethical conceptions, the
+discussion of which may fitly crown the whole course.</p>
+
+<p>I have thus mentioned some of the main topics of practical ethics, from
+which we are to make our selection for the moral lessons.</p>
+
+<p>But a selective principle is needed. The field being spread out before
+us, the question arises, At what point shall we enter it? What topics
+shall we single out? It would be manifestly absurd, for instance, to
+treat of international ethics, or of conjugal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>ethics, in a course
+intended for children. But especially the order in which the different
+topics are to follow each other needs to be determined. The order
+followed in the above sketch is a purely logical one, and the logical
+arrangement of a subject, as every educator knows, is not usually the
+one most suitable for bringing it within reach of the understanding of
+children. It would not be in the present instance. Clearly a selective
+principle is wanted.</p>
+
+<p>Let me here interrupt myself for a moment to say that the problem which
+we are attacking, so far from being solved, has heretofore hardly even
+been stated. And this is due to the fact that moral instruction has been
+thus far almost entirely in the hands of persons whose chief interest
+was religious, and who, whatever their good intentions might be, were
+hardly qualified to look at the subject from the educator's point of
+view. The work of breaking ground in the matter of moral instruction has
+still to be done. As to the selective principle which I have in view I
+feel a certain confidence in its correctness; but I am aware that the
+applications of it will doubtless require manifold amendment and
+correction, for which purpose I invoke the experience and honest
+criticism of my fellow-teachers. This being understood, I venture to ask
+your attention to the following considerations:</p>
+
+<p>The life of every human being naturally divides itself into distinct
+periods&mdash;infancy, childhood, youth, etc. Each period has a set of
+interests and of corresponding duties peculiar to itself. The moral
+teaching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> should be graded according to periods. The teaching
+appropriate to any period is that which bears upon the special duties of
+that period. To illustrate, the ethics of childhood may be summarized as
+follows: The personal duties of a child are chiefly the observance of a
+few simple rules of health and the curbing of its temper. It owes social
+duties to parents, brothers and sisters, and kinsfolk, to its playmates,
+and to servants. The child is not yet a citizen, and the ethics of
+politics, therefore, lie far beyond its horizon; it does not yet require
+to be taught professional ethics, and does not need to learn even the
+elements of intellectual duty, because its energies are still absorbed
+in physical growth and play. The duties of childhood can be readily
+stated. The peculiar duties of the subsequent stages of development, for
+instance, of middle life and old age, are complex, and not so easy to
+define. But I believe that the attempt to describe them will throw light
+on many recondite problems in ethics.</p>
+
+<p>My first point therefore is, that the moral teaching at a given period
+should be made to fit the special duties of that period. Secondly&mdash;and
+this touches the core of the matter&mdash;in every period of life there is
+some one predominant duty around which all the others may be grouped, to
+which as a center they may be referred. Thus, the paramount duty of the
+young child is to reverence and obey its parents. The relation of
+dependence in which it stands naturally prescribes this duty, and all
+its other duties can be deduced from and fortified by this one. The
+correctness of its personal habits and of its behavior<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> toward others
+depends primarily on its obedience to the parental commands. The child
+resists the temptation to do what is wrong, chiefly because it respects
+the authority and desires to win the approbation of father and mother.
+Secondary motives are not wanting, but reverence for parents is the
+principal one.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, in each new period there emerges a new paramount ethical
+interest, a new center of duties. But with the new system of duties thus
+created the previous ethical systems are to be brought into line, into
+harmonious correlation. And this will be all the more feasible, because
+the faithful performance of the duties of any one period is the best
+preparation for the true understanding and fulfillment of those of the
+next. From these statements the following conclusions may be drawn with
+respect to the question under discussion&mdash;namely, the proper sequence of
+the topics of duty in a course of moral lessons.</p>
+
+<p>The moral lessons being given in school, must cover the duties which are
+peculiar to the school age. The paramount duty should be placed in the
+foreground. Now the paramount duty of children between six and fourteen
+years of age is to acquire knowledge. Hence we begin the lessons with
+the subject of intellectual duty. In the next place, the duties learned
+in the previous periods are to be brought into line with the duties of
+the school age. At each new step on the road of ethical progress the
+moral ideas already acquired are to be reviewed, confirmed, and to
+receive a higher interpretation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p><p>We have already seen that, before the child enters school, its personal
+duties are such as relate to the physical life and the feelings, and its
+chief social duties are the filial and fraternal.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, the order of topics for the lessons thus far stands: The duty
+of acquiring knowledge; the duties which relate to the physical life;
+the duties which relate to the feelings; the filial duties; the
+fraternal duties.</p>
+
+<p>Again, a child that has learned to respect the rights of its brothers
+and sisters, and to be lovingly helpful to them, will in school take the
+right attitude toward its companions. The fraternal duties are typical
+of the duties which we owe to all our companions, and, indeed, to all
+human beings.</p>
+
+<p>The next topic of the lessons, therefore, will be the duties which we
+owe to all human beings.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, life in school prepares for life in society and in the state,
+and so this course of elementary moral lesson will properly close with
+"The elements of civic duty."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> It may be urged by some that duties toward God ought to be
+included in such a scheme of moral lessons as we are proposing. I should
+say, however, that the discussion of these duties belongs to the
+Sunday-schools, the existence of which alongside the daily schools is
+<i>presupposed throughout the present course of lectures</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The duties which relate to the moral nature, as a whole,
+such for instance as the duty of self-scrutiny, may be considered either
+at the end of the chapter on self-regarding duties, or at the close of
+the whole course.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>V.</span> <span class="smaller">THE MORAL OUTFIT OF CHILDREN ON ENTERING SCHOOL.</span></h2>
+
+<p>It is difficult to trace the beginnings of the moral life in children.
+The traveler who attempts to follow some great river to its source
+generally finds himself confused by the number of ponds and springs
+which are pointed out to him with the assurance in the case of each that
+this and no other is the real source. In truth, the river is fed not
+from one source but from many, and does not attain its unity and
+individuality until it has flowed for some distance on its way. In like
+manner, the moral life is fed by many springs, and does not assume its
+distinctive character until after several years of human existence have
+elapsed. The study of the development of conscience in early childhood
+is a study of origins, and these are always obscure. But, besides, the
+attention hitherto given to this subject has been entirely inadequate,
+and even the attempts to observe in a systematic way the moral
+manifestations of childhood have been few.</p>
+
+<p>Parents and teachers should endeavor to answer such questions as these:
+When do the first stirrings of the moral sense appear in the child? How
+do they manifest themselves? What are the emotional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> and the
+intellectual equipments of the child at different periods, and how do
+these correspond with its moral outfit? At what time does conscience
+enter on the scene? To what acts or omissions does the child apply the
+terms right and wrong? If observations of this kind were made with care
+and duly recorded, the science of education would have at its disposal a
+considerable quantity of material from which no doubt valuable
+generalizations might be deduced. Every mother especially should keep a
+diary in which to note the successive phases of her child's physical,
+mental, and moral growth; with particular attention to the moral; so
+that parents may be enabled to make a timely forecast of their
+childrens' characters, to foster in them every germ of good, and by
+prompt precautions to suppress, or at least restrain, what is bad.</p>
+
+<p>I propose in the present lecture to cast a glance at the moral training
+which the normal child receives before it enters school, and the moral
+outfit which it may be expected to bring with it at the time of
+entering. Fortunately, it is not necessary to go very deeply into the
+study of development of conscience for this purpose. A few main points
+will suffice for our guidance.</p>
+
+<p><i>First Point.</i>&mdash;The moral training of a child can be begun in its
+cradle. Regularity is favorable to morality. Regularity acts as a check
+on impulse. A child should receive its nourishment at stated intervals;
+it should become accustomed to sleep at certain hours, etc. If it
+protests, as it often does <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>vigorously enough, its protests should be
+disregarded. After a while its cries will cease, it will learn to submit
+to the rule imposed, and the taking of pleasure in regularity and the
+sense of discomfort when the usual order is interrupted become
+thenceforth a part of its mental life. I do not maintain that regularity
+itself is moral, but that it is favorable to morality because it curbs
+inclination. I do not say that rules are always good, but that the life
+of impulse is always bad. Even when we do the good in an impulsive way
+we are encouraging in ourselves a vicious habit. Good conduct consists
+in regulating our life according to good principles; and a willingness
+to abide by rules is the first, the indispensable condition of moral
+growth. Now, the habit of yielding to rules may be implanted in a child
+even in the cradle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Point.</i>&mdash;A very young child&mdash;one not older than a year and a
+half&mdash;can be taught to obey, to yield to the parent's will. A child a
+year and a half old is capable of adhering to its own will in defiance
+of the expressed will of father or mother. In this case it should be
+constrained to yield. We shall never succeed in making of it a moral
+person if it does not realize betimes that there exists a higher law
+than the law of its will. And of this higher law, throughout childhood,
+the parent is, as it were, the embodiment. When I say that obedience can
+be exacted of a child of such tender age, that a child so young is
+capable of deliberately opposing the will of the parent, I speak from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>experience. I know a certain little lady who undertook a struggle with
+her father precisely in the way described. The struggle lasted fully
+thirty-five minutes by the clock. But when it was over, the child
+stretched out her little arms and put up her lips to be kissed, and for
+days after fairly clung to her father, showing him her attachment in the
+most demonstrative manner. Nor should this increase of affectionateness
+excite surprise&mdash;it is the proper result of a conflict of this sort
+between father and child when conducted in the right spirit. The child
+is happy to be freed from the sway of its wayward caprice, to feel that
+its feeble will has been taken up into a will larger and stronger than
+its own.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Point.</i>&mdash;What is called conscience does not usually begin to show
+itself until the child is about three years old. At this age the concept
+self usually emerges, and the child begins to use the personal pronoun
+I. This is one of these critical turning points in human development, of
+which there are several. The beginning of adolescence marks another. I
+am inclined to suspect that there is one at or about thirty-three. There
+seem to be others later on. At any rate the first turning point&mdash;that
+which occurs at three&mdash;is marked unmistakably. At this time, as we have
+just said, the child begins to be distinctly self-conscious; it says
+"I," and presently "you," "he," and "they." Now, moral rules formulate
+the relations which ought to subsist between one's self and others, and
+to comprehend the rules it is clearly necessary to be able to hold apart
+in the mind and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> to contrast with one another the persons related. It is
+evident, therefore, that the emergence of the concept self must have a
+decided effect on moral development.</p>
+
+<p>I feel tempted to pause here a moment and to say a word in passing about
+the extreme importance of the constituent elements of the concept self.
+For it must not be supposed that the pronoun "I" means the same thing on
+the lips of every person who uses it. "I" is a label denoting a mass of
+associated ideas, and as these ideas are capable of almost endless
+variation, so the notion of selfhood is correspondingly diversified in
+different individuals. In the case of children, perhaps the principal
+constituents of the concept are supplied by their outward appearance and
+environment. When a child speaks of itself, it thinks primarily of its
+body, especially its face, then of the clothes it usually wears, the
+house it lives in, the streets through which it habitually walks, its
+parents, brothers, sisters, school-masters, etc.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> If we analyze the
+meaning of "I" in the case of two children, the one well-born and well
+brought up, the other without these advantages, we shall perhaps find
+such differences as the following: "I" in the one case will mean a being
+living in a certain decent and comfortable house, always wearing neat
+clothing, surrounded by parents, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>brothers, and sisters who speak kindly
+to one another and have gentle manners, etc. In the other case, the
+constituents of the concept self may be very different. "I" in the case
+of the second child may mean a creature that lives in a dark, filthy
+hovel and walks every day through narrow streets, reeking with garbage.
+"I" may mean the child of a father who comes home drunk and strikes the
+mother when the angry fit is upon him. "I" stands for a poor waif that
+wears torn clothes, and when he sits in school by the side of
+well-dressed children is looked at askance and put to shame. It is
+obvious that the elements which go to make up the concept self affect
+the child's moral nature by lowering or raising its self-esteem. I
+remember the case of one, who as a boy was the laughing-stock of his
+class on account of the old-fashioned, ill-fitting clothes which he was
+compelled to wear, and who has confessed that even late in life he could
+not entirely overcome the effect of this early humiliation, and that he
+continued to be painfully aware in himself, in consequence, of a certain
+lack of ease and self-possession. Hence we should see to it that the
+constituent elements of the concept self are of the right kind. It is a
+mistake to suppose that the idea of selfhood stands off independently
+from the elements of our environment. The latter enter into, and when
+they are bad eat into, the very kernel of our nature.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the development of the intellect as it appears in the
+growing distinctness of self-consciousness exercises an important
+influence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> on the development of the moral faculty. But there is still
+another way in which this influence becomes apparent. The function of
+conscience further depends on the power of keeping alternative courses
+of action before the mind. Angels capable only of the good, or fiends
+actuated exclusively by malice, could not be called moral creatures. A
+moral act always presupposes a previous choice between two possible
+lines of action. And until the power of holding the judgment in
+suspense, of hesitating between alternative lines of conduct, has been
+acquired, conscience, strictly speaking, does not manifest itself. We
+may say that the voice of conscience begins to be heard when, the parent
+being absent, the child hesitates between a forbidden pleasure and
+obedience to the parental command. Of course, not every choice between
+alternative courses is a moral act. If any one hesitates whether to
+remain at home or to go for a walk, whether to take a road to the right
+or to the left, the decision is morally indifferent. But whenever one of
+the alternative courses is good and the other bad, conscience does come
+into play.</p>
+
+<p>At this point, however, the question forcibly presents itself, How does
+it come to pass in the experience of children that they learn to regard
+certain lines of action as good and others as bad? You will readily
+answer, The parent characterizes certain acts as good and others as bad,
+and the child accepts his definition; and this is undoubtedly true. The
+parent's word is the main prop of the budding conscience. But how comes
+the parent's word to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> produce belief? This is indeed the crucial
+question touching the development of the moral faculty. Mr. Bain says
+that the child fears the punishment which the parent will inflict in
+case of disobedience; that the essential form and defining quality of
+conscience from first to last is of the nature of dread. He seems to
+classify the child's conscience with the criminal conscience, the rebel
+conscience which must be energized by the fear of penalties. But this
+explanation seems very unsatisfactory. Every one, of course, must admit
+that the confirmations of experience tend greatly to strengthen the
+parent's authority. The parent says, You must be neat. The child, if it
+does as it is bidden, finds an &aelig;sthetic pleasure in its becoming
+appearance. The parent says, You must not strike your little brother,
+but be kind to him; and the child, on restraining its anger, is
+gratified by the loving words and looks which it receives in return. The
+parent says, You must not touch the stove, or you will be burned. The
+disobedient child is effectually warned by the pain it suffers to be
+more obedient in future. But all such confirmations are mere external
+aids to parental authority. They do not explain the feeling of reverence
+with which even a young child, when rightly brought up, is wont to look
+up to his father's face. To explain this sentiment of reverence, I must
+ask you to consider the following train of reasoning. It has been
+remarked already that the parent should be to the child the visible
+embodiment of a higher law. This higher law<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> shining from the father's
+countenance, making its sublime presence felt in the mother's eye,
+wakens an answering vibration in the child's heart. The child feels the
+higher presence and bows to it, though it could not, if it tried,
+analyze or explain what it feels. We should never forget that children
+possess the capacity for moral development from the outset. It is indeed
+the fashion with some modern writers to speak of the child as if it were
+at first a mere animal, and as if reflection and morality were
+mechanically superadded later on. But the whole future man is already
+hidden, not yet declared, but latent all the same in the child's heart.
+The germs of humanity in its totality exist in the young being. Else how
+could it ever unfold into full-grown morality? It will perhaps serve to
+make my meaning clearer if I call attention to analogous facts relating
+to the intellectual faculty. The formula of causality is a very abstract
+one, which only a thoroughly trained mind can grasp. But even very young
+children are constantly asking questions as to the causes of things.
+What makes the trees grow? what makes the stars shine?&mdash;i. e., what is
+the cause of the trees growing and the stars shining? The child is
+constantly pushing, or rather groping, its way back from effects to
+causes. The child's mind acts under what maybe called the causative
+instinct long before it can apprehend the law of causation. In the same
+way young children perfectly follow the process of syllogistic
+reasoning. If a father says, on leaving the house for a walk: I can take
+with me<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> only a child that has been good; now, you have not been good
+to-day; the child without any difficulty draws the conclusion, Therefore
+I can not go out walking with my father to-day. The logical laws are, as
+it were, prefigured in the child's mind long before, under the chemical
+action of experience they come out in the bright colors of
+consciousness. Or, to use another figure, they exert a pressure on the
+child of which he himself can give no account. And in like manner the
+moral law&mdash;the law which prescribes certain relations between self and
+others&mdash;is, so to speak, prefigured in the child's mind, and when it is
+expressed in commands uttered by the parent, the pressure of external
+authority is confirmed by a pressure coming from within. We can
+illustrate the same idea from another point of view. Whenever a man of
+commanding moral genius appears in the world and speaks to the multitude
+from his height, they are for the moment lifted to his level and feel
+the afflatus of his spirit. This is so because he expresses
+potentialities of human nature which also exist in them, only not
+unfolded to the same degree as in him. It is a matter of common
+observation that persons who under ordinary circumstances are content to
+admire what is third rate and fourth rate are yet able to appreciate
+what is first rate when it is presented to them&mdash;at least to the extent
+of recognizing that it is first rate. And yet their lack of development
+shows itself in the fact that presently they again lose their hold on
+the higher standard of excellence, and are thereafter <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>content to put up
+with what is inferior as if the glimpses of better things had never been
+opened to them. Is it not because, though capable of rising to the
+higher level, they are not capable of maintaining themselves on it
+unassisted. Now, the case of the parent with respect to the child is
+analogous. He is on a superior moral plane. The child feels that he is,
+without being able to understand why. It feels the afflatus of the
+higher spirit dwelling in the parent, and out of this feeling is
+generated the sentiment of reverence. And there is no greater benefit
+which father or mother can confer on their offspring than to deepen this
+sentiment. It is by this means that they can most efficiently promote
+the development of the child's conscience, for out of this reverence
+will grow eventually respect for all rightly constituted authority,
+respect and reverence for law, human and divine. The essential form and
+defining quality of conscience is not, therefore, as Bain has it&mdash;fear
+of punishment. In my opinion such fear is abject and cowardly. The
+sentiment engendered by fear is totally different from the one we are
+contemplating, as the following consideration will serve to show: A
+child fears its father when he punishes it in anger; and the more
+violent his passion, the more does the child fear him. But, no matter
+how stern the penalty may be which he has to inflict, the child reveres
+its father in proportion as the traces of anger are banished from his
+mien and bearing, in proportion as the parent shows by his manner that
+he acts from a sense of duty, that he has his eye<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> fixed on the sacred
+measures of right and wrong, that he himself stands in awe of the
+sublime commands of which he is, for the time being, the exponent.</p>
+
+<p>To recapitulate briefly the points which we have gone over: regular
+habits can be inculcated and obedience can be taught even in infancy. By
+obedience is meant the yielding of a wayward and ignorant will to a firm
+and enlightened one. The child between three and six years of age learns
+clearly to distinguish self from others, and to deliberate between
+alternative courses of action. It is highly important to control the
+elements which enter into the concept self. The desire to choose the
+good is promoted chiefly by the sentiment of reverence.</p>
+
+<p>We are thus prepared to describe in a general way the moral outfit of
+the child on entering school. We have, indeed, already described it. The
+moral acquirements of the child at the age of which we speak express
+themselves in habits. The normal child, under the influences of parental
+example and command, has acquired such habits as that of personal
+cleanliness, of temperance in eating, of respect for the truth. Having
+learned to use the pronouns I and thou, it also begins to understand the
+difference between <i>meum</i> and <i>tuum</i>. The property sense begins to be
+developed. It claims its own seat at table, its own toys against the
+aggression of others. It has gained in an elementary way the notion of
+rights.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p><p>This is a stock of acquirements by no means inconsiderable. The next
+step in the progress of conscience must be taken in the school. Until
+now the child has been aware of duties relating only or principally to
+persons whom it loves and who love it. The motive of love is now to
+become less prominent. A part of that reverence which the child has felt
+for the parents whom it loves is now to be transferred to the teacher. A
+part of that respect for the rights of equals which has been impressed
+upon it in its intercourse with brothers and sisters, to whom it is
+bound by the ties of blood, is now to be transferred to its school
+companions, who are at first strangers to it. Thus the conscience of the
+child will be expanded, thus it will be prepared for intercourse with
+the world. Thus it will begin to gain that higher understanding of
+morality, according to which authority is to be obeyed simply because it
+is rightful, and equals are to be treated as equals, even when they are
+not and can not be regarded with affection.</p>
+
+<p>I have in the above used the word habits advisedly. The morality of the
+young child assumes the concrete form of habits; abstract principles are
+still beyond its grasp. Habits are acquired by imitation and repetition.
+Good examples must be so persistently presented and so often copied that
+the line of moral conduct may become the line of least resistance. The
+example of parents and teachers is indeed specially important in this
+respect. But after all it is not sufficient. For the temptations of
+adults<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> differ in many ways from those of children, and on the other
+hand in the lives of older persons occasions are often wanting for
+illustrating just the peculiar virtues of childhood. On this account it
+is necessary to set before the child ideal examples of the virtues of
+children and of the particular temptations, against which they need to
+be warned. Of such examples we find a large stock ready to hand in the
+literature of fairy tales, fables, and stories. In our next lecture
+therefore we shall begin to consider the use of fairy tales, fables, and
+stories as means of creating in children those habits which are
+essential to the safe guarding and unfolding of their moral life.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> So important is environment in supporting
+self-consciousness, that even adults, when suddenly transported into
+entirely new surroundings, often experience a momentary doubt as to
+their identity.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>PRIMARY COURSE.</span></h2>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>VI.</span> <span class="smaller">THE USE OF FAIRY TALES.</span></h2>
+
+<p>There has been and still is considerable difference of opinion among
+educators as to the value of fairy tales. I venture to think that, as in
+many other cases, the cause of the quarrel is what logicians call an
+<i>undistributed middle</i>&mdash;in other words, that the parties to the dispute
+have each a different kind of fairy tale in mind. This species of
+literature can be divided broadly into two classes&mdash;one consisting of
+tales which ought to be rejected because they are really harmful, and
+children ought to be protected from their bad influence, the other of
+tales which have a most beautiful and elevating effect, and which we can
+not possibly afford to leave unutilized.</p>
+
+<p>The chief pedagogic value they possess is that they exercise and
+cultivate the imagination. Now, the imagination is a most powerful
+auxiliary in the development of the mind and will. The familiar anecdote
+related of Marie Antoinette, who is said to have asked why the people
+did not eat cake when she was told that they were in want of bread,
+indicates a deficiency of imagination. Brought up amid the splendor of
+courts, surrounded by luxury, she could not put herself in the place of
+those who lack the very necessaries. Much of the selfishness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> of the
+world is due not to actual hard-heartedness, but to a similar lack of
+imaginative power. It is difficult for the happy to realize the needs of
+the miserable. Did they realize those needs, they would in many cases be
+melted to pity and roused to help. The faculty of putting one's self in
+the place of others is therefore of great, though indirect, service to
+the cause of morality, and this faculty may be cultivated by means of
+fairy tales. As they follow intently the progress of the story, the
+young listeners are constantly called upon to place themselves in the
+situations in which they have never been, to imagine trials, dangers,
+difficulties, such as they have never experienced, to reproduce in
+themselves, for instance, such feelings as that of being alone in the
+wide world, of being separated from father's and mother's love, of being
+hungry and without bread, exposed to enemies without protection, etc.
+Thus their sympathy in a variety of forms is aroused.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place, fairy tales stimulate the idealizing tendency. What
+were life worth without ideals! How could hope or even religion
+germinate in the human heart were we not able to confront the
+disappointing present with visions which represent the fulfillment of
+our desires. "Faith," says Paul, "is the confidence of things hoped for,
+the certainty of things not seen." Thus faith itself can not abide
+unless supported by a vivid idealism. It is true, the ideals of
+childhood are childish. In the story called Das Marienkind we hear of
+the little daughter of a poor wood-cutter who was taken up bodily into
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>heaven. There she ate sweetmeats and drank cream every day and wore
+dresses made of gold, and the angels played with her. Sweetmeats and
+cream in plenty and golden dresses and dear little angels to play with
+may represent the ideals of a young child, and these are materialistic
+enough. But I hold nevertheless that something&mdash;nay, much&mdash;has been
+gained if a child has learned to take the wishes out of its heart, as it
+were, and to project them on the screen of fancy. As it grows up to
+manhood, the wishes will become more spiritual, and the ideals, too,
+will become correspondingly elevated. In speaking of fairy tales I have
+in mind chiefly the German <i>M&auml;rchen</i> of which the word fairy tale is but
+an inaccurate rendering. The <i>M&auml;rchen</i> are more than mere tales of
+helpful fairies. They have, as is well-known, a mythological background.
+They still bear distinct traces of ancient animism, and the myths which
+center about the phenomena of the storm, the battle of the sun with the
+clouds, the struggle of the fair spring god with the dark winter demons,
+are in them leading themes. But what originally was the outgrowth of
+superstition has now, to a great extent at least, been purified of its
+dross and converted into mere poetry. The <i>M&auml;rchen</i> come to us from a
+time when the world was young. They represent the childhood of mankind,
+and it is for this reason that they never cease to appeal to children.
+The <i>M&auml;rchen</i> have a subtile flavor all their own. They are pervaded by
+the poetry of forest life, are full of the sense of mystery and awe,
+which is apt to overcome one on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> penetrating deeper and deeper into the
+woods, away from human habitations. The <i>M&auml;rchen</i> deal with the
+underground life of nature, which weaves in caverns and in the heart of
+mountains, where gnomes and dwarfs are at work gathering hidden
+treasures. And with this underground life children have a marvelous
+sympathy. The <i>M&auml;rchen</i> present glowing pictures of sheltered firesides,
+where man finds rest and security from howling winds and nipping cold.
+But perhaps their chief attraction is due to their representing the
+child as living in brotherly fellowship with nature and all creatures.
+Trees, flowers, animals wild and tame, even the stars, are represented
+as the comrades of children. That animals are only human beings in
+disguise is an axiom in the fairy tales. Animals are humanized&mdash;i. e.,
+the kinship between animal and human life is still strongly felt, and
+this reminds us of those early animistic interpretations of nature,
+which subsequently led to doctrines of metempsychosis. Plants, too, are
+often represented as incarnations of human spirits. Thus the twelve
+lilies are inhabited by the twelve brothers, and in the story of
+Snow-white and Rose-red the life of the two maidens appears to be bound
+up with the life of the white and red rosebush. The kinship of all life
+whatsoever is still realized. This being so, it is not surprising that
+men should understand the language of animals, and that these should
+interfere to protect the heroes and heroines of the <i>M&auml;rchen</i> from
+threatened dangers. In the story of the faithful servant John, the
+three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> ravens flying above the ship reveal the secret of the red horse,
+the sulphurous shirt, and the three drops of blood, and John, who
+understands their communications, is thereby enabled to save his
+master's life. What, again, can be more beautiful than the way in which
+the tree and the two white doves co-operate to secure the happiness of
+the injured Cinderella! The tree rains down the golden dresses with
+which she appears at the ball, and the doves continue to warn the prince
+as he rides by that he has chosen the wrong bride until Cinderella
+herself passes, when they light on her shoulders, one on her right and
+the other on her left, making, perhaps, the loveliest picture to be
+found in all fairy lore. The child still lives in unbroken communion
+with the whole of nature; the harmony between its own life and the
+enveloping life has not yet been disturbed, and it is this harmony of
+the human with the natural world that reflects itself in the atmosphere
+of the <i>M&auml;rchen</i>, and makes them so admirably suited to satisfy the
+heart of childhood.</p>
+
+<p>But how shall we handle these <i>M&auml;rchen</i> and what method shall we employ
+in putting them to account for our special purpose? I have a few
+thoughts on this subject, which I shall venture to submit in the form of
+counsels.</p>
+
+<p>My <i>first counsel</i> is: Tell the story; do not give it to the child to
+read. There is an obvious practical reason for this. Children are able
+to benefit by hearing fairy tales before they can read. But that is not
+the only reason. It is the childhood of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> the race, as we have seen, that
+speaks in the fairy story to the child of to-day. It is the voice of an
+ancient, far-off past that echoes from the lips of the story-teller. The
+words "once upon a time" open up a vague retrospect into the past, and
+the child gets its first indistinct notions of history in this way. The
+stories embody the tradition of the childhood of mankind. They have on
+this account an authority all their own, not indeed that of literal
+truth, but one derived from their being types of certain feelings and
+longings which belong to childhood as such. The child as it listens to
+the <i>M&auml;rchen</i>, looks up with wide-opened eyes to the face of the person
+who tells the story, and thrills responsive as the touch of the earlier
+life of the race thus falls upon its own. Such an effect, of course, can
+not be produced by cold type. Tradition is a living thing, and should
+use the living voice for its vehicle.</p>
+
+<p>My <i>second counsel</i> is also of a practical nature, and I make bold to
+say quite essential to the successful use of the stories. Do not take
+the moral plum out of the fairy-tale pudding, but let the child enjoy it
+as a whole. Do not make the story taper toward a single point, the moral
+point. You will squeeze all the juice out of it if you try. Do not
+subordinate the purely fanciful and naturalistic elements of the story,
+such as the love of mystery, the passion for roving, the sense of
+fellowship with the animal world, in order to fix attention solely on
+the moral element. On the contrary, you will gain the best moral effect
+by proceeding in exactly the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> opposite way. Treat the moral element as
+an incident; emphasize, it indeed, but incidentally. Pluck it as a
+wayside flower. How often does it happen that, having set out on a
+journey with a distinct object in mind, something occurs on the way
+which we had not foreseen, but which in the end leaves the deepest
+impression on the mind. The object which we had in view is long
+forgotten, but the incident which happened by the way is remembered for
+years after. So the moral result of the <i>M&auml;rchen</i> will not be less sure
+because gained incidentally. An illustration will make plain what I
+mean. In the story of the Frog King we are told that there was once a
+young princess who was so beautiful that even the Sun, which sees a
+great many things, had never seen anything so beautiful as she was. A
+golden ball was her favorite plaything. One day, as she sat by a well
+under an old linden tree, she tossed the ball into the air and it fell
+into the well. She was very unhappy, and cried bitterly. Presently a
+frog put his ugly head out of the water, and offered to dive for the
+ball, on condition, however, that she would promise to take him for her
+playmate, to let him eat off her golden plate and drink out of her
+golden cup and sleep in her little snow-white bed. The princess promised
+everything. But no sooner had the frog brought her the ball than she
+scampered away, heedless of his cries. The next day as the royal family
+sat at dinner a knock was heard at the door. The princess opened and
+beheld the ugly toad claiming admittance. She<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> screamed with fright and
+hastily shut the door in his face. But when the king, her father, had
+questioned her, he said, "What you have promised, you must keep"; and
+she obeyed her father, though it was sorely against her inclination to
+do so. That was right, children, was it not? One must always obey, even
+if one does not like what one is told to do. So the toad was brought in
+and lifted to the table, and he ate off the little golden plate and
+drank out of the golden cup. And when he had had enough, he said, "I am
+tired now, put me into your little snow-white bed." And again when she
+refused her father said: "What you have promised you must keep. Ugly
+though he is, he helped you when you were in distress, and you must not
+despise him now." And the upshot of the story is that the ugly toad,
+having been thrown against the wall, was changed into a beautiful
+prince, and of course some time after the prince and the princess were
+married.</p>
+
+<p>The naturalistic element of the story is the changing of the prince into
+a toad and back again from a toad into a prince. Children are very fond
+of disguises. It is one of their greatest pleasures to imagine things to
+be other than they are. And one of the chief attractions of such stories
+as the one we have related is that they cater to the fondness of the
+little folks for this sort of masquerading. The moral elements of the
+story are obvious. They should be touched on in such a manner as not to
+divert the interest from the main story.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p><p>My <i>third counsel</i> is to eliminate from the stories whatever is merely
+superstitious, merely a relic of ancient animism, and of course whatever
+is objectionable on moral grounds. For instance, such a story as that of
+the idle spinner, the purport of which seems to be that there is a
+special providence watching over lazy people. Likewise all those stories
+which turn upon the success of trickery and cunning. A special question
+arising under this head, and one which has been the subject of much
+vexed discussion, is in how far we should acquaint children with the
+existence of evil in the world, and to what extent we can use stories in
+which evil beings and evil motives are introduced. My own view is that
+we should speak in the child's hearing only of those lesser forms of
+evil, physical or moral, with which it is already acquainted, but
+exclude all those forms of evil which lie beyond its present experience.
+On this ground I should reject the whole brood of step-mother stories,
+or rather, as this might make too wide a swath, I should take the
+liberty of altering stories in which the typical bad step-mother occurs,
+but which are otherwise valuable. There is no reason why children should
+be taught to look on step-mothers in general as evilly disposed persons.
+The same applies to stories in which unnatural fathers are mentioned. I
+should also rule out such stories as that of The Wolf and The Seven
+Little Goats. The mother goat, on leaving the house, warns her little
+ones against the wolf, and gives them two signs by which they can
+detect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> him&mdash;his hoarse voice and black paws. The wolf knocks and finds
+himself discovered. He thereupon swallows chalk to improve his voice and
+compels the miller to whiten his paws. Then he knocks again, is
+admitted, leaps into the room, and devours the little goats one by one.
+The story, as used in the nursery, has a transparent purpose. It is
+intended to warn little children who are left at home alone against
+admitting strangers. The wolf represents evil beings in general&mdash;tramps,
+burglars, people who come to kidnap children, etc. Now I, for one,
+should not wish to implant this fear of strangers into the minds of the
+young. Fear is demoralizing. Children should look with confidence and
+trust upon all men. They need not be taught to fear robbers and
+burglars. Even the sight of wild animals need not awaken dread. Children
+naturally admire the beauty of the tiger's skin, and the lion in their
+eyes is a noble creature, of whose ferocity they have no conception. It
+is time enough for them later on to familiarize themselves with the fact
+that evil of a sinister sort exists within human society and outside of
+it. And it will be safe for them to face this fact then only, when they
+can couple with it the conviction that the forces of right and order in
+the world are strong enough to grapple with the sinister powers and hold
+them in subjection.</p>
+
+<p>And now let us review a number of the <i>M&auml;rchen</i> against which none of
+these objections lie, which are delicious food for children's minds, and
+consider the place they occupy in a scheme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> of moral training. It has
+been already stated that each period of human life has a set of duties
+peculiar to itself. The principal duties of childhood are: Obedience to
+parents, love and kindness toward brothers and sisters, a proper regard
+for the feelings of servants, and kindness toward animals. We can
+classify the fairy tales which we can use under these various heads. Let
+us begin with the topic last mentioned.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Tales illustrating Kindness toward Animals.</i></p>
+
+<p>The House in the Woods.&mdash;The daughter of a poor wood-cutter is lost in
+the woods, and comes at night to a lonely house. An old man is sitting
+within. Three animals&mdash;a cow, a cock, and a chicken&mdash;lie on the hearth.
+The child is made welcome, and is asked to prepare supper. She cooks for
+the old man and herself, but forgets the animals. The second daughter
+likewise goes astray in the woods, comes to the same house, and acts in
+the same way. The third daughter, a sweet, loving child, before sitting
+down to her own meal, brings in hay for the cow and barley for the cock
+and chicken, and by this act of kindness to animals breaks the spell
+which had been cast upon the house. The old man is immediately
+transformed into a prince, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The Story of the Dog Sultan.&mdash;Sultan is old, and about to be shot by his
+master. The wolf, seeing his cousin the dog in such distress, promises
+to help him. He arranges that on the morrow he will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> seize a sheep
+belonging to Sultan's master. The dog is to run after him, and he, the
+wolf, will drop the sheep and Sultan shall get the credit of the rescue.
+Everything passes off as prearranged, and Sultan's life is spared by his
+grateful owner. Some time after the wolf comes prowling around the
+house, and, reminding his friend that one good turn deserves another,
+declares that he has now come for mutton in good earnest. But the dog
+replies that nothing can tempt him to betray the interests of his
+master. The wolf persists, but Sultan gives the alarm and the thief
+receives his due in the shape of a sound beating.</p>
+
+<p>The point of special interest in the beautiful story of Snow-white and
+Rose-red above referred to is the incident of the bear. One cold
+winter's night some one knocks at the door. Snow-white and Rose-red go
+to open, when a huge black bear appears at the entrance and begs for
+shelter. He is almost frozen with the cold, he says, and would like to
+warm himself a bit. The two little girls are at first frightened, but,
+encouraged by their mother, they take heart and invite the bear into the
+kitchen. Soon a cordial friendship springs up between Bruin and the
+children. They brush the snow from his fur, tease, and caress him by
+turns. After this the bear returns every night, and finally turns out to
+be a beautiful prince.</p>
+
+<p>The Story of the Queen Bee tells about three brothers who wander through
+the world in search of adventures. One day they come to an ant-hill.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+The two older brothers are about to trample upon the ants "just for the
+fun of it." But the youngest pleads with them, saying: "Let them live;
+their life is as dear to them as ours is to us." Next they come to a
+pond in which many ducks are swimming about. The two older brothers are
+determined to shoot the ducks "just for the fun of it." The youngest
+again pleads as before, "Let them live," etc. Finally, he saves a
+bee-hive from destruction in the same manner. Thus they journey on until
+they come to an enchanted castle. To break the spell, it is necessary to
+find and gather up a thousand pearls which had fallen on the
+moss-covered ground in a certain wood. Five thousand ants come to help
+the youngest to find the pearls. The second task imposed is to find a
+golden key which had been thrown into a pond near the castle. The
+grateful ducks bring up the key from the bottom. The third task is the
+most difficult. In one of the interior chambers of the castle there are
+three marble images&mdash;three princesses, namely, who had been turned into
+stone. Before the spell took effect they had partaken, respectively, of
+sugar, sirup, and honey. To restore them to life it is necessary to
+discover which one had eaten the honey. The Queen Bee comes in with all
+her swarm and lights on the lips of the youngest and so solves the
+problem. The enchantment is immediately dissolved. All these stories
+illustrate kindness to animals.</p>
+
+<p>Among stories which illustrate the <i>respect due to</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> <i>the feelings of
+servants</i> may be mentioned the tale of Faithful John, who understood the
+language of the ravens and saved his master from the dangers of the red
+horse, etc., a story which in addition impresses the lesson that we
+should confide in persons who have been found trustworthy, even if we do
+not understand their motives. In the popular tale of Cinderella the
+points especially to be noted are: The pious devotion of Cinderella to
+her mother's memory, and the fact that the poor kitchen drudge,
+underneath the grime and ashes which disfigure her, possesses qualities
+which raise her far above the proud daughters of the house. The lesson
+taught by this story that we should distinguish intrinsic worth from the
+accidents of rank and condition, is one which can not be impressed too
+early or too deeply.</p>
+
+<p>Under the heading of <i>brotherly and sisterly love</i> belongs the lovely
+tale of Snow-white. The little dwarfs are to all intents and purposes
+her brothers. They receive and treat her as a sister, and she returns
+their affection in kind.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the Twelve Brothers, whom their sister redeems by seven
+years of silence at the peril of her own life, is another instance of
+tenderest sisterly devotion combined with self-control. This story,
+however, needs to be slightly altered. In place of the cruel father (we
+must not mention cruel fathers) who has got ready twelve coffins for his
+sons, in order that all the wealth of his kingdom may descend to his
+daughter, let us substitute the steward of the palace, who hopes by
+slaying the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> sons and winning the hand of the daughter, to become king
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>Finally the story of Red Riding Hood illustrates the cardinal virtue of
+childhood&mdash;<i>obedience to parents</i>. Children must not loiter on the way
+when they are sent on errands. And Riding Hood loiters, and hence all
+the mischief which follows. She is sent to bring wine and cake to her
+grandmother. The example of such attentions as this serves to quicken in
+children the sentiment of reverence for the aged. Children learn
+reverence toward their parents in part by the reverence which these
+display toward the grandparents. Another point is that Red Riding Hood,
+to quiet her conscience, when she strays from the straight path deceives
+herself as to her motives. She says, "I will also gather a bunch of wild
+flowers to please grandmother." But her real purpose is to enjoy the
+freedom of the woods, and the proof is that presently she forgets all
+about grandmother. There is one objection that has sometimes been urged
+against this story, viz., the part which the wolf plays in it. But the
+wolf is not really treated as a hostile or fearful being. He meets Red
+Riding Hood on the way, and they chat confidentially together. He
+appears rather in the light of a trickster. But, it is objected, that he
+devours the grandmother and, later on, Red Riding Hood herself. Very
+true; but the curious fact is that, when his belly is cut open, the
+grandmother and Red Riding Hood come out intact. They have evidently not
+been injured. Children have very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> defective notions of the human body,
+with the exception of such external parts as hands, feet, and face. In
+an examination recently conducted by Prof. G. Stanley Hall in regard to
+the contents of childrens' minds at the time they enter school, it was
+found that ninety per cent of those questioned had no idea where the
+heart is located, eighty-one per cent did not know anything about the
+lungs, ninety per cent could not tell where their ribs are situated,
+etc. Of the internal organs children have no idea. Hence when the story
+says that the grandmother is swallowed by the wolf, the impression
+created is that she has been forced down into a sort of dark hole, and
+that her situation, while rather uncomfortable, no doubt, is not
+otherwise distressing. The ideas of torn and mangled flesh are not
+suggested. Hence the act of devouring arouses no feeling of horror, and
+the story of Red Riding Hood, that prime favorite of all young children,
+may be related without any apprehension as to its moral effect.</p>
+
+<p>Then there are other stories, such as that of the man who went abroad to
+learn the art of shuddering&mdash;an excellent example of bravery; the story
+of the seven Suabians&mdash;a persiflage of cowardice; the story of the
+<i>Marienkind</i> which contains a wholesome lesson against obstinacy, etc. I
+have not, of course, attempted to cover the whole ground, but only to
+mention a few examples sufficient to show along what lines the selection
+may be made. The ethical interests peculiar to childhood are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> heads
+under which the whole material can be classified.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the fairy tales is that they stimulate the imagination;
+that they reflect the unbroken communion of human life with the life
+universal, as in beasts, fishes, trees, flowers, and stars; and that
+incidentally, but all the more powerfully on that account, they quicken
+the moral sentiments.</p>
+
+<p>Let us avail ourselves freely of the treasures which are thus placed at
+our disposal. Let us welcome <i>das M&auml;rchen</i> into our primary course of
+moral training, that with its gentle bands, woven of "morning mist and
+morning glory," it may help to lead our children into the bright realms
+of the ideal.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>VII.</span> <span class="smaller">THE USE OF FABLES.</span></h2>
+
+<p>The collection of fables which figures under the name of &AElig;sop has to a
+very remarkable degree maintained its popularity among children, and
+many of its typical characters have been adopted into current
+literature, such as the Dog in the Manger, the Wolf in Sheep's Clothing,
+King Log, and King Stork, and others. Recent researches have brought to
+light the highly interesting fact that these fables are of Asiatic
+origin. A collection of Indian and, it is believed, Buddhist fables and
+stories traveled at an early period into Persia, where it became known
+as the Pancha-Tantra. The Pancha-Tantra was translated into Arabic, and
+became the source of the voluminous Kalilah-wa-Dimnah literature. The
+Arabic tales in turn migrated into Europe at the time of the Crusades
+and were rendered into Greek, Hebrew, and Latin. In this form they
+became accessible to the nations of Europe, were extensively circulated,
+and a collection of them was wrongly, but very naturally, ascribed to a
+famous story-teller of the ancient Greeks&mdash;i. e., to &AElig;sop. The arguments
+on which this deduction is based may be found in Rhys Davids's
+introduction to his English <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>translation of the J&#257;taka Tales.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> This
+author speaks of &AElig;sop's fables as a first moral lesson-book for our
+children in the West. We shall have to consider in how far this
+description is correct&mdash;that is to say, in how far we can use the fables
+for moral purposes. The point to be kept in mind is their Asiatic
+origin, as this will at once help us to separate the fables which we can
+use from those which must be rejected. A discrimination of this sort is
+absolutely necessary. I am of the opinion that it is a serious mistake
+to place the whole collection as it stands in the hands of children.</p>
+
+<p>To decide this question we must study the <i>milieu</i> in which the fables
+arose, the spirit which they breathe, the conditions which they reflect.
+The conditions they reflect are those of an Oriental despotism. They
+depict a state of society in which the people are cruelly oppressed by
+tyrannical rulers, and the weak are helpless in the hands of the strong.
+The spirit which they breathe is, on the whole, one of patient and
+rather hopeless submission. The effect upon the reader as soon as he has
+caught this clew, this <i>Leitmotiv</i>, which occurs in a hundred
+variations, is very saddening. I must substantiate this cardinal point
+by a somewhat detailed analysis. Let us take first the fable of the Kite
+and the Pigeons. A kite had been sailing in the air for many days near a
+pigeon-house with the intention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> of seizing the pigeons; at last he had
+recourse to stratagem. He expressed his deep concern at their unjust and
+unreasonable suspicions of himself, as if he intended to do them an
+injury. He declared that, on the contrary, he had nothing more at heart
+than the defense of their ancient rights and liberties, and ended by
+proposing that they should accept him as their protector, their king.
+The poor, simple pigeons consented. The kite took the coronation oath in
+a very solemn manner. But much time had not elapsed before the good kite
+declared it to be a part of the king's prerogative to devour a pigeon
+now and then, and the various members of his family adhered to the same
+view of royal privilege. The miserable pigeons exclaimed: "Ah, we
+deserve no better. Why did we let him in!"</p>
+
+<p>The fable of the Wolf in Sheep's Clothing conveys essentially the same
+idea. The fable of the Lion and the Deer illustrates the exorbitant
+exactions practiced by despots. A fat deer was divided into four parts.
+His majesty the lion proposed that they be suitably apportioned. The
+first part he claimed for himself on account of his true hereditary
+descent from the royal family of Lion; the second he considered properly
+his own because he had headed the hunt; the third he took in virtue of
+his prerogative; and finally he assumed a menacing attitude, and dared
+any one to dispute his right to the fourth part also.</p>
+
+<p>In the fable of the Sick Lion and the Fox, the fox says: "I see the
+footprints of beasts who have gone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> into the cave, but of none that have
+come out." The fable of the Cat and the Mice expresses the same thought,
+namely, that it is necessary to be ever on one's guard against the
+mighty oppressors even when their power seems for the time to have
+deserted them. The cat pretends to be dead, hoping by this means to
+entice the mice within her reach. A cunning old mouse peeps over the
+edge of the shelf, and says: "Aha, my good friend, are you there? I
+would not trust myself with you though your skin were stuffed with
+straw."</p>
+
+<p>The fable of King Log and King Stork shows what a poor choice the people
+have in the matter of their kings. First they have a fool for their
+king, a mere log, and they are discontented. Then Stork ascends the
+throne, and he devours them. It would have been better if they had put
+up with the fool. The injustice of despotic rulers is exemplified in the
+fable of the Kite and the Wolf. The kite and the wolf are seated in
+judgment. The dog comes before them to sue the sheep for debt. Kite and
+wolf, without waiting for the evidence, give sentence for the plaintiff,
+who immediately tears the poor sheep into pieces and divides the spoil
+with the judges. The sort of thanks which the people get when they are
+foolish enough to come to the assistance of their masters, is
+illustrated by the conduct of the wolf toward the crane. The wolf
+happened to have a bone sticking in his throat, and, howling with pain,
+promised a reward to any one who should relieve him. At last the crane
+ventured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> his long neck into the wolf's throat and plucked out the bone.
+But when he asked for his reward, the wolf glared savagely upon him, and
+said: "Is it not enough that I refrained from biting off your head?" How
+dangerous it is to come at all into close contact with the mighty, is
+shown in the fable of the Earthen and the Brazen Pot. The brazen pot
+offers to protect the earthen one as they float down stream. "Oh,"
+replies the latter, "keep as far off as ever you can, if you please;
+for, whether the stream dashes you against me or me against you, I am
+sure to be the sufferer."</p>
+
+<p>The fables which we have considered have for their theme the character
+of the strong as exhibited in their dealings with the weak. A second
+group is intended to recommend a certain policy to be pursued by the
+weak in self-protection. This policy consists either in pacifying the
+strong by giving up to them voluntarily what they want, or in flight,
+or, if that be impossible, in uncomplaining submission. The first
+expedient is recommended in the fable of the Beaver. A beaver who was
+being hard pressed by a hunter and knew not how to escape, suddenly,
+with a great effort, bit off the part which the hunter desired, and,
+throwing it toward him, by this means escaped with his life. The
+expedient of flight is recommended in the fable of Reynard and the Cat.
+Reynard and the cat one day were talking politics in the forest. The fox
+boasted that though things might turn out never so badly, he had still a
+thousand tricks to play before they should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> catch him. The cat said: "I
+have but one trick, and if that does not succeed I am undone." Presently
+a pack of hounds came upon them full cry. The cat ran up a tree and hid
+herself among the top branches. The fox, who had not been able to get
+out of sight, was overtaken despite his thousand tricks and torn to
+pieces by the hounds. The fable of the Oak and the Reed teaches the
+policy of utter, uncomplaining submission. The oak refuses to bend, and
+is broken. The supple reed yields to the blast, and is safe. Is it not a
+little astonishing that this fable should so often be related to
+children as if it contained a moral which they ought to take to heart?
+To make it apply at all, it is usually twisted from its proper
+signification and explained as meaning that one should not be
+fool-hardy, not attempt to struggle against overwhelming odds. But this
+is not the true interpretation. The oak is by nature strong and firm,
+while it is the nature of the reed to bend to every wind. The fable
+springs out of the experience of a people who have found resistance
+against oppression useless. And this sort of teaching we can not, of
+course, wish to give to our children. I should certainly prefer that a
+child of mine should take the oak, and not the reed, for his pattern.
+The same spirit is again inculcated in the fable of the Wanton Calf. The
+wanton calf sneers at the poor ox who all day long bears the heavy yoke
+patiently upon his neck. But in the evening it turns out that the ox is
+unyoked, while the calf is butchered. The choice seems to lie between
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>subserviency and destruction. The fable of the Old Woman and her Maids
+suggests the same conclusion, with the warning added that it is useless
+to rise against the agents of tyranny so long as the tyrants themselves
+can not be overthrown. The cock in the fable represents the agents of
+oppression. The killing of the cock serves only to bring the mistress
+herself on the scene, and the lot of the servants becomes in consequence
+very much harder than it had been before.</p>
+
+<p>We have now considered two groups of fables: those which depict the
+character of the mighty, and those which treat of the proper policy of
+the weak. The subject of the third group is, the consolations of the
+weak. These are, first, that even tyrannical masters are to a certain
+extent dependent upon their inferiors, and can be punished if they go
+too far; secondly, that the mighty occasionally come to grief in
+consequence of dissensions among themselves; thirdly, that fortune is
+fickle. A lion is caught in the toils, and would perish did not a little
+mouse come to his aid by gnawing asunder the knots and fastenings. The
+bear robs the bees of their honey, but is punished and rendered almost
+desperate by their stings. An eagle carries off the cub of a fox; but
+the fox, snatching a fire-brand, threatens to set the eagle's nest on
+fire, and thus forces him to restore her young one. This is evidently a
+fable of insurrection. The fable of the Viper and the File shows that it
+is not safe to attack the wrong person&mdash;in other words, that tyrants
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>sometimes come to grief by singling out for persecution some one who is
+strong enough to resist them though they little suspect it. The fable of
+the four bulls shows the effect of dissensions among the mighty. Four
+bulls had entered into a close alliance, and agreed to keep always near
+one another. A lion fomented jealousies among them. The bulls grew
+distrustful of one another, and at last parted company. The lion had now
+obtained his end, and seized and devoured them singly. The fickleness of
+fortune is the theme of the fable of the Horse and the Ass. The horse,
+richly caparisoned and champing his foaming bridle, insults an ass who
+moves along under a heavy load. Soon after the horse is wounded, and,
+being unfit for military service, is sold to a carrier. The ass now
+taunts the proud animal with his fallen estate. The horse in this fable
+is the type of many an Eastern vizier, who has basked for a time in the
+sunshine of a despot's favor only to be suddenly and ignominiously
+degraded. The ass in the fable represents the people. There remains a
+fourth group of fables, which satirize certain mean or ridiculous types
+of characters, such as are apt to appear in social conditions of the
+kind we have described. Especially do the fables make a target of the
+folly of those who affect the manners of the aristocratic class, or who
+try to crowd in where they are not wanted, or who boast of their high
+connections. The frog puffs himself up so that he may seem as large as
+the ox, until he bursts. The mouse aspires to marry the young lioness,
+and is in fact well <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>received; but the young lady inadvertently places
+her foot on her suitor and crushes him. The jackdaw picks up feathers
+which have fallen from the peacocks, sticks them among his own, and
+introduces himself into the assembly of those proud birds. They find him
+out, strip him of his plumes, and with their sharp bills punish him as
+he deserves. A fly boasts that he frequents the most distinguished
+company, and that he is on familiar terms with the king, the priests,
+and the nobility. Many a time, he says, he has entered the royal
+chamber, has sat upon the altar, and has even enjoyed the privilege of
+kissing the lips of the most beautiful maids of honor. "Yes," replies an
+ant, "but in what capacity are you admitted among all these great
+people? One and all regard you as a nuisance, and the sooner they can
+get rid of you the better they are pleased."</p>
+
+<p>Most of the fables which thus far have been mentioned we can not use.
+The discovery of their Asiatic origin sheds a new, keen light upon their
+meaning. They breathe, in many cases, a spirit of fear, of abject
+subserviency, of hopeless pessimism. Can we desire to inoculate the
+young with this spirit? The question may be asked why fables are so
+popular with boys. I should say, Because school-boy society reproduces
+in miniature to a certain extent the social conditions which are
+reflected in the fables. Among unregenerate school-boys there often
+exists a kind of despotism, not the less degrading because petty. The
+strong are pitted against the weak&mdash;witness the fagging system in the
+English schools&mdash;and their mutual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> antagonism produces in both the
+characteristic vices which we have noted above. The psychological study
+of school-boy society has been only begun, but even what lies on the
+surface will, I think, bear out this remark. Now it has come to be one
+of the commonplaces of educational literature, that the individual of
+to-day must pass through the same stages of evolution as the human race
+as a whole. But it should not be forgotten that the advance of
+civilization depends on two conditions: first, that the course of
+evolution be accelerated, that the time allowed to the successive stages
+be shortened; and, secondly, that the unworthy and degrading elements
+which entered into the process of evolution in the past, and at the time
+were inseparable from it, be now eliminated. Thus the fairy-tales which
+correspond to the myth-making epoch in human history must be purged of
+the dross of superstition which still adheres to them, and the fables
+which correspond to the age of primitive despotisms must be cleansed of
+the immoral elements they still embody.</p>
+
+<p>The fables which are fit for use may be divided into two classes: those
+which give illustrations of evil,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> the effect of which on the young
+should be to arouse disapprobation, and those which present types of
+virtue. The following is a list of some of the principal ones in each
+category:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p><p><i>An Instance of Selfishness.</i> The porcupine having begged for
+hospitality and having been invited into a nest of snakes,
+inconveniences the inmates and finally crowds them out. When they
+remonstrate, he says, "Let those quit the place that do not like it."</p>
+
+<p><i>Injustice.</i> The fable of the Kite and the Wolf, mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Improvidence.</i> The fable of the Ant and the Grasshopper; also the fable
+entitled One Swallow does not make Summer, and the fable of the Man who
+Killed the Goose that laid the Golden Eggs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ingratitude.</i> The fable of the snake which bit the countryman who had
+warmed it in his breast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cowardice.</i> The fable of the Stag and the Fawn, and of the Hares in the
+Storm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vanity.</i> The fables of the Peacock and the Crane, and of the Crow who
+lost his Cheese by listening to the flattery of the fox.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemptuous Self-confidence.</i> The Hare and the Tortoise.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Evil Influence of Bad Company.</i> The Husbandman and the Stork.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cruelty to Animals.</i> The Fowler and the Ringdove; the Hawk and the
+Pigeons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Greediness.</i> The Dog and the Shadow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lying.</i> The fable of the boy who cried "Wolf!"</p>
+
+<p><i>Bragging.</i> The fable of the Ass in the Lion's Skin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deceit.</i> The fable of the Fox without a Tail.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p><p><i>Disingenuousness.</i> The fable of the Sour Grapes.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Discontented Spirit.</i> The fable of the Peacock's Complaint.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equal Graces are not given to all.</i> The fable of the Ass who leaped
+into his Master's Lap.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borrowed Plumes.</i> The fable of the Jackdaw and the Peacocks, mentioned
+above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malice.</i> The fable of the Dog in the Manger, who would not eat, neither
+let others eat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breaking Faith.</i> The fable of the Traveler and the Bear.</p>
+
+<p><i>To Fan Animosity is even Worse than to Quarrel.</i> The fable of the
+Trumpeter.</p>
+
+<p>The value of these fables, as has been said, consists in the reaction
+which they call forth in the minds of the pupils. Sometimes this
+reaction finds expression in the fable itself; sometimes the particular
+vice is merely depicted in its nakedness, and it becomes the business of
+the teacher distinctly to evoke the feeling of disapprobation, and to
+have it expressly stated in words. The words tend to fix the feeling.
+Often, when a child has committed some fault, it is useful to refer by
+name to the fable that fits it. As, when a boy has made room in his seat
+for another, and the other crowds him out, the mere mention of the fable
+of the Porcupine is a telling rebuke; or the fable of the Hawk and the
+Pigeons may be called to mind when a boy has been guilty of mean
+excuses. On the same principle that angry children are sometimes taken
+before a mirror<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> to show them how ugly they look. The fable is a kind of
+mirror for the vices of the young.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fables that illustrate virtuous conduct, I mention that of
+Hercules and the Cart-driver, which teaches self-reliance. Hercules
+helps the driver as soon as the latter has put his own shoulders to the
+wheel. Also the fable of the Lark. So long as the farmer depends on his
+neighbors, or his kinsmen, the lark is not afraid; but when he proposes
+to buckle to himself, she advises her young that it is time to seek
+another field. The fable of the Wind and the Sun shows that kindness
+succeeds where rough treatment would fail. The fable of the Bundle of
+Sticks exemplifies the value of harmony. The fable of the Wolf, whom the
+dog tries to induce to enter civilization, expresses the sentiment that
+lean liberty is to be preferred to pampered servitude. The fable of the
+Old Hound teaches regard for old servants. Finally, the fable of the
+Horse and the Loaded Ass, and of the Dove and the Ant, show that
+kindness pays on selfish principles. The horse refuses to share the
+ass's burden; the ass falls dead under his load; in consequence, the
+horse has to bear the whole of it. On the other hand the dove rescues
+the ant from drowning, and the ant in turn saves the dove from the
+fowler's net.</p>
+
+<p>The last remark throws light on the point of view from which the fables
+contemplate good and evil. It is to be noted that a really moral spirit
+is wanting in them; the moral motives are not appealed to. The appeal
+throughout is to the bare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> motive of self-interest. Do not lie, because
+you will be found out, and will be left in the lurch when you depend for
+help on the confidence of others. Do not indulge in vanity, because you
+will make yourself ridiculous. Do not try to appear like a lion when you
+can not support the character, because people will find out that you are
+only an ass. Do not act ungratefully, because you will be thrust out of
+doors. Even when good conduct is inculcated, it is on the ground that it
+pays. Be self-reliant, because if you help yourself others will help
+you. Be kind, because by gentle means you can gain your purpose better
+than by harshness. Agree with your neighbors, because you can then, like
+the bundle of sticks, resist aggression from without. That lying is
+wrong on principle; that greediness is shameful, whether you lose your
+cheese or not; that kindness is blessed, even when it does not bring a
+material reward; that it is lovely for neighbors to dwell together in
+peace, is nowhere indicated. The beauty and the holiness of right
+conduct lie utterly beyond the horizon of the fable. Nevertheless, as we
+have seen when speaking of the efficient motives of conduct,
+self-interest as a motive should not be underrated, but should be
+allowed the influence which belongs to it as an auxiliary to the moral
+motive. It is well, it is necessary, for children to learn that lying,
+besides being in itself disgraceful, does also entail penalties of a
+palpable sort; that vanity and self-conceit, besides being immoral, are
+also punished by the contempt of one's fellows; that those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> who are
+unkind, as the horse was to the ass, may have to bear the ass's burden.
+The checks and curbs supplied by such considerations as these serve the
+purpose of strengthening the weak conscience of the young, and are not
+to be dispensed with, provided always they are treated not as
+substitutes for but as auxiliaries to the moral motives, properly
+speaking.</p>
+
+<p>As to the place in the primary course which I have assigned to the
+fables, I have the following remark to offer: In speaking of fairy
+tales, it was stated that the moral element should be touched on
+incidentally, and that it should not be separated from the other, the
+naturalistic elements. The pedagogical reason which leads me to assign
+to the fables the second place in the course, is that each fable deals
+exclusively with one moral quality, which is thus isolated and held up
+to be contemplated. In the stories which will occupy the third place a
+number of moral qualities are presented in combination. We have,
+therefore, what seems to be a logical and progressive order&mdash;first,
+fairy tales in which the moral is still blended with other elements;
+secondly, a single moral quality set off by itself; then, a combination
+of such qualities.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar value of the fables is that they are instantaneous
+photographs, which reproduce, as it were, in a single flash of light,
+some one aspect of human nature, and which, excluding everything else,
+permit the entire attention to be fixed on that one.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p><p>As to the method of handling them, I should say to the teacher: Relate
+the fable; let the pupil repeat it in his own words, making sure that
+the essential points are stated correctly. By means of questions elicit
+a clean-cut expression of the point which the fable illustrates; then
+ask the pupil to give out of his experience other instances illustrating
+the same point. This is precisely the method pursued in the so-called
+primary object lessons. The child, for instance, having been shown a red
+ball, is asked to state the color of the ball, and then to name other
+objects of the same color; or to give the shape of the ball, and then to
+name other objects having the same shape. In like manner, when the pupil
+has heard the fable of the Fox and the Wolf, and has gathered from it
+that compassion when expressed merely in words is useless, and that it
+must lead to deeds to be really praiseworthy, it will be easy for him
+out of his own experience to multiply instances which illustrate the
+same truth. The search for instances makes the point of the fable
+clearer, while the expression of the thought in precise language, on
+which the teacher should always insist, tends to drive it home. It will
+be our aim in the present course of lectures to apply the methods of
+object teaching, now generally adopted in other branches, to the
+earliest moral instruction of children&mdash;an undertaking, of course, not
+without difficulties.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Buddhist Birth Stories; or J&#257;taka Tales, translated by
+T. W. Rhys Davids.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> I remarked above that fables should be excluded if the
+moral they inculcate is bad, not if they depict what is bad. In the
+latter case they often may serve a useful purpose.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>VIII.</span> <span class="smaller">SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON FABLES.</span></h2>
+
+<p>Apart from the collection which figures under the name of &AElig;sop, there
+are other fables, notably the so-called J&#257;taka tales, which deserve
+attention. The J&#257;taka tales contain deep truths, and are calculated
+to impress lessons of great moral beauty. The tale of the Merchant of
+Seri, who gave up all that he had in exchange for a golden dish,
+embodies much the same idea as the parable of the Priceless Pearl, in
+the New Testament. The tale of the Measures of Rice illustrates the
+importance of a true estimate of values. The tale of the Banyan Deer,
+which offered its life to save a roe and her young, illustrates
+self-sacrifice of the noblest sort. The Kul&#257;vaka-J&#257;taka contains
+the thought that a forgiving spirit toward one's enemies disarms even
+the evil-minded. The tale of the Partridge, the Monkey, and the Elephant
+teaches that the best seats belong not to the nobles or the priests, to
+the rich or the learned, not even to the most pious, but that reverence
+and service and respect and civility are to be paid according to age,
+and for the aged the best seat, the best water, the best rice, are to be
+reserved. The tale of Nanda, or the Buried Gold, is a rebuke to that
+base insolence which vulgar natures often exhibit when they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> possess a
+temporary advantage. The tale of the Sandy Road is one of the finest in
+the collection. It pictures to us a caravan wandering through the desert
+under the starlight. The guide, whose duty it was to pilot them through
+this sea of sand, has, it appears, fallen asleep at his post from
+excessive weariness, and at dawn the travelers discover that they have
+gone astray, and that far and wide no water is in sight wherewith to
+quench their burning thirst. At this moment, however, the leader espies
+a small tuft of grass on the face of the desert, and, reasoning that
+water must be flowing somewhere underneath, inspires his exhausted
+followers to new exertions. A hole sixty feet deep is dug under his
+direction, but at length they come upon hard rock, and can dig no
+farther. But even then he does not yield to despair. Leaping down, he
+applies his ear to the rock. Surely, it is water that he hears gurgling
+underneath! One more effort, he cries, and we are saved! But of all his
+followers one only had strength or courage enough left to obey. This one
+strikes a heavy blow, the rock is split open, and lo! the living water
+gushes upward in a flood. The lesson is that of perseverance and
+presence of mind in desperate circumstances. The tale entitled Holding
+to the Truth narrates the sad fate of a merchant who suffered himself to
+be deceived by a mirage into the belief that water was near, and emptied
+the jars which he carried with him in order to reach the pleasant land
+the sooner. The J&#257;taka entitled On True Divinity contains a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> very
+beautiful story about three brothers, the Sun prince, the Moon prince,
+and the future Buddha or Bodisat. The king, their father, expelled the
+Moon prince and the future Buddha in order to secure the succession to
+the Sun prince alone. But the Sun prince could not bear to be separated
+from his brothers, and secretly followed them into exile. They journeyed
+together until they came to a certain lake. This lake was inhabited by
+an evil spirit, to whom power had been given to destroy all who entered
+his territory unless they could redeem their lives by answering the
+question, "What is truly divine?" So the Sun prince was asked first, and
+he answered, "The sun and the moon and the gods are divine." But that
+not being the correct answer, the evil spirit seized and imprisoned him
+in his cave. Then the Moon prince was asked, and he answered, "The
+far-spreading sky is called divine." But he, too, was carried away to
+the same place to be destroyed. Then the future Buddha was asked, and he
+answered: "Give ear, then, attentively, and hear what divine nature is;"
+and he uttered the words&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<div>"The pure in heart who fear to sin,</div>
+<div>The good, kindly in word and deed,</div>
+<div>These are the beings in the world</div>
+<div>Whose nature should be called divine."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>And when the evil spirit heard these words, he bowed, and said: "I will
+give up to you one of your brothers." Then the future Buddha said, "Give
+me the life of my brother, the Sun prince, for it is on his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> account
+that we have been driven away from our home and thrust into exile." The
+evil spirit was overcome by this act of generosity, and said, "Verily, O
+teacher, thou not only knowest what is divine, but hast acted divinely."
+And he gave him the life of both his brothers, the Sun prince as well as
+the Moon prince.</p>
+
+<p>I could not resist the temptation of relating a few of these tales. They
+are, as every one must admit, nobly conceived, lofty in meaning, and
+many a helpful sermon might be preached from them as texts. But, of
+course, not all are fit to be used in a primary course. Some of them
+are, some are not. The teacher will have no difficulty in making the
+right selection. To the former class belongs also No. 28 of the
+collection,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which is excellently adapted to impress the lesson of
+kindness to animals. Long ago the Buddha came to life in the shape of a
+powerful bull. His master, a Brahman, asserted that this bull of his
+could move a hundred loaded carts ranged in a row and bound together.
+Being challenged to prove his assertion, he bathed the bull, gave him
+scented rice, hung a garland of flowers around his neck, and yoked him
+to the first cart. Then he raised his whip and called out, "Gee up, you
+brute. Drag them along, you wretch!" The bull said to himself, "He calls
+me wretch; I am no wretch." And keeping his forelegs as firm as steel,
+he stood perfectly still. Thereupon the Brahman, his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> master, was
+compelled to pay a forfeit of a thousand pieces of gold because he had
+not made good his boast. After a while the bull said to the Brahman, who
+seemed very much dispirited: "Brahman, I have lived a long time in your
+house. Have I ever broken any pots, or have I rubbed against the walls,
+or have I made the walks around the premises unclean?" "Never, my dear,"
+said the Brahman. "Then why did you call me wretch? But if you will
+never call me wretch again, you shall have two thousand pieces for the
+one thousand you have lost." The Brahman, hearing this, called his
+neighbors together, set up one hundred loaded carts as before, then
+seated himself on the pole, stroked the bull on the back, and called
+out, "Gee up, my beauty! Drag them along, my beauty!" And the bull, with
+a mighty effort, dragged along the whole hundred carts, heavily loaded
+though they were. The bystanders were greatly astonished, and the
+Brahman received two thousand pieces on account of the wonderful feat
+performed by the bull.</p>
+
+<p>The 30th J&#257;taka corresponds to the fable of the Ox and the Calf in
+the &AElig;sop collection. The 33d, like the fable of the Bundle of Sticks,
+teaches the lesson of unity, but in a form a little nearer to the
+understanding of children. Long ago, when Brahmadatta was reigning in
+Benares, the future Buddha came to life as a quail. At that time there
+was a fowler who used to go to the place where the quails dwelt and
+imitate their cry; and when they had assembled, he would throw his net
+over them. But the Buddha<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> said to the quails: "In future, as soon as he
+has thrown the net over us, let each thrust his head through a mesh of
+the net, then all lift it together, carry it off to some bush, and
+escape from underneath it." And they did so and were saved. But one day
+a quail trod unawares on the head of another, and a disgraceful quarrel
+ensued. The next time the fowler threw his net over them, each of the
+quails pretended that the others were leaving him to bear the greatest
+strain, and cried out, "You others begin, and then I will help." The
+consequence was that no one began, and the net was not raised, and the
+fowler bagged them all. The 26th J&#257;taka enforces the truth that evil
+communications corrupt good manners, and contains more particularly a
+warning against listening to the conversation of wicked people. Thus
+much concerning the J&#257;taka tales.</p>
+
+<p>There exists also a collection of Hindu fairy tales and fables, gathered
+from oral tradition by M. Frere, and published under the title of Old
+Deccan Days. A few of these are very charming, and well adapted for our
+purpose. For example, the fable of King Lion and the Sly Little Jackals.
+The story is told with delightful <i>na&iuml;vet&eacute;</i>. Singh-Rajah, the lion-king,
+is very hungry. He has already devoured all the jackals of the forest,
+and only a young married couple, who are extremely fond of each other,
+remain. The little jackal-wife is terribly frightened when she hears in
+their immediate vicinity the roar of Singh-Rajah. But the young husband
+tries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> to comfort her, and to save their lives he hits on the following
+expedient: He makes her go with him straight to the cave of the terrible
+lion. Singh-Rajah no sooner sees them than he exclaims: "It is well you
+have arrived at last. Come here quickly, so that I may eat you." The
+husband says: "Yes, your Majesty, we are entirely ready to do as you bid
+us, and, in fact, we should have come long ago, as in duty bound, to
+satisfy your royal appetite, but there is another Singh-Rajah mightier
+than you in the forest, who would not let us come." "What!" says the
+lion, "another Singh-Rajah mightier than I! That is impossible." "Oh!
+but it is a fact," say the young couple in a breath; "and he is really
+much more terrible than you are." "Show him to me, then," says
+Singh-Rajah, "and I will prove to you that what you say is false&mdash;that
+there is no one to be compared with me in might." So the little jackals
+ran on together ahead of the lion, until they reached a deep well. "He
+is in there," they said, pointing to the well. The lion looked down
+angrily and saw his own image, the image of an angry lion glaring back
+at him. He shook his mane; the other did the same. Singh-Rajah
+thereupon, unable to contain himself, leaped down to fight his
+competitor, and, of course, was drowned. The fable clothes in childlike
+language the moral that anger is blind, and that the objects which
+excite our anger are often merely the outward reflections of our own
+passions. In the fable of the Brahman, the Tiger, and the Six Judges,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+we have a lesson against ingratitude, and also against useless
+destruction of animal life. In the fable of the Camel and the Jackal,
+the latter does not appear in the same favorable light as above. The
+jackal and the camel were good friends. One day the jackal said to his
+companion: "I know of a field of sugar-cane on the other side of the
+river, and near by there are plenty of crabs and small fishes. The crabs
+and fishes will do for me, while you can make a fine dinner off the
+sugar-cane. If there were only a way of getting across!" The camel
+offered to swim across, taking the jackal on his back, and in this way
+they reached the opposite bank. The jackal ate greedily, and had soon
+finished his meal; thereupon he began to run up and down, and to
+exercise his voice, screaming lustily. The camel begged him to desist,
+but in vain. Presently the cries of the jackal roused the villagers.
+They came with sticks and cudgels and cruelly beat the camel, and drove
+him out of the field before he had had time to eat more than a few
+mouthfuls. When the men were gone at last, the jackal said, "Let us now
+go home." "Very well," said the camel, "climb on my back." When they
+were midway between the two banks, the camel said to the jackal: "Why
+did you make such a noise and spoil my dinner, bringing on those cruel
+men, who beat me so that every bone in my body aches? Did I not beg you
+to stop?" "Oh," said the jackal, "I meant no harm. I was only singing a
+bit. I always sing after dinner, just for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>amusement." They had by this
+time reached the place where the water was deepest. "Well," said the
+camel, "I also like innocent amusements. For instance, it is my custom
+to lie on my back after dinner and to stretch myself a bit." With that
+he turned over, and the jackal fell into the stream. He swallowed
+pailfuls of water, and it was only with the utmost difficulty that he
+succeeded in reaching the bank. He had received a salutary lesson on the
+subject of inconsiderate selfishness&mdash;a fault very common with children,
+which such a story as this may help to correct.</p>
+
+<p>As to the modern fables, I fear they will yield us but a scanty harvest.
+The fables of La Fontaine, where they depart from &AElig;sopian originals, are
+hardly suitable for children, and those of the German poet Gellert
+impress me, on the whole, in the same way, though a few of them may be
+added to our stock. For instance, the fable of the Greenfinch and the
+Nightingale. These two birds occupy the same cage before the window of
+Damon's house. Presently the voice of the nightingale is heard, and then
+ceases. The father leads his little boy before the cage and asks him
+which of the two he believes to have been the sweet musician, the
+brightly colored greenfinch or the outwardly unattractive nightingale.
+The child immediately points to the former, and is then instructed as to
+his error. The lesson, of course, is that fine clothes and real worth do
+not always go together. The fable of the Blind and the Lame Man teaches
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> advantages of co-operation. The Carriage Horse and the Cart Horse
+is a fable for the rich. Possibly the fable of the Peasant and his Son,
+which is directed against lies of exaggeration, may also be utilized,
+though I realize that there are objections to it.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Buddhist Birth Stories; or J&#257;taka Tales.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>IX.</span> <span class="smaller">STORIES FROM THE BIBLE.</span></h2>
+
+<p><i>Introduction.</i>&mdash;It will have been noticed that in choosing our
+illustrative material we have confined ourselves to what may be called
+classical literature. The German <i>M&auml;rchen</i> has lived in the traditions
+of the German people for centuries, and is as fresh to-day as Snow-white
+herself when she woke from her trance. The fables, as has been shown,
+have been adopted into the language and literature of Persia, of Arabia,
+of the nations of Europe, and are still found in the hands of our own
+children. Let us continue to pursue the same method of selection.
+Instead of relying on juvenile literature just produced, or attempting
+to write moralizing stories specially adapted for the purpose in hand,
+let us continue, without excluding invention altogether, to rely mainly
+on that which has stood the test of time. In the third part of our
+primary course we shall use selected stories from the classical
+literature of the Hebrews, and later on from that of Greece,
+particularly the Odyssey and the Iliad. The stories to which I refer
+possess a perennial vitality, an indestructible charm. I am, I trust, no
+blind worshiper of antiquity. The mere fact that a thing has existed for
+a thousand or two thousand years is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> always proof that it is worth
+preserving. But the fact that after having been repeated for two
+thousand years a story still possesses a perfectly fresh attraction for
+the child of to-day, does indeed prove that there is in it something of
+imperishable worth. How is this unique charm of the classical literature
+to be explained? What quality exists in Homer, in the Bible, enabling
+them, despite the changes of taste and fashion, to hold their own? The
+novels of the last century are already antiquated; few care to read
+them. The poetry of the middle ages is enjoyed only by those who
+cultivate a special taste for it. Historical and scientific works hardly
+have time to leave an impression before new books appear to crowd them
+out. But a few great masterpieces have survived, and the truth and
+beauty of these the lapse of ages, it seems, has left unaltered. Mr.
+Jebb remarks<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> that Homer aims at the lucid expression of primary
+motives, and refrains from multiplying individual traits which might
+interfere with their effect, and that this typical quality in Homer's
+portraiture has been one secret of its universal impressiveness. The
+Homeric outlines are in each case brilliantly distinct, while they leave
+to the reader a certain liberty of private conception, and he can fill
+them in so as to satisfy his own ideal. We may add that this is just as
+true of the Bible as of Homer. The biblical narrative, too, depicts a
+few essential traits of human nature, and refrains from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> multiplying
+minor traits which might interfere with the main effect. The Bible, too,
+draws its figures in outline, and leaves every age free to fill them in
+so as to satisfy its own ideal. Thus the biblical story, as conceived in
+the mind of Milton, reflects the Puritan ideal; the same story, narrated
+in a modern pulpit or Sunday-school, will inevitably reflect, to a
+greater or less degree, the modern humanitarian ideal, and this liberty
+of interpretation is one cause of the vitality of the Bible. But it may
+be asked further, How did Homer, how did the biblical writers, succeed
+in producing such universal types, in drawing their figures so correctly
+that, however the colors may thenceforth be varied, the outlines remain
+forever true? He who should attempt at the present day to give
+expression to the most universal traits of human nature, freed from the
+complex web of conditions, disengaged from the thousand-fold minor
+traits which modify the universal in particular instances, would find it
+difficult to avoid one or the other of two fatal errors. If he keeps his
+eyes fixed on the universal, he is in danger of producing a set of
+bloodless abstractions, pale shadows of reality, which will not live for
+a day, much less for a thousand years. If, on the other hand, he tries
+to keep close to reality he will probably produce more or less accurate
+copies of the types that surround him, but the danger will always be
+that the universal will be lost amid the particulars. By what quality in
+themselves or fortunate constellation of circumstances did Homer and the
+biblical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> writers succeed in avoiding both these errors, in creating
+types of the utmost universality and yet imparting to them the breath of
+life, the gait and accent of distinctive individuality? I imagine that
+they succeeded because they lived at a time when life was much less
+complex than it is at present, when the conversation, the manners, the
+thoughts, the motives of men were simple. They were enabled to
+individualize the universal because the most universal, the simplest
+motives, still formed the mainspring in the conduct of individuals. It
+was not necessary for them to enter into the barren region of
+abstraction and generalization to discover the universal. They pictured
+what they actually saw. The universal and the individual were still
+blended in that early dawn of human history.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus far spoken of Homer and the Bible jointly. But let us now
+give our particular attention to the biblical narrative. The narrative
+of the Bible is fairly saturated with the moral spirit; the moral issues
+are everywhere in the forefront. Duty, guilt and its punishment, the
+conflict of conscience with inclination, are the leading themes. The
+Hebrew people seem to have been endowed with what may be called "a moral
+genius," and especially did they emphasize the filial and fraternal
+duties to an extent hardly equaled elsewhere. Now it is precisely these
+duties that must be impressed on young children, and hence the biblical
+stories present us with the very material we require. They can not, in
+this respect, be replaced; there is no other <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>literature in the world
+that offers what is equal to them in value for the particular object we
+have now in view. Before proceeding, however, to discuss the stories in
+detail, let me remind you that in studying them a larger tax is made on
+the attention of children, and a higher development of the moral
+judgment is presupposed, than in the previous parts of our course; for
+in them a succession of acts and their consequences are presented to the
+scholar, on each of which his judgment is to be exercised. Those who
+teach the biblical stories merely because it has been customary to
+regard the Bible as the text-book of morals and religion, without,
+however, being clear as to the place which belongs to it in a scheme of
+moral education, will always, I doubt not, achieve a certain result. The
+stories will never entirely fail of their beneficial effect, but I can
+not help thinking that this effect will be greatly heightened if their
+precise pedagogic value is distinctly apprehended, and if the
+preparatory steps have been taken in due course. It seems to me that the
+moral judgment should first be exercised on a single moral quality as
+exhibited in a single act before it is applied to a whole series of
+acts; and hence that the fable should precede the story.</p>
+
+<p>In making our selection from the rich material before us we need only
+keep in mind the principle already enunciated in the introductory
+lectures&mdash;that the moral teaching at any period should relate to the
+duties of that period.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Adam and Eve in Paradise.</i></p>
+
+<p>This is a wonderful story for children. It deserves to be placed at the
+head of all the others, for it inculcates the cardinal virtue of
+childhood&mdash;obedience. It is also a typical story of the beginning, the
+progress, and the culmination of temptation. Will you permit me to
+relate the story as I should tell it to little children? I shall
+endeavor to keep true to the outlines, and if I depart from the received
+version in other respects, may I not plead that liberty of
+interpretation to which I have referred above.</p>
+
+<p>Once upon a time there were two children, Adam and Eve. Adam was a fine
+and noble-looking lad. He was slender and well built, and fleet of foot
+as a young deer. Eve was as beautiful as the dawn, with long golden
+tresses, and blue eyes, and cheeks like the rose. They lived in the
+loveliest garden that you have ever heard of. There were tall trees in
+it, and open meadows where the grass was as smooth as on a lawn, and
+clear, murmuring brooks ran through the woods. And there were dense
+thickets filled with the perfume of flowers, and the flowers grew in
+such profusion, and there were so many different kinds, each more
+beautiful than the rest, that it was a perfect feast for the eyes to
+look at them. It was so warm that the children never needed to go
+in-doors, but at night they would just lie down at the foot of some
+great tree and look at the stars twinkling through the branches until
+they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> fell asleep. And when it rained they would find shelter in some
+beautiful cavern, spreading leaves and moss upon the ground for a bed.
+The garden where they lived was called Paradise. And there were ever so
+many animals in it&mdash;all kinds of animals&mdash;elephants, and tigers, and
+leopards, and giraffes, and camels, and sheep, and horses, and cows; but
+even the wild animals did them no harm. But the children were not alone
+in that garden: their Father lived with them. And every morning when
+they woke up their first thought was to go to him and to look up into
+his mild, kind face for a loving glance, and every evening before they
+went to sleep he would bend over them. And once, as they lay under the
+great tree, looking at a star shining through the branches, Adam said to
+Eve: "Our Father's eye shines just like that star."</p>
+
+<p>One day their Father said to them: "My children, there is one tree in
+this beautiful garden the fruit of which you must not eat, because it is
+hurtful to you. You can not understand why, but you know that you must
+obey your Father even when you do not understand. He loves you and knows
+best what is for your good." So they promised, and for a time
+remembered. But one day it happened that Eve was passing near the tree
+of the fruit of which she knew she must not eat, when what should she
+hear but a snake talking to her. She did not see it, but she heard its
+voice quite distinctly. And this is what the snake said: "You poor Eve!
+you must certainly have a hard time. Your Father is always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> forbidding
+you something. How stern he is! I am sure that other children can have
+all the fruit they want." Eve was frightened at first. She knew that her
+Father was kind and good, and that the snake was telling a falsehood. He
+did not always forbid things. But still he had forbidden her to eat of
+the fruit, and she thought that was a little hard; and she could not
+understand at all why he had done so. Then the snake spoke again:
+"Listen, Eve! He forbade you to eat only of it. It can do no harm just
+to look at it. Go up to it. See how it glistens among the branches! How
+golden it looks!" And the snake kept on whispering: "How good it must be
+to the taste! Just take one bite of it. Nobody sees you. Only one bite;
+that can do no harm." And Eve glanced around, and saw that no one was
+looking, and presently with a hasty movement she seized the fruit and
+ate of it. Then she said to herself: "Adam, too, must eat of it. I can
+never bear to eat it alone." So she ran hastily up to Adam, and said:
+"See, I have some of the forbidden fruit, and you, too, must eat." And
+he, too, looked at it and was tempted, and ate. But that evening they
+were very much afraid. They knew they had done wrong, and their
+consciences troubled them. So they hurried away into the wood where it
+was deepest, and hid themselves in the bushes. But soon they heard their
+Father calling to them; and it was strange, their Father's voice had
+never sounded so sad before. And in a few moments he found them where
+they were hiding. And he said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> to them: "Why do you hide from me?" And
+they were very much confused, and stammered forth all sorts of excuses.
+But he said: "Come hither, children." And he looked into their eyes, and
+said: "Have you eaten of the fruit of which I told you not to eat?" And
+Adam, who was thoughtless and somewhat selfish, spoke up, and said:
+"Yes, but it was Eve who gave me of it; she led me on." And Eve hung her
+head, and said: "It was the snake that made me eat." Now the snake, you
+know, was no real snake at all; she never saw it, she only heard its
+voice. And, you know, when we want to do anything wicked, there is
+within every one of us something bad, that seems to whisper: "Just look!
+Mere looking will do no harm"; and then: "Just taste; no one sees you."
+So the snake was the bad feeling in Eve's heart. And their Father took
+them by the hand, and said: "Tomorrow, when it is dawn, you will have to
+leave this place. In this beautiful Paradise no one can stay who has
+once disobeyed. You, Adam, must learn to labor; and, you, Eve, to be
+patient and self-denying for others. And, perhaps, after a long, long
+time, some day, you will come back with me into Paradise again."</p>
+
+<p>It is a free rendering, I admit. I have filled in the details so as to
+bring it down to the level of children's minds, but the outlines, I
+think, are there. The points I have developed are all suggested in the
+Bible. The temptation begins when the snake says with characteristic
+exaggeration: "Is it true<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> that of <i>all</i> the fruit you are forbidden to
+eat?" Exaggerating the hardships of the moral command is the first step
+on the downward road. The second step is Eve's approach to look at the
+fruit&mdash;"and she saw that it was good for food, and pleasant to the
+eyes." The third step is the actual enjoyment of what is forbidden. The
+fourth step is the desire for companionship in guilt, so characteristic
+of sin&mdash;"and she gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat."
+The next passage describes the working of conscience, the fear, the
+shame, the desire to hide, and then comes the moral verdict: You are
+guilty, both of you. You have lost your paradise. Try to win it back by
+labor and suffering.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;I would add to what has been said in the text, that the
+pupils are expected to return to the study of the Bible, to read
+and re-read these stories, and to receive a progressively higher
+interpretation of their meaning as they grow older. If in the above
+I have spoken in a general way of a Father and his two children, it
+will be easy for the Sunday-school teacher to add later on that the
+Father in the story was God.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Cain and Abel.</i></p>
+
+<p>In teaching the story of the two brothers Cain and Abel the following
+points should be noted. The ancients believed that earthly prosperity
+and well-being depended on the favor of God, or the gods, and that the
+favor of the gods could be secured by sacrifice. If any one brought a
+sacrifice and yet prosperity did not set in, this was supposed to be a
+sign that his sacrifice had not been accepted. On the other hand, to say
+of any person that his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>sacrifice had been accepted, was tantamount to
+saying that he was happy and prosperous. Applying this to the story of
+Cain and Abel, we may omit all mention of the bringing of the
+sacrifices, which presents a great and needless difficulty to children's
+minds, and simply make the equivalent statement that Abel was prosperous
+and Cain was not.</p>
+
+<p>Again, Cain is not represented as an intentional murderer. The true
+interpretation of the story depends on our bearing this in mind. It is
+erroneous to suppose that a brand was fixed on Cain's forehead. The
+passage in question, correctly understood, means that God gave Cain a
+sign to reassure him that he should not be regarded by men as a common
+murderer. With these prefatory remarks the story may be told somewhat as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>Long ago there lived two brothers. The name of the elder was Cain, and
+of the younger Abel. Cain was a farmer. He toiled in the sweat of his
+brow, tilling the stubborn ground, taking out stones, building fences.
+Winter and summer he was up before the sun, and yet, despite all his
+labor, things did not go well with him. His crops often failed through
+no fault of his. He never seemed to have an easy time. Moreover, Cain
+was of a proud disposition. Honest he was, and truthful, but taciturn,
+not caring much to talk to people whom he met, but rather keeping to
+himself. Abel, on the other hand, was a shepherd. He led, or seemed to
+lead, the most delightfully easy life. He followed his flocks from one
+pasture to another, watching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> them graze; and at noon he would often lie
+down in the shade of some leafy tree and play on his flute by the hour.
+He was a skillful musician, a bright, talkative companion, and
+universally popular. He was a little selfish too, as happy people
+sometimes are. He liked to talk about his successes, and, in a perfectly
+innocent way, which yet stung Cain to the quick, he would rattle on to
+his brother about the increase of his herds, about his plans and
+prospects, and the pleasant things that people were saying of him. Cain
+grew jealous of his brother Abel. He did not like to confess it to
+himself, but yet it was a fact. He kept comparing his own life of
+grinding toil with the easy, lazy life of the shepherd&mdash;it was not quite
+so lazy, but so it seemed to Cain&mdash;his own poverty with the other's
+wealth, his own loneliness with Abel's popularity. And a frown would
+often gather on his brow, and he grew more and more moody and silent. He
+knew that he was not in the right state of mind. There was a voice
+within him that said: "Sin is at thy door, but thou canst become master
+over it." Sin is like a wild beast crouching outside the door of the
+heart. Open the door ever so little, and it will force its way in, and
+will have you in its power. Keep the door shut, therefore; do not let
+the first evil thought enter into your heart. Thus only can you remain
+master of yourself. But Cain was already too far gone to heed the
+warning voice. One day he and Abel were walking together in the fields.
+Abel, no doubt, was chatting in his usual gay and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>thoughtless manner.
+The world was full of sunshine to him; and he did not realize in the
+least what dark shadows were gathering about his brother's soul. Perhaps
+the conversation ran somewhat as follows: He had just had an addition to
+his herd, the finest calf one could imagine: would not Cain come to
+admire it? And then, to-morrow evening he was to play for the dancers on
+the green, at the village feast: would not Cain join in the
+merry-making? When the solitary, embittered Cain heard such talk as this
+the angry feeling in his heart rose up like a flood. Overmastered by his
+passion, with a few wild, incoherent words of rage he turned upon his
+brother and struck him one fierce blow. Ah, that was a relief! The
+pent-up feeling had found vent at last. The braggart had received the
+chastisement he deserved! And Cain walked on; and for a time continued
+to enjoy his satisfaction. He had just noticed that Abel, when struck,
+had staggered and fallen, but he did not mind that. "Let him lie there
+for a while; he will pick himself up presently. He may be lame for a few
+days, and his milk-white face may not be so fair at the feast, but that
+will be all the better for him. It will teach him a lesson."
+Nevertheless, when he had walked on for some distance he began to feel
+uneasy. He looked around from time to time to see whether Abel was
+following him, and the voice of conscience began to be heard, saying,
+"Cain, where is thy brother?" But he silenced it by saying to himself,
+"Am I my brother's keeper? Is he such a child that he can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> not take care
+of himself&mdash;that he can not stand a blow?" But he kept looking back more
+and more often, and when he saw no one coming, he came at last to a dead
+halt. His heart was beating violently by this time; the beads of
+perspiration were gathered on his brow. He turned back to seek his
+missing brother. Then, as he did not meet him, he began to run, and
+faster and faster he ran, until at last, panting and out of breath, with
+a horrible fear hounding him on, he arrived at the place where he had
+struck the blow. And there he saw&mdash;a pool of blood, and the waxen face
+of his brother, and the glazed, broken eyes! And then he realized what
+he had done. And it is this situation which the Bible has in view in the
+words, "Behold, thy brother's blood cries up from the earth against
+thee." And then as he surveyed his deed in stony despair, he said to
+himself, "I am accursed from the face of the earth"&mdash;I am unworthy to
+live. The earth has no resting-place for such as I. But a sign was given
+him to show him that his life would not be required of him. He had not
+committed willful murder. He had simply given the reins to his violent
+passion. He must go into another land, where no one knew him, there
+through years of penance to try to regain his peace of soul. The moral
+of the story is: Do not harbor evil thoughts in the mind. If you have
+once given them entrance, the acts to which they lead are beyond your
+control. Cain's sin consisted in not crushing the feeling of envy in the
+beginning; in comparing his own lot with that of his more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> favored
+brother and dwelling on this comparison, until, in a fit of insane
+passion, he was led on to the unspeakable crime which, indeed, he had
+never contemplated, to which he had never given an inward assent. The
+story also illustrates the vain subterfuges with which we still seek to
+smother the consciousness of guilt after we have done wrong, until the
+time comes when our eyes are opened and we are compelled to face the
+consequences of our deeds and to realize them in all their bearings. The
+story of Cain and Abel is thus a further development of the theme
+already treated in simpler fashion in the story of Adam and Eve, only
+that, while in the latter case the filial duty of obedience to parents
+is in the foreground, attention is here directed to the duty which a
+brother owes to a brother. It is a striking tale, striking in the
+vividness with which it conjures up the circumstances before our minds
+and the clearness with which the principal motives are delineated; and
+it contains an awful warning for all time.</p>
+
+<p>The question here presents itself, whether we should arrange the
+biblical stories according to subjects&mdash;e. g., grouping together all
+those which treat of duty to parents, all those which deal with the
+relations of brothers to brothers, etc.&mdash;or whether we should adopt the
+chronological arrangement. On the whole, I am in favor of the latter. It
+is expected that the pupils, as they grow older, will undertake a more
+comprehensive study of the Bible, and for this they will be better
+prepared if they have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> kept to the chronological order from the
+outset. Another more practical reason is, that children tire of one
+subject if it is kept before their minds too long. It is better,
+therefore, to arrange the stories in groups or cycles, each of which
+will afford opportunity to touch on a variety of moral topics. It will
+be impossible to continue to relate <i>in extenso</i> the stories which I
+have selected, and I shall therefore content myself in the main with
+giving the points of each story upon which the teacher may lay stress.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Story of Noah and his Sons.</i></p>
+
+<p>Describe the beauty of the vine, and of the purple grapes hanging in
+clusters amid the green leaves. How sweet is this fruit to the taste!
+But the juice of it has a dangerous property. Once there lived a man,
+Noah, who had three sons. He planted a vine, plucked the grapes, but did
+not know the dangerous property of the juice. The second son, on seeing
+his father in a state of intoxication, allowed his sense of the
+ridiculous to overcome his feeling of reverence. But the eldest and the
+youngest sons acted differently. They took a garment, covered their
+father with it, and averted their faces so as not to see his disgrace.
+The moral is quite important. An intelligent child can not help
+detecting a fault now and then even in the best of parents. But the
+right course for him to take is to throw the mantle over the fault, and
+to turn away his face. He should say to himself: Am I the one to judge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+my parents&mdash;I who have been the recipient of so many benefits at their
+hands, and who see in them so many virtues, so much superior wisdom? By
+such reasoning the feeling of reverence is even deepened. The momentary
+superiority which the child feels serves only to bring out his general
+inferiority.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Abraham Cycle.</i></p>
+
+<p>There is a whole series of stories belonging to this group, illustrating
+in turn the virtues of brotherly harmony, generosity toward the weak,
+hospitality toward strangers, and maternal love. Abraham and Lot are
+near kinsmen. Their servants quarrel, and to avoid strife the former
+advises a separation. "If thou wilt go to the left," he says, "I will
+turn to the right; if thou preferrest the land to the right, I will take
+the left." Abraham, being the older, was entitled to the first choice,
+but he waived his claim. Lot chose the fairer portion, and Abraham
+willingly assented. "Let there be no strife between us, for we be
+brethren." The lesson is, that the older and wiser of two brothers or
+kinsmen may well yield a part of his rights for harmony's sake.</p>
+
+<p>Abraham's conduct toward the King of Sodom is an instance of generosity.
+The story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah may be introduced by
+describing the Dead Sea and the surrounding scene of desolation. The
+moral lies in the circumstance that ill treatment of strangers brought
+down the doom. Hospitality toward strangers is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> one of the shining
+virtues of the Old Testament heroes. Even at the present day strangers
+are still despised and ridiculed by the vulgar, their foreign manners,
+language, and habits seeming contemptible; the lesson of hospitality is
+not yet superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>The story of <i>Hagar and her Child</i> I should recast in such a way as to
+exclude what in it is repellent, and retain the touching picture of
+maternal affection. I should relate it somewhat as follows: There was
+once a little lad whose name was Ishmael. He had lost his father and had
+only his mother to cling to. She was a tall, beautiful lady, with dark
+eyes which were often very sad, but they would light up, and there was
+always a sweet smile on her lips whenever she looked at her darling boy.
+Ishmael and his mother, Hagar, had never been separated; they were all
+in all to each other. One day it happened that they walked away from
+their home, which was near the great, sandy desert. Ishmael's mother was
+in deep distress, there was something troubling her, and every now and
+then a tear would steal down her cheeks. Ishmael was sad, too, because
+his mother was, but he did not dare to ask her what it was that grieved
+her, fearing to give her pain. So they walked on and on, holding each
+other's hands in silence. But at last they saw that they had lost their
+way; and they tried first one direction, and then another, thinking that
+it would bring them back toward home, but they only got deeper and
+deeper into the vast, lonely desert. And the sun burned hot and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> hotter
+above their heads, and little Ishmael, who had tried to keep up like a
+brave lad, at last became so parched with thirst, and so faint with want
+of food, and so tired with walking&mdash;for they had wandered about for
+many, many hours&mdash;that he could go on no farther. Then his mother took
+him up in her arms and laid him under a bush, where there was a little
+shade. And then, oh then, how her poor heart was wrung, and how she wept
+to see her darling in such suffering, and how she cried for help! Then
+she sat down on the glaring sand at some distance away, and turned her
+face in the direction opposite to where Ishmael was lying; for she said,
+"I can not bear to see my boy die." But just as she had given up all
+hope, suddenly she saw a noble-looking man, wearing the dress of the
+Bedouins, approach her. He had come from behind one of the sand hills,
+and it seemed to her as if he had come down straight from the sky. He
+asked her why she was in such grief, and when she told him, and pointed
+to her little son, he said: "It is fortunate that you have come to this
+place. There is a beautiful oasis close by." An oasis, children, is a
+spot of fruitful green earth right in the midst of the desert, like an
+island in the ocean. And the man took the boy up and carried him in his
+arms, and Hagar followed after him. And presently, when they came to the
+oasis, they found a cool, clear spring, full of the most delicious
+water, and palm-trees with ever so many dates on them, and all the
+people who lived there gathered around them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> And the man who had been
+so kind proved to be the chief. And he took charge of Ishmael's
+education, showed him how to shoot with the bow and how to hunt, and was
+like a real father to him. And when Ishmael grew up he became a great
+chief of the Bedouins. But he always remained true to his mother, and
+loved her with all his heart.</p>
+
+<p>I am strongly in favor of omitting the story of the <i>Sacrifice of
+Isaac</i>. I do not think we can afford to tell young children that a
+father was prepared to draw the knife against his own son, even though
+he desisted in the end. I should not be willing to inform a child that
+so horrible an impulse could have been entertained even for a moment in
+a parent's heart. I regard the story, indeed, as, from an historical
+point of view, one of the most valuable in the Bible; it has a deep
+meaning; but it is not food fit for children. A great mistake has been
+made all along in supposing that whatever is true in religion must be
+communicated to children; and that if anything be very true and very
+important we ought to hasten to give it to children as early as
+possible; but there must be preparatory training. And the greatest
+truths are often of such a kind as only the mature mind, ripe in thought
+and experience, is fitted to assimilate.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most charming idyls of patriarchal times is the story of
+<i>Rebecca at the Well</i>. It illustrates positively, as the story of Sodom
+does negatively, the duty of hospitality toward strangers. "Drink, lord,
+and I will give thy camels drink<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> also," is a pleasant phrase which is
+apt to stick in the memory. Moreover, the story shows the high place
+which the trusted servant occupied in the household of his master, and
+offers to the teacher an opportunity of dwelling on the respect due to
+faithful servants.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Jacob Cycle.</i></p>
+
+<p>What treatment shall Jacob receive at our hands, he, the sly trickster,
+who cheats his brother of his birthright and steals a father's blessing?
+Yet he is one of the patriarchs, and is accorded the honorable title of
+"champion of God." To hold him up to the admiration of the young is
+impossible. To gloss over his faults and try to explain them away were a
+sorry business, and honesty forbids. The Bible itself gives us the right
+clew. His faults are nowhere disguised. He is represented as a person
+who makes a bad start in life&mdash;a very bad start, indeed&mdash;but who pays
+the penalty of his wrong-doing. His is a story of penitential
+discipline.</p>
+
+<p>In telling the story, all reference to the duplicity of Rebecca should
+be omitted, for the same reason that malicious step-mothers and cruel
+fathers have been excluded from the fairy tales.</p>
+
+<p>The points to be discussed may be summarized as follows:</p>
+
+<p><i>Taking advantage of a brother in distress.</i>&mdash;Jacob purchases the
+birthright for a mess of pottage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tender attachment to a helpless old father.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>&mdash;Esau goes out hunting to
+supply a special delicacy for his father's table. This is a point which
+children will appreciate. Unable to confer material benefits on their
+parents, they can only show their love by slight attentions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deceit.</i>&mdash;Jacob simulates the appearance of his older brother and
+steals the blessing. In this connection it will be necessary to say that
+a special power was supposed to attach to a father's blessing, and that
+the words once spoken were deemed irrevocable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jacob's penitential discipline begins.</i>&mdash;The deceiver is deceived, and
+made to feel in his own person the pain and disappointment which deceit
+causes. He is repeatedly cheated by his master Laban, especially in the
+matter which is nearest to him, his love for Rachel.</p>
+
+<p><i>The forgiveness of injuries.</i>&mdash;Esau's magnanimous conduct toward his
+brother.</p>
+
+<p><i>The evil consequences of tale-bearing and conceit.</i>&mdash;It is a
+significant fact that Joseph is not a mere coxcomb. He is a man of
+genius, as his later career proves, and the stirrings of his genius
+manifest themselves in his early dreams of future greatness. Persons of
+this description are not always pleasant companions, especially in their
+youth. They have not yet accomplished anything to warrant distinction,
+and yet they feel within themselves the presentiment of a destiny and of
+achievements above the ordinary. Their faults, their arrogance, their
+seemingly preposterous claims, are not to be excused, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> neither is
+the envy they excite excusable. One of the hardest things to learn is to
+recognize without envy the superiority of a brother.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moral cowardice.</i>&mdash;Reuben is guilty of moral cowardice. He was an
+opportunist, who sought to accomplish his ends by diplomacy. If he, as
+the oldest brother, had used his authority and boldly denounced the
+contemplated crime, he might have averted the long train of miseries
+that followed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strength and depth of paternal love.</i>&mdash;"Joseph is no more: an evil
+beast has devoured him. I will go mourning for my son Joseph into the
+grave." It is a piece of poetic justice that Jacob, who deceived his
+father in the matter of the blessing by covering himself with the skin
+of a kid, is himself deceived by the blood of a kid of the goats with
+which the coat of Joseph had been stained.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the temptation of Joseph in the house of Potiphar, it is
+enough to say that the wife conspired against her husband, and
+endeavored to induce Joseph to betray his master. A pretty addition to
+the story is to be found in the Talmud, to the effect that Joseph saw in
+imagination the face of his father before him in the moment of
+temptation, and was thereby strengthened to resist.</p>
+
+<p><i>The light of a superior mind can not be hidden even in a
+prison.</i>&mdash;Joseph wins the favor of his fellow-prisoners, and an
+opportunity is thus opened to him to exercise his talents on the largest
+scale.</p>
+
+<p><i>Affliction chastens.</i>&mdash;The famine had in the mean time spread to
+Palestine. The shadow of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> grief for Joseph still lay heavily on the
+household of the patriarch. Joseph is lost; shall Benjamin, too, perish?
+It is pleasant to observe that the character of the brothers in the mean
+time has been changed for the better. There is evidently a lurking sense
+of guilt and a desire to atone for it in the manner in which Judah
+pledges himself for the safety of the youngest child. And the same
+marked change is visible in the conduct of all the brothers on the
+journey. The stratagem of the cup was cunningly devised to test their
+feelings. They might have escaped by throwing the blame on Benjamin.
+Instead of that, they dread nothing so much as that he may have to
+suffer, and are willing to sacrifice everything to save him. When this
+new spirit has become thoroughly apparent, the end to which the whole
+group of Jacob stories pointed all along is reached; the work of moral
+regeneration is complete. Jacob himself has been purified by affliction,
+and the brothers and Joseph have been developed by the same hard
+taskmaster into true men. The scene of recognition which follows, when
+the great vice-regent orders his attendants from the apartment and
+embraces those who once attempted his life, with the words, "I am
+Joseph, your brother: does my father still live?" is touching in the
+extreme, and the whole ends happily in a blaze of royal pomp, like a
+true Eastern tale.</p>
+
+<p>A word as to the <i>method</i> which should be used in teaching these
+stories. If the fairy tale holds the moral element in solution, if the
+fable drills the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> pupil in distinguishing one moral trait at a time, the
+biblical stories exhibit a combination of moral qualities, or, more
+precisely, the interaction of moral causes and effects; and it is
+important for the teacher to give expression to this difference in the
+manner in which he handles the stories. Thus, in the fables we have
+simply one trait, like ingratitude, and its immediate consequences. The
+snake bites the countryman, and is cast out; there the matter ends. In
+the story of Joseph we have, first, the partiality of the father, which
+produces or encourages self-conceit in the son; Joseph's conceit
+produces envy in the brothers. This envy reacts on all concerned&mdash;on
+Joseph, who in consequence is sold into slavery; on the father, who is
+plunged into inconsolable grief; on the brothers, who nearly become
+murderers. The servitude of Joseph destroys his conceit and develops his
+nobler nature. Industry, fidelity, and sagacity raise him to high power.
+The sight of the constant affliction of their father on account of
+Joseph's loss mellows the heart of the brothers, etc. It is this
+interweaving of moral causes and effects that gives to the stories their
+peculiar value. They are true moral pictures; and, like the pictures
+used in ordinary object lessons, they serve to train the power of
+observation. Trained observation, however, is the indispensable
+preliminary of correct moral judgment.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Moses Cycle.</i></p>
+
+<p>The figures of the patriarchs and the prophets appeal to us with a fresh
+interest the moment we regard them as human beings like ourselves, who
+were tempted as we are, who struggled as we are bound to do, and who
+acted, howsoever the divine economy might supervene, on their own
+responsibility. Looked at from this point of view, the figure of Moses,
+the Liberator, approaches our sympathies at the same time that he towers
+in imposing proportions above our level. Let us briefly review his
+career. Like Arminius at a later day, he is educated at the court of the
+enemies of his people. In dress, in manners, in speech, he doubtless
+resembles the grandees of Pharaoh's court. When he approaches the well
+in Midian, the daughter of Jethro exclaims, "Behold, an Egyptian is
+coming!" But at heart he remains a Hebrew, and is deeply touched by the
+cruel sufferings of his race. His first public intervention on their
+behalf takes place when he strikes down and kills a native overseer whom
+he detects in the act of maltreating a Hebrew slave. This is
+characteristic of the manner in which reformers begin. They direct their
+first efforts against the particular consequences of some great general
+wrong. Later on they perceive the uselessness of such a procedure and
+take heart to attack the evil at its source. Moses flees into the
+desert. The lonely life he leads there is necessary to the development
+of his ideas. Solitude is essential to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> growth of genius. The
+burning bush is the outward symbol of an inward fact. The fire which can
+not be quenched is in his own breast, and out of that inward burning he
+hears more and more distinctly the voice which bids him go back and free
+his people. But when he considers the means at his disposal, when in
+fancy he sees his people, a miserable horde of slaves, pitted against
+the armed hosts of Pharaoh, he is ready to despair; until he hears the
+comforting voice, which says, "The Eternal is with thee; the
+unchangeable power of right is on thy side: it will prevail!" Like
+Jeremiah, like Isaiah, like all great reformers, Moses is profoundly
+imbued with the sense of his unfitness for the task laid upon him. He
+pleads that he is heavy of speech. He can only stammer forth the message
+of freedom. But he is reassured by the thought that a brother will be
+found, that helpers will arise, that the thought which he can barely
+formulate will be translated by other lesser men into a form suitable
+for the popular understanding. He returns to Egypt to find that the
+greatest obstacle in his way is the lethargy and unbelief of the very
+people whom he wishes to help. This again is a typical feature of his
+career. The greatest trials of the reformer are due not to the open
+enmity of the oppressor, but to the meanness, the distrust and jealousy,
+of those whom oppression has degraded. At last, however, the miracle of
+salvation is wrought, the weak prevail over the mighty, the cause of
+justice triumphs against all apparent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> odds to the contrary. The slaves
+rise against their masters, the flower of Egyptian chivalry is
+destroyed. Pharaoh rallies his army and sets out in pursuit. But the
+Hebrews, under Moses's guidance, have gained the start, and escape into
+the wilderness in safety.</p>
+
+<p>Freedom is a precious opportunity&mdash;no more. Its value depends on the use
+to which it is put. And therefore, no sooner was the act of liberation
+accomplished, than the great leader turned to the task of positive
+legislation, the task of developing a higher moral life among his
+people. But here a new and keener disappointment awaited him. When he
+descended from the mount, the glow of inspiration still upon his face,
+the tablets of the law in his hand, he saw the people dancing about the
+golden calf. It is at this moment that Michel Angelo, deeply realizing
+the human element in the biblical story, has represented the form of the
+liberator in the colossal figure which was destined for Pope Julius's
+tomb. "The right foot is slightly advanced; the long beard trembles with
+the emotion which quivers through the whole frame; the eyes flash
+indignant wrath; the right hand grasps the tablets of the law; in
+another moment, we see it plainly, he will leap from his sitting posture
+and shatter the work which he has made upon the rocks." This trait, too,
+is typical. Many a leader of a noble cause has felt, in moments of deep
+disappointment, as if he could shatter the whole work of his life. Many
+a man, in like situation, has said to himself:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> The people are willing
+enough to hail the message of the higher law to-day, but to-morrow they
+sink back into their dull, degraded condition, as if the vision from the
+mount had never been reported to them. Let me, then, leave them to their
+dreary ways, to dance about their golden calf. But a better and stronger
+mood prevailed in Moses. He ascended once more to the summit, and there
+prostrated himself in utter self-renunciation and self-effacement. He
+asked nothing for himself, only that the people whom he loved might be
+benefited ever so little, be raised ever so slowly above their low
+condition. And again the questioning spirit came upon him, and he said,
+as many another has said: The paths of progress are dark and twisted;
+the course of history seems so often to be in the wrong direction. How
+can I be sure that there is such a thing as eternal truth&mdash;that the
+right will prevail in the end? And then there came to him that grand
+revelation, the greatest, as I think, and the most sublime in the Old
+Testament, when the eternal voice answered his doubt, and said: "Thou
+wouldst know my ways, but canst not. No living being can see my face;
+only from the rearward canst thou know me." As a ship sails through the
+waters and leaves its wake behind, so the divine Power passes through
+the world and leaves behind the traces by which it can be known. And
+what are those traces? Justice and mercy. Cherish, therefore, the divine
+element in thine own nature, and thou wilt see it reflected in the world
+about thee. Wouldst thou be sure that there is such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> a thing as a divine
+Power? be thyself just and merciful. And so Moses descended again to his
+people, and became exceeding charitable in spirit. The Bible says: "The
+man Moses was exceeding humble; there was no one more humble than he on
+the face of the earth." He bore with resignation their complaints, their
+murmurings, their alternate cowardice and foolhardiness. He was made to
+feel, like many another in his place, that his foes were they of his own
+household. He had an only brother and an only sister. His brother and
+sister rose up against him. His kinsmen, too, revolted from him. He
+endured all their weakness, all their follies; he sought to lift them by
+slow degrees to the height of his own aims. He set the paths of life and
+death before them, and told them that the divine word can not be found
+by crossing the seas or by searching the heavens, but must be found in
+the human heart; and if men find it not there they will find it nowhere
+else. And so, at last, his pilgrimage drew to a close. He had reached
+the confines of Palestine. Once more he sought the mountain-top, and
+there beheld the promised land stretching far away&mdash;the land which his
+eyes were to see but which he was never to enter. Few great reformers,
+indeed few men who have started a great movement in history, and have
+been the means of producing deep and permanent changes in the ideas and
+institutions of society, have lived to see those changes consummated.
+The course of evolution is slow, and the reformer can hope at best to
+see the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> promised land from afar&mdash;as in a dream. Happy he if, like
+Moses, he retains the force of his convictions unabated, if his
+spiritual sight remains undimmed, if the splendid vision which attended
+him in the beginning inspires and consoles him to the end.</p>
+
+<p>The narrative which has thus been sketched touches on some of the
+weightiest problems of human existence, and deals with motives both
+complex and lofty. I have entered into the interpretation of these
+motives for the purpose of showing that they are too complex and too
+lofty to be within the comprehension of children, and that it is an
+error, though unfortunately a common one, to attempt to use the grand
+career of a reformer and liberator as a text for the moral edification
+of the very young. They are wholly unprepared to understand, and that
+which is not understood, if forced on the attention, awakens repugnance
+and disgust. Few of those who have been compelled to study the life of
+Moses in their childhood have ever succeeded in conquering this
+repugnance, or have drawn from it, even in later life, the inspiration
+and instruction which it might otherwise have afforded them. For our
+primary course, however, we can extract a few points interesting even to
+children, thus making them familiar with the name of Moses, and
+preparing the way for a deeper interest later on. The incidents of the
+story which I should select are these: The child Moses exposed on the
+Nile; the good sister watching over his safety; the kind princess
+adopting him as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> her son; the sympathy manifested by him for his
+enslaved brethren despite his exemption from their misfortunes. The
+killing of the Egyptian should be represented as a crime, palliated but
+not excused by the cruelty of the overseer. Special stress may be laid
+upon the chivalric conduct of Moses toward the young girls at the well
+of Midian. The teacher may then go on to say that Moses, having
+succeeded in freeing his people from the power of the Egyptian king,
+became their chief, that many wise laws are ascribed to him, etc. The
+story of the spies, and of the end of Moses, may also be briefly told.</p>
+
+<p>The mention of the laws of Moses leads me to offer a suggestion. I have
+remarked above that children should be taught to observe moral pictures
+before any attempt is made to deduce moral principles; but certain
+<i>simple rules</i> should be given even to the very young&mdash;must, indeed, be
+given them for their guidance. Now, in the legislation ascribed to Moses
+we find a number of rules fit for children, and a collection of these
+rules might be made for the use of schools. They should be committed to
+memory by the pupils, and perhaps occasionally recited in chorus. I have
+in mind such rules as these:<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>1. Ye shall not lie. (Many persons who pay attention only to the
+Decalogue, and forget the legislation of which it forms a part, seem not
+to be aware<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> that there is in the Pentateuch [Lev. xix, 11] a distinct
+commandment against lying.)</p>
+
+<p>2. Ye shall not deceive one another.</p>
+
+<p>3. Ye shall take no bribe.</p>
+
+<p>4. Honor thy father and thy mother.</p>
+
+<p>5. Every one shall reverence his mother and his father. (Note that the
+father is placed first in the one passage and the mother first in the
+other, to indicate the equal title of both to their children's
+reverence.)</p>
+
+<p>6. Thou shalt not speak disrespectfully of those in authority.</p>
+
+<p>7. Before the hoary head thou shalt rise and pay honor to the aged.</p>
+
+<p>10. Thou shalt not spread false reports.</p>
+
+<p>11. Thou shalt not go about as a tale-bearer among thy fellows.</p>
+
+<p>12. Thou shalt not hate thy neighbor in thy heart, but shalt warn him of
+his evil-doing.</p>
+
+<p>13. Thou shalt not bear a grudge against any, but thou shalt love thy
+neighbor as thyself.</p>
+
+<p>8. Thou shalt not speak evil of the deaf (thinking that he can not hear
+thee), nor put an obstacle in the way of the blind.</p>
+
+<p>9. If there be among you a poor man, thou shalt not harden thy heart,
+nor shut thy hand from thy poor brother, but thou shalt open thy hand
+wide unto him, and shalt surely lend him sufficient for his need.</p>
+
+<p>14. If thou seest the property of thine enemy threatened with
+destruction, thou shalt do thy utmost to save it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p><p>15. If thou findest what is not thine own, and the owner is not known
+to thee, guard it carefully, that thou mayest restore it to its rightful
+owner.</p>
+
+<p>16. Thou shalt not do evil because many others are doing the same evil.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing grudges, lying, mocking those who (like the deaf and blind) are
+afflicted with personal defects, appropriating what is found without
+attempting to discover the owner, seeking to excuse wrong on the plea
+that many others are guilty of it&mdash;all these are forms of moral evil
+with which children are perfectly familiar, and against which they need
+to be warned. It is more than strange that such commandments as the
+sixth and eighth of the Decalogue (the commandment against murder and
+against adultery, forsooth), which are inapplicable to little children,
+should be made so much of in primary moral instruction, while those
+other commandments which do come home to them are often overlooked. The
+theory here expounded, that moral teaching should keep pace with the
+experience and intelligence of the child, should save us from such
+mistakes.</p>
+
+<p>To proceed with the stories, the book of Joshua offers nothing that we
+can turn to account, nor do the stories of Jael, Deborah, and Gideon
+contain moral lessons fit for the young. Sour milk is not proper food
+for children, nor do those stories afford the proper moral food in
+which, so to speak, the milk of human kindness has turned sour. The
+labors of Samson, the Hebrew Hercules, are likewise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> unfit to be used at
+this stage, at least for the purpose of moral instruction. The story of
+the daughter of Jephtha, the Hebrew Iphigenia, is exquisitely pathetic,
+but it involves the horrible idea of human sacrifice, and therefore had
+better be omitted. The acts and speeches of Samuel mark an epoch in the
+history of the Hebrew religion, and are of profound interest to the
+scholar. But there are certain features, such as the killing of Agag,
+which would have to be eliminated in any case; then the theological and
+moral elements are so blended that it would be difficult if not
+impossible to separate them; and altogether the character of this mighty
+ancient seer, this Hebrew Warwick, this king-maker and enemy of kings,
+is above the comprehension of primary scholars. We shall therefore omit
+the whole intervening period, and pass at once from the Moses cycle to</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The David Cycle.</i></p>
+
+<p>The first story of this group is that of <i>Naomi and Ruth</i>, the
+ancestress of David. Upon the matchless beauty of this tale it is
+unnecessary to expatiate. I wish to remark, however, in passing that it
+illustrates as well as any other&mdash;better perhaps than any other&mdash;the
+peculiar art of the biblical narrative to which we have referred above.
+If any one at the present day were asked to decide whether a woman
+placed in Ruth's situation would act rightly in leaving her home and
+following an aged mother-in-law to a distant country, how many pros and
+cons would he have to weigh before he would be able to say yes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> or no?
+Are her own parents still living, and are they so situated that she is
+justified in leaving them? Are there other blood relations who have a
+prior claim on her? Has she raised expectations at home which she ought
+not to disappoint, or undertaken duties which ought not to be set aside
+in deference to a sentiment no matter how noble? Of all such side issues
+and complications of duty which would render a decision like hers
+difficult in modern times, the story as we have it before us is cleared.
+All minor traits are suppressed. It is assumed that she has a right to
+go if she pleases, and the mind is left free to dwell, unimpeded by any
+counter-considerations, upon the beauty of her choice. This choice
+derives its excellence from the fact that it was perfectly free. There
+was no tie of consanguinity between Naomi and her. The two women were
+related in such a way that the bond might either be drawn more tightly
+or severed without blame. Orpah, too, pitied her mother-in-law. She
+wept, but she returned to her home. We can not, on that account, condemn
+her. It was not her bounden duty to go. Ruth, on the other hand, might
+perhaps have satisfied her more sensitive conscience by accompanying her
+mother-in-law as far as Bethlehem, and then returning to Moab. But she
+preferred instead exile and the hardships of a life among strangers. Not
+being a daughter, she freely took upon herself the duties of a daughter;
+and it is this that constitutes the singular merit of her action. In
+telling the story it is best to follow the original as closely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> as
+possible. "Entreat me not to leave thee, nor to desist from following
+after thee, for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I
+will lodge: thy people shall be my people: where thou diest will I die
+and there will I be buried." Where in universal literature shall we find
+words more eloquent of tender devotion than these? It will be noticed
+that I have left out the phrase "and thy God shall be my God" for two
+reasons. No matter how much we may love another person, religious
+convictions ought to be held sacred. We have no right to give up our
+convictions even for affection's sake. Moreover, the words correctly
+understood are really nothing but an amplification of what has preceded.
+The language of Ruth refers throughout to the proposed change of
+country. "Whither thou goest, I will go; where thou lodgest, I will
+lodge: thy folk shall be my folk; where thou diest, I will die." And the
+phrase "Thy God shall be my God" has the same meaning. The ancients
+believed that every country has its God, and to say "Thy God shall be my
+God" was tantamount to saying "Thy country shall be my country." It is
+better, therefore, to omit these words. Were we to retain them, the
+impression might be created that Ruth contemplated a change of religion
+merely to please the aged Naomi, and such a step from a moral point of
+view would be unwarrantable. It was this Gentile woman Ruth who became
+the ancestress of the royal house of David.</p>
+
+<p>The story of <i>David's life</i> is replete with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>dramatic interest. It may
+be arranged in a series of pictures. First picture: David and
+Goliath&mdash;i. e., skill pitted against brute strength, or the deserved
+punishment of a bully. Every boy takes comfort in this story. Second
+picture: David and Jonathan, their arms twined about each other's neck,
+a beautiful example of youthful friendship. Especially should the
+unselfishness of Jonathan be noted. He, the Hebrew crown prince, so far
+from being jealous of his rival, recognized the superior qualities of
+the latter and served him with the most generous fidelity. Third
+picture: David the harper, playing before the gloomy, moody king, whom
+an evil spirit has possessed. It should be noted how difficult is the
+task incumbent upon Jonathan of combining his duty to his father and his
+affection for his friend. Yet he fails in neither. Fourth picture:
+David's loyalty manifest. He has the monarch in his power in the camp,
+in the cave, and proves that there is no evil intention in his mind. The
+words of Saul are very touching, "Is it thy voice I hear, my son David?"
+Fifth picture: the battle, the tragical end of Saul and Jonathan. The
+dirge of David floats above the field: "The beauty of Israel is slain
+upon the high places. How are the mighty fallen!" etc. A second series
+of pictures now begins. David is crowned king, first by his clansmen,
+then by the united tribes. David, while besieging Bethlehem, is athirst
+and there is no water. Three of his soldiers cut their way to the well
+near the gate, which is guarded by the enemy, and bring back a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> cup of
+water. He refuses it, saying: "It is not water, but the blood of the men
+who have risked their lives for me." Omitting the story of Bathsheba, we
+come next to the rebellion of Absalom. The incidents of this rebellion
+may be depicted as follows: First, Absalom in his radiant beauty at the
+feast of the sheep-shearer. Next, Absalom at the gate playing the
+demagogue, secretly inciting the people to revolt. Next, David ascending
+Mount Olivet weeping, the base Shimei, going along a parallel ridge,
+flinging stones at the king and reviling him. David remarks: "If my own
+son seek my life, how shall I be angry with this Benjamite?" Next, the
+death of Absalom in the wood. Finally, David at the gate receiving the
+news of Absalom's death, and breaking forth into the piercing cry: "O my
+son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee! O
+Absalom, my son, my son!" It is the story of a rebellious and undutiful
+child, and illustrates by contrast the unfathomable depth of a father's
+love, of a love that yearns even over the wicked, over the lost.</p>
+
+<p>The points of the stories included in the David cycle are: skill and
+courage triumphant over brute strength, unselfish friendship, loyalty, a
+leader's generosity toward his followers, and parental love. The
+arrangement of the words in the lament of David for his son deserves to
+be specially noted. It corresponds to and vividly describes the rhythmic
+movements of the emotions excited by great sorrow. From the life of
+Solomon we select only the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>judgment, related in I Kings, iii. We may
+compare with it a similar story, showing, however, interesting
+variations, in the J&#257;taka tales.</p>
+
+<p>With this our selections from the Old Testament narrative come to an
+end. The ideal types are exhausted, and the figures which now appear
+upon the scene stand before us in the dry light of history.</p>
+
+<p>From the New Testament we select for the primary course the story of the
+Good Samaritan, as illustrative of true charity. Selected passages from
+the Sermon on the Mount may also be explained and committed to memory.
+The Beatitudes, however, and the parables lie outside our present
+limits, presupposing as they do a depth of spiritual experience which is
+lacking in children.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;It should be remembered that the above selections have been
+made with a view to their being included in a course of unsectarian
+moral instruction. Such a course must not express the religious
+tenets of any sect or denomination. Much that has here been
+omitted, however, can be taught in the Sunday schools, the
+existence of which alongside of the daily schools is, as I have
+said, presupposed in these lectures. I have simply tried to cull
+the moral meaning of the stories, leaving, as I believe, the way
+open for divergent religious interpretations of the same stories.
+But I realize that the religious teacher may claim the Bible wholly
+for his own, and may not be willing to share even a part of its
+treasure with the moral teacher. If this be so, then these
+selections from the Bible, for the present, at all events, will
+have to be omitted. They can, nevertheless, be used by judicious
+parents, and some if not all of the suggestions they contain may
+prove acceptable to teachers of Sunday schools.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> In his Introduction to Homer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> I have taken the liberty of altering the language here and
+there, for reasons that will be obvious in each case.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>X.</span> <span class="smaller">THE ODYSSEY AND THE ILIAD.</span></h2>
+
+<p>As we leave the field of biblical literature and turn to the classic
+epic of Greece, a new scene spreads out before us, new forms and faces
+crowd around us, we breathe a different atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The poems of Homer among the Greeks occupied a place in many respects
+similar to that of the Bible among the Hebrews. At Athens there was a
+special ordinance that the Homeric poems should be recited once every
+fourth year at the great Panathenaic festival. On this occasion the
+rhapsode, standing on an elevated platform, arrayed in rich robes, with
+a golden wreath about his head, addressed an audience of many thousands.
+The poems were made the subject of mystical, allegorical, and
+rationalistic interpretation, precisely as was the case with the text of
+the Bible. As late as the first century of our era, the first book
+placed in the hands of children, the book from which they learned to
+read and write, was Homer. Xenophon in the Symposium has one of the
+guests say: "My father, anxious that I should become a good man, made me
+learn all the poems of Homer, and now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> I could repeat the whole Iliad
+and Odyssey by heart."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>We shall not go quite to the same length as Xenophon. We should hardly
+think it sufficient in order to make a good man of a boy to place Homer
+in his hands. But we do believe that the knowledge of the Homeric poems,
+introduced at the right time and in the right way, will contribute to
+such a result.</p>
+
+<p>Let us, however, examine more closely in what the value of these poems
+consists.</p>
+
+<p>Ulysses is the hero of the Odyssey, Achilles of the Iliad. Ulysses is
+pre-eminently the type of resourceful intelligence, Achilles of valor.
+In what way will these types appeal to our pupils? As the boy develops
+beyond the early period of childhood, there shows itself in him a spirit
+of adventure. This has been noticed by all careful educators. Now, there
+is a marked difference between the spirit of adventure and the spirit of
+play. Play consists in the free exercise of our faculties. Its
+characteristic mark is the absence of taxing effort. The child is said
+to be at play when it frolics in the grass, when it leaps or runs a
+race, or when it imitates the doings of its elders. As soon, however, as
+the exertion required in carrying on a game becomes appreciable, the
+game is converted into a task and loses its charm. The spirit of
+adventure, on the contrary, is called forth by obstacles; it delights in
+the prospect of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> difficulties to be overcome; it is the sign of a fresh
+and apparently boundless energy, which has not yet been taught its
+limitations by the rough contact with realities. The spirit of adventure
+begins to develop in children when the home life no longer entirely
+contents them, when they wish to be freed from the constraint of
+dependence on others, when it seems to them as if the whole world lay
+open to them and they could dare and do almost anything. It is at this
+time that children love to read tales of travel, and especially tales of
+the sea, of shipwreck, and hair-breadth escapes, of monsters slain by
+dauntless heroes, of rescue and victory, no matter how improbable or
+impossible the means. Now success in such adventures depends largely on
+courage. And it is good for children to have examples even of physical
+courage set before them, provided it be not brutal. The craven heart
+ought to be despised. Mere good intentions ought not to count. Unless
+one has the resolute will, the fearless soul, that can face difficulties
+and danger without flinching, he will never be able to do a man's work
+in the world. This lesson should be imprinted early. A second
+prerequisite of success is presence of mind, or what has been called
+above resourceful intelligence. And this quality is closely allied with
+the former. Presence of mind is the result of bravery. The mind will act
+even in perilous situations if it be not paralyzed by fear. It is fear
+that causes the wheels of thought to stop. If one can only keep off the
+clog of fear, the mind will go on revolving and often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> find a way of
+escape where there seemed none. Be not a coward, be brave and
+clear-headed in the midst of peril&mdash;these are lessons the force of which
+is appreciated by the growing pupil. The Iliad and Odyssey teach them on
+every page.</p>
+
+<p>Bravery and presence of mind, it is true, are commonly regarded as
+worldly, rather than as, in the strict sense, moral qualities. However
+that may be&mdash;and I, for one, am inclined to rank true courage and true
+presence of mind among the highest manifestations of the moral
+nature&mdash;these qualities when they show themselves in the young soon
+exert a favorable influence on the whole character, and serve especially
+to transform the attitude of the child toward its parents. Hitherto the
+young child has been content to be the mere recipient of favors; as soon
+as the new consciousness of strength, the new sense of independence and
+manliness has developed, the son begins to feel that he would like to
+give to his parents as well as to receive from them; to be of use to his
+father, and to confer benefits, as far as he is able, in the shape of
+substantial services. These remarks will find their application in the
+analysis of the Odyssey, which we shall presently attempt.</p>
+
+<p>The Odyssey is a tale of the sea. Ulysses is the type of sagacity, as
+well as of bravery, his mind teems with inventions. In the boy
+Telemachus we behold a son struggling to cut loose from his mother's
+leading-strings, and laudably ambitious to be of use to his parents. In
+the Odyssey we gain a distinct advance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> upon the moral results obtained
+from the study of the biblical stories. In the Bible it is chiefly the
+love of parents for their children which is dwelt upon, in the Odyssey
+the devotion of children to their parents; and this, of course, marks a
+later stage. In the Odyssey, too, the conjugal relation comes into the
+foreground. In the Bible, the love of the husband for his wife is
+repeatedly touched upon. But the love of the wife for the husband is not
+equally emphasized, and the relations between the two do not receive
+particular attention. The joint authority of both parents over their
+children is the predominant fact, the delicate bonds of feeling which
+subsist between the parents themselves are not in view. And this again
+corresponds to the earlier stage of childhood. The young child perceives
+the joint love which father and mother bear toward it, and feels the
+joint authority which they exercise over it. But as the child grows up,
+its eyes are opened to perceive more clearly the love which the parents
+bear to one another, and its affection for both is fed and the desire to
+serve them is strengthened by this new insight. Thus it is in the
+Odyssey. The yearning of Ulysses for his wife, the fidelity of Penelope
+during twenty years of separation, are the leading theme of the
+narrative, and the effect of this love upon their son is apparent
+throughout the poem.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider the ethical elements of the Odyssey in some detail,
+arranging them under separate heads.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p><p>1. <i>Conjugal affection.</i> Ulysses has been for seven years a prisoner in
+the cave of Calypso. The nymph of the golden hair offers him the gift of
+immortality if he will consent to be her husband, but he is proof
+against her blandishments, and asks for nothing but to be dismissed, so
+that he may see his dear home and hold his own true wife once more in
+his arms.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<div>"Apart upon the shore</div>
+<div>He sat and sorrowed. And oft in tears</div>
+<div>And sighs and vain repinings passed the hours,</div>
+<div>Gazing with wet eyes on the barren deep."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>I would remark that, as the poem is too long to be read through
+entirely, and as there are passages in it which should be omitted, it is
+advisable for the teacher to narrate the story, quoting, however, such
+passages as give point to the narrative or have a special beauty of
+their own. Read the description of Calypso's cave v, 73, ff. Penelope
+meantime is patiently awaiting her husband's return. Read the passages
+which describe her great beauty, especially that lovely word-picture in
+which she is described as standing by a tall column in the hall, a maid
+on either side, a veil hiding her lustrous face, while she addresses the
+suitors. The noblest princes of Ithaca and the surrounding isles entreat
+her hand in marriage, and, thinking that Ulysses will never return, hold
+high revels in his house, and shamelessly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>consume his wealth. Read the
+passage ii, 116-160, describing Penelope's device to put off the
+suitors, and at the same time to avert the danger which would have
+threatened her son in case she had openly broken with the chiefs. The
+love of Penelope is further set vividly before us by many delicate
+touches. Every stranger who arrives in Ithaca is hospitably entertained
+by the queen, and loaded with gifts, in the hope that he may bring her
+some news of her absent lord, and often she is deceived by wretches who
+speculate on her credulous grief. See the passage xiv, 155. During the
+day she is busy with her household cares, overseeing her maids, and
+seeking to divert her mind by busy occupation; but at night the silence
+and the solitude become intolerable, and she weeps her eyes out on her
+lonely couch. How the love of Penelope influences her boy, who was a
+mere babe when his father left for Troy, how the whole atmosphere of the
+house is charged with the sense of expectancy of the master's return, is
+shown in the passage ii, 439, where Telemachus says:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<div>"Nurse, let sweet wine be drawn into my jars,</div>
+<div>The finest next to that which thou dost keep,</div>
+<div>Expecting our unhappy lord, if yet</div>
+<div>The nobly born Ulysses shall escape</div>
+<div>The doom of death and come to us again."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The best cheer, the finest wine, the best of everything is kept ready
+against the father's home-coming, which may be looked for any day, if
+haply he has escaped the doom of death. There is one passage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> in which
+we might suspect that the poet has intended to show the hardening effect
+of grief on Penelope's character, xv, 479. Penelope does not speak to
+her old servants any more; she passes them by without a word, apparently
+without seeing them. She does not attend to their wants as she used to
+do, and they, in turn, do not dare to address her. But we may forgive
+this seeming indifference inasmuch as it only shows how completely she
+is absorbed by her sorrow.</p>
+
+<p>A companion picture to the love of Ulysses and Penelope is to be found
+in the conjugal relation of Alcinous, king of Ph&aelig;acia, and his wife
+Arete, as described in the sixth book and the following. This whole
+episode is incomparably beautiful. Was there ever a more perfect
+embodiment of girlish grace and modesty, coupled with sweetest
+frankness, than Nausicaa? And what a series of lovely pictures is made
+to pass in quick succession before our eyes as we read the story! First,
+Nausicaa, moved by the desire to prepare her wedding garments against
+her unknown lover's coming, not ashamed to acknowledge the motive to her
+own pure heart, but veiling it discreetly before her mother; then the
+band of maidens setting out upon their picnic party, Nausicaa holding
+the reins; next the washing of the garments, the bath, the game of ball,
+the sudden appearance of Ulysses, the flight of her companions, the
+brave girl being left to keep her place alone, with a courage born of
+pity for the stranger, and of virtuous womanhood.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span><div class="i1">"Alone</div>
+<div>The daughter of Alcinous kept her place,</div>
+<div>For Pallas gave her courage and forbade</div>
+<div>Her limb to tremble. So she waited there."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Who that has inhaled the fragrance of her presence from these pages can
+ever forget the white-armed Nausicaa! Then follows the picture of the
+palace, a feast for the imagination, the most magnificent description, I
+think, in the whole poem.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<div>"For on every side beneath</div>
+<div>The lofty roof of that magnanimous king</div>
+<div>A glory shone as of the summer moons."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Read from l. 100-128, book vii. Next we witness the splendid hospitality
+proffered to the stranger guest. For again and again in this poem the
+noble sentiment is repeated, that the stranger and the poor are sent
+from Jove. Then we see Ulysses engaged in the games, outdoing the rest,
+or standing aside and watching "the twinkle of the dancer's feet." The
+language, too, used on these occasions is strikingly noble, so courteous
+and well-chosen, so simple and dignified, conveying rich meanings in the
+fewest possible words. What can be finer, e. g., than Nausicaa's
+farewell to Ulysses?</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<div>"Now, when the maids</div>
+<div>Had seen him bathed, and had anointed him</div>
+<div>With oil, and put his sumptuous mantle on,</div>
+<div>And tunic, forth he issued from the bath,</div>
+<div>And came to those who sat before their wine.</div>
+<div>Nausicaa, goddess-like in beauty, stood</div>
+<div>Beside a pillar of that noble roof,</div>
+<div>And, looking on Ulysses as he passed,</div>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span><div>Admired, and said to him in winged words&mdash;</div>
+<div>'Stranger, farewell, and in thy native land</div>
+<div>Remember thou hast owed thy life to me.'"</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Nausicaa, it is evident, loves Ulysses; she stands beside a pillar, a
+favorite attitude for beautiful women with Homer, and as Ulysses passes,
+she addresses to him those few words so fraught with tenderness and
+renunciation. Ulysses's own speech to Arete, too, is a model of
+simplicity and dignity, possessing, it seems to me, something of the
+same quality which we admire in the speeches of Othello. But throughout
+this narrative, pre-eminent above all the other figures in it is the
+figure of the queen herself, of Arete. Such a daughter as Nausicaa could
+only come from such a mother. To her Ulysses is advised to address his
+supplication. She is the wise matron, the peace-maker who composes the
+angry feuds of the men. And she possesses the whole heart and devotion
+of her husband.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="i1">"Her Alcinous made his wife</div>
+<div>And honored her as nowhere else on earth</div>
+<div>Is any woman honored who bears charge</div>
+<div>Over a husband's household. From their hearts</div>
+<div>Her children pay her reverence, and the king</div>
+<div>And all the people, for they look on her</div>
+<div>As if she were a goddess. When she goes</div>
+<div>Abroad into the streets, all welcome her</div>
+<div>With acclamations. Never does she fail</div>
+<div>In wise discernment, but decides disputes</div>
+<div>Kindly and justly between man and man.</div>
+<div>And if thou gain her favor there is hope</div>
+<div>That thou mayst see thy friends once more."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p><p>We have then as illustrations of conjugal fidelity: the main picture,
+Ulysses and Penelope; the companion picture, Alcinous and Arete; and, as
+a foil to set off both, there looms up every now and then in the course
+of the poem, that unhappy pair, Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, the latter,
+the type of conjugal infidelity, from which the soul of Homer revolts.
+This foil is very skillfully used. At the very end of the poem, when
+everything is hastening toward a happy consummation, Ulysses having
+slain the suitors and being about to be reunited with his wife, we are
+introduced into the world of shades, where the ghost of Agamemnon once
+more rehearses the story of Clytemnestra's treachery. At that moment the
+spirits of the suitors come flying down to Hades, and the happier
+destiny of Ulysses is thus brought into clearer relief by contrast.</p>
+
+<p>The next ethical element of which I have to speak is the <i>filial
+conduct</i> of Telemachus. In him the spirit of adventure has developed
+into a desire to help his father. In the early part of the poem he
+announces that he is now a child no longer. He begins to assert
+authority. And yet in his home he continues to be treated as a child.
+The suitors laugh at him, his own mother can not bear to think that he
+should go out into the wide world alone, and the news of his departure
+is accordingly concealed from her. Very fine are the words in which her
+mother's love expresses itself when she discovers his absence:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span><div>"And her knees failed her and her heart</div>
+<div>Sank as she heard. Long time she could not speak;</div>
+<div>Her eyes were filled with tears, and her clear voice</div>
+<div>Was choked; yet, finding words at length, she said:</div>
+<div>'O herald! wherefore should my son have gone?'</div>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<div class="i12">"... Now, my son,</div>
+<div>My best beloved, goes to sea&mdash;a boy</div>
+<div>Unused to hardship and unskilled to deal</div>
+<div>With strangers. More I sorrow for his sake</div>
+<div>Than for his father's. I am filled with fear."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>She lies outstretched upon the floor of her chamber overcome with grief
+(iv, 910). Telemachus, however, has gone forth in search of his sire. He
+finds a friend in Pisistratus, the son of Nestor, and the two youths
+join company on the journey. They come to the court of Menelaus, King of
+Sparta. There, as everywhere, Telemachus hears men speak of his great
+father in terms of the highest admiration and praise, and the desire
+mounts in his soul to do deeds worthy of such a parent. What better
+stimulation can we offer to growing children than this recital of
+Telemachus's development from boyhood into manhood? His reception at the
+court of Menelaus affords an opportunity to dwell again upon the
+generous and delicate hospitality of the ancient Greeks. First, the
+guest is received at the gates; then conducted to the bath and anointed;
+then, when he is seated on a silver or perchance a golden throne, a
+handmaiden advances with a silver ewer and a golden jug to pour water on
+his hands; then a noble banquet is set out for his delectation; and only
+then, after all these rites of hospitality have been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>completed, is
+inquiry made as to his name and his errand. "The stranger and the poor
+are sent from Jove." The stranger and the poor were welcome in the
+Grecian house. Telemachus returns to Ithaca, escapes the ambush which
+the murderous suitors had set for him, and arrives just in time to help
+his father in his last desperate struggle. It is he, Telemachus, who
+conveys the weapons from the hall, he who pinions the treacherous
+Melantheus and renders him harmless. He quits himself like a
+man&mdash;discreet, able to keep his counsel, and brave and quick in the
+moment of decisive action.</p>
+
+<p>The third element which attracts our attention is the resourceful
+intelligence of Ulysses, or his <i>presence of mind</i> amid danger. This is
+exhibited on many occasions; for instance, in the cave of Polyphemus;
+where he saves his companions by concealing them in the fleece of the
+giant's flock, and at the time of the great shipwreck, before he reaches
+Ph&aelig;acia. His raft is shattered, and he is plunged into the sea. He
+clings to one of the fragments of the wreck, but from this too is
+dislodged. For two days and nights he struggles in the black, stormy
+waters. At last he approaches the shore, but is nearly dashed to pieces
+on the rocks. He swims again out to sea, until, finding himself opposite
+the mouth of a river, he strikes out for this and lands in safety.
+Pallas Athene has guided him. But Pallas Athene is only another name for
+his own courage and presence of mind. In the same connection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> may be
+related the story of Ulysses's escape from the Sirens and from the twin
+perils of Scylla and Charybdis. The Sirens, with their bewitching songs,
+seek to lure him and his companions to destruction. But he stops the
+ears of his companions with wax so that they can not hear, and causes
+himself to be bound with stout cords to the mast, so that, though he may
+hear, he can not follow. There is an obvious lesson contained in this
+allegory. When about to be exposed to temptation, if you know that you
+are weak, do not even listen to the seductive voices. But no matter how
+strong you believe yourself to be, at least give such pledges and place
+yourself in such conditions that you may be prevented from yielding.
+From the monster Charybdis, too, Ulysses escapes by extraordinary
+presence of mind and courage. He leaps upward to catch the fig-tree in
+the moment when his ship disappears beneath him in the whirlpool; then,
+when it is cast up again, lets go his hold and is swept out into safe
+waters.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth ethical element which we select from the poem is the
+<i>veneration shown to grandparents</i>. I have already remarked, in a former
+lecture, that if parents wish to retain the reverence of their children
+they can not do better than in their turn to show themselves reverent
+toward their own aged and enfeebled parents. Of such conduct the Odyssey
+offers us a number of choice examples. Thus Achilles, meeting Ulysses in
+the realm of shades, says that the hardest part of his lot is to think
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> his poor old father, who has no one now to defend him, and who,
+being weak, is likely to be neglected and despised. If only he, the
+strong son, could return to the light of day, how he would protect his
+aged parent and insure him the respect due to his gray hairs! Penelope
+is advised to send to Laertes, Telemachus's grandfather, to secure his
+aid against the suitors. But with delicate consideration she keeps the
+bad news from him, saying: "He has enough grief to bear on account of
+the loss of his son Ulysses; let me not add to his burden." Again, how
+beautiful is the account of the meeting of Laertes and Ulysses after the
+return and triumph of the latter. On the farm, at some distance from the
+town, Ulysses seeks his aged father. Laertes is busy digging. He, a
+king, wears a peasant's rustic garb and lives a life of austere
+self-denial, grieving night and day for his absent son. When Ulysses
+mentions his name, Laertes at first does not believe. Then the hero
+approaches the bent and decrepit old man, and becomes for the moment a
+child again. He brings up recollections of his earliest boyhood; he
+reminds his father of the garden-patch which he set aside for him long,
+long ago; of the trees and vines which he gave him to plant; and then
+the father realizes that the mighty man before him is indeed his son.</p>
+
+<p>The structural lines of the Odyssey are clearly marked, and can easily
+be followed. First, we are shown the house of Ulysses bereft of its
+master. The noisy crowd of suitors are carousing in the hall;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> the
+despairing Penelope weaves her web in an upper chamber; the resolve to
+do and dare for his father's sake awakens in Telemachus's heart. Next
+Ulysses on the way home, dismissed by Calypso, arrives at Ph&aelig;acia, from
+which port without further misadventures he reaches Ithaca. The stay in
+the palace of the Ph&aelig;acian king gives an opportunity for a rehearsal of
+the previous sufferings and adventures of the hero. Then follow the
+preparations for the conflict with the suitors; the appearance of
+Ulysses in his own palace in the guise of a beggar; the insults and
+blows which he receives at the hands of his rivals and their menials;
+the bloody fight, etc. In relating the story I should follow the course
+of the poem, laying stress upon the ethical elements enumerated above.
+The fight which took place in the palace halls with closed doors should
+be merely mentioned, its bloody details omitted. The hanging of the
+maidens, the trick of Vulcan related in a previous book, and other minor
+episodes, which the teacher will distinguish without difficulty, should
+likewise be passed over. The recognition scenes are managed with
+wonderful skill. The successive recognitions seem to take place
+inversely in the order of previous connection and intimacy with Ulysses.
+The son, who was a mere babe when his father left and did not know him
+at all, recognizes him first. This, moreover, is necessary in order that
+his aid may be secured for the coming struggle. Next comes Argus, the
+dog.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span><div>"While over Argus the black night of death</div>
+<div>Came suddenly as he had seen</div>
+<div>Ulysses, absent now for twenty years."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Next comes the nurse Eurycleia, who recognizes him by a scar inflicted
+by the white tusk of a boar whom he hunted on Parnassus's heights; then
+his faithful followers; last of all, and slowly and with difficulty, the
+wife who had so yearned for him. Her impetuous son could not understand
+her tardiness. Vehemently he chid her: "Mother, unfeeling mother, how
+canst thou remain aloof, how keep from taking at my father's side thy
+place to talk with him and question him? Mother, thy heart is harder
+than a stone." But she only sat opposite to Ulysses and gazed and gazed
+and wondered. Ulysses himself, at last, in despair at her impenetrable
+silence, exclaimed, "An iron heart is hers." But it was only that she
+could not believe. It seemed so incredible to her that the long waiting
+should be over; that the desire of her heart should really be fulfilled;
+that this man before her should be indeed the husband, the long-lost
+husband, and not a mocking dream. But when at last it dawned upon her,
+when he gave her the token of the mystery known only to him and to her,
+then indeed the ice of incredulity melted from her heart, and her knees
+faltered and the tears streamed from her eyes, "and she rose and ran to
+him and flung her arm about his neck and kissed his brow, and he, too,
+wept as in his arms he held his dearly loved and faithful wife." "As
+welcome as the land to those who swim the deep, tossed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> by the billow
+and the blast, and few are those who from the hoary ocean reach the
+shore, their limbs all crested with the brine, these gladly climb the
+sea-beach and are safe&mdash;so welcome was her husband to her eyes, nor
+would her fair white arms release his neck."</p>
+
+<p>And so with the words uttered by the shade of Agamemnon we may fitly
+close this retrospect of the poem:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<div>"Son of Laertes, fortunate and wise,</div>
+<div>Ulysses! thou by feats of eminent might</div>
+<div>And valor dost possess thy wife again.</div>
+<div>And nobly minded is thy blameless queen,</div>
+<div>The daughter of Icarius, faithfully</div>
+<div>Remembering him to whom she gave her troth</div>
+<div>While yet a virgin. Never shall the fame</div>
+<div>Of his great valor perish, and the gods</div>
+<div>Themselves shall frame, for those who dwell on earth,</div>
+<div>Sweet strains in praise of sage Penelope."</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Well might the rhapsodes in the olden days, clad in embroidered robes,
+with golden wreaths about their brows, recite such verses as these to
+the assembled thousands and ten thousands. Well might the Hellenic race
+treasure these records of filial loyalty, of maiden purity, of wifely
+tenderness and fidelity, of bravery, and of intelligence. And well may
+we, too, desire that this golden stream flowing down to us from ancient
+Greece shall enter the current of our children's lives to broaden and
+enrich them.</p>
+
+<p>I have not space at my command to attempt a minute analysis of the
+Iliad, and shall content <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>myself with mentioning the main significant
+points. The Iliad is full of the noises of war, the hurtling of arrows,
+the flashing of swords, the sounding of spears on metal shields, the
+groans of the dying, "whose eyes black darkness covers." The chief
+virtues illustrated are valor, hospitality, conjugal affection, respect
+for the aged. I offer the following suggestions to the teacher. After
+describing the wrath of Achilles, relate the meeting of Diomedes and
+Glaucus, their hostile encounter, and their magnanimous embrace on
+discovering that they are great friends. Read the beautiful passage
+beginning with the words, "Even as the generations of leaves, such are
+those likewise of men." Dwell on the parting of Hector and Andromache.
+Note that she has lost her father, her lady mother, and her seven
+brothers. Hector is to her father, mother, brother, and husband, all in
+one. Note also Hector's prayer for his son that the latter may excel him
+in bravery. As illustrative of friendship, tell the story of Achilles's
+grief for Patroclus, how he lies prone upon the ground, strewing his
+head with dust; how he follows the body lamenting; how he declares that
+though the dead forget their dead in Hades, even there he would not
+forget his dear comrade. Next tell of the slaying of Hector, and how
+Achilles honors the suppliant Priam and restores to him the body of his
+son. It is the memory of his own aged father, which the sight of Priam
+recalls, that melts Achilles's heart, and they weep together, each for
+his own dead. Finally, note the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> tribute paid to Hector's delicate
+chivalry in the lament of Helen.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See Jebb's Introduction to Homer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The quotations are taken from Bryant's translation of the
+Odyssey.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In connection with the Homeric poems selections from Greek
+mythology may be used, such as the story of Hercules, of Theseus, of
+Perseus, the story of the Argonauts, and others. These, too, breathe the
+spirit of adventure and illustrate the virtues of courage, perseverance
+amid difficulties, chivalry, etc.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>GRAMMAR COURSE.</span> <span class="smaller">LESSONS ON DUTY.</span></h2>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>XI.</span> <span class="smaller">THE DUTY OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE.</span></h2>
+
+<p>In setting out on a new path it is well to determine beforehand the goal
+we hope to reach. We are about to begin the discussion of the grammar
+course, which is intended for children between twelve and fifteen years
+of age, and accordingly ask: What result can we expect to attain? One
+thing is certain, we must continue to grade our teaching, to adapt each
+successive step to the capacities of the pupils, to keep pace with their
+mental development.</p>
+
+<p>The due gradation of moral teaching is all-important. Whether the
+gradations we propose are correct is, of course, a matter for
+discussion; but, at all events, a point will be gained if we shall have
+brought home forcibly to teachers the necessity of a graded, of a
+progressive system.</p>
+
+<p>In the primary course we have set before the pupils examples of good and
+bad conduct, with a view to training their powers of moral perception.
+We are now ready to advance from percepts to concepts. We have
+endeavored to cultivate the faculty of observation, we can now attempt
+the higher task of generalization. In the primary course we have tried
+to make the pupils perceive moral distinctions; in the grammar course we
+shall try to make them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> reason about moral distinctions, help them to
+gain notions of duty, to arrive at principles or maxims of good conduct.
+The grammar course, therefore, will consist in the main of lessons on
+duty.</p>
+
+<p>What has just been said, however, requires further explanation to
+prevent misapprehension. I have remarked that the pupil is now to reach
+out toward concepts of duty, and to establish for himself maxims or
+principles of conduct. But of what nature shall these maxims be? The
+philosopher Kant has proposed the following maxim: "So act that the
+maxim underlying thy action may justify itself to thy mind as a
+universal law of conduct." According to him, the note of universality is
+the distinctive characteristic of all ethical conduct. The school of
+Bentham proposes a different maxim: "So act that the result of thy
+action shall tend to insure the greatest happiness of the greatest
+number." Theologians tell us so to act that our will may harmonize with
+the will of God. But pupils of the grammar grade are not ripe to
+understand such metaphysical and theological propositions. And,
+moreover, as was pointed out in our first lecture, it would be a grave
+injustice to teach in schools supported by all ethical first principles
+which are accepted only by some. We are not concerned with first
+principles. We exclude the discussion of them, be they philosophical or
+theological, from the school. But there are certain secondary
+principles, certain more concrete rules of behavior, which nevertheless
+possess the character of generalizations, and these will <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>suffice for
+our purpose. And with respect to these there is really no difference of
+opinion among the different schools and sects, and on them as a
+foundation we can build.</p>
+
+<p>It is our business to discover such secondary principles, and in our
+instruction to lead the pupil to the recognition of them. The nature of
+the formulas of duty which we have in mind&mdash;formulas which shall express
+the generalized moral experience of civilized mankind, will appear more
+plainly if we examine the processes by which we arrive at them. An
+example will best elucidate: Suppose that I am asked to give a lesson on
+the duty of truthfulness. At the stage which we have now reached it will
+not be enough merely to emphasize the general commandment against lying.
+The general commandment leaves in the pupil's mind a multitude of doubts
+unsolved. Shall I always tell the truth&mdash;that is to say, the whole
+truth, as I know it, and to everybody? Is it never right to withhold the
+truth, or even to say what is the contrary of true, as, e. g., to the
+sick or insane. Such questions as these are constantly being asked. What
+is needed is a rule of veracity which shall leave the general principle
+of truth-speaking unshaken, and shall yet cover all these exceptional
+cases. How to arrive at such a rule? I should go about it in the
+following manner, and the method here described is the one which is
+intended to be followed throughout the entire course of lessons on duty.
+I should begin by presenting a concrete case. A certain child had broken
+a precious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> vase. When asked whether it had done so, it answered, "No."
+How do you characterize such a statement? As a falsehood. The active
+participation of the pupils in the discussion is essential. Properly
+questioned, they will join in it heart and soul. There must be constant
+give and take between teacher and class. Upon the fulfillment of this
+condition the value of this sort of teaching entirely depends. The
+teacher then proceeds to analyze the instance above given, or any other
+that he may select from those which the pupils offer him. The child says
+no when it should have said yes, or a person says black when he should
+have said white. In what does the falsehood of such statements consist?
+In the circumstance that the words spoken do not correspond to the
+facts. Shall we then formulate the rule of veracity as follows: Make thy
+words correspond to the facts; and shall we infer that any one whose
+words do not correspond to the facts is a liar? But clearly this is not
+so. The class is asked to give instances tending to prove the
+insufficiency of the proposed formula. Before the days of Copernicus it
+was generally asserted that the sun revolves around the earth. Should we
+be justified in setting down the many excellent persons who made such
+statements as liars? Yet their words did not correspond to the facts.
+Very true; but they did not intend to deviate from the facts&mdash;they did
+not know better. Shall we then change the formula so as to read: Intend
+that thy words shall conform to the facts? But the phrase "correspond to
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> facts" needs to be made more explicit. Cases occur in which a
+statement does correspond to the facts, or, at least, seems to do so,
+and yet a contemptible falsehood is implied. The instance of the truant
+boy is in point who entered the school-building five minutes before the
+close of the exercises, and on being asked at home whether he had been
+at school, promptly answered "Yes"; and so he had been for five minutes.
+But in this case the boy suppressed a part of the facts&mdash;and, moreover,
+the essential part&mdash;namely, that he had been absent from school for five
+hours and fifty-five minutes. Cases of mental reservation and the like
+fall under the same condemnation. The person who took an oath in court,
+using the words, "As truly as I stand on this stone," but who had
+previously filled his shoes with earth, suppressed the essential
+fact&mdash;viz., that he had filled his shoes with earth.</p>
+
+<p>Shall we then formulate the rule in this wise: Intend to make thy words
+correspond to the essential facts? But even this will not entirely
+satisfy. For there are cases, surely, in which we deliberately frame our
+words in such a way that they shall not correspond to the essential
+facts&mdash;for instance, if we should meet a murderer who should ask us in
+which direction his intended victim had fled, or in the case of an
+insane person intent on suicide, or of the sick in extreme danger, whom
+the communication of bad news would kill. How can we justify such a
+procedure? We can justify it on the ground that language as a means of
+communication is intended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> to further the rational purposes of human
+life, and not conversely are the rational purposes of life to be
+sacrificed to any merely formal principle of truth-telling. A person
+who, like the murderer, is about to use the fact conveyed to him by my
+words as a weapon with which to kill a fellow-being has no right to be
+put in possession of the fact. An insane person, who can not use the
+truthful communications of others except for irrational ends, is also
+outside the pale of those to whom such tools can properly be intrusted.
+And so are the sick, when so enfeebled that the shock of grief would
+destroy them. For the rational use of grief is to provoke in us a moral
+reaction, to rouse in us the strength to bear our heavy burdens, and, in
+bearing, to learn invaluable moral lessons. But those who are physically
+too weak to rally from the first shock of grief are unable to secure
+this result, and they must therefore be classed, for the time being, as
+persons not in a condition to make rational use of the facts of life. It
+is not from pain and suffering that we are permitted to shield them.
+Pain and suffering we must be willing both to endure and also to inflict
+upon those whom we love best, if necessary. Reason can and should
+triumph over pain. But when the reasoning faculty is impaired, or when
+the body is too weak to respond to the call of reason, the obligation of
+truth-<i>telling</i> ceases. I am not unaware that this is a dangerous
+doctrine to teach. I should always take the greatest pains to impress
+upon my pupils that the irrational condition, which alone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> justifies the
+withholding of the truth, must be so obvious that there can be no
+mistake about it, as in the case of the murderer who, with knife in
+hand, pursues his victim, or of the insane, or of the sick, in regard to
+whom the physician positively declares that the shock of bad news would
+endanger life. But I do think that we are bound to face these
+exceptional cases, and to discuss them with our pupils. For the latter
+know as well as we that in certain exceptional situations the best men
+do not tell the truth, that in such situations no one tells the truth,
+except he be a moral fanatic. And unless these exceptional cases are
+clearly marked off and explained and justified, the general authority of
+truth will be shaken, or at least the obligation of veracity will become
+very much confused in the pupil's mind. In my opinion, the confusion
+which does exist on this subject is largely due to a failure to
+distinguish between inward truthfulness and truthfulness as reflected in
+speech. The law of inward truthfulness tolerates no exceptions. We
+should always, and as far as possible, be absolutely truthful, in our
+thinking, in our estimates, in our judgments. But language is a mere
+vehicle for the communication of thoughts and facts to others, and in
+communicating thoughts and facts we <i>are</i> bound to consider in how far
+others are fit to receive them. Shall we then formulate the rule of
+veracity thus: Intend to communicate the essential facts to those who
+are capable of making a rational use of them. I think that some such
+formula as this might answer. I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> am not disposed to stickle for this
+particular phraseology. But the formula as stated illustrates my
+thought, and also the method by which the formulas, which we shall have
+to teach in the grammar course are to be reached. It is the inductive
+method. First a concrete case is presented, and a rule of conduct is
+hypothetically suggested, which fits this particular case. Then other
+cases are adduced. It is discovered that the rule as it stands thus far
+does not fit them. It must therefore be modified, expanded. Then, in
+succession, other and more complex cases, to which the rule may possibly
+apply are brought forward, until every case we can think of has been
+examined; and when the rule is brought into such shape that it fits them
+all, we have a genuine moral maxim, a safe rule for practical guidance,
+and the principle involved in the rule is one of those secondary
+principles in respect to which men of every sect and school can agree.
+It needs hardly to be pointed out how much a casuistical discussion of
+this sort tends to stimulate interest in moral problems, and to quicken
+the moral judgment. I can say, from an experience of over a dozen years,
+that pupils between twelve and fifteen years of age are immensely
+interested in such discussions, and are capable of making the subtilest
+distinctions. Indeed, the directness with which they pronounce their
+verdict on fine questions of right and wrong often has in it something
+almost startling to older persons, whose contact with the world has
+reconciled them to a somewhat less exacting standard.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p><p>But here a caution is necessary. Some children seem to be too fond of
+casuistry. They take an intellectual pleasure in drawing fine
+distinctions, and questions of conscience are apt to become to them mere
+matter of mental gymnastics. Such a tendency must be sternly repressed
+whenever it shows itself. In fact, reasoning about moral principles is
+always attended with a certain peril. After all, the actual morality of
+the world depends largely on the moral habits which mankind have formed
+in the course of many ages, and which are transmitted from generation to
+generation. Now a habit acts a good deal like an instinct. Its force
+depends upon what has been called unconscious cerebration. As soon as we
+stop to reason about our habits, their hold on us is weakened, we
+hesitate, we become uncertain, the interference of the mind acts like a
+brake. It is for this reason that throughout the primary course, we have
+confined ourselves to what the Germans call <i>Anschauung</i>, the close
+observation of examples with a view of provoking imitation or
+repugnance, and thus strengthening the force of habit. Why, then,
+introduce analysis now, it may be asked. Why not be content with still
+further confirming the force of good habits? My answer is that the force
+of habit must be conserved and still further strengthened, but that
+analysis, too, becomes necessary at this stage. And why? Because habits
+are always specialized. A person governed by habits falls into a certain
+routine, and moves along easily and safely as long as the conditions
+repeat <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>themselves to which his habits are adjusted. But when confronted
+by a totally new set of conditions, he is often quite lost and helpless.
+Just as a person who is solely guided by common sense in the ordinary
+affairs of life, is apt to be stranded when compelled to face
+circumstances for which his previous experience affords no precedent. It
+is necessary, therefore, to extract from the moral habits the latent
+rules of conduct which underlie them, and to state these in a general
+form which the mind can grasp and retain, and which it will be able to
+apply to new conditions as they arise. To this end analysis and the
+formulation of rules are indispensable. But in order, at the same time,
+not to break the force of habit, the teacher should proceed in the
+following manner: He should always take the moral habit for granted. He
+should never give his pupils to understand that he and they are about to
+examine whether, for instance, it is wrong or not wrong to lie. The
+commandment against lying is assumed, and its obligation acknowledged at
+the outset. The only object of the analysis is to discern more exactly
+what is meant by lying, to define the rule of veracity with greater
+precision and circumspectness, so that we may be enabled to fulfill the
+commandment more perfectly. It is implied in what I have said that the
+teacher should not treat of moral problems as if he were dealing with
+problems in arithmetic. The best thing he can do for his pupils&mdash;better
+than any particular lesson he can teach&mdash;will be to communicate to them
+the spirit of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> moral earnestness. And this spirit he can not communicate
+unless he be full of it himself. The teacher should consecrate himself
+to his task; he should be penetrated by a sense of the lofty character
+of the subject which he teaches. Even a certain attention to externals
+is not superfluous. The lessons, in the case of the younger children,
+may be accompanied by song; the room in which the classes meet may be
+hung with appropriate pictures, and especially is it desirable that the
+faces of great and good men and women shall look down upon the pupils
+from the walls. The instruction should be given by word of mouth; for
+the right text-books do not yet exist, and even the best books must
+always act as a bar to check that flow of moral influence which should
+come from the teacher to quicken the class. To make sure that the pupils
+understand what they have been taught, they should be required from time
+to time to reproduce the subject matter of the lessons in their own
+language, and using their own illustrations, in the form of essays.</p>
+
+<p>And now, after this general introduction, let us take up the lessons on
+the duties in their proper order. What is the proper order? This
+question, you will remember, was discussed in the lecture on the
+classification of duties. It was there stated that the life of man from
+childhood upward, may be divided into periods, that each period has its
+special duties, and that there is in each some one central duty around
+which the others may be grouped. During the school age the paramount
+duty of the pupil is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> to study. We shall therefore begin with the duties
+which are connected with the pursuit of knowledge. We shall then take up
+the duties which relate to the physical life and the feelings; next, the
+duties which arise in the family; after that the duties which we owe to
+all men; and lastly we will consider in an elementary way the civic
+duties.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Duty of acquiring Knowledge.</i>&mdash;In starting the discussion of any
+particular set of duties, it is advisable, as has been said, to present
+some concrete case, and biographical or historical examples are
+particularly useful. I have sometimes begun the lesson on the duty of
+acquiring knowledge by telling the story of Cleanthes and that of
+Hillel. Cleanthes, a poor boy, was anxious to attend the school of Zeno.
+But he was compelled to work for his bread, and could not spend his days
+in study as he longed to do. He was, however, so eager to learn that he
+found a way of doing his work by night. He helped a gardener to water
+his plants, and also engaged to grind corn on a hand-mill for a certain
+woman. Now the neighbors, who knew that he was poor, and who never saw
+him go to work, were puzzled to think how he obtained the means to live.
+They suspected him of stealing, and he was called before the Judge to
+explain. The Judge addressed him severely, and commanded him to tell the
+truth. Cleanthes requested that the gardener and the woman might be sent
+for, and they testified that he had been in the habit of working for
+them by night. The Judge was touched by his great zeal for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>knowledge,
+acquitted him of the charge, and offered him a gift of money. But Zeno
+would not permit him to take the gift. Cleanthes became the best pupil
+of Zeno, and grew up to be a very wise and learned man, indeed one of
+the most famous philosophers of the Stoic school. The story of Hillel
+runs as follows: There was once a poor lad named Hillel. His parents
+were dead, and he had neither relatives nor friends. He was anxious to
+go to school, but, though he worked hard, he did not earn enough to pay
+the tuition fee exacted at the door. So he decided to save money by
+spending only half his earnings for food. He ate little, and that little
+was of poor quality, but he was perfectly happy, because with what he
+laid aside he could now pay the door-keeper and find a place inside,
+where he might listen and learn. This he did for some time, but one day
+he was so unlucky as to lose his situation. He had now no money left to
+buy bread, but he hardly thought of that, so much was he grieved at the
+thought that he should never get back to his beloved school. He begged
+the door-keeper to let him in, but the surly man refused to do so. In
+his despair a happy thought occurred to him. He had noticed a skylight
+on the roof. He climbed up to this, and to his delight found that
+through a crack he could hear all that was said inside. So he sat there
+and listened, and did not notice that evening was coming on, and that
+the snow was beginning to fall. Next morning when the teachers and
+pupils assembled as usual, every one remarked how dark the room<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> seemed.
+The sun too was shining again by this time quite brightly outside.
+Suddenly some one happened to look up and with an exclamation of
+surprise pointed out the figure of a boy against the skylight. Quickly
+they all ran outside, climbed to the roof, and there, covered with snow,
+quite stiff and almost dead, they found poor Hillel. They carried him
+indoors, warmed his cold limbs, and worked hard to restore him to life.
+He was at last resuscitated, and from this time on was allowed to attend
+the school without paying. Later he became a great teacher. He lived in
+Palestine at about the time of Jesus. He was admired for his learning,
+but even more for his good deeds and his unfailing kindness to every
+one. The question is now raised, Why did Cleanthes work at night instead
+of seeking rest, and why did Hillel remain outside in the bitter cold
+and snow? The pupils will readily answer, Because they loved knowledge.
+But why is knowledge so desirable? With this interrogatory we are fairly
+launched on the discussion of our subject. The points to be developed
+are these:</p>
+
+<p>First, knowledge is indispensable as a means of making one's way in the
+world. Show the helplessness of the ignorant. Compare the skilled
+laborer with the unskilled. Give instances of merchants, statesmen,
+etc., whose success was due to steady application and superior
+knowledge. Knowledge is power (namely, in the struggle for existence).</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, knowledge is honor. An ignorant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> person is despised. Knowledge
+wins us the esteem of our fellow-men.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, knowledge is joy in a twofold sense. As the perception of light
+to the eye of the body, so is the perception of truth to the eye of the
+mind. The mind experiences an intrinsic pleasure in seeing things in
+their true relations. Furthermore, mental growth is accompanied by the
+joy of successful effort. This can be explained even to a boy or girl of
+thirteen. Have you ever tried hard to solve a problem in algebra?
+Perhaps you have spent several hours over it. It has baffled you. At
+last, after repeated trials, you see your way clear, the solution is
+within your grasp. What a sense of satisfaction you experience then. It
+is the feeling of successful mental effort that gives you this
+satisfaction. You rejoice in having triumphed over difficulties, and the
+greater the difficulty, the more baffling and complex the problems, the
+greater is the satisfaction in solving them.</p>
+
+<p>Fourthly, knowledge enables us to do good to others. Speak of the use
+which physicians make of their scientific training to alleviate
+suffering and save life. Refer to the manifold applications of science
+which have changed the face of modern society, and have contributed so
+largely to the moral progress of the world. Point out that all true
+philanthropy, every great social reform, implies a superior grasp of the
+problems to be solved, as well as devotion to the cause of humanity. In
+accordance with the line of argument just sketched the rule for the
+pursuit of knowledge may be successively expanded as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p><p>Seek knowledge that you may succeed in the struggle for existence.</p>
+
+<p>Seek knowledge that you may gain the esteem of your fellow-men.</p>
+
+<p>Seek knowledge for the sake of the satisfaction which the attainment of
+it will give you.</p>
+
+<p>Seek knowledge that you may be able to do good to others.</p>
+
+<p>These points suffice for the present. In the advanced course we shall
+return to the consideration of the intellectual duties. I would also
+recommend that the moral teacher, not content with dwelling on the uses
+of knowledge in general, should go through the list of subjects which
+are commonly taught in school, such as geography, history, language,
+etc., and explain the value of each. This is too commonly neglected.</p>
+
+<p>Having stationed the duty of acquiring knowledge in the center, connect
+with it the various lesser duties of school life, such as punctual
+attendance, order, diligent and conscientious preparation of home
+lessons, etc. These are means to an end, and should be represented as
+such. He who desires the end will desire the means. Get your pupils to
+love knowledge, and the practice of these minor virtues will follow of
+itself. Other matters might be introduced in connection with what has
+been mentioned, but enough has been said to indicate the point of view
+from which the whole subject of intellectual duty should, as I think, be
+treated in the present course.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>XII.</span> <span class="smaller">DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO THE PHYSICAL LIFE.</span></h2>
+
+<p>Of the duties which relate to the physical life, the principal one is
+that of self-preservation, and this involves the prohibition of suicide.
+When one reflects on the abject life which many persons are forced to
+lead, on their poverty in the things which make existence desirable and
+the lack of moral stamina which often goes together with such
+conditions, the wonder is that the number of suicides is not much
+greater than it actually is. It is true most people cling to life
+instinctively, and have an instinctive horror of death. Nevertheless,
+the force of instinct is by no means a sufficient deterrent in all
+cases, and the number of suicides is just now alarmingly on the
+increase. If we were here considering the subject of suicide in general
+we should have to enter at large into the causes of this increase; we
+should have to examine the relations subsisting between the increase of
+suicide and the increase of divorce, and inquire into those pathological
+conditions of modern society of which both are the symptoms; but our
+business is to consider the ethics of the matter, not the causes. The
+ethics of suicide resolves itself into the question, Is it justifiable
+under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> any circumstances to take one's life? You may object that this is
+not a fit subject to discuss with pupils of thirteen or fourteen. Why
+not? They are old enough to understand the motives which ordinarily lead
+to suicide, and also the reasons which forbid it&mdash;especially the most
+important reason, namely, that we live not merely or primarily to be
+happy, but to help on as far as we can the progress of things, and
+therefore that we are not at liberty to throw life away like an empty
+shell when we have ceased to enjoy it. The discussion of suicide is
+indeed of the greatest use because it affords an opportunity early in
+the course of our lessons on duty to impress this cardinal truth, to
+describe upon the moral globe this great meridian from which all the
+virtues take their bearings. However, in accordance with the inductive
+method, we must approach this idea by degrees. The first position I
+should take is that while suffering is often temporary, suicide is
+final. It is folly to take precipitately a step which can not be
+recalled. Very often in moments of deep depression the future before us
+seems utterly dark, and in our firmament there appears not one star of
+hope; but presently from some wholly unexpected quarter help comes.
+Fortune once more takes us into her good graces, and we are scarcely
+able to understand our past downheartedness in view of the new happiness
+to which we have fallen heirs. Preserve thy life in view of the brighter
+chances which the future may have in store. This is a good rule as far
+as it goes, but it does not fit the more trying situations. For there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+are cases where the fall from the heights of happiness is as complete as
+it is sudden, and the hope of recovering lost ground is really shut out.</p>
+
+<p>Take from actual life the case of a husband who fairly idolized his
+young wife and lost her by death three months after marriage. We may
+suppose that in the course of years he will learn to submit to his
+destiny. We may even hope that peace will come back to his poor heart,
+but we can not imagine that he will ever again be happy. Another case is
+that of a person who has committed a great wrong, the consequences of
+which are irreparable, and of which he must carry the agonizing
+recollection with him to the grave. Time may assuage the pangs of
+remorse, and religion may comfort him, but happiness can never be the
+portion of such as he.</p>
+
+<p>Still another instance&mdash;less serious, but of more frequent
+occurrence&mdash;is that of a merchant who has always occupied a commanding
+position in the mercantile community, and who, already advanced in
+years, is suddenly compelled to face bankruptcy. The thought of the
+hardships to which his family will be exposed, of his impending
+disgrace, drives him nearly to distraction. The question is, would the
+merchant, would those others, be justified in committing suicide?
+Certainly not. The merchant, if he has the stuff of true manhood in him,
+will begin over again, at the bottom of the ladder if need be, will work
+to support his family, however narrowly. It would be the rankest
+selfishness in him to leave them to their fate. The conscience-stricken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+sinner must be willing to pay the penalty of his crime, to the end that
+he may be purified even seven times in the fire of repentance. And even
+the lover who has lost his bride will find, if he opens his eyes, that
+there is still work for him to do in life. The world is full of evils
+which require to be removed, full of burdens which require to be borne.
+If our own burden seems too heavy for us, there is a way of lightening
+it. We may add to it the burden of some one else, and ours will become
+lighter. Physically, this would be impossible, but morally it is true.
+The rule of conduct, therefore, thus far reads, Preserve thy life in
+order to perform thy share of the work of the world. But the formula,
+even in this shape, is not yet entirely adequate, for there are those
+who can not take part in the work of the world, who can only
+suffer&mdash;invalids, e. g., who are permanently incapacitated, and whose
+infirmities make them a constant drag on the healthy lives of their
+friends. Why should not these be permitted to put an end to their
+miseries? I should say that so long as there is the slightest hope of
+recovery, and even where this hope is wanting, so long as the physical
+pain is not so intense or so protracted as to paralyze the mental life
+altogether, they should hold out. They are not cut off from the true
+ends of human existence. By patient endurance, by the exercise of a
+sublime unselfishness, they may even attain on their sick-beds a height
+of spiritual development which would otherwise be impossible; and, in
+addition, they may become by their uncomplaining patience the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>sweetest,
+gentlest helpers of their friends, not useless, assuredly, but shining
+examples of what is best and noblest in human nature. The rule,
+therefore, should read: Preserve thy life in order to fulfill the duties
+of life, whether those duties consist in doing or in patiently
+suffering. As has been said long ago, we are placed on guard as
+sentinels. The sentinel must not desert his post. I think it possible to
+make the pupil in the grammar grade understand that suicide is selfish,
+that we are bound to live, even though life has ceased to be attractive,
+in order that we may perform our share of the world's work and help
+others and grow ourselves in moral stature. This does not, of course,
+imply any condemnation of that vast number of cases in which suicide is
+committed in consequence of mental aberration.</p>
+
+<p>In the advanced course we shall have to return to this subject, and
+shall there refer <i>in extenso</i> to the views of the Stoics. The morality
+of the Stoic philosophers in general is so high, and their influence
+even to this day so great, that their defense, or rather enthusiastic
+praise of suicide,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> needs to be carefully examined. I am of the
+opinion that we have here a case in which metaphysical speculation has
+had the effect of distorting morality. Metaphysics in this respect
+resembles religion. On the one hand the influence of religion on
+morality has been highly beneficial, on the other it has been hurtful in
+the extreme&mdash;instance human <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>sacrifices, religious wars, the
+Inquisition, etc. In like manner, philosophy, though not to the same
+extent, has both aided morality and injured it. I regard the Stoic
+declamations on suicide as an instance of the latter sort. The Stoic
+philosophy was pantheistic. To live according to Nature was their
+principal maxim, or, more precisely, according to the reason in Nature.
+They maintained that in certain circumstances a man might find it
+impossible to live up to the rational standard; he might, for instance,
+discover himself to be morally so weak as to be unable to resist
+temptation, and in that case it would be better for him to retire from
+the scene and to seek shelter in the Eternal Reason, just as, to use
+their own simile, one who found the room in which he sat filled to an
+intolerable degree with smoke would not be blamed for withdrawing from
+it. It was their pantheism that led them to favor suicide, and in this
+respect it is my belief that the modern conscience, trained by the Old
+and New Testaments, has risen to a higher level than theirs. We moderns
+feel it impossible to admit that to the sane mind temptation can ever be
+so strong as to be truly irresistible. We always can resist if we will.
+We can, because we ought; as Kant has taught us to put it. We always can
+because we always ought.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Despite the rigorous disallowance of suicide in general
+plainly indicated in the above, I should not wish to be understood
+as saying that there are no circumstances whatever in which the
+taking of one's life is permissible. In certain rare and
+exceptional cases I believe it to be so. In the lecture as
+delivered I attempted a brief description of these exceptional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+cases, too brief, it appeared, to prevent most serious
+misconception. I deem it best, therefore, to defer the expression
+of my views on this delicate matter until an occasion arrives when
+I shall be able to articulate my thought in full detail, such as
+would here be impossible.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>From the commandment "Preserve thy life" it follows not only that we
+should not lay violent hands upon ourselves, but that we should do all
+in our power to develop and invigorate the body, in order that it may
+become an efficient instrument in the service of our higher aims. The
+teacher should inform himself on the subject of the gymnastic ideal of
+the Greeks and consider in how far this ideal is applicable to modern
+conditions. In general, the teacher should explore as fully as possible
+the ethical problems on which he touches. He should not be merely "one
+lesson ahead" of his pupils. Really it is necessary to grasp the whole
+of a subject before we can properly set forth its elements. A very
+thorough normal training is indispensable to those who would give moral
+instruction to the young.</p>
+
+<p>The duties of cleanliness and temperance fall under the same head as the
+above. In speaking of cleanliness, there are three motives&mdash;the
+egoistic, the &aelig;sthetic, and the moral&mdash;to which we may appeal. Be
+scrupulously clean for the sake of health, be clean lest you become an
+object of disgust to others, be clean in order to retain your
+self-respect. Special emphasis should be laid on secret cleanliness.
+Indolent children are sometimes neat in externals, but shockingly
+careless in what is concealed from view.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> The motive of self-respect
+shows itself particularly in secret cleanliness.</p>
+
+<p>The duty of temperance is supported by the same three motives.
+Intemperance undermines health, the glutton or the drunkard awakens
+disgust, intemperance destroys self-respect. To strengthen the
+repugnance of the pupils against intemperance in eating, contrast the
+way in which wild beasts eat with that in which human beings partake of
+their food. The beast is absorbed in the gratification of its appetite,
+eats without the use of implements, eats unsocially. The human way of
+eating is in each particular the opposite. Show especially that the act
+of eating is spiritualized by being made subservient to friendly
+intercourse and to the strengthening of the ties of domestic affection.
+The family table becomes the family altar. Call attention also to the
+effects of drunkenness; point out the injuries which the drunkard
+inflicts on wife and children by his neglect to provide for them, by the
+outbursts of violence to which he is subject under the influence of
+strong drink; describe his physical, mental, and moral degradation; lay
+stress on the fact that liquor deprives him of the use of his reason.
+With respect to temperance in food, there are one or two points to be
+noted. I say to my pupils if you are particularly fond of a certain
+dish, sweetmeats, for instance, make it a rule to partake less of that
+than if you were not so fond of it. This is good practice in
+self-restraint. I make out as strong a case as possible against the
+indulgence of the candy habit. Young<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> people are not, as a rule, tempted
+to indulge in strong drink; but they are tempted to waste their money
+and injure their health by an excessive consumption of sweets. It is
+well to apply the lesson of temperance to the things in which they are
+tempted. For the teacher the following note may be added: Of the senses,
+some, like that of taste, are more nearly allied to the physical part of
+us; others, like sight and hearing, to our rational nature. This
+antithesis of the senses may be used in the interest of temperance.
+Appeal to the higher senses in order to subdue the lower. A band of
+kindergarten children, having been invited on a picnic, were given the
+choice between a second plate of ice cream, for which many of them were
+clamoring, and a bunch of flowers for each. Most of them were
+sufficiently interested in flowers to prefer the latter. In the case of
+young children, the force of the physical appetite may also be weakened
+by appealing to their affection. During the later stage of adolescence,
+when the dangers which arise from the awakening life of the senses
+become great and imminent, the attention should be directed to high
+intellectual aims, the social feelings should be cultivated, and a taste
+for the pleasures of the senses of sight and hearing&mdash;namely, the
+pleasures of music, painting, sculpture, etc.&mdash;should be carefully
+developed. Artistic, intellectual, and social motives should be brought
+into play jointly to meet the one great peril of this period of life.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Duties which relate to the Feelings.</span></p>
+
+<p>Under this head let me speak first of fear. There is a distinction to be
+drawn between physical and moral cowardice. Physical cowardice is a
+matter of temperament or organization. Perhaps it can hardly ever be
+entirely overcome, but the exhibition of it can be prevented by moral
+courage. Moral cowardice, on the other hand, is a fault of character. In
+attempting to formulate the rule of conduct, appeal as before to the
+egoistic motive, then to the social&mdash;i. e., the desire for the good
+opinion of others&mdash;and lastly to the moral motive, properly speaking.
+Fear paralyzes; it fascinates its victim like the fabled basilisk.
+Nothing is more common than a sense of helpless immobility under the
+influence of fear. There is a way of escape. You might run or leap for
+your life, but you can not stir a limb. What you need to do is to turn
+away your attention by a powerful effort of the will from the object
+which excites fear. So long as that object is before you the mind can
+not act; the mind is practically absent. What you need is presence of
+mind. Let the teacher adduce some of the many striking instances in
+which men in apparently desperate straits have been saved by presence of
+mind. The rule thus far would read: Be brave and suppress fear, because
+by so doing you may escape out of danger. In the next place, by so doing
+you will escape the reproaches of your fellow-men, for cowardice is
+universally condemned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> as shameful. Cite from Spartan history examples
+showing in the strongest light the feeling of scorn and contempt for the
+coward. There are, however, cases where death is certain, and where
+there is no support like that of public opinion to sustain courage. What
+should be the rule of duty in such cases? Take the case of a person who
+has been shipwrecked. He swims the sea alone, he is still clinging to a
+spar, but realizes that in a few minutes he must let go, his strength
+being well-nigh spent. What should be his attitude of mind in that
+supreme moment. The forces of nature are about to overwhelm him. What
+motive can there be strong enough to support bravery in that moment? The
+rule of duty for him would be: Be brave, because as a human being you
+are superior to the forces of nature, because there is something in
+you&mdash;your moral self&mdash;over which the forces of nature have no power,
+because what happens to you in your private character is not important,
+but it is important that you assert the dignity of humanity to the last
+breath.</p>
+
+<p>After having discussed courage, define fortitude. Point out the
+importance of strength of will. Contrast the strong will with the
+feeble, with the wayward, the irresolute, and also the obstinate will,
+for obstinacy is often the sign of weakness rather than of strength.
+See, for useful hints on this subject, Bain's The Emotions and the Will.</p>
+
+<p>What happens to thy little self is not important. This is the leading
+thought which shall also guide<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> us in the discussion of <i>Anger</i>. In
+entering on the subject of anger begin by describing the effects of it.
+Quote the passage from Seneca's treatise on anger, showing how it
+disfigures the countenance. Point out that anger provokes anger in
+return, and is therefore contrary to self-interest. Call to your aid the
+social motive by showing that under the influence of anger we often
+overshoot the mark and inflict injuries on others which we had not
+intended. Finally, show that indulgence in anger is immoral. In what
+sense is it immoral? Anger is an emotional reaction against injury. When
+a child hurts its foot against a stone, it is often so unreasonably
+angry at the stone as to strike it. When an adult person receives a
+blow, his first impulse is to return it. This desire to return injury
+for injury is one of the characteristic marks of anger. Another mark is
+that anger is proportional to the injury received, and not to the fault
+implied. Every one knows that a slight fault in another may occasion a
+great injury to ourselves, while, on the other hand, a serious fault may
+only cause us a slight inconvenience. The angry person measures his
+resentment by the injury, and not by the fault. Anger is selfish. It is
+fed and pampered by the delusion that our pleasures and pains are of
+chief importance. Contrast with anger the moral feeling of indignation.
+Anger is directed against the injury received, indignation solely
+against the wrong done. The immoral feeling prompts us to hate wrong
+because it has been inflicted on us. The moral feeling prompts us to
+hate wrong <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>because it is wrong. Now, to the extent that we sincerely
+hate wrong we shall be stirred up to diminish its power over others as
+well as over ourselves; we shall, for instance, be moved to save the
+evil doer who has just injured us from the tyranny of his evil nature;
+we shall aspire to become the moral physicians of those who have hurt
+us. And precisely because they have hurt us, they have a unique claim on
+us. We who know better than others the extent of their disease are
+called upon more than others to labor with a view to their cure. In this
+connection the rule of returning good for evil should be explained. This
+rule does not apply alike in all cases, though the spirit of it should
+always inspire our actions. If a pickpocket should steal our purse, it
+would be folly to hand him a check for twice the amount he has just
+stolen. If a hardened criminal should draw his knife and wound us in the
+back, it would be absurd to request him kindly to stab us in the breast
+also. We should in this case not be <i>curing</i> him, but simply confirming
+him in his evil doing. The rule is: Try to free the sinner from the
+power of sin. In some cases this is best accomplished by holding his
+hand, as it were, and preventing him from carrying out the intended
+wrong. In other cases by depriving him of his liberty for a season,
+subjecting him to wholesome discipline, and teaching him habits of
+industry. Only in the case of those who have already attained a higher
+moral plane, and whose conscience is sensitive, does the rule of
+returning good for evil apply literally. If a brother<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> has acted in an
+unbrotherly way toward you, do you on the next occasion act wholly in a
+brotherly way toward him. You will thereby show him how he ought to have
+acted and awaken the better nature in him.</p>
+
+<p>Certain practical rules for the control of anger may be given to the
+pupil. Suppress the signs of anger; you will thereby diminish its force.
+Try to gain time: "When you are angry, count ten before you speak; when
+you are very angry, count a hundred." Having gained time, examine
+rigorously into your own conduct. Ask yourself whether you have not been
+partly to blame. If you find that you have, then, instead of venting
+your wrath on your enemy, try rather to correct the fault which has
+provoked hostility. But if, after honest self-scrutiny, you are able to
+acquit yourself, then you can all the more readily act the part of the
+moral physician, for it is the innocent who find it easiest to forgive.
+It is also useful to cite examples of persons who, like Socrates, have
+exhibited great self-control in moments of anger; and to quote proverbs
+treating of anger, to explain these proverbs and to cause them to be
+committed to memory. I advise, indeed, that proverbs be used in
+connection with all the moral lessons. Of the manner in which they are
+to be used I shall speak later on.</p>
+
+<p>The last of the present group of duties which we shall discuss relates
+to the feelings of vanity, pride, humility. Vanity is a feeling of
+self-complacency based on external advantages. A person is vain of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> his
+dress or of his real or supposed personal charms. The peacock is the
+type of vanity. Though the admiration of others ministers to vanity, yet
+it is possible to be vain by one's self&mdash;before a mirror, for instance.
+The feeling of pride, on the other hand, depends upon a comparison
+between self and others. Pride implies a sense of one's own superiority
+and of the inferiority of others. Both feelings are anti-moral. They
+spring, like moral cowardice and anger, from the false belief that this
+little self of ours is of very great importance. There is no such thing
+as proper pride or honest pride. The word pride used in this connection
+is a misnomer. Vanity is spurious self-esteem based on external
+advantages. Pride is spurious self-esteem based on comparison with
+others. Genuine self-esteem is based on the consciousness of a
+distinction which we share with all humanity&mdash;namely, the capacity and
+the duty of rational development. This genuine self-esteem has two
+aspects&mdash;the one positive, the other negative. The positive aspect is
+called dignity, the negative humility. True dignity and true humility
+always go together. The sense of dignity arises within us when we
+remember the aims to which as human beings we are pledged; the sense of
+humility can not fail to arise when we consider how infinitely in
+practice we all fall below those aims. Thus while pride depends on a
+comparison of ourselves with others, the genuinely moral feeling is
+excited when we consider our relation to the common ends of mankind. On
+the one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> hand, we are indeed privileged to pursue those ends, and are
+thereby exalted above all created things and above the whole of the
+natural world with all its stars and suns. Upon this consideration is
+founded the sense of dignity. On the other hand, we can not but own how
+great is the distance which separates even the best of us from the goal,
+and this gives rise to a deep sense of humility. The rule of conduct
+which we are considering is a rule of proper self-estimation. Estimate
+thy worth not by external advantages nor by thy pre-eminence above
+others, but by the degree of energy with which thou pursuest the moral
+aims. To mark off the distinction between vanity and pride on the one
+hand and dignity on the other, the teacher may contrast in detail the
+lives of Alcibiades and Socrates.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the discussion of anger and of pride, define such
+terms as hate, envy, malice. Hatred is anger become chronic. Or we may
+also say the state of mind which leads to passionate paroxysms in the
+case of anger is called hate when it has turned into a settled inward
+disposition. In other respects the characteristic marks of both are the
+same. Envy is the obverse of pride. Pride is based on real or fancied
+superiority to others. Envy is due to real or fancied inferiority. Pride
+is the vice of the strong, envy of the weak. Malice is pleasure in the
+loss of others irrespective of our gain.</p>
+
+<p>I have observed on a previous occasion that the feelings considered by
+themselves have no moral value. Nevertheless, we have now repeatedly
+spoken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> of moral feelings. The apparent contradiction disappears if we
+remember that all feelings of the higher order presuppose, and are the
+echo of complex systems of ideas. The moral feelings are those in which
+moral ideas have their resonance; and those feelings are valuable in
+virtue of the ideas which they reflect. The feeling of moral courage
+depends on the idea that the injuries we receive at the hands of fortune
+are not important, but that it is important for us to do credit to our
+rational nature. The feeling of moral indignation depends on the idea
+that the injuries we receive from our fellow-men are not important, but
+that it is important that the right be done and the wrong abated. The
+feelings of moral dignity and humility combined depend on the idea that
+it does not signify whether the shadow we cast in the world of men be
+long or short, but only that we live in the light of the moral aims.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See, e. g., the famous passage in Seneca, De Ira, iii,
+15.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>XIII.</span> <span class="smaller">DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO OTHERS.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Filial Duties.</span></p>
+
+<p>We began our course of moral instruction with the self-regarding duties,
+and assigned the second place to the duties which relate to others.
+There is an additional reason besides the one already given for keeping
+to this order.</p>
+
+<p>If we were to begin with the commandments or prohibitions which relate
+to others&mdash;e. g., the sixth, eighth, and ninth commandments of the
+Decalogue&mdash;the pupil might easily get the impression that these things
+are forbidden solely because they involve injuries to others, but that
+in cases where the injury is inconsiderable, or not apparent, the
+transgression of moral commandments is more or less excusable. There are
+many persons who seem unable to understand that it is really sinful to
+defraud the custom-house or to neglect paying one's fare in a horse-car.
+And why? Because the injury inflicted seems so insignificant. Now, it is
+of the utmost consequence to impress upon the pupil that every action
+which involves a violation of duty to others at the same time produces a
+change in the moral quality of the agent, that he suffers as well as the
+one whom he wrongs. The subjective<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> and objective sides of transgression
+can not in point of principle and ought not in actual consciousness to
+be separated. If, therefore, we begin by enforcing such duties as
+temperance the pupil will at once feel that the violation of the law
+changes his inward condition, degrades him in his own eyes, lowers him
+in the scale of being. The true standpoint from which all moral
+transgression should be regarded will thus be gained at the outset, and
+it will be comparatively easy to maintain the same point of view when we
+come to speak of the social duties.</p>
+
+<p>To start discussion on the subject of the filial duties, relate the
+story of &AElig;neas carrying his aged father, Anchises, out of burning Troy;
+also the story of Cleobis and Bito (Herodotus, i, 31). Recall the
+devotion of Telemachus to Ulysses. Tell the story of Lear and his
+daughters, contrasting the conduct of Regan and Goneril with that of
+Cordelia. An excellent story to tell, especially to young children, is
+that of Dama. &AElig;neas and Telemachus illustrate the filial spirit as
+expressed in services rendered to parents, but opportunity to be of real
+service to parents is not often offered to the very young. The story of
+Dama exhibits the filial spirit as displayed in acts of delicacy and
+consideration, and such acts are within the power of all children. The
+story is located in Palestine, and is supposed to have occurred at the
+time when the temple at Jerusalem was still standing. Dama was a dealer
+in jewels, noted for possessing the rarest and richest collection
+anywhere to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> found. It happened that it became necessary to replace a
+number of the precious stones on the breastplate of the high priest, and
+a deputation was sent from Jerusalem to wait on Dama and to select from
+his stock what was needed. Dama received his distinguished visitors with
+becoming courtesy, and on learning their mission spread out before them
+a large number of beautiful stones. But none of these were satisfactory.
+The stones must needs be of extraordinary size and brilliancy. None but
+such might be used. When Dama was informed of this he reflected a
+moment, then said that in a room occupied by his old father there was a
+cabinet in which he kept his most precious gems, and that among them he
+was sure he could find what his visitors wanted. He bade them delay a
+few moments, while he made the necessary search. But presently he
+returned without the jewels. He expressed the greatest regret, but
+declared that it was impossible to oblige them. They were astonished,
+and, believing it to be a mere trader's trick, offered him an immense
+price for the stones. He answered that he was extremely sorry to miss so
+profitable a transaction, but that it was indeed beyond his power to
+oblige them now&mdash;if they would return in an hour or two he could
+probably suit them. They declared that their business admitted of no
+delay; that the breastplate must be repaired at once, so that the priest
+might not be prevented from discharging his office. And so he allowed
+them to depart. It appears that when Dama opened the door of the room
+he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> saw his old father asleep on the couch. He tried to enter
+noiselessly, but the door creaked on its hinges, and the old man started
+in his sleep. Dama checked himself, and turned back. He said, "I will
+forego the gain which they offer me, but I will not disturb the slumbers
+of my father." The sleep of the old father was sacred to Dama. Children
+are often thoughtless in breaking noisily into a room where father or
+mother is resting. Such a story tends to instill the lesson of
+consideration and of reverence.</p>
+
+<p>Reverence is the key-note of filial duty. You will remember that Goethe,
+in Wilhelm Meister, in those chapters in which he sketches his
+pedagogical ideal, bases the entire religious and moral education of the
+young on a threefold reverence. He applies the following symbolism: The
+pupils of the ideal pedagogical institution are required to take, on
+different occasions, three different attitudes. Now they fold their arms
+on their breast, and look with open countenance upward; again they fold
+their arms on their backs, and their bright glances are directed toward
+the earth; and again they stand in a row, and their faces are turned to
+the right, each one looking at his neighbor. These three attitudes are
+intended to symbolize reverence toward what is above us, toward what is
+beneath us, and toward our equals. These three originate and culminate
+in the true self-reverence. In speaking of filial duty, we are concerned
+with reverence toward what is above us. The parent is the physical,
+mental, and moral <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>superior of the child. It is his duty to assist the
+child's physical, mental, and moral growth; to lift it by degrees out of
+its position of inferiority, so that it may attain the fullness of its
+powers, and help to carry on the mission of mankind when the older
+generation shall have retired from the scene. The duty of the superior
+toward the inferior is to help him to rise above the plane of
+inferiority. The receptive and appreciative attitude of one who is thus
+helped is called reverence. But we must approach the nature of parental
+duty more closely, and the following reflections may put us in the way:
+No man can attain the intellectual aims of life without assistance. A
+scientist inhabiting a desert island and limited to his own mental
+resources could make little headway. The scientist of to-day utilizes
+the accumulated labors of all the generations of scientists that have
+preceded him, and depends for the value of his results on the
+co-operation and the sifting criticism of his contemporaries. And as no
+one can get much knowledge without the help of others, so no one is
+justified in seeking knowledge for his own private pleasure, or in
+seeking the kind of knowledge that happens to pique his vanity. For
+instance, it is a violation of intellectual duty to spend one's time in
+acquiring out-of-the way erudition which is useful only for display. The
+pursuit of knowledge is a public not a private end. Every scholar and
+man of science is bound to enlarge as far as he can the common stock of
+truth, to add to the scientific possessions of the human race. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> in
+order to do this he must question himself closely, that he may discover
+in what direction his special talent lies, and may apply himself
+sedulously to the cultivation of that. For it is by specializing his
+efforts that he can best serve the general interests of truth. The same
+holds good with respect to the pursuit of social ends&mdash;e. g., the
+correction of social abuses and the promotion of social justice. The
+reformer of to-day stands on the shoulders of all the reformers of the
+past, and would have little prospect of success in any efforts he may
+make without the co-operation and criticism of numerous co-workers. Nor,
+again, is it right for him to take up any and every project of reform
+that may happen to strike his fancy. He ought rather to consider what
+particular measures under existing circumstances are most likely to
+advance the cause of progress, and in what capacity he is specially
+fitted to promote such measures. Justice and truth are public, not
+private ends. The highest aim of life for each one is to offer that
+contribution which he, as an individual, is peculiarly fitted to make
+toward the attainment of the public ends of mankind. The individual when
+living only for himself, absorbed in his private pleasures and pains, is
+a creature of little worth; and his existence is of little more account
+in the scheme of things than that of the summer insects, who have their
+day and perish. But the individual become the organ of humanity acquires
+a lasting worth, and his individuality possesses an inviolable sanctity.
+The sacredness of individuality in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> sense just indicated is a
+leading idea of ethics&mdash;perhaps it would not be too much to say, the
+leading idea.</p>
+
+<p>And now we can state more exactly the nature of parental duty. It is the
+duty of the parent, remembering that he is the guardian of the permanent
+welfare of his child, to respect, to protect, to develop its
+individuality&mdash;above all, to discover its individual bent; for that is
+often latent, and requires to be persistently searched out. It is the
+duty and the privilege of the parent to put the child, as it were, in
+possession of its own soul.</p>
+
+<p>And upon this relationship filial reverence is founded, and from it the
+principal filial duties may be deduced. Because the child does not know
+what is best for it, in view of its destiny, as described above, it is
+bound to obey. Obedience is the first of the filial duties. Secondly,
+the child is bound to show gratitude for the benefits received at the
+hands of its parents. The teacher should discuss with his pupils the
+principal benefits conferred by parents. The parents supply the child
+with food, shelter, and raiment; they nurse it in sickness, often
+sacrificing sleep, comfort, and health for its sake. They toil in order
+that it may want nothing; they give it, in their fond affection, the
+sweet seasoning of all their other gifts. It is well to bring these
+facts distinctly before the pupil's mind. The teacher can do it with a
+better grace than the parent himself. The teacher can strengthen and
+deepen the home feeling, and it is his office to do so. The pupil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+should go home from his moral lesson in school and look upon his parents
+with a new realization of all that he owes them, with a new and deeper
+tenderness. But the duty of gratitude should be based, above all, upon
+the greatest gift which the child obtains from his parents, the help
+which it receives toward attaining the moral aim of its existence.</p>
+
+<p>I do not include the commandment "Love thy parents" among the rules of
+filial duty, for I do not think that love can be commanded. Love follows
+of itself if the right attitude of reverence, obedience, gratitude be
+observed. Love is the sense of union with another. And the peculiarity
+of filial love, whereby it is distinguished from other kinds of love, is
+that it springs from union with persons on whom we utterly depend, with
+moral superiors, to whom we owe the fostering of our spiritual as well
+as of our physical existence.</p>
+
+<p>But how shall the sentiment of filial gratitude express itself?
+Gratitude is usually displayed by a return of the kindness received. But
+the kindness which we receive from parents is such that we can never
+repay it. It is of the nature of a debt which we can never hope fully to
+cancel. We can do this much&mdash;when our parents grow old, we can care for
+them, and smooth the last steps that lead to the grave. And when we
+ourselves have grown to manhood and womanhood, and have in turn become
+parents, we can bestow upon our own offspring the same studious and
+intelligent care which our parents, according to the light they had,
+bestowed on us, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> thus ideally repay them by doing for others what
+they did for us. But this is a point which concerns only adults. As for
+young children, they can show their gratitude in part by slight
+services, delicacies of behavior, the chief value of which consists in
+the sentiment that inspires them, but principally by a willing
+acceptance of parental guidance, and by earnest efforts in the direction
+of their own intellectual and moral improvement. There is no love so
+unselfish as parental love. There is nothing which true parents have
+more at heart than the highest welfare of their children. There is no
+way in which a child can please father and mother better than by doing
+that which is for its own highest good. The child's progress in
+knowledge and in moral excellence are to every parent the most
+acceptable tokens of filial gratitude. And this leads me to an important
+point, to which reference has already been made. It has been stated that
+each period of life has its distinct set of duties; furthermore, that in
+each period there is one paramount duty, around which the others may be
+grouped; and, lastly, that at each successive stage it is important to
+reach backward and to bring the ethical system of the preceding period
+into harmony with the new system. Of this last point we are now in a
+position to give a simple illustration. The paramount duty of the school
+period is to acquire knowledge; the paramount duty of the previous
+period is to reverence parents. But, as has just been shown, reverence
+toward parents at this stage is best exhibited by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> conscientious study,
+and thus the two systems are merged into one.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Fraternal Duties.</span></p>
+
+<p>Thus much concerning the filial relations. We pass on to speak of the
+fraternal duties; the duties of brothers to brothers and sisters to
+sisters; of brothers to sisters and conversely; of older to younger
+brothers and sisters and conversely. The fraternal duties are founded
+upon the respect which equals owe to equals. The brotherly relation is
+of immense pedagogic value, inasmuch as it educates us for the
+fulfillment later on of our duties toward all equals, be they kinsmen or
+not. As between brothers, the respect of each for the rights of the
+other is made comparatively easy by natural inclination. The tie of
+blood, close and constant association in the same house, common
+experience of domestic pleasures and sorrows&mdash;all this tends to link the
+hearts of the brothers together, and thus the first lessons in one of
+the hardest duties are given by Love, the gentlest of school-masters.
+But the word equality must not be misconceived. Equality is not to be
+taken in its mathematical sense. One brother is gifted and may
+eventually rise to wealth and fame, another is Nature's step-child;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> one
+sister is beautiful, another the opposite. If the idea of equality be
+pressed to a literal meaning, it is sure to give rise to ugly feelings
+in the hearts of the less fortunate. How, then, shall we define equality
+in the moral sense? A superior, as we have seen, renders services which
+the inferior can not adequately return. Equals are those who are so far
+on the same level as to be capable of rendering mutual services, alike
+in importance, though not necessarily the same in kind. Equals are
+correlative to one another. The services of each are complementary to
+those of the other. The idea of <i>mutual service</i>, therefore, is
+characteristic of the relation of brothers, and the rule of duty may be
+formulated simply, Serve one another. From this follow all the minor
+commands and prohibitions which are usually impressed upon children,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+and also the far loftier counsels which apply only to adults.</p>
+
+<p>It will be perceived that the rule of mutual service, when carried to
+its highest applications, presupposes the principle of individual
+differentiation, to which we have already attached so much weight. This
+principle is fundamental to fraternal as well as to paternal and filial
+duty. For precisely to the extent that brothers are distinctly
+individualized can they supplement each other and correlate their
+mutual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> services. One can not indeed overlook the patent fact that
+brothers who are unlike in nature frequently repel each other, and that
+in such cases the very closeness of the relation often becomes a source
+of extreme irritation, and even of positive agony. But, on the other
+hand, there is no surer sign of moral ripeness than the ability to enter
+into, to understand, to appreciate a nature totally unlike one's own,
+and thus to some extent to appropriate its excellences. The very fact,
+therefore, that we at first feel ourselves repelled should be taken as a
+hint that this natural repulsion is to be overcome. For every type of
+character needs its opposite to correct it. The idealist, for instance,
+needs the realist, if he would keep his balance. And our uncongenial
+brothers, precisely because they are at first uncongenial, if we will
+but remember that they are, after all, our brothers, and that it is our
+duty to come into harmonious relations with them, can best help us to
+this fine self-conquest, this true enrichment and enlargement of our
+moral being.</p>
+
+<p>A word may be added as a caution to parents and teachers. The way to
+create brotherly feeling among the young is to treat them impartially,
+to love them with an equal love. Those who love and are beloved by the
+same person are strongly induced to love one another. In the next place,
+when disputes arise, as is perhaps unavoidable, the parent or teacher
+should, as a rule, enter patiently into the cause and not cut off
+inquiry because the whole matter seems trivial. The subject matter of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> dispute may be insignificant enough, but the satisfaction of the
+sense of justice of the young is of the greatest significance. When the
+sense of justice is outraged, be the cause never so trivial, a feeling
+of distrust against the parent is generated, and of incipient hatred
+against the brother who may have provoked the unjust decision.</p>
+
+<p>I have yet to speak of the duties of older to younger brothers and
+sisters. If it is difficult to serve two masters, it is hardly pleasant
+to be asked to serve half a dozen. The youngest children in a large
+family are often placed in this position. There is, in the first place,
+the authority of the parents, which must be respected; then, in
+addition, each of the grown-up sons and daughters is apt to try to
+exercise a little authority on his or her own account. The younger ones
+naturally resent this petty despotism, and disobedience and angry
+recriminations are the unpleasant consequences. It is often necessary
+that elder sons and daughters should have partial charge of the younger.
+They can in all cases make their authority acceptable by representing it
+as delegated, by having it understood that they regard themselves merely
+as substitutes in the parents' place. There must be unity of influence
+in the home, or else the moral development of the young will be sadly
+interfered with. There must be only a single center of authority,
+represented by the parents, and all minor exercise of authority should
+be referred back to that center. "Father and mother wish me to help
+you"; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>"Father and mother will be pleased if you do so and so; let me
+try to show you how"&mdash;if the method of management implied in such words
+as these be adopted, the younger children will look upon the elder as
+their friends and be glad to accept advice and direction.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, a word about the relation between brothers and sisters, and
+conversely. This relationship is qualified by the difference of sex. A
+certain chivalry characterizes the attitude of the brother toward the
+sister, a certain motherliness that of the sister toward the brother.
+The relation may be and often is a very beautiful one. The peculiar
+moral responsibility connected with it is that the sister is usually the
+first woman whom the brother knows at all intimately and as an equal,
+and that his notions of womanhood are largely influenced by the traits
+which he sees in her, while the brother is usually the first man whom
+the sister knows as a companion, and her ideas of men are colored by
+what she sees in him.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate the fraternal relation I have been in the habit of
+recalling the stories from the Old Testament which bear upon this
+subject. I have also given an account of the life of the brothers Jacob
+and William Grimm. There was only a year's difference between them.
+Jacob Grimm, in the eulogy on William, which he delivered before the
+Berlin Academy in the year 1860, says: "During the slowly creeping years
+of our school life we slept in the same bed and occupied the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> same room.
+There we sat at one and the same table studying our lessons. Later on
+there were two tables and two beds in the same room; and later still,
+during the entire period of our riper manhood, we still continued to
+occupy two adjoining rooms, always under the same roof." All their
+property, and even their books, they held in common; what belonged to
+the one belonged to the other. They visited the university together in
+the same year; they both took up, in deference to their mother's wish,
+the same study, that of the law, which they alike hated, and then they
+turned in common to the study of philology, in which both delighted and
+both achieved such great distinction. They published their first
+important works in the same year; and as they slept together in the same
+bed when they were children, so now they sleep side by side in the
+grave.</p>
+
+<p>I refer to the story of Lear and his daughters to show that the common
+love for the parents is necessary to sustain the love of brothers and
+sisters toward one another. Lear had estranged the affection of Goneril
+and Regan through his partiality for Cordelia. The two women, who had no
+love for their father, hated each other; and Goneril, who was the first
+to cast him out, poisoned her sister.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate the relations of brothers to sisters, I give an account of
+the beautiful lives of Charles and Mary Lamb. To show the redeeming
+power of womanhood as represented in a sister, I explain to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> older
+pupils the story which underlies Goethe's drama of Iphigenia. Orestes is
+sick; and what is his malady? His soul has been poisoned by remorse.
+Believing himself to be the executive arm of justice, he committed a
+great crime, and now he is torn by the pangs of conscience, and his mind
+is forever dwelling on that scene in which he was a fatal actor. And how
+does Iphigenia heal him? She heals him by the clear truthfulness of her
+nature, which the play is designed to bring out. With the light of
+genuine womanhood which emanates from her she illuminates anew his
+darkened path. By the force of the good which he learns to recognize in
+her he is led to a new trust in the redeeming power of the good in
+himself, and thus to start out afresh in a life of courage, hope, and
+active effort. The teacher should analyze and cause to be committed to
+memory the various beautiful proverbs which bear upon the subject of
+fraternal duty.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> It may also be pointed out to the pupil that a part of the
+task of intellectual and moral training, which originally belongs
+entirely to the parents, has by them been intrusted to the teachers, and
+that something of the reverence which belongs to the former is now due
+to the latter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Do not quarrel over your respective rights; rather be more
+eager to secure the rights of your brother than your own. Do not triumph
+in your brother's disgrace or taunt him with his failings, but rather
+seek to build up his self-respect. Help one another in your tasks, etc.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>XIV.</span> <span class="smaller">DUTIES TOWARD ALL MEN.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="center">JUSTICE AND CHARITY.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Justice.</span>&mdash;The subject of justice is a difficult one to treat. Justice in
+the legal sense is to be distinguished from justice in the moral sense.
+We are concerned only with the latter. How much of it can we hope to
+include in such a course of instruction as this? We can, I think,
+explain the essential principle and give a few of its most important
+applications. What is this principle? Human society is an organism, and
+the perfection of it depends upon the degree to which the parts related
+are differentiated. Unity of organization is the end, differentiation is
+the means. The serving of universal ends is the aim, the emphasizing of
+individuality the means. The principle which underlies the laws of
+justice I take to be respect for individuality of others. And this may
+be expressed in the rule, Respect the individuality of every human
+being. It might, indeed, appear at first sight as if justice had to do
+only with those points in which all men are alike, and took no notice of
+the differences that subsist between them. Thus justice enjoins respect
+for the life of others; and in regard to this all men are exactly on a
+par, all men are equally entitled to live. But justice also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> commands us
+to respect the convictions of others, however different they may be from
+our own. And it is but a finer sense of justice which keeps us from
+intruding on the privacy of others, which leads us to show a proper
+consideration for the ways and idiosyncrasies of others, and in general
+to refrain from encroaching on the personality of others. The principle
+of justice may also be expressed in the rule, Do not interfere with the
+individual development of any one.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Applications of the Principle of Justice.</span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Do not kill.</i> By taking away the life of a human being we should of
+course cut off all chance of that person's further development. This
+requires no comment. But certain casuistical questions arise in
+connection with this command. Is it right to kill another in
+self-defense? The difficulty involved might be put in this way: A
+burglar breaks into your house by night and threatens to kill you. You
+have a weapon at hand and can save yourself by killing him. Now it is
+evident that one of two lives must be taken. But would it not be more
+moral on your part to say: I, at least, will not break the commandment.
+I would rather be killed than kill? This question serves to show to what
+absurdities a purely formal principle in ethics can lead, as we have
+already seen in the discussion of truthfulness. The problem of the duel
+and that of the taking of the life of others in war also belong under
+this head, but will be reserved for the advanced course.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Respect the personal liberty of others.</i> Slavery,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> under whatever
+form, is an outrage on justice. The slave is degraded to be the mere
+instrument of his master's profit or pleasure. Let the teacher point out
+in what particulars the slave is wronged, and show the evil effects of
+the institution of slavery on the character of the master as well as of
+the slave. Question&mdash;Is it right to speak of wage-slavery, for instance,
+in cases where the hours of labor are so prolonged as to leave no time
+for higher interests, or where the relations of the laborer to his
+employer are such as to impair his moral independence?</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Respect the property of others.</i> Unless we are careful we may at
+this point commit a grave wrong. Upon what moral considerations shall
+the right of property be based? The school, especially the moral lessons
+which are imparted in it, should certainly not be placed in the service
+of vested interests. On the other hand, the school should not fill the
+pupils' minds with economic theories, which they are incapable of
+understanding, and of which the truth, the justice, the feasibility are
+still hotly disputed. We are therefore taking a very responsible step in
+introducing the idea of property at all into our moral lessons. And yet
+it is too great and important to be ignored. Some writers have advanced
+the theory that the right in question rests on labor, and they regard it
+as a self-evident proposition, one which, therefore, might safely be
+taught to the young, that every person is entitled to the products of
+his labor. Jules Simon says (see Paul Janet, Elements of Morals, English
+translation, p. 66):<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> "This earth was worth nothing and produced
+nothing. I dug the soil, I brought from a distance fertilizing earth; it
+is now fertile. This fertility is my work; by fertilizing it, I made it
+mine." American writers have eloquent passages to the same effect. But
+this proposition certainly does not appear to me self-evident, nor even
+true. Chiefly for the reason that "my labor" and "my skill" are not
+original, but derivative factors in production. They are very largely
+the result of the labor and the skill of generations that have preceded
+me, that have built up in me this brain, this skill, this power of
+application. The products of my labor would indeed belong to me if my
+labor were really mine, if it were not to an incalculable extent the
+consequent of social antecedents, in regard to which I can not claim the
+least merit. The attempt to found the rewards of labor upon the merit of
+the laborer seems to me a perfectly hopeless one.</p>
+
+<p>Let me add that it is one thing to say that he who will not work shall
+not eat, and a very different thing to say that he who works shall enjoy
+what he has produced. The former statement merely signifies that he who
+will not contribute his share toward sustaining and improving human
+society is not entitled to any part in the advantages of the social
+order, though the charity of his fellow-men may grant him, under certain
+conditions and in the hope of changing his disposition, what he is not
+entitled to as of right. But the question what the share of the laborer
+ought to be is one that can not be settled in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> the rough-and-ready
+manner above suggested, and the considerations involved are, in truth,
+far too numerous and complex to be introduced at this stage. The whole
+question will be reopened later on. For the present it must suffice to
+state certain purely moral considerations on which the right of property
+may be made to rest. The following are the ideas which I should seek to
+develop: Property is justified by its uses. Its uses are to support the
+existence and promote the mental and moral growth of man. The physical
+life itself depends on property. Even in a communistic state the food
+any one eats must be his property in the sense that every one else is
+debarred from using it. The moral life of men depends on property. The
+moral life is rooted in the institution of the family, and the family
+could not exist without a separate domicile of its own and the means of
+providing for its dependent members. The independence and the growth of
+the intellect depend on property. In short, property is an indispensable
+adjunct of <i>personality</i>. This I take to be its moral basis. What I here
+indicate, however, is an ideal right which the existing state of society
+by no means reflects. By what methods we may best approach this ideal,
+whether by maintaining and improving the system of private property in
+land or by state ownership, whether by capitalistic or socialistic
+production, etc., are questions of means, not of ends, and raise
+problems in social science with which here we have not to deal.</p>
+
+<p>Question&mdash;If the present social arrangements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> are not morally
+satisfactory, if e. g., certain persons possess property to which on
+moral grounds they are not entitled, should not the commandment against
+stealing be suspended so far as they are concerned? The present system
+of rights, imperfect as it is, is the result of social evolution, and
+denotes the high-water mark of the average ethical consciousness of the
+world up to date. Respect for the existing system of rights, however,
+imperfect as it is, is the prime condition of obtaining a better system.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Respect the mental liberty of others.</i> Upon this rule of justice is
+founded the right to freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and what
+is called the freedom of conscience. Point out the limitations of these
+various rights which follow from the fact of their universality.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Respect the reputation of your fellow-men.</i> Refrain from backbiting
+and slander. Bridle your tongue. This undoubtedly is a rule of justice.
+"Who steals my purse steals trash," etc. The respect of our fellow-men
+is in itself a source of happiness and a moral prop, and, besides, the
+greatest help in achieving the legitimate purposes of life. He who has
+the confidence of others has wings to bear him along. He who is
+suspected for any reason, true or false, strikes against invisible
+barriers at every step. Nothing is so sensitive as character&mdash;a mere
+breath may tarnish it. It is therefore the gravest kind of injury to our
+neighbors to disseminate damaging rumors, to throw out dark hints and
+suggestions with respect to them, to impugn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> their motives. But is it
+not a duty to denounce evil and evil-doers and to put the innocent on
+their guard against wolves in sheep's clothing? Yes, if we are sure that
+our own motives are perfectly disinterested, that we are not in the
+least prompted by personal spite or prejudice. For if we dislike a
+person, as every one knows, we can not judge him fairly, we are prone to
+attribute to him all manner of evil qualities and evil intents which
+exist only in our own jaundiced imagination. Very often a person against
+whom we had at first conceived a distinct dislike proves on nearer
+acquaintance to be one whom we can esteem and even love. We should be
+warned by such experiences to hold our judgments in suspense, and not to
+allow injurious words to pass the lips. The vast moral importance of
+being able to hold one's tongue, the golden resources of silence, should
+be emphasized by the teacher.</p>
+
+<p>A series of lessons on good manners may be introduced at this point. The
+ceremonies of social intercourse, the various forms in which refined
+people show their deference for each other, the rule not to obtrude self
+in conversation, and the like, are so many illustrations of the respect
+which we owe to the personality of our fellow-men. Good manners are the
+&aelig;sthetic counterpart of good morals, and the connection between the two
+can easily be made plain.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Speak the truth.</i> Inward truthfulness is a self-regarding duty;
+social truthfulness is a form of justice. Words represent facts. The
+words we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> speak to our neighbor are used by him as building-stones in
+the architecture of his daily conduct. We have no right to defeat the
+purposes of his life, to weaken the dwelling he is erecting, by
+supplying him with worthless building material.</p>
+
+<p>Upon exactly the same ground is based the duty of keeping one's
+promises, viz., that our fellow-men build on our promises. Promises made
+in a legal form are called contracts and can be enforced. Promises not
+made in legal form are equally binding from a moral point of view. It
+should be borne in mind, however, that conditional promises are canceled
+when the stipulated conditions do not occur, and, furthermore, that
+there are certain tacit conditions implied in all promises whatsoever. A
+person who has promised to visit a friend on a certain day and dies in
+the interval is not supposed to have broken his promise; nor if any one
+makes a similar promise and a heavy snowstorm should block the roads or
+if he should be confined to his bed by sickness is he likely to be
+accused of breaking his promise. The physical possibility of fulfilling
+them is a tacit condition in all promises. It is also a tacit condition
+in all promises that it shall be morally possible or consistent with
+morality to keep them. A young man who has promised to join a gang of
+burglars in an attack on a bank and who repents at the last moment is
+morally justified in refusing to keep his pledge. His crime consisted in
+having made the promise in the first place, not in refusing to fulfill
+it at the last moment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> A person, however, who promises to pay usurious
+interest on a loan of money and who then takes advantage of the laws
+against usury to escape payment is a double-dyed rogue, for his
+intention is to cheat, and he uses the cloak of virtue as a screen in
+order to cheat with impunity. Let the teacher discuss the casuistical
+question whether it is right to keep a promise made to robbers&mdash;e. g.,
+if we should fall into the hands of brigands, and they should make it a
+condition of our release that we shall not betray their hiding-place.</p>
+
+<p>Justice is based on positive respect for the individuality of others,
+but its commands may all be expressed in the negative form: Do not kill,
+do not infringe the liberty, the property of others, do not slander, do
+not lie, etc. It is often held, however, that there is a positive as
+well as a negative side to justice, and the two sides are respectively
+expressed in the formulas: Neminem laede and suum cuique&mdash;Hurt no one
+and give every one his due. Of positive or distributive justice we meet
+with such examples as the following: In awarding a prize the jury is
+bound in justice to give the award in favor of the most deserving
+competitor. The head of a department in filling a vacancy is bound in
+justice to avoid favoritism, to promote that one of his subordinates who
+deserves promotion, etc. But it seems to me that this distinction is
+unimportant. Give to each one his due is tantamount to Do not deprive
+any one of what is due him. If the prize or the place belongs to A we
+should, by withholding it from him, invade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> the rights of A as much as
+if we took money out of his purse. The commands are negative, but the
+virtue implied is positive enough, because it depends on positive
+respect for human nature. Do not infringe upon the sacred territory of
+another's personality is the rule of justice in all cases.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Charity.</span>&mdash;How shall we distinguish charity from justice? It is said that
+every one is justified in claiming from others what belongs to him as a
+matter of right, but that no one can exact charity. The characteristic
+mark of charity is supposed to be that it is freely given. But if I
+happen to be rich and can afford to supply the need of another am I not
+morally bound to do so, and has not my indigent neighbor a real claim
+upon me? Again, it has been said that the term justice is applied to
+claims which are capable of being formulated in general rules and
+imposed alike on all men in their dealings with one another, while in
+the case of charity both the measure and the object of it are to be
+freely determined by each one. We are free, according to this view, to
+decide whether a claim upon us exists or not; but, the claim once having
+been admitted, it is as binding upon us as any of the demands of
+justice. But, while this is true, I hold that nevertheless there exists
+a clear distinction between the virtues of justice and charity. We owe
+justice to our equals, charity to our inferiors. The word "inferior" is
+to be understood in a carefully limited sense. An employer owes his
+workmen, as a matter of justice, the wages he has agreed to pay. Though
+they may be socially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> his inferiors, in regard to this transaction they
+are his equals. They have agreed to render him certain services and he
+has agreed to return them an equivalent.</p>
+
+<p>Justice says Do not hinder the development of others; Charity says
+Assist the development of others. The application of the rule of charity
+will make its meaning clear.</p>
+
+<p>1. Justice says do not destroy life; Charity says save life. Rescue from
+the flames the inmates of a burning house; leap into the waves to save a
+drowning fellow-creature. Such persons are dependent on your help. They
+are therefore with respect to you in an inferior position.</p>
+
+<p>Discuss with the class the limitations of this duty. I am not bound to
+jump into the water, for instance, when I see a person drowning unless I
+can swim. In fact, it would be culpable foolhardiness in me to do so.
+Discuss the following casuistical case: A child is lying on the railroad
+track and a locomotive is rapidly approaching. Am I bound to make the
+attempt to draw it away from the track? Does it make any difference
+whether I am single or the father of a family and have others dependent
+on me? In general, the attempt to save should not be made unless there
+is a distinct chance of succeeding without the sacrifice of one's own
+life; but we are justified in taking great risks, and courage and
+self-reliance are evinced in the degree of risk we are willing to take.
+There are cases, however, in which the deliberate sacrifice of one life
+for another is in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> the highest degree praiseworthy when, namely, the
+life to be saved is regarded as far more precious than our own. Instance
+the soldier who intercepts the thrust which is aimed at the life of his
+general. Instance the parent who in the Johnstown flood was seen to push
+his child to a place of safety and was then swept away by the current.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Assist the needy.</i> This may be done by giving bread to the hungry,
+clothing to the naked, shelter to the homeless, by caring for the sick,
+advancing loans to those who are struggling toward self-support, etc.
+The rule of charity is based on respect for the personality of others.
+We are required to assist those who are too weak to hold their own, with
+a view of putting them on their feet again. The aim of all charity
+should be to make those who are dependent on it independent of it. From
+this point of view all mere almsgiving, all that so-called charity which
+only serves to make the dependent classes more dependent, stands
+condemned. But the true test of charity, upon which the greatest stress
+should be laid, is to be found in the way it reacts upon the charitable
+themselves. Right relations, whatever their nature, are always mutually
+beneficial. Does the deed of charity react beneficially on the doer? is
+the test question to be asked in every instance. Take the case of a
+person who gives large sums to the poor in the hope of seeing his name
+favorably mentioned in the newspapers. The motive in this case is
+vanity, and the effect of this spurious sort of charity is to increase
+the vanity of the donor. The reaction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> upon him, therefore, is morally
+harmful. Again, take the case of a person who gives capriciously, at the
+bidding of impulse, without considering whether his gifts are likely to
+be of lasting benefit to the recipients. He is confirmed in his habit of
+yielding to impulse, and the reaction is likewise morally injurious. On
+the other hand, the retroactive effects of true charity are most
+beneficial. In the first place, a reaction will take place in the
+direction of greater simplicity in our own lives. A person can not be
+seriously and deeply interested in the condition of the poor, can not
+truly realize the hardships which they suffer, without being moved to
+cut off superfluous expenditure. Secondly, true charity will teach us to
+enter into the problems of others, often so unlike our own; to put
+ourselves in their places; to consider how we should act in their
+circumstances; to fight their battles for them; and by this means our
+moral experience will be enlarged, and from being one, we become, as it
+were, many men. True charity will also draw closer the bond of
+fellowship between the poor and us, for we shall often discover virtues
+in them which we do not possess ourselves; and sometimes, at least, we
+shall have occasion to look up with a kind of awe to those whom we are
+aiding. In connection with the discussion of charity, let the teacher
+relate the biographies of John Howard, Sister Dora, Florence
+Nightingale, Elizabeth Fry, and others, who have been distinguished for
+their devotion to the suffering.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Cheer up the sad.</i> Explain that a bright smile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> may often have the
+value of an act of charity. In general, emphasize the duty of
+suppressing irritability, ill humor, and moodiness, and of contributing
+to the sunshine of our households.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Console the bereaved.</i> The afflicted are for the moment weak and
+dependent; it is the office of loving charity to make them independent.
+Here the same train of reasoning is applicable as above in the case of
+the poor. It serves no useful purpose merely to sit down by the side of
+the sorrowful and to weep with them. They do need sympathy, but they
+also need, at least after the first paroxysms of grief have subsided, to
+be roused.</p>
+
+<p>The true cure for suffering is action. Those who suffer need to be
+nerved to action; they need to be shown, above all, the new duties which
+their situation entails. He who can point out to them the way of duty,
+and can give them of his own strength to walk in that way, is their best
+friend&mdash;he is the true consoler.</p>
+
+<p>5. I have yet to speak of mental charity and of moral charity. Mental
+charity is practiced by the wise teacher, who puts his pupils on the
+road to knowledge, who helps them to discover their true vocation, and
+who, when they are involved in doubt and difficulty, succeeds in giving
+them the clew by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> which they can find an exit into mental clearness and
+light.</p>
+
+<p>6. Moral charity is practiced by those who bend down to the sinful and
+the fallen, and awaken in them a new hope and trust in the good and in
+themselves. The charity which effects moral regeneration is perhaps the
+highest type of all, and of this I know no more fitting nor more sublime
+example than the dealing of Jesus with the outcasts of society.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Without attempting to forestall further philosophical
+analysis, we may perhaps assume, as a working hypothesis, as a
+provisional principle of deduction in ethics, the principle of
+organization. The individual is an organ of humanity. It is his
+duty to discharge, as perfectly as possible, his special functions;
+hence the need of insisting on respect for individuality
+throughout. Even the self-regarding duties would have no meaning
+were not the complex whole in view, in the economy of which each
+member is required to perform his part. As in every organism, so in
+this, each separate organ serves, and is served in turn by all the
+others, and can attain its highest development only through this
+constant interaction. To complete the thought, it would be
+necessary to add that certain organs are more closely connected
+than others, and form lesser organisms within and subservient to
+the whole. This, however, is merely thrown out as a suggestion
+addressed to the student of ethics.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Duty of Gratitude.</span>&mdash;Upon this subject much might be said, did not
+the fact that the time at our command is nearly exhausted warn us to use
+even greater brevity than heretofore in dealing with the topics that
+remain. To bring out the right relations between benefactor and
+beneficiary, let the teacher put the question, Why is it wrong to cast
+up the benefits we have conferred to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> one who has received them? And
+why, on the other hand, is it so base in the latter to show himself
+ungrateful. The reason is to be found in the respect due to the
+personality of others, to which we have so often alluded. Kant says that
+every human being is to be treated as an end in himself, and not merely
+as a means or a tool. In effect, the person who ignores benefits says to
+his benefactor: You are my tool. It is unnecessary for me to recognize
+your services, because you are not an independent person to be
+respected, but a creature to be made use of at pleasure. Ingratitude is
+a slur on the moral personality of others. On the other hand, he who
+casts up benefits practically says you have forfeited your independence
+through the favors you have accepted. I have made your personality
+tributary to mine.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent rule is that of Seneca. The benefactor should immediately
+forget what he has given; the beneficiary should always remember what he
+has received. True gratitude is based on the sense of our moral
+fellowship with others. The gifts received and returned are mere tokens
+of this noble relationship (as all gifts should be). You have just given
+to me. I will presently give to you twice as much again, or half as
+much, it matters not which, when occasion arises. We will further each
+other's aims as best we can, for the ends of each are sacred to the
+other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Duties to Servants.</span>&mdash;Having spoken of the duties which we owe to all
+men, I may here refer to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> certain special duties, such as the duties
+toward servants. These may also be introduced in connection with the
+duties of the family, after the filial and fraternal duties have been
+considered. I have space only to mention the following points:</p>
+
+<p>1. Servants are laborers. The same respect is due to them as to all
+other laborers.</p>
+
+<p>2. They are not only laborers, but in a special sense helpers. They are
+members of the household in a subordinate capacity, and in many cases
+identify themselves closely with the interests of the family. They are,
+as it were, lay brothers and lay sisters of the family. From these
+considerations may be deduced the duties which we owe toward servants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Duties with regard to Animals.</span>&mdash;I can not admit that we have duties
+toward animals. We can not very well speak of duties toward creatures on
+which we in part subsist; but there are duties with respect to animals.
+Man is a rational being, and as such takes a natural delight in that
+orderly arrangement and interdependence of parts which are the visible
+counterpart of the rational principle in his own nature. We ought not to
+step on or heedlessly crush under our feet even a single flower. Much
+less should we ruthlessly destroy the more perfect organism which we see
+in animals. Add to this that animals are sentient creatures, and that
+the useless infliction of pain tends to develop cruelty in us. As a
+practical means of fostering kindness toward animals, I suggest the
+following: Get<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> your pupils interested in the habits of animals.
+Familiarity in this case will breed sympathy. Speak of the building
+instincts of bees; of the curious structures raised by those wonderful
+engineers, the beavers. Give prominence to the love for their young by
+which the brute creation is brought into closer connection with the
+human family. Mention especially the fidelity which some animals show
+toward man (the saving of human lives by St. Bernard dogs, etc.), and
+the uses which we derive from the various members of the animal
+creation. As to the fact that we use animals for our sustenance, the
+highest point of view to take, I think, is this, that man is, so to
+speak, the crucible in which all the utilities of nature are refined to
+higher spiritual uses. Man puts the whole of nature under contribution
+to serve his purposes. He takes trees from the forest in order to build
+his house, and to fashion the table at which he takes his meals; he
+brings up metal from the depths of the earth and converts it into tools;
+he takes clay and forms it into vessels. He also is permitted to pluck
+flowers wherewith to garnish his feasts, and to make them the tokens of
+his love; and in the same manner he may actually absorb the life of the
+lower animals, in order to transform and transfigure it, as it were,
+into that higher life which is possible only in human society. But it
+follows that he is a mere parasite and an interloper in nature, unless
+he actually leads the truly human life.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> For the teacher I add point 4. The duties mentioned under
+5 and 6 may be practiced in a simple way by the young in the form of
+aiding their backward schoolmates, and observing the right attitude
+toward those of their companions who are in disgrace.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>XV.</span> <span class="smaller">THE ELEMENTS OF CIVIC DUTY.</span></h2>
+
+<p>It should be the aim of the school not only to connect the system of
+school duties with the duties of the previous period, but also to
+prepare the pupils morally for the period which follows. The school is
+the intermediate link between life in the family and life in society and
+the state. The course of moral instruction, therefore, culminates for
+the present in the chapter on civic duties. Needless to say that at this
+stage the subject can be considered in its elements only.</p>
+
+<p>The claims of the state upon the moral attachment of the citizen can
+hardly be presented too warmly. Life in the state as well as in the
+family is indispensable to the full development of character. Man, in
+his progress from childhood to old age, passes successively through
+ever-widening circles of duty, and new moral horizons open upon him as
+he grows out of one into the other. One of the largest of these circles,
+and, in respect to moral opportunities, one of the richest and most
+glorious, is the state. It may be said that the whole state exists
+ideally in every true citizen, or, what amounts to the same, that the
+true citizen embraces the interests of the state, as if they were his
+own, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> acts from the point of view of the total body politic.
+Increased breadth of view and elevation of purpose are the moral
+benefits which accrue to every one who even honestly attempts to be a
+citizen in this sense.</p>
+
+<p>Much attention is paid in some schools to the machinery of our
+government. The pupils are expected to learn the exact functions of
+mayors, city councils, and legislative bodies, the provisions relative
+to the election of the President, etc. But while these things ought to
+be known, they relate, after all, only to the externals of government;
+and it is far more important to familiarize the pupils with the
+animating spirit of political institutions, with the great ideas which
+underlie the state. There are especially three political ideas to which
+I should give prominence; these are, the idea of the supremacy of the
+law; the true idea of punishment; and the idea of nationality. After we
+have instilled these ideas, it will be time enough to dwell with greater
+particularity on the machinery by which it is sought to carry them into
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>What method shall we use for instilling these ideas? The same which
+modern pedagogy applies in every branch of instruction. The rule is,
+Proceed from the known to the unknown; in introducing a new notion,
+connect it with some analogous notion already in the pupil's possession.
+The school offers excellent opportunities for developing the two ideas
+of law and punishment. In every school there exists a body of rules and
+regulations, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> school laws. It should be made plain to the scholars
+that these laws are enacted for their own good. The government of the
+school should be made to rest as far as possible on the consent and
+co-operation of the governed. That school which does not secure on the
+part of the scholars a willing acceptance of the system of restraints
+which is necessary for the good of the whole, is a failure. In such an
+institution the law-abiding spirit can never be fostered.</p>
+
+<p>The play-ground, too, affords a preliminary training for future
+citizenship. On the play-ground the scholars learn to select and to obey
+their own leaders, to maintain the rules of the game, and to put down
+any infraction of them, whether in the shape of violence or fraud. They
+also learn to defer to the will of the majority&mdash;a most important
+lesson, especially in democratic communities&mdash;and to bear defeat
+good-humoredly.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>The true idea of punishment should be brought home to the scholars
+through the discipline of the school. The ends of punishment are the
+protection of the community and the reformation of the offender. Nowhere
+better than in the little commonwealth of the school can these moral
+aspects of punishment be impressed; nowhere better can the foundation be
+laid for the changes which are so urgently needed in the dealings of the
+state with the criminal class. Everything, of course, depends upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>
+character of the teacher. His reputation for strict justice, the moral
+earnestness he displays in dealing with offenses, his readiness to
+forbear and forgive upon the least sign of genuine repentance&mdash;these are
+the means by which he can instill right notions as to what discipline
+should be. It has been suggested that, when a particularly serious case
+of transgression occurs, the teacher can sometimes produce a profound
+moral effect on the class by submitting the case to them as a jury and
+asking for their verdict.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of nationality I regard as fundamental in political ethics.
+There is such a thing as national character, national genius, or
+national individuality. When we think of the Greeks, we think of them as
+pre-eminent for their achievements in art and philosophy; of the
+Hebrews, as the people of the Bible; of the Romans, as the founders of
+jurisprudence, etc. And on turning to the modern nations we find that
+the talents of the English, the Germans, the French, the Italians, etc.,
+are no less diversified. Morally speaking, it is the mission of each
+nation in correlation with others to contribute to the universal work of
+civilization its own peculiar gifts. The state may be regarded as that
+organization of the public life which is designed <i>to develop the
+national individuality</i>; to foster the national genius in whatever
+direction it may seek to express itself, whether in industry, art,
+literature, or science; to clarify its aims, and to raise it to the
+highest pitch of beneficent power.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p><p>Doubtless this idea, as stated, is too abstract to be grasped by the
+young; but it can be brought down to their level in a tangible way. For
+the national genius expresses itself in the national history, and more
+especially is it incorporated in those great leaders, who arise at
+critical periods to guide the national development into new channels. It
+is at this point that we realize anew the important support which the
+teaching of history may give to the moral teaching.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Thus the
+political history of the United States, if I may be permitted to use
+that as an illustration of my thought, may be divided into three great
+periods. The struggle with nature occupied the earliest period&mdash;that of
+colonization; in this period we see the American man engaged in subduing
+a continent. The struggle for political freedom fills the period of the
+Revolution. The struggle for a universal moral idea lends grandeur to
+our civil war. The story of these three great struggles should be
+related with such clearness that the idea which dominated each may stand
+out in relief, and with such fervor that the pupils may conceive a more
+ardent love for their country which, at the same time that it holds out
+immeasurable prospects for the future, already possesses such glorious
+traditions. There is, however, always a great danger that patriotism may
+degenerate into Chauvinism. Against this, universal history, when taught
+in the right spirit, is the best antidote. A knowledge of universal
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>history is an admirable check on spurious patriotism. In teaching it,
+it is especially desirable that the contribution which each nation has
+made to the progress of the world be noted and emphasized. Let the
+teacher speak of the early development of the literature and of the
+inventive spirit of the despised Chinese; of the high civilization which
+once flourished on the banks of the Nile; of the immortal debt we owe to
+Greece and Rome and Judea. Let the young be made acquainted with the
+important services which Ireland rendered to European culture in the
+early part of the middle ages. Let them learn, however briefly, of the
+part which France played in the overthrow of feudalism, of the wealth of
+German science and literature and philosophy; let them know how much
+mankind owes to the Parliaments of England, and to the stout heart and
+strong sense which made parliaments possible. It is not by underrating
+others, but by duly estimating and appreciating their achievements, that
+we shall find ourselves challenged to bring forth what is best in
+ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>There is still another reason why, especially in American schools, the
+teaching of universal history should receive far greater attention than
+hitherto has been accorded to it. The American people are imbued with
+the belief that they have a problem to solve for all mankind. They have
+set out to demonstrate in the face of doubt and adverse criticism the
+possibility of popular self-government. They have thus consecrated their
+national life to a sublime humanitarian idea. And the sense of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+consecration, echoing in the utterances of many of their leading
+statesmen, has more or less permeated the whole people. But the mission
+thus assumed, like the burden on the shoulders of Christophorus, is
+becoming heavier at every step. The best citizens recognize that the
+problem of popular self-government, so far from being solved, is but
+beginning to disclose itself in all its vast complexity, and they
+realize more than ever how necessary it is to get every possible help
+from the example and experience of older nations. The political lessons
+of the past can not indeed be mastered in the public schools. But a
+preliminary interest in European history may be created, which will pave
+the way for profitable study later on.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, the American people have extended a most liberal invitation
+to members of other nationalities (with few restrictions, and these of
+recent origin) to come and join in working out the destinies of the new
+continent. Not only is an asylum granted to the oppressed&mdash;this were the
+lesser boon&mdash;but the gates of citizenship have been opened wide to the
+new-comers. What does this mean, if not that the foreigners who come,
+unless indeed they belong to the weak and dependent classes, are wanted;
+and wanted not only in their capacity as workers to aid in developing
+the material resources of the country, but as citizens, to help in
+perfecting what is still imperfect, to assist in building up in time, on
+American soil, the true republic.</p>
+
+<p>In return for this privilege the citizens of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>foreign birth owe it to
+their adopted country to place the best of their racial gifts at its
+service. Much that the citizens of foreign birth bring with them,
+indeed, will have to be eliminated, but, on the other hand, many of
+their traits will probably enter as constituent elements into the
+national character. The Anglo-Saxon race has now the lead, and will
+doubtless keep it. But in the melting-pot of the American commonwealths
+the elements of many diverse nationalities are being mixed anew, and a
+new nationality distinctively American is likely to be the final outcome
+of the process. Thus both the humanitarian ideal and the actual make-up
+of the people betray a cosmopolitan tendency, and it is this tendency
+which, more perhaps than anything else, gives to American political life
+its characteristic physiognomy. If this be so, if the foreign elements
+are so numerous and likely to be so influential, it is surely important
+that the foreign races, their character and their history, be studied
+and understood.</p>
+
+<p>Besides explaining the political ideas, I should briefly describe the
+actual functions of government. Government protects the life and
+property of its citizens against foreign aggression and violence at
+home. Government maintains the binding force of contracts. Government
+reserves to itself the coinage of money, carries the mails, supports
+public education, etc. In a word, government assumes those functions
+which can be discharged more satisfactorily or more economically by the
+joint action of the community than if left to private individuals or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>corporations. But government also undertakes the duty of protecting the
+weaker classes against oppression by the stronger, as is shown by
+factory legislation in the interest of women and minors. How far this
+function may profitably be extended is open to discussion; but that it
+has been assumed in all civilized countries is a fact which should be
+noted.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> Dole, "The American Citizen."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See remarks on this subject in the third lecture.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>XVI.</span> <span class="smaller">THE USE OF PROVERBS AND SPEECHES.</span></h2>
+
+<p>For the use of my classes I have made a collection of proverbs from the
+Bible, from Buddha's Dhammapada, from the Encheiridion of Epictetus, the
+Imitation of Christ, and other ancient and modern sources. Some of these
+belong to the advanced course, others can be used in the grammar course.
+I have time to mention only a few, in order to illustrate the method of
+using them.</p>
+
+<p>The habit of committing proverbs or golden sayings to memory without a
+previous analysis of their meaning serves no good purpose whatever.
+Proverbs are the condensed expression of the moral experience of
+generations. The teacher should search out the experiences to which the
+proverbs refer. Proverbs may be compared to those delicate Eastern
+fabrics which can be folded up into the smallest compass, but which,
+when unfolded, are seen to cover a large space. The teacher should
+explore the territory covered by the proverb. Take, for example, such a
+saying as this, "Blessed be he who has the good eye." What is the good
+eye? The eye that sees the good in others. Is it easy to see the good in
+others? Yes, if we are fond of them; but if we are not, we are likely to
+see only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> the evil. But suppose there is no good to be seen, at least
+not on the surface; why, then the good eye is that which sees the good
+beneath the surface, which, like the divining-rod, shows where in human
+character gold lies buried, and helps us to penetrate to it. But even
+this does not exhaust the meaning of the proverb. The good eye is that
+which, as it were, sees the good into others, sends its good influence
+into them, makes them good by believing them to be so. The good eye is a
+creative eye. Or take the proverb, "A falsehood is like pebbles in the
+mouth." Why not say a falsehood is like a pebble? No, one falsehood is
+like many pebbles. For every falsehood tends to multiply itself, and
+each separate falsehood is like a pebble&mdash;not like bread, which we can
+assimilate, but like a stone, a foreign body, alien to our nature.
+Moreover, the proverb says, A falsehood is like pebbles in the mouth;
+which means that these stony falsehoods will choke us, choke the better
+life in us, unless we cast them out. Again, take such sayings as these
+from the Dhammapada: "As rain breaks through an ill-thatched house,
+passion will break through an unreflecting mind." Explain what kind of
+reflection is needed to keep off passion. "He who is well subdued may
+subdue others." Show what kind of self-control is meant, and in what
+sense others are to be subdued. "He who holds back anger like a rolling
+chariot, him I call a real driver; other people are but holding the
+reins." "Let a man overcome anger by love; let him overcome evil by
+good;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> let him overcome the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth."
+Describe the sort of brake by means of which the rolling chariot of
+anger may be checked in mid-course, and the efficacy of goodness in
+overcoming evil. From the Encheiridion it occurs to me to mention the
+saying, "Everything has two handles: the one by which it can be borne,
+the other by which it can not be borne." Epictetus himself gives an
+illustration: "If your brother acts unjustly toward you, do not lay hold
+of the act by that handle wherein he acts unjustly, for that is the
+handle by which it can not be borne; but lay hold of the other, that he
+is your brother, and you will lay hold of the thing by that handle by
+which it can be borne." There are also many other illustrations of this
+noble maxim. Disappointment has two handles, the one by which it can be
+borne, the other by which it can not. Affliction has two handles.
+Illustrate profusely; search out the meaning in detail.</p>
+
+<p>There is a mine of practical wisdom in these sayings. There exist
+proverbs relating to all the various duties which have been discussed in
+our course; proverbs relating to the pursuit of knowledge; many and
+beautiful proverbs on the filial and fraternal duties, on courage, on
+humility, on the importance of keeping promises, on kindness to animals,
+on the moral end of civil society. Proverbs should be classified under
+their proper heads and used as occasion offers. Permit me, however, to
+add one word of caution. It is a mistake to teach too many proverbs at a
+time, to overload the pupil's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> mind with them. The proverbs selected
+should be brief, pithy, and profoundly significant. But there should not
+be too many at a time. It is better to return to the same proverb often,
+and to penetrate deeper into its meaning every time. The value of the
+proverbs is that they serve as pegs in the memory, to which long chains
+of moral reflection can be attached. They are guide-posts pointing with
+their short arms to the road of duty; they are voices of mankind
+uttering impressive warnings, and giving clear direction in moments when
+the promptings of self-interest or the mists of passion would be likely
+to lead us astray.</p>
+
+<p>It may also be well to select a number of speeches which embody high
+moral sentiments, like some of the speeches of Isaiah, the speech of
+Socrates before his judges, and others, and, after having explained
+their meaning, to cause them to be recited by the pupils. Just as the
+delivery of patriotic speeches is found useful for inculcating patriotic
+sentiments, so such speeches as these will tend to quicken the moral
+sentiments. He who repeats the speech of another for the time being puts
+on the character of the other. The sentiments which are uttered by the
+lips live for the moment in the heart, and leave their mark there.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>XVII.</span> <span class="smaller">THE INDIVIDUALIZATION OF MORAL TEACHING.</span></h2>
+
+<p>This subject is of the greatest importance. It really requires extended
+and careful treatment, but a few hints must suffice. The teacher should
+remember that he is educating not boys and girls in general, but
+particular boys and girls, each of whom has particular faults needing to
+be corrected and actual or potential virtues to be developed and
+encouraged. Therefore a conscientious study of the character of the
+pupils is necessary. This constitutes an additional reason why moral
+instruction should be given in a daily school rather than in a Sunday
+school, the opportunities for the study of character being vastly better
+in the former than they can possibly be in the latter. The teacher who
+gives the moral lessons, in undertaking this study, should solicit the
+co-operation of all the other teachers of the school. He should request
+from time to time from each of his fellow-teachers reports stating the
+good and bad traits observed in each pupil, or rather the facts on which
+the various teachers base their estimates of the good and bad qualities
+of the scholars; for the opinions of teachers are sometimes unreliable,
+are sometimes discolored by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> prejudice, while facts tell their own
+story. These facts should be collated by the moral teacher, and, with
+them as a basis, he may endeavor to work out a kind of chart of the
+character of each of his pupils. It goes without saying, that he should
+also seek the co-operation of the parents, for the purpose of
+discovering what characteristic traits the pupil displays at home; and
+if the reputation which a pupil bears among his companions, can be
+ascertained without undue prying, this, too, will be found of use in
+forming an estimate of his disposition. The teacher who knows the
+special temptations of his pupils will have many opportunities, in the
+course of the moral lessons, to give them pertinent warnings and advice,
+without seeming to address them in particular or exposing their faults
+to the class. He will also be able to exercise a helpful surveillance
+over their conduct in school, and to become in private their friend and
+counselor. Moreover, the material thus collected will in time prove
+serviceable in helping us to a more exact knowledge of the different
+varieties of human character&mdash;a knowledge which would give to the art of
+ethical training something like a scientific basis.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See some remarks on types of character in my lecture on
+the Punishment of Children.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>RECAPITULATION.</span></h2>
+
+<p>Let us now briefly review the ground we have gone over in the present
+course. In the five introductory lectures we discussed the problem of
+unsectarian moral teaching, the efficient motives of good conduct, the
+opportunities of moral influence in schools, the classification of
+duties, and the moral status of the child on entering school.</p>
+
+<p>In mapping out the primary course we assumed as a starting-point the
+idea that the child rapidly passes through the same stages of evolution
+through which the human race has passed, and hence we endeavored to
+select our material for successive epochs in the child's life from the
+literature of the corresponding epochs in the life of the race.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the method of instruction, we observed that in the fairy
+tales the moral element should be touched on incidentally; that in
+teaching the fables isolated moral qualities should be presented in such
+a way that the pupil may always thereafter be able to recognize them;
+while the stories display a number of moral qualities in combination and
+have the value of moral pictures.</p>
+
+<p>In the primary course the object has been to train the moral
+perceptions; in the grammar course, to work out moral concepts and to
+formulate rules of conduct. The method of getting at these rules may
+again be described as follows: Begin with some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> concrete case, suggest a
+rule which apparently fits that case or really fits it, adduce other
+cases which the rule does not fit, change the rule, modify it as often
+as necessary, until it has been brought into such shape that it will fit
+every case you can think of.</p>
+
+<p>In planning the lessons on duty which make up the subject matter of the
+grammar course, we took the ground that each period of life has its
+specific duties, that in each period there is one paramount duty around
+which the others may be grouped, and that each new system of duties
+should embrace and absorb the preceding one.</p>
+
+<p>It remains for me to add that the illustrations which I have used in the
+grammar course are intended merely to serve as specimens, and by no
+means to exclude the use of different illustrative matter which the
+teacher may find more suitable. Furthermore, I desire to express the
+hope that it may be possible, without too much difficulty, to eliminate
+whatever subjective conceptions may be found to have crept into these
+lessons, and that, due deduction having been made, there may remain a
+substratum of objective truth which all can accept. It should be
+remembered that these lectures are not intended to take the place of a
+text-book, but to serve as a guide to the teacher in preparing his
+lessons.</p>
+
+<p>I hope hereafter to continue the work which has thus been begun. In the
+advanced course, which is to follow the present one, we shall have to
+reconsider from a higher point of view many of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>subjects already
+treated, and in addition to take up such topics as the ethics of the
+professions, the ethics of friendship, conjugal ethics, etc., which have
+here been omitted.</p>
+
+<p>I shall also attempt to indicate the lines for a systematic study of
+biographies, and to lay out a course of selected readings from the best
+ethical literature of ancient and modern times.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>APPENDIX.</span> <span class="smaller">THE INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON CHARACTER.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></span></h2>
+
+<p>Manual training has recently been suggested as one of the means of
+combating the criminal tendency in the young, and this suggestion is
+being received with increasing favor. But until now the theory of manual
+training has hardly begun to be worked out. The confidence which is
+expressed in it is based, for the most part, on unclassified experience.
+But experience without theory is altogether insufficient. Theory, it is
+true, without experience is without feet to stand. But experience
+without the guiding and directing help of theory is without eyes to see.
+I shall now offer, in a somewhat tentative way, a few remarks intended
+to be a contribution to the philosophy of manual training as applied to
+the reformation of delinquent children. I shall confine myself, however,
+to one type of criminality in children&mdash;a not uncommon type&mdash;that of
+moral deterioration arising from weakness of the will.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, let us distinguish between <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>feeling, desiring, and
+willing. A person who is without food feels hunger. A person who, being
+hungry, calls up in his mind images of food, will experience a desire. A
+person who adopts means to obtain food performs an act of the will. A
+Russian prisoner in Siberia who suffers from the restraints of
+confinement is in a state of feeling. The same person, when he recalls
+images of home and friends, is in a state of desire; but when he sets
+about adopting the means to effect his escape, concerts signals with his
+fellow-prisoners, undermines the walls of his dungeon, etc., he is
+performing acts of the will. Permit me to call particular attention to
+the fact that the will is characterized at its birth by the intellectual
+factor which enters into it; for the calculation of means to ends is an
+intellectual process, and every conscious act of volition involves such
+a process. If the will is thus characterized at its birth, we can at
+once anticipate the conclusion that any will will be strong in
+proportion as the intellectual factor in it predominates. It was said by
+one of the speakers that "an ounce of affection is better than a ton of
+intellect." Give me a proper mixture of the two. Give me at least an
+ounce of intellect together with an ounce of affection. There is great
+danger lest we exaggerate the importance of the emotions for morality.
+The opinion is widely entertained that good feeling, kind feeling,
+loving feeling, is the whole of morality, or, at least, the essential
+factor in it. But this opinion is surely erroneous. The will may be
+compared to the power which propels a ship through the waves. Feeling is
+the rudder. The intellect is the helmsman.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p><p>Let me give illustrations to bring into view the characteristics of a
+strong and of a weak will. Great inventors, great statesmen, great
+reformers, illustrate strength of will. We note in them especially
+tenacity of purpose and a marvelous faculty for adjusting and
+readjusting means to ends. Persons who are swayed by the sensual
+appetites illustrate weakness of will. We note in them vacillation of
+purpose, and the power of adjusting means to ends only in its
+rudimentary form. The ideas of virtue are complex. No one can illustrate
+virtue on a high plane unless he is capable of holding in mind long
+trains and complex groups of ideas. The lowest vices, on the other hand,
+are distinguished by the circumstance that the ends to which they look
+are simple, and the means employed often of the crudest kind. Thus,
+suppose that a person of weak will is hungry. He knows that gold will
+buy food. He adopts the readiest way to get gold. Incapable of that long
+and complex method of attaining his end, which is exhibited, for
+instance, by the farmer who breaks the soil, plants the corn, watches
+his crops, and systematizes his labors from the year's beginning to its
+end, he takes the shortest road toward the possession of gold&mdash;he
+stretches forth his hand and takes it where he finds it. The man of weak
+will, who has a grudge against his rival, is not capable of putting
+forth a sustained and complex series of efforts toward obtaining
+satisfaction, for instance, by laboring arduously to outstrip his rival.
+He is, furthermore, incapable of those larger considerations, those
+complex groups of ideas relating to society and its permanent interests,
+which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> check the angry passions in the educated. He gives free and
+immediate rein to the passion as it rises. He takes the readiest means
+of getting satisfaction: he draws the knife and kills. The man of weak
+will, who burns with sensual desire, assaults the object of his desire.
+The virtues depend in no small degree on the power of serial and complex
+thinking. Those vices which are due to weakness of will are
+characterized by the crudeness of the aim and the crudeness of the
+means.</p>
+
+<p>To strengthen the will, therefore, it is necessary to give to the person
+of weak will the power to think connectedly, and especially to reach an
+end by long and complex trains of means.</p>
+
+<p>Let us pause here for a moment to elucidate this point by briefly
+considering a type of criminality which is familiar to all guardians of
+delinquent children. This type is marked by a group of salient traits,
+which may be roughly described as follows: Mental incoherency is the
+first. The thoughts of the child are, as it were, slippery, tending to
+glide past one another without mutual attachments. A second trait is
+indolence. A third, deficiency in the sense of shame; to which may be
+added that the severest punishments fail to act as deterrents.</p>
+
+<p>Mental incoherency is the leading trait, and supplies the key for the
+understanding of the others. Lack of connectedness between ideas is the
+radical defect. Each idea, as it rises, becomes an impulse, and takes
+effect to the full limit of its suggestions. A kind thought rises in the
+mind of such a child, and issues in a demonstrative impulse of
+affection. Shortly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> after, a cruel thought may rise in the mind of the
+same child; and the cruel thought will, in like manner, take effect in a
+cruel act. Children answering to this type are alternately kind,
+affectionate, and cruel. The child's indolence is due to the same
+cause&mdash;lack of connectedness between ideas. It is incapable of sustained
+effort, because every task implies the ability to pass from one idea to
+related ideas. The child is deficient in shame, because the sense of
+shame depends on a vivid realization of the idea of self. The idea of
+self, however, is a complex idea, which is not distinctly and clearly
+present to such a child. Lastly, the most severe punishments fail to act
+as deterrents for the same reason. The two impressions left in the mind,
+"I did a wrong," "I suffered a pain," lie apart. The memory of one does
+not excite the recollection of the other. The thought of the wrong does
+not lift permanently into consciousness the thought of the pain which
+followed. The punishment, as we say, is quickly forgotten. If,
+therefore, we wish to remedy a deep-seated defect of this kind, if we
+wish to cure a weak will, in such and all similar cases we must seek to
+establish a closer connection between the child's ideas.</p>
+
+<p>The question may now be asked, Why should we not utilize to this end the
+ordinary studies of the school curriculum&mdash;history, geography,
+arithmetic, etc.? All of these branches exercise and develop the faculty
+of serial and complex thinking. Any sum in multiplication gives a
+training of this kind. Let the task be to multiply a multiplicand of
+four figures by a multiplier of three. First the child must multiply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
+every figure in the multiplicand by the units of the multiplier and
+write down the result; then by the tens, and then by the hundreds, and
+combine these results. Here is a lesson in combination, in serial, and,
+for a young child, somewhat complex thinking. Let the task be to bound
+the State of New York. The child must see the mental picture of the
+State in its relation to other States and parts of States, to lakes and
+rivers and mountains&mdash;a complex group of ideas. Or, let it be required
+to give a brief account of the American Revolution. Here is a whole
+series of events, each depending on the preceding ones. Why, then, may
+we not content ourselves with utilizing the ordinary studies of the
+school curriculum? There are two reasons.</p>
+
+<p>First, because history, geography, and arithmetic are not, as a rule,
+interesting to young children, especially not to young children of the
+class with which we are now dealing. These listless minds are not easily
+roused to an interest in abstractions. Secondly, it is a notorious fact
+that intellectual culture, pure and simple, is quite consistent with
+weakness of the will. A person may have very high intellectual
+attainments, and yet be morally deficient. I need hardly warn my
+reflective hearers that, when emphasizing the importance for the will of
+intellectual culture, I had in mind the intellectual process as applied
+to acts. To cultivate the intellect in its own sphere of contemplation
+and abstraction, apart from action, may leave the will precisely as
+feeble as it was before.</p>
+
+<p>And now, all that has been said thus far <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>converges upon the point that
+has been in view from the beginning&mdash;the importance of manual training
+as an element in disciplining the will. Manual training fulfills the
+conditions I have just alluded to. It is interesting to the young, as
+history, geography, and arithmetic often are not. Precisely those pupils
+who take the least interest or show the least aptitude for literary
+study are often the most proficient in the workshop and the
+modeling-room. Nature has not left these neglected children without
+beautiful compensations. If they are deficient in intellectual power,
+they are all the more capable of being developed on their active side.
+Thus, manual training fulfills the one essential condition&mdash;it is
+interesting. It also fulfills the second. By manual training we
+cultivate the intellect in close connection with action. Manual training
+consists of a series of actions which are controlled by the mind, and
+which react on it. Let the task assigned be, for instance, the making of
+a wooden box. The first point to be gained is to attract the attention
+of the pupil to the task. A wooden box is interesting to a child, hence
+this first point will be gained. Lethargy is overcome, attention is
+aroused. Next, it is important to keep the attention fixed on the task:
+thus only can tenacity of purpose be cultivated. Manual training enables
+us to keep the attention of the child fixed upon the object of study,
+because the latter is concrete. Furthermore, the variety of occupations
+which enter into the making of the box constantly refreshes this
+interest after it has once been started. The wood must be sawed to line.
+The boards must be carefully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> planed and smoothed. The joints must be
+accurately worked out and fitted. The lid must be attached with hinges.
+The box must be painted or varnished. Here is a sequence of means
+leading to an end, a series of operations all pointing to a final object
+to be gained, to be created. Again, each of these means becomes in turn
+and for the time being a secondary end; and the pupil thus learns, in an
+elementary way, the lesson of subordinating minor ends to a major end.
+And, when finally the task is done, when the box stands before the boy's
+eyes a complete whole, a serviceable thing, sightly to the eyes, well
+adapted to its uses, with what a glow of triumph does he contemplate his
+work! The pleasure of achievement now comes in to crown his labor; and
+this sense of achievement, in connection with the work done, leaves in
+his mind a pleasant after-taste, which will stimulate him to similar
+work in the future. The child that has once acquired, in connection with
+the making of a box, the habits just described, has begun to master the
+secret of a strong will, and will be able to apply the same habits in
+other directions and on other occasions.</p>
+
+<p>Or let the task be an artistic one. And let me here say that manual
+training is incomplete unless it covers art training. Many otherwise
+excellent and interesting experiments in manual training fail to give
+satisfaction because they do not include this element. The useful must
+flower into the beautiful, to be in the highest sense useful. Nor is it
+necessary to remind those who have given attention to the subject of
+education how important is the influence of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> the beautiful is in
+refining the sentiments and elevating the nature of the young. Let the
+task, then, be to model a leaf, a vase, a hand, a head. Here again we
+behold the same advantages as in the making of the box. The object is
+concrete, and therefore suitable for minds incapable of grasping
+abstractions. The object can be constantly kept before the pupil's eyes.
+There is gradual approximation toward completeness, and at last that
+glow of triumph! What child is not happy if he has produced something
+tangible, something that is the outgrowth of his own activity,
+especially if it be something which is charming to every beholder?</p>
+
+<p>And now let me briefly summarize certain conclusions to which reflection
+has led me in regard to the subject of manual training in reformatory
+institutions. Manual training should be introduced into every
+reformatory. In New York city we have tested a system of work-shop
+lessons for children between six and fourteen. There is, I am persuaded,
+no reason why manual training should not be applied to the youngest
+children in reformatories. Manual training should always include art
+training. The labor of the children of reformatories should never be let
+to contractors. I heartily agree with what was said on that subject this
+morning. The pupils of reformatories should never make heads of pins or
+the ninetieth fraction of a shoe. Let there be no machine work. Let the
+pupils turn out complete articles, for only thus can the full
+intellectual and moral benefits of manual training be reaped.
+Agriculture, wherever the opportunities are favorable, offers, on the
+whole, the same <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>advantages as manual training, and should be employed
+if possible, in connection with it.</p>
+
+<p>I have thus far attempted to show how the will can be made strong. But a
+strong will is not necessarily a good will. It is true, there are
+influences in manual training, as it has been described, which are
+favorable to a virtuous disposition. Squareness in things is not without
+relation to squareness in action and in thinking. A child that has
+learned to be exact&mdash;that is, truthful&mdash;in his work will be predisposed
+to be scrupulous and truthful in his speech, in his thought, in his
+acts. The refining and elevating influence of artistic work I have
+already mentioned. But, along with and over and above all these
+influences, I need hardly say to you that, in the remarks which I have
+offered this evening, I have all along taken for granted the continued
+application of those tried and excellent methods which prevail in our
+best reformatories. I have taken for granted that isolation from
+society, which shuts out temptation; that routine of institutional life,
+which induces regularity of habit; that strict surveillance of the whole
+body of inmates and of every individual, which prevents excesses of the
+passions, and therefore starves them into disuse. I have taken for
+granted the cultivation of the emotions, the importance of which I am
+the last to undervalue. I have taken for granted the influence of good
+example, good literature, good music, poetry, and religion. All I have
+intended to urge is that between good feeling and the realization of
+good feeling there exists, in persons whose will-power is weak, a
+hiatus, and that manual training is admirably adapted to fill that
+hiatus.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p><p>There is another advantage to be noted in connection with manual
+training&mdash;namely, that it develops the property sense. What, after all,
+apart from artificial social convention, is the foundation of the right
+of property? On what basis does it rest? I have a proprietary right in
+my own thoughts. I have a right to follow my tastes in the adornment of
+my person and my house. I have a right to the whole sphere of my
+individuality, my selfhood; and I have a right in <i>things</i> so far as I
+use them to express my personality. The child that has made a wooden box
+has put a part of himself into the making of that box&mdash;his thought, his
+patience, his skill, his toil&mdash;and therefore the child feels that that
+box is in a certain sense his own. And as only those who have the sense
+of ownership are likely to respect the right of ownership in others, we
+may by manual training cultivate the property sense of the child; and
+this, in the case of the delinquent child, it will be admitted, is no
+small advantage.</p>
+
+<p>I have confined myself till now to speaking of the importance of manual
+training in its influence on the character of delinquent children. I
+wish to add a few words touching the influence of manual training on
+character in general, and its importance for children of all classes of
+society. I need not here speak of the value of manual training to the
+artisan class. That has been amply demonstrated of late by the many
+technical and art schools which the leading manufacturing nations of
+Europe have established and are establishing. I need not speak of the
+value of manual training to the future surgeon, dentist, scientist, and
+to all those who require deftness of hand in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>pursuit of their
+vocations. But I do wish to speak of the value of manual training to the
+future lawyer and clergyman, and to all those who will perhaps never be
+called upon to labor with their hands. Precisely because they will not
+labor with their hands is manual training so important for them&mdash;in the
+interest of an all-round culture&mdash;in order that they may not be entirely
+crippled on one side of their nature. The Greek legend says that the
+giant Ant&aelig;us was invincible so long as his feet were planted on the
+solid earth. We need to have a care that our civilization shall remain
+planted on the solid earth. There is danger lest it may be developed too
+much into the air&mdash;that we may become too much separated from those
+primal sources of strength from which mankind has always drawn its
+vitality. The English nobility have deliberately adopted hunting as
+their favorite pastime. They follow as a matter of physical exercise, in
+order to keep up their physical strength, a pursuit which the savage man
+followed from necessity. The introduction of athletics in colleges is a
+move in the same direction. But it is not sufficient to maintain our
+physical strength, our brute strength, the strength of limb and muscle.
+We must also preserve that spiritualized strength which we call
+skill&mdash;the tool-using faculty, the power of impressing on matter the
+stamp of mind. And the more machinery takes the place of human labor,
+the more necessary will it be to resort to manual training as a means of
+keeping up skill, precisely as we have resorted to athletics as a means
+of keeping up strength.</p>
+
+<p>There is one word more I have to say in closing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> Twenty-five years ago,
+as the recent memories of Gettysburg recall to us, we fought to keep
+this people a united nation. Then was State arrayed against State.
+To-day class is beginning to be arrayed against class. The danger is not
+yet imminent, but it is sufficiently great to give us thought. The chief
+source of the danger, I think, lies in this, that the two classes of
+society have become so widely separated by difference of interests and
+pursuits that they no longer fully understand one another, and
+misunderstanding is the fruitful source of hatred and dissension. This
+must not continue. The manual laborer must have time and opportunity for
+intellectual improvement. The intellectual classes, on the other hand,
+must learn manual labor; and this they can best do in early youth, in
+the school, before the differentiation of pursuits has yet begun. Our
+common schools are rightly so named. The justification of their support
+by the State is not, I think, as is sometimes argued, that the State
+should give a sufficient education to each voter to enable him at least
+to read the ballot which he deposits. This is but a poor equipment for
+citizenship at best. The justification for the existence of our common
+schools lies rather in the bond of common feeling which they create
+between the different classes of society. And it is this bond of common
+feeling woven in childhood that has kept and must keep us a united
+people. Let manual training, therefore, be introduced into the common
+schools; let the son of the rich man learn, side by side with the son of
+the poor man, to labor with his hands; let him thus practically learn to
+respect labor; let him learn to understand what the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> dignity of manual
+labor really means, and the two classes of society, united at the root,
+will never thereafter entirely grow asunder.</p>
+
+<p>A short time ago I spent an afternoon with a poet whose fame is familiar
+to all. There was present in the company a gentleman of large means,
+who, in the course of conversation, descanted upon the merits of the
+protective system, and spoke in glowing terms of the growth of the
+industries of his State and of the immense wealth which is being
+accumulated in its large cities. The aged poet turned to him, and said:
+"That is all very well. I like your industries and your factories and
+your wealth; but, tell me, do they turn out men down your way?" That is
+the question which we are bound to consider. <i>Is this civilization of
+ours turning out men</i>&mdash;manly men and womanly women? Now, it is a
+cheering and encouraging thought that technical labor, which is the
+source of our material aggrandizement, may also become, when employed in
+the education of the young, the means of enlarging their manhood,
+quickening their intellect, and strengthening their character.</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE END.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> An address delivered before the National Conference of
+Charities and Correction, at Buffalo, July, 1888.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><span>D. APPLETON &amp; CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.</span></h2>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p class="center">MISCELLANEOUS WORKS OF HERBERT SPENCER.</p>
+
+<p><i>EDUCATION: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical.</i> 12mo. Paper, 50 cents;
+cloth, $1.25.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: What Knowledge is of most Worth?&mdash;Intellectual
+Education.&mdash;Moral Education.&mdash;Physical Education.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><i>SOCIAL STATICS.</i> By <span class="smcap">Herbert Spencer</span>. New and revised edition, including
+"The Man <i>versus</i> the State," a series of essays on political tendencies
+heretofore published separately. 12mo. 420 pages. Cloth, $2.00.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Having been much annoyed by the persistent quotation from the old
+edition of "Social Statics," in the face of repeated warnings, of
+views which he had abandoned, and by the misquotation of others
+which he still holds, Mr. Spencer some ten years ago stopped the
+sale of the book in England and prohibited its translation. But the
+rapid spread of communistic theories gave new life to these
+misrepresentations; hence Mr. Spencer decided to delay no longer a
+statement of his mature opinions on the rights of individuals and
+the duty of the state.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: Happiness as an Immediate Aim.&mdash;Unguided Expediency.&mdash;The
+Moral-Sense Doctrine.&mdash;What is Morality?&mdash;The Evanescence [?
+Diminution] of Evil.&mdash;Greatest Happiness must be sought
+indirectly.&mdash;Derivation of a First Principle.&mdash;Secondary Derivation
+of a First Principle.&mdash;First Principle.&mdash;Application of this First
+Principle.&mdash;The Right of Property.&mdash;Socialism.&mdash;The Right of
+Property in Ideas.&mdash;The Rights of Women.&mdash;The Rights of
+Children.&mdash;Political Rights.&mdash;The Constitution of the State.&mdash;The
+Duty of the State.&mdash;The Limit of State-Duty.&mdash;The Regulation of
+Commerce.&mdash;Religious Establishments.&mdash;Poor-Laws.&mdash;National
+Education.&mdash;Government Colonization.&mdash;Sanitary
+Supervision.&mdash;Currency Postal Arrangements, etc.&mdash;General
+Considerations.&mdash;The New Toryism.&mdash;The Coming Slavery.&mdash;The Sins of
+Legislators.&mdash;The Great Political Superstition.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><i>THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY.</i> The fifth volume in the International
+Scientific Series. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>: Our Need of it&mdash;Is there a Social Science?&mdash;Nature of the
+Social Science.&mdash;Difficulties of the Social Science.&mdash;Objective
+Difficulties.&mdash;Subjective Difficulties, Intellectual.&mdash;Subjective
+Difficulties, Emotional.&mdash;The Educational Bias&mdash;The Bias of
+Patriotism.&mdash;The Class-Bias.&mdash;The Political Bias.&mdash;The Theological
+Bias.&mdash;Discipline.&mdash;Preparation in Biology.&mdash;Preparation in
+Psychology.&mdash;Conclusion.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p class="center">New York: D. APPLETON &amp; CO., 1, 3, &amp; 5 Bond Street.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="center"><img src="images/advert.jpg" width='441' height='700' alt="advert for THE HOUSEHOLD HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS PEOPLE" /></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Moral Instruction of Children, by Felix Adler
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+Project Gutenberg's The Moral Instruction of Children, by Felix Adler
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+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
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+Title: The Moral Instruction of Children
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+Author: Felix Adler
+
+Release Date: January 31, 2012 [EBook #38730]
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+
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+
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+     Vol. XXI.--ETHICAL TRAINING IN SCHOOLS. By FELIX ADLER.
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+
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES
+
+THE MORAL INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN
+
+BY
+FELIX ADLER
+
+NEW YORK
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+1892
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1892,
+BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
+
+ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED
+AT THE APPLETON PRESS, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+Moral education is everywhere acknowledged to be the most important part
+of all education; but there has not been the same agreement in regard to
+the best means of securing it in the school. This has been due in part
+to a want of insight into the twofold nature of this sort of education;
+for instruction in morals includes two things: the formation of right
+ideas and the formation of right habits. Right ideas are necessary to
+guide the will, but right habits are the product of the will itself.
+
+It is possible to have right ideas to some extent without the
+corresponding moral habits. On this account the formation of correct
+habits has been esteemed by some to be the chief thing. But unconscious
+habits--mere use and wont--do not seem to deserve the title of moral in
+its highest sense. The moral act should be a considerate one, and rest
+on the adoption of principles to guide one's actions.
+
+To those who lay stress on the practical side and demand the formation
+of correct habits, the school as it is seems to be a great ethical
+instrumentality. To those who see in theoretical instruction the only
+true basis of moral character, the existing school methods seem sadly
+deficient.
+
+The school as it is looks first after its discipline, and next after its
+instruction. Discipline concerns the behavior, and instruction concerns
+the intellectual progress of the pupil. That part of moral education
+which relates to habits of good behavior is much better provided for in
+the school than any part of intellectual education.
+
+There is, however, a conflict here between old and new ideals. The
+old-fashioned school regarded obedience to authority the one essential;
+the new ideal regards insight into the reasonableness of moral commands
+the chief end. It is said, with truth, that a habit of unreasoning
+obedience does not fit one for the exigencies of modern life, with its
+partisan appeals to the individual and its perpetual display of grounds
+and reasons, specious and otherwise, in the newspapers. The unreasoning
+obedience to a moral guide in school may become in after life
+unreasoning obedience to a demagogue or to a leader in crime.
+
+It is not obedience to external authority that we need so much as
+enlightened moral sense, and yet there remains and will remain much good
+in the old-fashioned habit of implicit obedience.
+
+The new education aims at building up self-control and individual
+insight. It substitutes the internal authority of conscience for the
+external authority of the master. It claims by this to educate the
+citizen fitted for the exercise of suffrage in a free government. He
+will weigh political and social questions in his mind, and decide for
+himself. He will be apt to reject the scheme of the demagogue. While the
+old-fashioned school-master relied on the rod to sustain his external
+authority, he produced, it is said, a reaction against all authority in
+the minds of strong-willed pupils. The new education saves the
+strong-willed pupil from this tension against constituted authority, and
+makes him law-abiding from the beginning.
+
+It will be admitted that the school under both its forms--old as well as
+new--secures in the main the formation of the cardinal moral habits. It
+is obliged to insist on regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry
+as indispensable for the performance of its school tasks. A private
+tutor may permit his charge to neglect all these things, and yet secure
+some progress in studies carried on by fits and starts, with noise and
+zeal to-day, followed by indolence to-morrow. But a school, on account
+of its numbers, must insist on the semi-mechanical virtues of
+regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry. Although these are
+semi-mechanical in their nature, for with much practice they become
+unconscious habits, yet they furnish the very ground-work of all
+combinations of man with his fellow-men. They are fundamental conditions
+of social life. The increase of city population, consequent on the
+growth of productive industry and the substitution of machines for hand
+labor, renders necessary the universal prevalence of these cardinal
+virtues of the school.
+
+Even the management of machines requires that sort of alertness which
+comes from regularity and punctuality. The travel on the railroad, the
+management of steam-engines, the necessities of concerted action,
+require punctuality and rhythmic action.
+
+The school habit of silence means considerate regard for the rights of
+fellow-workmen. They must not be interfered with; their attention must
+not be distracted from their several tasks. A rational self-restraint
+grows out of this school habit--rational, because it rests on
+considerateness for the work of others. This is a great lesson in
+co-operation. Morals in their essence deal with the relation of man to
+his fellow-men, and rest on a considerateness for the rights of others.
+"Do unto others," etc., sums up the moral code.
+
+Industry, likewise, takes a high rank as a citizen's virtue. By it man
+learns to re-enforce the moments by the hours, and the days by the
+years. He learns how the puny individual can conquer great obstacles.
+The school demands of the youth a difficult kind of industry. He must
+think and remember, giving close and unremitting attention to subjects
+strange and far off from his daily life. He must do this in order to
+discover eventually that these strange and far-off matters are connected
+in a close manner to his own history and destiny.
+
+There is another phase of the pupil's industry that has an important
+bearing on morals. All his intellectual work in the class has to do with
+critical accuracy, and respect for the truth. Loose statements and
+careless logical inference meet with severe reproof.
+
+Finally, there is an enforced politeness and courtesy toward teachers
+and fellow-pupils--at least to the extent of preventing quarrels. This
+is directly tributary to the highest of virtues, namely, kindness and
+generosity.
+
+All these moral phases mentioned have to do with the side of school
+discipline rather than instruction, and they do not necessarily have any
+bearing on the theory of morals or on ethical philosophy, except in the
+fact that they make a very strong impression on the mind of the youth,
+and cause him to feel that he is a member of a moral order. He learns
+that moral demands are far more stern than the demands of the body for
+food or drink or repose. The school thus does much to change the pupil
+from a natural being to a spiritual being. Physical nature becomes
+subordinated to the interests of human nature.
+
+Notwithstanding the fact that the school is so efficient as a means of
+training in moral habits, it is as yet only a small influence in the
+realm of moral theory. Even our colleges and universities, it must be
+confessed, do little in this respect, although there has been of late an
+effort to increase in the programmes the amount of time devoted to
+ethical study. The cause of this is the divorce of moral theory from
+theology. All was easy so long as ethics was directly associated with
+the prevailing religious confession. The separation of Church and
+State, slowly progressing everywhere since the middle ages, has at
+length touched the question of education.
+
+The attempt to find an independent basis for ethics in the science of
+sociology has developed conflicting systems. The college student is
+rarely strengthened in his faith in moral theories by his theoretic
+study. Too often his faith is sapped. Those who master a spiritual
+philosophy are strengthened; the many who drift toward a so-called
+"scientific" basis are led to weaken their moral convictions to the
+standpoint of fashion, or custom, or utility.
+
+Meanwhile the demand of the age to separate Church from State becomes
+more and more exacting. Religious instruction has almost entirely ceased
+in the public schools, and it is rapidly disappearing from the
+programmes of colleges and preparatory schools, and few academies are
+now scenes of religious revival, as once was common.
+
+The publishers of this series are glad, therefore, to offer a book so
+timely and full of helpful suggestions as this of Mr. Adler. It is hoped
+that it may open for many teachers a new road to theoretic instruction
+in morality, and at the same time re-enforce the study of literature in
+our schools.
+
+W. T. HARRIS.
+
+WASHINGTON, D.C., _July, 1892_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE.
+
+
+The following lectures were delivered in the School of Applied Ethics
+during its first session in 1891, at Plymouth, Mass. A few of the
+lectures have been condensed, in order to bring more clearly into view
+the logical scheme which underlies the plan of instruction here
+outlined. The others are published substantially as delivered.
+
+I am deeply conscious of the difficulties of the problem which I have
+ventured to approach, and realize that any contribution toward its
+solution, at the present time, must be most imperfect. I should, for my
+part, have preferred to wait longer before submitting my thought to
+teachers and parents. But I have been persuaded that even in its present
+shape it may be of some use. I earnestly hope that, at all events, it
+may serve to help on the rising tide of interest in moral education, and
+may stimulate to further inquiry.
+
+FELIX ADLER.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY LECTURES.
+                                                                  PAGE
+   I. The Problem of Unsectarian Moral Instruction                   3
+
+  II. The Efficient Motives of Good Conduct                         17
+
+ III. Opportunities for Moral Training in the Daily School          27
+
+  IV. The Classification of Duties                                  37
+
+   V. The Moral Outfit of Children on entering School               47
+
+
+PRIMARY COURSE.
+
+  VI. The Use of Fairy Tales                                        64
+
+ VII. The Use of Fables                                             80
+
+VIII. Supplementary Remarks on Fables                               96
+
+  IX. Selected Stories from the Bible                              106
+
+   X. The Odyssey and the Iliad                                    146
+
+
+GRAMMAR COURSE.
+
+LESSONS ON DUTY.
+
+  XI. The Duty of acquiring Knowledge                              169
+
+ XII. Duties which relate to the Physical Life and the Feelings    185
+
+XIII. Duties which relate to Others (Filial and Fraternal Duties)  202
+
+ XIV. Duties toward all Men (Justice and Charity)                  218
+
+  XV. The Elements of Civic Duty                                   236
+
+ XVI. The Use of Proverbs and Speeches                             245
+
+XVII. Individualization of Moral Teaching                          249
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+      The Influence of Manual Training on Character                257
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY LECTURES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE PROBLEM OF UNSECTARIAN MORAL INSTRUCTION.
+
+
+It will be the aim of the present course of lectures to give in outline
+the subject-matter of moral instruction for children from six to
+fourteen or fifteen years of age, and to discuss the methods according
+to which this kind of instruction should be imparted. At the outset,
+however, we are confronted by what certainly is a grave difficulty, and
+to many may appear an insuperable one. The opinion is widely held that
+morality depends on religious sanctions, and that right conduct can not
+be taught--especially not to children--except it be under the authority
+of some sort of religious belief. To those who think in this way the
+very phrase, unsectarian moral teaching, is suspicious, as savoring of
+infidelity. And the attempt to mark off a neutral moral zone, outside
+the domains of the churches, is apt to be regarded as masking a covert
+design on religion itself.
+
+The principle of unsectarian moral instruction, however, is neither
+irreligious nor anti-religious. In fact--as will appear later on--it
+rests on purely educational grounds, with which the religious bias of
+the educator has nothing whatever to do. But there are also grounds of
+expediency which, at least in the United States, compel us, whether we
+care to do so or not, to face this problem of unsectarian moral
+education, and to these let us first give our attention. Even if we were
+to admit, for argument's sake, the correctness of the proposition that
+moral truths can only be taught as corollaries of some form of religious
+belief, the question would at once present itself to the educator, To
+which form of religious belief shall he give the preference? I am
+speaking now of the public schools of the United States.
+
+These schools are supported out of the general fund of taxation to which
+all citizens are compelled to contribute. Clearly it would be an act of
+gross injustice to force a citizen belonging to one denomination to pay
+for instilling the doctrines of some other into the minds of the
+young--in other words, to compel him to support and assist in spreading
+religious ideas in which he does not believe. This would be an outrage
+on the freedom of conscience. But the act of injustice would become
+simply monstrous if parents were to be compelled to help indoctrinate
+their own children with such religious opinions as are repugnant to
+them.
+
+There is no state religion in the United States. In the eyes of the
+state all shades of belief and disbelief are on a par. There are in this
+country Catholics, Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists,
+Jews, etc. They are alike citizens. They contribute alike toward the
+maintenance of the public schools. With what show of fairness, then,
+could the belief of any one of these sects be adopted by the state as a
+basis for the inculcation of moral truths? The case seems, on the face
+of it, a hopeless one. But the following devices have been suggested to
+remove, or rather to circumvent, the difficulty.
+
+_First Device._--Let representatives of the various theistic churches,
+including Catholics, Protestants, and Jews, meet in council. Let them
+eliminate all those points in respect to which they differ, and
+formulate a common creed containing only those articles on which they
+can agree. Such a creed would include, for instance, the belief in the
+existence of Deity, in the immortality of the soul, and in future reward
+and punishment. Upon this as a foundation let the edifice of moral
+instruction be erected. There are, however, two obvious objections to
+this plan. In the first place, this "Dreibund" of Catholicism,
+Protestantism, and Judaism would leave out of account the party of the
+agnostics, whose views may indeed be erroneous, or even detestable, but
+whose rights as citizens ought not the less on that account to be
+respected. "_Neminem laede_," hurt no one, is a cardinal rule of justice,
+and should be observed by the friends of religion in their dealings with
+their opponents as well as with one another. The agnostic party has
+grown to quite considerable dimensions in the United States. But, if it
+had not, if there were only a single person who held such opinions, and
+he a citizen, any attempt on the part of the majority to trample upon
+the rights of this one person would still be inexcusable. In the sphere
+of political action the majority rules, and must rule; in matters that
+touch the conscience the smallest minority possesses rights on which
+even an overwhelming majority arrayed on the opposite side can not
+afford to trespass. It is one of the most notable achievements of the
+American commonwealths that they have so distinctly separated between
+the domain of religion and of politics, adopting in the one case the
+maxim of coercion by majority rule, in the other allowing the full
+measure of individual liberty. From this standpoint there should be no
+departure.
+
+But the second objection is even more cogent. It is proposed to
+eliminate the differences which separate the various sects, and to
+formulate their points of agreement into a common creed. But does it not
+occur to those who propose this plan that the very life of a religion is
+to be found precisely in those points in which it differs from its
+neighbors, and that an abstract scheme of belief, such as has been
+sketched, would, in truth, satisfy no one? Thus, out of respect for the
+sentiments of the Jews, it is proposed to omit the doctrines of the
+divinity of Christ and of the atonement. But would any earnest Christian
+give his assent, even provisionally, to a creed from which those
+quintessential doctrines of Christianity have been left out? When the
+Christian maintains that morality must be based on religion, does he not
+mean, above all, on the belief in Christ? Is it not indispensable, from
+his point of view, that the figure of the Saviour shall stand in the
+foreground of moral inculcation and exhortation? Again, when the
+Catholic affirms that the moral teaching of the young must be based on
+religion, is it to be supposed for an instant that he would accept as
+satisfying his conception of religion a skeleton creed like that above
+mentioned, denuded of all those peculiar dogmas which make religion in
+his eyes beautiful and dear? This first device, therefore, is to be
+rejected. It is unjust to the agnostics, and it will never content the
+really religious persons of any denomination. It could prove acceptable
+only to theists pure and simple, whose creed is practically limited to
+the three articles mentioned; namely, the belief in Deity, immortality,
+and future punishment and reward. But this class constitutes a small
+fraction of the community; and it would be absurd, under the specious
+plea of reconciling the various creeds, in effect to impose the
+rationalistic opinions of a few on the whole community.
+
+The _second device_ seems to promise better results. It provides that
+religious and moral instruction combined shall be given in the public
+schools under the auspices of the several denominations. According to
+this plan, the pupils are to be divided, for purposes of moral
+instruction, into separate classes, according to their sectarian
+affiliations, and are to be taught separately by their own clergymen or
+by teachers acting under instructions from the latter. The high
+authority of Germany is invoked in support of this plan. If I am
+correctly informed, the president of one of our leading universities
+has recently spoken in favor of it, and it is likely that an attempt
+will be made to introduce it in the United States. Already in some of
+our reformatory schools and other public institutions separate religious
+services are held by the ministers of the various sects, and we may
+expect that an analogous arrangement will be proposed with respect to
+moral teaching in the common schools. It is necessary, therefore, to pay
+some attention to the German system, and to explain the reasons which
+have induced or compelled the Germans to adopt the compromise just
+described. The chief points to be noted are these: In Germany, church
+and state are united. The King of Prussia, for instance, is the head of
+the Evangelical Church. This constitutes a vital difference between
+America and Germany. Secondly, in Germany the schools existed before the
+state took charge of them. The school system was founded by the Church,
+and the problem which confronted the Government was how to convert
+church schools into state schools. An attempt was made to do this by
+limiting the influence of the clergy, which formerly had been
+all-powerful and all-pervasive, to certain branches and certain hours of
+instruction, thereby securing the supremacy of the state in respect to
+all other branches and at all other hours. In America, on the other
+hand, the state founded the schools _ab initio_. In Germany the state
+has actually encroached upon the Church, has entered church schools and
+reconstructed them in its own interest. To adopt the German system in
+America would be to permit the Church to encroach upon the state, to
+enter state schools and subordinate them to sectarian purposes. The
+example of Germany can not, therefore, be quoted as a precedent in
+point. The system of compromise in Germany marks an advance in the
+direction of increasing state influence. Its adoption in this country
+would mark a retrograde movement in the direction of increasing church
+influence.
+
+Nor can the system, when considered on its own merits, be called a happy
+one. Prof. Gneist, in his valuable treatise, Die Konfessionelle Schule
+(which may be read by those who desire to inform themselves on the
+historical evolution of the Prussian system), maintains that scientific
+instruction must be unsectarian, while religious instruction must be
+sectarian. I agree to both his propositions. But to my mind it follows
+that, if religious instruction must be sectarian, it ought not to have a
+place in state schools, at least not in a country in which the
+separation of church and state is complete. Moreover, the limitation of
+religious teaching to a few hours a week can never satisfy the earnest
+sectarian. If he wants religion in the schools at all, then he will also
+want that specific kind of religious influence which he favors to
+permeate the whole school. He will insist that history shall be taught
+from his point of view, that the readers shall breathe the spirit of his
+faith, that the science teaching shall be made to harmonize with its
+doctrines, etc. What a paltry concession, indeed, to open the door to
+the clergyman twice or three times a week, and to permit him to teach
+the catechism to the pupils, while the rest of the teaching is withdrawn
+from his control, and is perhaps informed by a spirit alien to his! This
+kind of compromise can never heartily be indorsed; it may be accepted
+under pressure, but submission to it will always be under protest.[1]
+
+The third arrangement that has been suggested is that each sect shall
+build its own schools, and draw upon the fund supplied by taxation
+proportionately to the number of children educated. But to this there
+are again two great objections: First, it is the duty of the state to
+see to it that a high educational standard shall be maintained in the
+schools, and that the money spent on them shall bear fruit in raising
+the general intelligence of the community. But the experience of the
+past proves conclusively that in sectarian schools, especially where
+there are no rival unsectarian institutions to force them into
+competition, the preponderance of zeal and interest is so markedly on
+the side of religious teaching that the secular branches unavoidably
+suffer.[2] If it is said that the state may prescribe rules and set up
+standards of its own, to which the sectarian schools shall be held to
+conform, we ask, Who is to secure such conformance? The various sects,
+once having gained possession of the public funds, would resent the
+interference of the State. The Inspectors who might be appointed would
+never be allowed to exercise any real control, and the rules which the
+State might prescribe would remain dead letter.
+
+In the second place, under such an arrangement, the highest purpose for
+which the public schools exist would be defeated. Sectarian schools tend
+to separate the members of the various denominations from one another,
+and to hinder the growth of that spirit of national unity which it is,
+on the other hand, the prime duty of the public school to create and
+foster. The support of a system of public education out of the proceeds
+of taxation is justifiable in the last analysis as a measure dictated to
+the State by the law of self-preservation. The State maintains public
+schools in order to preserve itself--i. e., its unity. And this is
+especially true in a republic. In a monarchy the strong arm of the
+reigning dynasty, supported by a ruling class, may perhaps suppress
+discord, and hold the antagonistic elements among the people in
+subjection by sheer force. In a republic only the spirit of unity among
+the people themselves can keep them a people. And this spirit is
+fostered in public schools, where children of all classes and sects are
+brought into daily, friendly contact, and where together they are
+indoctrinated into the history, tradition, and aspirations of the nation
+to which they belong.
+
+What then? We have seen that we can not encourage, that we can not
+permit, the establishment of sectarian schools at the public expense. We
+have also seen that we can not teach religion in the public schools.
+Must we, therefore, abandon altogether the hope of teaching the elements
+of morals? Is not moral education conceded to be one of the most
+important, if not the most important, of all branches of education? Must
+we forego the splendid opportunities afforded by the daily schools for
+this purpose? Is there not a way of imparting moral instruction without
+giving just offense to any religious belief or any religious believer,
+or doing violence to the rights of any sect or of any party whatsoever?
+The correct answer to this question would be the solution of the problem
+of unsectarian moral education. I can merely state my answer to-day, in
+the hope that the entire course before us may substantiate it. The
+answer, as I conceive it, is this: It is the business of the moral
+instructor in the school to deliver to his pupils the subject-matter of
+morality, but not to deal with the sanctions of it; to give his pupils a
+clearer understanding of what _is_ right and what _is_ wrong, but not to
+enter into the question why the right should be done and the wrong
+avoided. For example, let us suppose that the teacher is treating of
+veracity. He says to the pupil, Thou shalt not lie. He takes it for
+granted that the pupil feels the force of this commandment, and
+acknowledges that he ought to yield obedience to it. For my part, I
+should suspect of quibbling and dishonest intention any boy or girl who
+would ask me, Why ought I not to lie? I should hold up before such a
+child the Ought in all its awful majesty. The right to reason about
+these matters can not be conceded until after the mind has attained a
+certain maturity. And as a matter of fact every good child agrees with
+the teacher unhesitatingly when he says, It is wrong to lie. There is an
+answering echo in its heart which confirms the teacher's words. But
+what, then, is it my business as a moral teacher to do? In the first
+place, to deepen the impression of the wrongfulness of lying, and the
+sacredness of truth, by the spirit in which I approach the subject. My
+first business is to convey the spirit of moral reverence to my pupils.
+In the next place, I ought to quicken the pupil's perceptions of what is
+right and wrong, in the case supposed, of what is truth and what is
+falsehood. Accordingly, I should analyze the different species of lies,
+with a view of putting the pupils on their guard against the spirit of
+falsehood, however it may disguise itself. I should try to make my
+pupils see that, whenever they intentionally convey a false impression,
+they are guilty of falsehood. I should try to make their minds
+intelligent and their consciences sensitive in the matter of
+truth-telling, so that they may avoid those numerous ambiguities of
+which children are so fond, and which are practiced even by adults. I
+should endeavor to tonic their moral nature with respect to
+truthfulness. In the next place, I should point out to them the most
+frequent motives which lead to lying, so that, by being warned against
+the causes, they may the more readily escape the evil consequences. For
+example, cowardice is one cause of lying. By making the pupil ashamed of
+cowardice, we can often cure him of the tendency to falsehood. A
+redundant imagination is another cause of lying, envy is another cause,
+selfishness in all its forms is a principal cause, etc. I should say to
+the moral teacher: Direct the pupil's attention to the various dangerous
+tendencies in his nature, which tempt him into the ways of falsehood.
+Furthermore, explain to your pupils the consequences of falsehood: the
+loss of the confidence of our fellow-men, which is the immediate and
+palpable result of being detected in a lie; the injuries inflicted on
+others; the loosening of the bonds of mutual trust in society at large;
+the loss of self-respect on the part of the liar; the fatal necessity of
+multiplying lies, of inventing new falsehoods to make good the first,
+etc. A vast amount of good, I am persuaded, can be done in this way by
+stimulating the moral nature, by enabling the scholar to detect the
+finer shades of right and wrong, helping him to trace temptation to its
+source, and erecting in his mind barriers against evil-doing, founded on
+a realizing sense of its consequences.
+
+In a similar if not exactly the same way, all the other principal
+topics of practical morality can be handled. The conscience can be
+enlightened, strengthened, guided, and all this can be done without once
+raising the question why it is wrong to do what is forbidden. That it is
+wrong should rather, as I have said, be assumed. The ultimate grounds of
+moral obligation need never be discussed in school. It is the business
+of religion and philosophy to propose theories, or to formulate articles
+of belief with respect to the ultimate sources and sanctions of duty.
+Religion says we ought to do right because it is the will of God, or for
+the love of Christ. Philosophy says we should do right for utilitarian
+or transcendental reasons, or in obedience to the law of evolution, etc.
+The moral teacher, fortunately, is not called upon to choose between
+these various metaphysical and theological asseverations. As an
+individual he may subscribe to any one of them, but as a teacher he is
+bound to remain within the safe limits of his own province. He is not to
+explain why we should do the right, but to make the young people who are
+intrusted to his charge see more clearly what is right, and to instill
+into them his own love of and respect for the right. There is a body of
+moral truth upon which all good men, of whatever sect or opinion, are
+agreed: _it is the business of the public schools to deliver to their
+pupils this common fund of moral truth_. But I must hasten to add, to
+deliver it not in the style of the preacher, but according to the
+methods of the pedagogue--i. e., in a systematic way, the moral lessons
+being graded to suit the varying ages and capacities of the pupils, and
+the illustrative material being sorted and arranged in like manner.
+Conceive the modern educational methods to have been applied to that
+stock of moral truths which all good men accept, and you will have the
+material for the moral lessons which are needed in a public school.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Since the above was written, the draft of the _Volksschulgesetz_
+submitted to the Prussian Legislature, and the excited debates to which
+it gave rise, have supplied a striking confirmation of the views
+expressed in the text. Nothing could be more mistaken than to propose
+for imitation elsewhere the German "solution" of the problem of moral
+teaching in schools, especially at a time when the Germans themselves
+are taking great pains to make it clear that they are as far as possible
+from having found a solution.
+
+[2] During the reactionary period which followed the Revolution of 1848,
+the school regulations of Kur-Hessen provided that twenty hours a week
+be devoted in the Volkschulen to religious teaching.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE EFFICIENT MOTIVES OF GOOD CONDUCT.
+
+
+There are persons in whom moral principle seems to have completely
+triumphed; whose conduct, so far as one can judge, is determined solely
+by moral rules; but whom, nevertheless, we do not wholly admire. We feel
+instinctively that there is in their virtue a certain flaw--the absence
+of a saving grace. They are too rigorous, too much the slaves of duty.
+They lack geniality.
+
+Like religion, morality has its fanatics. Thus, there is in the
+temperance movement a class of fanatics who look at every public
+question from the point of view of temperance reform, and from that
+only. There are also woman's-rights fanatics, social purity fanatics,
+etc. The moral fanatic in every case is a person whose attention is
+wholly engrossed by some one moral interest, and who sees this out of
+its relation to other moral interests. The end he has in view may be in
+itself highly laudable, but the exaggerated emphasis put upon it, the
+one-sided pursuit of it, is a mischievous error.
+
+Observe, further, that there are degrees of moral fanaticism. The
+fanatic of the first degree, to whom Emerson addresses the words, "What
+right have you, sir, to your one virtue?" has just been described. He
+is a person who exalts some one moral rule at the expense of the others.
+A fanatic of a higher order is he who exalts the whole body of moral
+rules at the expense of human instincts and desires. He is a person who
+always acts according to rule; who introduces moral considerations into
+every detail of life; who rides the moral hobby; in whose eyes the
+infinite complexity of human affairs has only one aspect, namely, the
+moral; who is never satisfied unless at every step he feels the strain
+of the bridle of conscience; who is incapable of spontaneous action and
+of _naive_ enjoyment. It is believed that there are not a few persons of
+this description in the United States, and especially in the New England
+States--fanatics on the moral side, examples of a one-sided development
+in the direction of moral formalism. We must be very careful, when
+insisting on the authority of moral ideas, lest we encourage in the
+young a tendency of this sort. The hearts of children are very pliable;
+it is easily possible to produce on them too deep an impression: to give
+them at the outset a fatal twist, all the more since at a certain age
+many young people are prone to exaggerated introspection and
+self-questioning. But it may be asked: Are not moral principles really
+clothed with supreme authority? Ought we not, indeed, to keep the
+standard of righteousness constantly before our eyes; in brief, is it
+possible to be too moral? Evidently we have reached a point where a
+distinction requires to be drawn.
+
+Ethics is a science of relations. The things related are human
+interests, human ends. The ideal which ethics proposes to itself is the
+unity of ends, just as the ideal of science is the unity of causes. The
+ends of the natural man are the subject-matter with which ethics deals.
+The ends of the natural man are not to be crushed or wiped out, but to
+be brought into right relations with one another. The ends of the
+natural man are to be respected from an ethical point of view, so long
+as they remain within their proper limits. The moral laws are formulas
+expressing relations of equality or subordination, or superordination.
+The moral virtue of our acts consists in the respect which we pay to the
+system of relationships thus prescribed, in the willingness with which
+we co-ordinate our interests with those of others, or subordinate them
+to those of others, as the exigencies of the moral situation may
+require.
+
+But the point on which it is now necessary to fix our attention is that
+when morality has once sanctioned any of the ends of life, the natural
+man may be left to pursue them without interference on the part of the
+moralist. When morality has marked out the boundaries within which the
+given end shall be pursued, its work so far is done; except, indeed,
+that we are always to keep an eye upon those boundaries, and that the
+sense of their existence should pervade the whole atmosphere of our
+lives.[3] A few illustrations will make my meaning clear. There is a
+moral rule which says that we should eat to live; not, conversely, live
+to eat. This means that we should regulate our food in such a way that
+the body may become a fit instrument for the higher purposes of
+existence, and that the time and attention bestowed upon the matter of
+eating shall not be so great as to divert us from other and more
+necessary objects. But, these limits being established, it does not
+follow that it is wrong or unspiritual to enjoy a meal. The senses, even
+the lowest of them, are permitted to have free play within the bounds
+prescribed. Nor, again, should we try rigidly to determine the choice of
+food according to moral considerations. It would be ridiculous to
+attempt to do so. The choice of food within a wide range depends
+entirely on taste, and has nothing to do with moral considerations
+(whether, for instance, we should have squash or beans for dinner).
+Those who are deeply impressed with the importance of moral rules are
+often betrayed into applying them to the veriest minutiae of conduct. Did
+they remember that ethics is a science of relations, or, what amounts to
+the same thing, a science of limits, they would be saved such pedantry.
+Undoubtedly there are moral _adiaphora_. The fact that such exist has
+been a stumbling-block in the way of those who believe that morality
+ought to cover the whole of conduct. The definition of ethics as a
+science of relations or limits removes this stumbling-block. Ethics
+stands at the frontier. With what goes on in the interior it does not
+interfere, except in so far as the limitations it prescribes are an
+interference. Take another illustration. Ethics condemns vanity and
+whatever ministers to vanity--as, e. g., undue attention to dress and
+adornment of the person--on the ground that this implies an immoral
+subordination of the inner to the outer, of the higher to the lesser
+ends. But, to lay down a cast-iron rule as to how much one has a right
+to expend on dress, can not be the office of ethics, on account of the
+infinite variety of conditions and occupations which subsists among men.
+And the attempt to prescribe a single fashion of dress, by sumptuary
+laws or otherwise, would impair that freedom of taste which it is the
+business of the moralist to respect. Again, every one knows with what
+bitterness the moral rigorists of all ages have condemned the impulse
+which attracts the sexes toward one another, and how often they have
+tried, though vainly, to crush it. But here, again, the true attitude is
+indicated by the definition of ethics as a science of limits. The moral
+law prescribes bounds within which this emotional force shall be free to
+operate, and claims for it the holy name of love, so long as it remains
+within the bounds prescribed, and, being within, remains conscious of
+them. That is what is meant when we speak of spiritualizing the
+feelings. The feelings are spiritualized when they move within certain
+limits, and when the sense of the existence of these limits penetrates
+them, and thereby imparts to them a new and nobler quality. And, because
+such limitation is felt to be satisfying and elevating, the system of
+correlations which we call ethical, and which, abstractly stated, would
+fail to interest, does by this means find an entrance into the human
+heart, and awakens in it the sense of the sublimity and the blessedness
+of the moral commands.
+
+There are two defects of the moral fanatic which can now be signalized:
+First, he wrongly believes that whatever is not of morality is against
+it. He therefore is tempted to frown upon the natural pleasures; to
+banish them if he can, and, if not, to admit them only within the
+narrowest possible limits as a reluctant concession to the weakness of
+human nature. In consequence, the moral fanatic commits the enormity of
+introducing the taint of the sense of sin into the most innocent
+enjoyments, and thus perverts and distorts the conscience. Secondly, he
+is always inclined to seek a moral reason for that which has only a
+natural one; to forget that, like the great conquerors of antiquity,
+Morality respects the laws of the several realms which it unites into a
+single empire, and guarantees to each the unimpaired maintenance of its
+local customs. These remarks are intended to serve as a general caution.
+I find that young people, when they have become awakened on ethical
+subjects, often betray a tendency toward moral asceticism. I find that
+teachers, in the earnest desire to impress the laws of the moral empire,
+are sometimes betrayed into disregarding the provincial laws of the
+senses, the intellect, and the feelings; are apt to go too far in
+applying moral prescriptions to the minutiae of conduct; are apt to leave
+the impression that pleasant things, just because they are pleasant, are
+therefore sinful.
+
+But we have now to take a further step, which will bring us close to our
+special subject for to-day, viz., the efficient motives of good conduct.
+The non-moral faculties are not only not anti-moral, as has been shown,
+but, when appealed to in the right way, they lend to Morality a
+friendly, an almost indispensable support. The aesthetic, the
+intellectual, and the emotional faculty have not in themselves a moral
+quality, but when used as auxiliaries they pave the way for moral
+considerations pure and simple, and have in this sense an immense
+propaedeutic value. Without entering in this place into the philosophy of
+aesthetics, it is enough to say that the beautiful, like the good,
+results from and depends on the observance of certain limits and certain
+relations. And it will not seem far-fetched to suggest that pupils who
+have been trained to appreciate moderation, restraint and harmony of
+relations in external objects, will be predisposed to apply analogous
+measures to matters of conduct, and that a standard of valuation will
+thus be created in their minds which must prove favorable to right
+action. AEsthetics may become a pedagogue unto ethics. The same
+pedagogical function may be claimed for the intellect. The intellect
+traces the connection between causes and effects. Applied to conduct, it
+shows the connection between acts and their consequences. It is the
+faculty which counsels prudence. One does not need to accept the
+egoistic theory of morals to concede that self-interest is an ally of
+morality, that Prudence and Virtue travel hand in hand a certain
+distance on the same road. Not, indeed, until the ideal state shall have
+been reached will the dictates of the two ever coincide entirely; but to
+a certain extent the coincidence already exists, and the moral teacher
+is justified in availing himself of it as far as it goes.
+
+To take a very simple case--a child handles a knife which it has been
+told not to touch, and cuts his fingers. Morally speaking, his fault is
+disobedience. He would have been equally guilty if he had escaped
+injury. But he would hardly be so ready to obey another time, if he had
+been less sharply reminded of the usefulness of obedience. It is wrong
+to lie--wrong on purely moral grounds, with which self-interest has
+nothing to do. But for all that we can not dispense with the lesson
+contained in the well-known fable of the boy who cried, "Wolf!" It is
+wrong to steal on purely moral grounds. But even a child can be made to
+understand that the thief, as Emerson puts it, "steals from himself,"
+and that, besides being a rogue, he is deficient in enlightened
+self-interest. The maxim that honesty is the best policy is true enough
+so far as the facts are concerned, which come under the observation of
+children, though one may question whether it be true absolutely.
+
+Lastly, when we come to consider the emotional faculty, we find that
+the intimate connection between it and the moral is so generally
+conceded as to make it quite superfluous to expatiate on it. On the
+contrary, it seems necessary to expostulate with those who claim too
+much credit for the feelings, who ascribe to them a moral value which
+they by no means possess. Thus, gentleness is not necessarily a virtue;
+it may be a mere matter of temperament. Sympathetic impulses, _per se_,
+are not praiseworthy. Sympathy quite as often leads us astray as aright;
+sympathy, indeed, unless tutored and regulated by moral principles, is a
+danger against which we ought to be on our guard almost as much as
+against selfishness. Yet, no one will deny that the feelings, when
+rightly trained, are of inestimable service as auxiliaries in the task
+of moral education.
+
+To sum up, let me say that the wise teacher will appeal to the taste,
+the intelligence, and the feelings of his pupils; that he will touch
+these various springs of conduct all the time, and get from them all the
+help he can. Thus, when speaking of cleanliness, he will appeal to the
+aesthetic instinct of the children, awakening in them a feeling of
+disgust at untidiness. He will appeal to the prudential motive, by
+showing that want of cleanliness breeds disease. "You do not wish to be
+sick? You do not wish to suffer? Therefore, it is to your interest to be
+clean." But, finally, he will touch a higher motive than any of these.
+"If you are unclean, you cease to respect yourself." And the term
+self-respect expresses in a condensed form the moral motive proper. It
+implies the idea of moral personality, which it is not necessary, nor
+possible, at this stage to analyze, but which the pupil will somehow
+understand, for his conscience will respond. In many cases the appeal
+will be made chiefly to the sympathetic feelings; for through these
+feelings we become aware of the pains and joys of others, and thus of
+the consequences of the benefits we confer or the evil we inflict. The
+sympathetic feelings supply the information upon which the will can act.
+They tell us that others suffer or are glad. And yet the strength to
+labor persistently for the relief of others' suffering and the
+enhancement of others' joy--that we can derive from the moral impulse
+alone.
+
+The moral motive is the highest, it is really the only sufficient
+motive. Pray, understand me well at this point. I should say to the
+child: It is wrong to lie. That is sufficient. It is wrong, it is
+forbidden; you must yourself acknowledge the truth of my words, because
+you despise yourself when you have told a lie. But, in order to
+strengthen your weak resolution, to confirm you in well-doing, let me
+show you that it is also contrary to self-interest to lie, and likewise
+that it is disgusting to be unclean, and that a wrong done to another
+causes pain. Thus the aesthetic, intellectual, and emotional faculties
+are called in as witnesses to bear testimony to the moral truths; they
+are invited to stand up in chorus and say Amen! to the moral commands.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[3] It must be remembered also that our knowledge of the right ethical
+relations is still extremely imperfect, and that the duty of extending
+the knowledge and promoting the recognition of them is perhaps the
+highest of all--to which, on occasion, every lesser end must be
+sacrificed.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+OPPORTUNITIES FOR MORAL TRAINING IN THE DAILY SCHOOL.
+
+
+The school should be to the pupil not an intellectual drill-ground, but
+a second home; a place dear at the time, and to be gratefully remembered
+ever after; a place in which his whole nature, and especially what is
+best in him, may expand and grow. The educational aim should be, not
+merely to pave the pupil's way to future success, not merely to make of
+his mind a perfect instrument of thought, a kind of intellectual loom,
+capable of turning out the most complicated intellectual patterns. The
+aim should be, above all; to build up manhood, to develop character.
+There is no school in which moral influence is wanting. The pity is,
+that in many schools it is incidental, not purposed. And yet there are
+manifold opportunities in every school for influencing the moral life.
+Let us consider a few of these.
+
+_1._ The teaching of _science_ lends itself to the cultivation of
+truthfulness. Truthfulness may be defined as the correspondence between
+thought and word and fact. When the thought in the mind fits the fact,
+and the word on the tongue fits the thought, then the circuit of truth
+is complete. Now, with respect to the inculcating of truthfulness,
+science teaching has this advantage above other branches, that the
+palpable nature of the facts dealt with makes it possible to note and
+check the least deviation from the truth. The fact is present, right
+before the pupil, to rebuke him if he strays from it in thought or
+speech. And this circumstance may be utilized even in the humble
+beginnings of science teaching, in the so-called object-lessons. For
+instance, a bird, or the picture of one, is placed before the child. The
+teacher says, "Observe closely and tell me exactly what you see--the
+length of the neck, the curve of the beak, the colors of the plumage,"
+etc. The pupil replies. The teacher objects: "You have not observed
+accurately. The color is not what you describe it to be. Look again. The
+curve of the beak does not resemble what you have just drawn on the
+blackboard. You must tell me exactly what you see. Your words must tally
+with the facts." And the same sort of practice may be continued in the
+science-lessons of the upper classes.
+
+Scientists are distinguished from other observers by their greater
+accuracy. Intellectual honesty is that moral quality which science is
+best calculated to foster. All the great scientists have been haunted by
+a high ideal of truth, and a gleam of that ideal, however faint, may be
+made to shed its light even into the school-room. It is obvious that
+this realistic tutoring into veracity will be of special use to children
+who are led into lying by a too vivid imagination.
+
+Let me add the following remarks in regard to indirect means of
+promoting truthfulness: The teacher can do a great deal to cultivate
+respect for the truth among his pupils by frankly admitting an error
+whenever he has fallen into one. Some teachers try to save their dignity
+by glossing over their mistakes. But even young children are shrewd
+enough to estimate such trickery at its worth; while he who manfully
+confesses that he has been in the wrong, earns the respect of his class,
+and sets them an invaluable example.
+
+It is well also to observe strict accuracy even in matters which of
+themselves are of no moment. For instance, in giving an account of a
+botanizing expedition, you begin, perhaps, by saying, "It was half-past
+ten when we arrived at our destination." Suddenly you stop and correct
+yourself. "No, I was mistaken; it could not have been later than ten
+o'clock." Does this strike you as pedantic? But if you fix the time at
+all, is it not worth while to fix it with approximate exactness? True,
+it makes no difference in regard to what you are about to relate,
+whether you arrived at half-past ten or at ten. But, precisely because
+it makes no difference, it shows the value which you set on accuracy
+even in trifles. And by such little turns of phrase, by such
+insubstantial influences, coming from the teacher, the pupil's character
+is molded.
+
+_2._ _The study of history_, when properly conducted is of high moral
+value. History sets before the mind examples of heroism, of
+self-sacrifice, of love of country, of devotion to principles at the
+greatest cost. How can such examples fail to inspire, to ennoble, to
+awaken emulation? The great and good men of the past, the virtuous and
+the wise, serve as models to the young, and often arouse in them an
+enthusiastic admiration, a passionate discipleship. In the next place,
+the study of history may be used to exercise the moral judgment. The
+characters which history presents are not all good; the characters even
+of the good are by no means faultless. It is in the power of the teacher
+to train the moral judgment and to increase the moral insight of his
+pupils by leading them to enter into the motives, and to weigh the right
+and wrong of the actions which history reports. He will also find many
+an occasion to warn against being dazzled by brilliant success to such a
+degree as to condone the moral turpitude by which it is often bought.
+The study of history can thus be made the means of enlightening the
+conscience as well as of awakening generous aspirations--but, let me
+hasten to add, only in the hands of a teacher who is himself morally
+mature, and fully imbued with the responsibilities of his task. Lastly,
+the study of history among advanced pupils may be used to confirm the
+moral idea of the mission of mankind, and to set it in its true light.
+The human race, as, from the moral point of view, we are bound to
+assume, exists on earth in order to attempt the solution of a sublime
+problem--the problem of the perfect civilization, the just society, the
+"kingdom of God." But on every page of history there are facts that warn
+us that progress toward this high ideal is of necessity slow. Whether
+we review the evolution of religion, or of political institutions, or of
+industrial society, we are still forced to the same solemn conclusion,
+that in view of the ultimate goal, "a thousand years are as a day," and
+that while we may not relax our efforts to attain the ideal, we must be
+well content in case we are permitted to advance the mighty work even a
+little. This conviction is calculated to engender in us a new spirit of
+piety and self-abnegation, which yet is consistent with perfect alacrity
+in discharging the duty of the hour.
+
+There could be no better result from the study of history among young
+men and young women than if it should have the effect of impressing on
+them this new piety, this genuine historic sense, in which the average
+citizen, especially of democratic communities, is so conspicuously
+deficient. But this is a digression which I must ask you to pardon.
+
+_3._ The moral value of the _study of literature_ is as great as it is
+obvious. Literature is the medium through which all that part of our
+inner life finds expression which defies scientific formulation. In the
+text-books of science we possess the net result of the purely
+intellectual labors of the past; in universal literature we have
+composite photographs, as it were, of the typical hopes, sentiments, and
+aspirations of the race. Literature gives a voice to that within us
+which would otherwise remain dumb, and fixity to that which would
+otherwise be evanescent. The best literature, and especially the best
+poetry, is a glass in which we see our best selves reflected. There is
+a legend which tells of two spirits, the one an angel, the other a
+demon, that accompany every human being through life, and walk invisibly
+at his side. The one represents our bad self, the other our better self.
+The moral service which the best literature renders us is to make the
+invisible angel visible.
+
+_4._ I can but cast a cursory glance at some of the remaining branches
+of instruction.
+
+_Manual training_ has a moral effect upon the pupil, of which I have
+spoken at some length on another occasion.[4]
+
+_Music_, apart from its subtler influences, which can not be considered
+here, has the special function of producing in the pupil a feeling of
+oneness with others, or of social unity. This is best accomplished
+through the instrumentality of chorus singing, while particular moral
+sentiments, like charity, love of home, etc., can be inculcated by means
+of the texts.
+
+_Gymnastic_ exercises likewise have a moral effect in promoting habits
+of self-control, prompt obedience at the word of command, etc. Indeed,
+it is not difficult to show the moral bearings of the ordinary branches
+of instruction. It would, on the contrary, be difficult to find a single
+one, which, when rightly viewed, is not surrounded by a moral
+photosphere.
+
+Science, history, literature, and the other branches lend themselves in
+various ways to the development of character. But there are certain
+other opportunities which every school offers, apart from the teaching,
+and these may be utilized to the same end. The discipline of the school,
+above all, has an immense effect on the character. If it is of the right
+kind, a beneficial effect; if not, a most pernicious one.
+
+The mere working of what may be called the school machinery tends to
+inculcate habits of order, punctuality, and the like. The aggregation of
+a large number of scholars in the same building and their intercourse
+with one another under the eye of the teachers, afford frequent
+opportunities for impressing lessons of kindness, politeness, mutual
+helpfulness, etc.
+
+The recitations of lessons give occasion not only to suppress prompting,
+but to eradicate the motives which lead to it, and to impress deeply the
+duty of honesty.
+
+The very atmosphere of the class-room should be such as to encourage
+moral refinement; it should possess a sunny climate, so to speak, in
+which meanness and vulgarity can not live.
+
+But there is especially one avenue of influence, which I have much at
+heart to recommend. The teacher should join in the _games_ of his
+pupils. He will thus at once come to stand on a friendly footing with
+them, and win their confidence, without in the least derogating from his
+proper dignity. And thus will be removed that barrier which in many
+schools separates pupils and teachers to such a degree that there
+actually seem to exist side by side two worlds--the world to which the
+teacher has access, and the world from which he is shut out. Moreover,
+while they are at play, the true character of the pupils reveals itself.
+At such times the sneak, the cheat, the bully, the liar, shows his true
+colors, and the teacher has the best opportunity of studying these
+pathological subjects and of curing their moral defects. For, while
+playing with them, as one concerned in the game, he has the right to
+insist on fair dealing, to express his disgust at cowardice, to take the
+part of the weak against the strong, and his words spoken on the
+playground will have tenfold the effect of any hortatory address which
+he might deliver from the platform. The greatest and most successful of
+teachers have not disdained to use this device.
+
+Finally, let me say that the personality of the master or principal of
+the school is the chief factor of moral influence in it. Put a great,
+sound, whole-souled nature at the head of a school, and everything else
+may almost be taken for granted. In every school there exists a public
+opinion among the scholars, by which they are affected to a far greater
+degree than by the words of their superiors. The tactful master will
+direct his chief attention to shaping and improving this public opinion,
+while at the same time interfering as little as possible with the
+freedom of his pupils. He can accomplish his purpose by drawing close to
+himself those scholars who make the public opinion of the school, and
+these in turn he can win to fine and manly views only by the effect of
+his personality. The personality of the head-master is everything. It is
+the ultimate source of power in the school, the central organ which
+sends out its life-giving currents through the whole organism. And let
+me here add that, if I am in favor of excluding direct religious
+teaching from our schools, I am not in favor of excluding religious
+influence. That, too, flows from the personality of the true master. For
+if he be reverent, a truly pious soul, humble in his estimate of self,
+not valuing his petty schoolmaster's authority on its own account, but
+using it lovingly as an instrument for higher ends, he will be sure to
+communicate of his spirit to his pupils, and by that spirit will open
+their hearts, better than by any doctrinal teaching he could give, to
+the reception of the highest spiritual truths.
+
+By all these means--by the culture of the intellect, the taste, and the
+feelings, by his daily dealings with the young, in work and play--the
+teacher helps to create in them certain moral habits. Why, then, should
+not these habits suffice? What need is there of specific moral
+instruction? And what is the relation of moral instruction to the habits
+thus engendered?
+
+The function of moral instruction is to clinch the habits. The function
+of moral instruction is to explicate in clear statements, fit to be
+grasped by the intellect, the laws of duty which underlie the habits.
+The value of such intellectual statements is that they give a rational
+underpinning to moral practice, and, furthermore, that they permit the
+moral rules to be applied to new cases not heretofore brought within the
+scope of habit. This thought will be more fully developed and explained
+as we proceed.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] In the address on the subject, reprinted in the Appendix.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF DUTIES.
+
+
+The topics of which moral instruction treats are the duties of life. To
+teach the duties, however, we must adopt some system of classification.
+To which system shall we give the preference? The difficulty which we
+encountered at the outset seems to meet us here in a new guise.
+
+For most if not all of the systems of classification commonly proposed
+are based upon some metaphysical theory or some theological doctrine. To
+adopt any one of these would be tantamount to adopting the theory or
+theology on which it is founded; would be equivalent to introducing
+surreptitiously a particular philosophy or creed into the minds of the
+pupils; and this would be a plain departure from the unsectarian
+principle to which we are pledged. Thus, Plato's fourfold division of
+the virtues into the so-called cardinal virtues of temperance, courage,
+justice, wisdom, is based on his psychology. Aristotle's division of the
+virtues into dianoetic and what he calls ethical virtues is clearly
+dependent on what may be termed Aristotle's intellectualism--i. e., the
+supreme importance which he assigns to the functions of the intellect,
+or [Greek: nous], in the attainment of the perfect life.
+
+Kant's division of duties into complete and incomplete is an outgrowth
+of the ideas developed in his Critique of Pure Reason; the philosopher
+Herbart's fivefold classification reflects his metaphysical theory of
+reality; while the systems of ethical classification which are to be
+found in theological handbooks betray still more clearly the bias of
+their authors.
+
+We can, I think, find a simple way out of this difficulty by proceeding
+in the following manner: Let us take for our guidance the objects to
+which duty relates, and disregard the sources from which it flows. It is
+conceded on all hands that every one is to himself an object of duty,
+that he has certain duties to perform with respect to himself, as, for
+instance, the duty of intellectual development; furthermore, that every
+person owes certain duties to his fellow-men generally, in virtue of the
+fact that they are human beings; again, that there are special duties
+which we owe to particular persons, such as parents, brothers, and
+sisters; finally, that there are certain duties, into which, so to
+speak, we are born, like the ones last mentioned, and others which we
+can freely assume or not, like the conjugal duties, but which, once
+assumed, become as binding as the former. Thus the very structure of
+human society suggests a scheme of classification. And this scheme has
+the advantage of being a purely objective one. It keeps close to the
+facts, it is in harmony with the unsectarian principle, and it is
+perfectly fair. It leaves the problem of first principles entirely
+untouched. That we have such duties to perform with respect to self and
+others, no one questions. Let philosophers differ as to the ultimate
+motives of duty. Let them reduce the facts of conscience to any set of
+first principles which may suit them. It is our part as instructors to
+interpret the facts of conscience, not to seek for them an ultimate
+explanation.
+
+Let me briefly indicate how the different duties may be made to fall
+into line according to the plan of classification which has just been
+suggested. The whole field of duty may be divided into three main
+provinces:[5] those duties which relate to ourselves, those which we owe
+to all men, and those which arise in the special relations of the
+family, the state, etc.:
+
+I. The Self-regarding Duties.
+
+These may again be subdivided into duties relating to our physical
+nature, to the intellect, and to the feelings.
+
+Under the head of physical duties belong the prohibition of suicide, and
+the duties of physical culture, temperance, and chastity.
+
+Intellectual Duties.--Under this head may be ranged the duty of
+acquiring knowledge and the subsidiary duties of order, diligence,
+perseverance in study; while, for those who are beyond the school age,
+special stress should be laid on the duty of mental genuineness. This
+may be expressed in the words: To thine own mental self be true. Study
+thine own mental bent. Try to discover in what direction thy proper
+talent lies, and make the most of it. Work thine own mine: if it be a
+gold-mine, bring forth gold; if it be a silver-mine, bring forth silver;
+if it be an iron-mine, bring forth iron. Endeavor to master some one
+branch of knowledge thoroughly well. It is for thee the key which opens
+the gates of all knowledge. The need of general culture is felt by all,
+but the concentration of intellectual efforts on special studies is not
+inconsistent with it. On the contrary, special studies alone enable us
+to gain a foothold in the realm of knowledge. A branch of knowledge
+which we have mastered, however small, may be compared to a strong
+fortress in an enemy's country, from which we can sally forth at will to
+conquer the surrounding territory. Knowledge may also be likened to a
+sphere. From every point of the circumference we can, by persistent
+labor, dig down to the center. He who has reached the center commands
+the sphere.
+
+Duties which relate to the Feelings.--The principal duty under this head
+may be expressed in the twofold command--control and purify thy
+feelings! The feelings which need to be repressed are anger, fear,
+self-complacency. Let the teacher, when he reaches this point, dwell
+upon the causes and the consequences of anger. Let him speak of certain
+helps which have been found useful for the suppression of angry passion.
+Let him distinguish anger from moral indignation.
+
+In dealing with fear let him pursue the same method. Let him distinguish
+physical from moral cowardice, brute courage from moral courage, courage
+from fortitude.
+
+In dealing with self-complacency let him discriminate between vanity and
+pride, between pride and dignity. Let him show that humility and dignity
+are consistent with one another, yes, that they are complementary
+aspects of one and the same moral quality. Not the least advantage to be
+reaped from lessons on duty is the fixing in the pupil's mind of the
+moral vocabulary. The moral terms as a rule are loosely used, and this
+can not but lead to confusion in their application. Precise definitions,
+based on thorough discussion, are an excellent means of moral
+training.[6]
+
+II. The duties which we owe to all men are Justice and Charity:
+
+Be just is equivalent to--Do not hinder the development of any of thy
+fellow-men. Be charitable is equivalent to--Assist the development of
+thy fellow-men. Under the head of charity the teacher will have
+occasion to speak not only of almsgiving, the visitation of the sick,
+and the like, but of the thousand charities of the fireside, of the
+charity of bright looks, of what may be called intellectual charity,
+which consists in opening the eyes of the mentally blind, and of the
+noblest charity of all, which consists in coming to the aid of those who
+are deep in the slough of moral despond, in raising the sinful and
+fallen.
+
+III. Special social duties:
+
+Under this head belong the duties which arise in the family: the
+conjugal, the parental, the filial, the fraternal duties.
+
+Under the head of duties peculiar to the various avocations should be
+discussed the ethics of the professions, the ethics of the relations
+between employers and laborers, etc.
+
+The consideration of the duties of the citizen opens up the whole
+territory of political ethics.
+
+Lastly, the purely elective relationships of friendship and religious
+fellowship give rise to certain fine and lofty ethical conceptions, the
+discussion of which may fitly crown the whole course.
+
+I have thus mentioned some of the main topics of practical ethics, from
+which we are to make our selection for the moral lessons.
+
+But a selective principle is needed. The field being spread out before
+us, the question arises, At what point shall we enter it? What topics
+shall we single out? It would be manifestly absurd, for instance, to
+treat of international ethics, or of conjugal ethics, in a course
+intended for children. But especially the order in which the different
+topics are to follow each other needs to be determined. The order
+followed in the above sketch is a purely logical one, and the logical
+arrangement of a subject, as every educator knows, is not usually the
+one most suitable for bringing it within reach of the understanding of
+children. It would not be in the present instance. Clearly a selective
+principle is wanted.
+
+Let me here interrupt myself for a moment to say that the problem which
+we are attacking, so far from being solved, has heretofore hardly even
+been stated. And this is due to the fact that moral instruction has been
+thus far almost entirely in the hands of persons whose chief interest
+was religious, and who, whatever their good intentions might be, were
+hardly qualified to look at the subject from the educator's point of
+view. The work of breaking ground in the matter of moral instruction has
+still to be done. As to the selective principle which I have in view I
+feel a certain confidence in its correctness; but I am aware that the
+applications of it will doubtless require manifold amendment and
+correction, for which purpose I invoke the experience and honest
+criticism of my fellow-teachers. This being understood, I venture to ask
+your attention to the following considerations:
+
+The life of every human being naturally divides itself into distinct
+periods--infancy, childhood, youth, etc. Each period has a set of
+interests and of corresponding duties peculiar to itself. The moral
+teaching should be graded according to periods. The teaching
+appropriate to any period is that which bears upon the special duties of
+that period. To illustrate, the ethics of childhood may be summarized as
+follows: The personal duties of a child are chiefly the observance of a
+few simple rules of health and the curbing of its temper. It owes social
+duties to parents, brothers and sisters, and kinsfolk, to its playmates,
+and to servants. The child is not yet a citizen, and the ethics of
+politics, therefore, lie far beyond its horizon; it does not yet require
+to be taught professional ethics, and does not need to learn even the
+elements of intellectual duty, because its energies are still absorbed
+in physical growth and play. The duties of childhood can be readily
+stated. The peculiar duties of the subsequent stages of development, for
+instance, of middle life and old age, are complex, and not so easy to
+define. But I believe that the attempt to describe them will throw light
+on many recondite problems in ethics.
+
+My first point therefore is, that the moral teaching at a given period
+should be made to fit the special duties of that period. Secondly--and
+this touches the core of the matter--in every period of life there is
+some one predominant duty around which all the others may be grouped, to
+which as a center they may be referred. Thus, the paramount duty of the
+young child is to reverence and obey its parents. The relation of
+dependence in which it stands naturally prescribes this duty, and all
+its other duties can be deduced from and fortified by this one. The
+correctness of its personal habits and of its behavior toward others
+depends primarily on its obedience to the parental commands. The child
+resists the temptation to do what is wrong, chiefly because it respects
+the authority and desires to win the approbation of father and mother.
+Secondary motives are not wanting, but reverence for parents is the
+principal one.
+
+Thirdly, in each new period there emerges a new paramount ethical
+interest, a new center of duties. But with the new system of duties thus
+created the previous ethical systems are to be brought into line, into
+harmonious correlation. And this will be all the more feasible, because
+the faithful performance of the duties of any one period is the best
+preparation for the true understanding and fulfillment of those of the
+next. From these statements the following conclusions may be drawn with
+respect to the question under discussion--namely, the proper sequence of
+the topics of duty in a course of moral lessons.
+
+The moral lessons being given in school, must cover the duties which are
+peculiar to the school age. The paramount duty should be placed in the
+foreground. Now the paramount duty of children between six and fourteen
+years of age is to acquire knowledge. Hence we begin the lessons with
+the subject of intellectual duty. In the next place, the duties learned
+in the previous periods are to be brought into line with the duties of
+the school age. At each new step on the road of ethical progress the
+moral ideas already acquired are to be reviewed, confirmed, and to
+receive a higher interpretation.
+
+We have already seen that, before the child enters school, its personal
+duties are such as relate to the physical life and the feelings, and its
+chief social duties are the filial and fraternal.
+
+Therefore, the order of topics for the lessons thus far stands: The duty
+of acquiring knowledge; the duties which relate to the physical life;
+the duties which relate to the feelings; the filial duties; the
+fraternal duties.
+
+Again, a child that has learned to respect the rights of its brothers
+and sisters, and to be lovingly helpful to them, will in school take the
+right attitude toward its companions. The fraternal duties are typical
+of the duties which we owe to all our companions, and, indeed, to all
+human beings.
+
+The next topic of the lessons, therefore, will be the duties which we
+owe to all human beings.
+
+Finally, life in school prepares for life in society and in the state,
+and so this course of elementary moral lesson will properly close with
+"The elements of civic duty."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] It may be urged by some that duties toward God ought to be included
+in such a scheme of moral lessons as we are proposing. I should say,
+however, that the discussion of these duties belongs to the
+Sunday-schools, the existence of which alongside the daily schools is
+_presupposed throughout the present course of lectures_.
+
+[6] The duties which relate to the moral nature, as a whole, such for
+instance as the duty of self-scrutiny, may be considered either at the
+end of the chapter on self-regarding duties, or at the close of the
+whole course.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+THE MORAL OUTFIT OF CHILDREN ON ENTERING SCHOOL.
+
+
+It is difficult to trace the beginnings of the moral life in children.
+The traveler who attempts to follow some great river to its source
+generally finds himself confused by the number of ponds and springs
+which are pointed out to him with the assurance in the case of each that
+this and no other is the real source. In truth, the river is fed not
+from one source but from many, and does not attain its unity and
+individuality until it has flowed for some distance on its way. In like
+manner, the moral life is fed by many springs, and does not assume its
+distinctive character until after several years of human existence have
+elapsed. The study of the development of conscience in early childhood
+is a study of origins, and these are always obscure. But, besides, the
+attention hitherto given to this subject has been entirely inadequate,
+and even the attempts to observe in a systematic way the moral
+manifestations of childhood have been few.
+
+Parents and teachers should endeavor to answer such questions as these:
+When do the first stirrings of the moral sense appear in the child? How
+do they manifest themselves? What are the emotional and the
+intellectual equipments of the child at different periods, and how do
+these correspond with its moral outfit? At what time does conscience
+enter on the scene? To what acts or omissions does the child apply the
+terms right and wrong? If observations of this kind were made with care
+and duly recorded, the science of education would have at its disposal a
+considerable quantity of material from which no doubt valuable
+generalizations might be deduced. Every mother especially should keep a
+diary in which to note the successive phases of her child's physical,
+mental, and moral growth; with particular attention to the moral; so
+that parents may be enabled to make a timely forecast of their
+childrens' characters, to foster in them every germ of good, and by
+prompt precautions to suppress, or at least restrain, what is bad.
+
+I propose in the present lecture to cast a glance at the moral training
+which the normal child receives before it enters school, and the moral
+outfit which it may be expected to bring with it at the time of
+entering. Fortunately, it is not necessary to go very deeply into the
+study of development of conscience for this purpose. A few main points
+will suffice for our guidance.
+
+_First Point._--The moral training of a child can be begun in its
+cradle. Regularity is favorable to morality. Regularity acts as a check
+on impulse. A child should receive its nourishment at stated intervals;
+it should become accustomed to sleep at certain hours, etc. If it
+protests, as it often does vigorously enough, its protests should be
+disregarded. After a while its cries will cease, it will learn to submit
+to the rule imposed, and the taking of pleasure in regularity and the
+sense of discomfort when the usual order is interrupted become
+thenceforth a part of its mental life. I do not maintain that regularity
+itself is moral, but that it is favorable to morality because it curbs
+inclination. I do not say that rules are always good, but that the life
+of impulse is always bad. Even when we do the good in an impulsive way
+we are encouraging in ourselves a vicious habit. Good conduct consists
+in regulating our life according to good principles; and a willingness
+to abide by rules is the first, the indispensable condition of moral
+growth. Now, the habit of yielding to rules may be implanted in a child
+even in the cradle.
+
+_Second Point._--A very young child--one not older than a year and a
+half--can be taught to obey, to yield to the parent's will. A child a
+year and a half old is capable of adhering to its own will in defiance
+of the expressed will of father or mother. In this case it should be
+constrained to yield. We shall never succeed in making of it a moral
+person if it does not realize betimes that there exists a higher law
+than the law of its will. And of this higher law, throughout childhood,
+the parent is, as it were, the embodiment. When I say that obedience can
+be exacted of a child of such tender age, that a child so young is
+capable of deliberately opposing the will of the parent, I speak from
+experience. I know a certain little lady who undertook a struggle with
+her father precisely in the way described. The struggle lasted fully
+thirty-five minutes by the clock. But when it was over, the child
+stretched out her little arms and put up her lips to be kissed, and for
+days after fairly clung to her father, showing him her attachment in the
+most demonstrative manner. Nor should this increase of affectionateness
+excite surprise--it is the proper result of a conflict of this sort
+between father and child when conducted in the right spirit. The child
+is happy to be freed from the sway of its wayward caprice, to feel that
+its feeble will has been taken up into a will larger and stronger than
+its own.
+
+_Third Point._--What is called conscience does not usually begin to show
+itself until the child is about three years old. At this age the concept
+self usually emerges, and the child begins to use the personal pronoun
+I. This is one of these critical turning points in human development, of
+which there are several. The beginning of adolescence marks another. I
+am inclined to suspect that there is one at or about thirty-three. There
+seem to be others later on. At any rate the first turning point--that
+which occurs at three--is marked unmistakably. At this time, as we have
+just said, the child begins to be distinctly self-conscious; it says
+"I," and presently "you," "he," and "they." Now, moral rules formulate
+the relations which ought to subsist between one's self and others, and
+to comprehend the rules it is clearly necessary to be able to hold apart
+in the mind and to contrast with one another the persons related. It is
+evident, therefore, that the emergence of the concept self must have a
+decided effect on moral development.
+
+I feel tempted to pause here a moment and to say a word in passing about
+the extreme importance of the constituent elements of the concept self.
+For it must not be supposed that the pronoun "I" means the same thing on
+the lips of every person who uses it. "I" is a label denoting a mass of
+associated ideas, and as these ideas are capable of almost endless
+variation, so the notion of selfhood is correspondingly diversified in
+different individuals. In the case of children, perhaps the principal
+constituents of the concept are supplied by their outward appearance and
+environment. When a child speaks of itself, it thinks primarily of its
+body, especially its face, then of the clothes it usually wears, the
+house it lives in, the streets through which it habitually walks, its
+parents, brothers, sisters, school-masters, etc.[7] If we analyze the
+meaning of "I" in the case of two children, the one well-born and well
+brought up, the other without these advantages, we shall perhaps find
+such differences as the following: "I" in the one case will mean a being
+living in a certain decent and comfortable house, always wearing neat
+clothing, surrounded by parents, brothers, and sisters who speak kindly
+to one another and have gentle manners, etc. In the other case, the
+constituents of the concept self may be very different. "I" in the case
+of the second child may mean a creature that lives in a dark, filthy
+hovel and walks every day through narrow streets, reeking with garbage.
+"I" may mean the child of a father who comes home drunk and strikes the
+mother when the angry fit is upon him. "I" stands for a poor waif that
+wears torn clothes, and when he sits in school by the side of
+well-dressed children is looked at askance and put to shame. It is
+obvious that the elements which go to make up the concept self affect
+the child's moral nature by lowering or raising its self-esteem. I
+remember the case of one, who as a boy was the laughing-stock of his
+class on account of the old-fashioned, ill-fitting clothes which he was
+compelled to wear, and who has confessed that even late in life he could
+not entirely overcome the effect of this early humiliation, and that he
+continued to be painfully aware in himself, in consequence, of a certain
+lack of ease and self-possession. Hence we should see to it that the
+constituent elements of the concept self are of the right kind. It is a
+mistake to suppose that the idea of selfhood stands off independently
+from the elements of our environment. The latter enter into, and when
+they are bad eat into, the very kernel of our nature.
+
+We have seen that the development of the intellect as it appears in the
+growing distinctness of self-consciousness exercises an important
+influence on the development of the moral faculty. But there is still
+another way in which this influence becomes apparent. The function of
+conscience further depends on the power of keeping alternative courses
+of action before the mind. Angels capable only of the good, or fiends
+actuated exclusively by malice, could not be called moral creatures. A
+moral act always presupposes a previous choice between two possible
+lines of action. And until the power of holding the judgment in
+suspense, of hesitating between alternative lines of conduct, has been
+acquired, conscience, strictly speaking, does not manifest itself. We
+may say that the voice of conscience begins to be heard when, the parent
+being absent, the child hesitates between a forbidden pleasure and
+obedience to the parental command. Of course, not every choice between
+alternative courses is a moral act. If any one hesitates whether to
+remain at home or to go for a walk, whether to take a road to the right
+or to the left, the decision is morally indifferent. But whenever one of
+the alternative courses is good and the other bad, conscience does come
+into play.
+
+At this point, however, the question forcibly presents itself, How does
+it come to pass in the experience of children that they learn to regard
+certain lines of action as good and others as bad? You will readily
+answer, The parent characterizes certain acts as good and others as bad,
+and the child accepts his definition; and this is undoubtedly true. The
+parent's word is the main prop of the budding conscience. But how comes
+the parent's word to produce belief? This is indeed the crucial
+question touching the development of the moral faculty. Mr. Bain says
+that the child fears the punishment which the parent will inflict in
+case of disobedience; that the essential form and defining quality of
+conscience from first to last is of the nature of dread. He seems to
+classify the child's conscience with the criminal conscience, the rebel
+conscience which must be energized by the fear of penalties. But this
+explanation seems very unsatisfactory. Every one, of course, must admit
+that the confirmations of experience tend greatly to strengthen the
+parent's authority. The parent says, You must be neat. The child, if it
+does as it is bidden, finds an aesthetic pleasure in its becoming
+appearance. The parent says, You must not strike your little brother,
+but be kind to him; and the child, on restraining its anger, is
+gratified by the loving words and looks which it receives in return. The
+parent says, You must not touch the stove, or you will be burned. The
+disobedient child is effectually warned by the pain it suffers to be
+more obedient in future. But all such confirmations are mere external
+aids to parental authority. They do not explain the feeling of reverence
+with which even a young child, when rightly brought up, is wont to look
+up to his father's face. To explain this sentiment of reverence, I must
+ask you to consider the following train of reasoning. It has been
+remarked already that the parent should be to the child the visible
+embodiment of a higher law. This higher law shining from the father's
+countenance, making its sublime presence felt in the mother's eye,
+wakens an answering vibration in the child's heart. The child feels the
+higher presence and bows to it, though it could not, if it tried,
+analyze or explain what it feels. We should never forget that children
+possess the capacity for moral development from the outset. It is indeed
+the fashion with some modern writers to speak of the child as if it were
+at first a mere animal, and as if reflection and morality were
+mechanically superadded later on. But the whole future man is already
+hidden, not yet declared, but latent all the same in the child's heart.
+The germs of humanity in its totality exist in the young being. Else how
+could it ever unfold into full-grown morality? It will perhaps serve to
+make my meaning clearer if I call attention to analogous facts relating
+to the intellectual faculty. The formula of causality is a very abstract
+one, which only a thoroughly trained mind can grasp. But even very young
+children are constantly asking questions as to the causes of things.
+What makes the trees grow? what makes the stars shine?--i. e., what is
+the cause of the trees growing and the stars shining? The child is
+constantly pushing, or rather groping, its way back from effects to
+causes. The child's mind acts under what maybe called the causative
+instinct long before it can apprehend the law of causation. In the same
+way young children perfectly follow the process of syllogistic
+reasoning. If a father says, on leaving the house for a walk: I can take
+with me only a child that has been good; now, you have not been good
+to-day; the child without any difficulty draws the conclusion, Therefore
+I can not go out walking with my father to-day. The logical laws are, as
+it were, prefigured in the child's mind long before, under the chemical
+action of experience they come out in the bright colors of
+consciousness. Or, to use another figure, they exert a pressure on the
+child of which he himself can give no account. And in like manner the
+moral law--the law which prescribes certain relations between self and
+others--is, so to speak, prefigured in the child's mind, and when it is
+expressed in commands uttered by the parent, the pressure of external
+authority is confirmed by a pressure coming from within. We can
+illustrate the same idea from another point of view. Whenever a man of
+commanding moral genius appears in the world and speaks to the multitude
+from his height, they are for the moment lifted to his level and feel
+the afflatus of his spirit. This is so because he expresses
+potentialities of human nature which also exist in them, only not
+unfolded to the same degree as in him. It is a matter of common
+observation that persons who under ordinary circumstances are content to
+admire what is third rate and fourth rate are yet able to appreciate
+what is first rate when it is presented to them--at least to the extent
+of recognizing that it is first rate. And yet their lack of development
+shows itself in the fact that presently they again lose their hold on
+the higher standard of excellence, and are thereafter content to put up
+with what is inferior as if the glimpses of better things had never been
+opened to them. Is it not because, though capable of rising to the
+higher level, they are not capable of maintaining themselves on it
+unassisted. Now, the case of the parent with respect to the child is
+analogous. He is on a superior moral plane. The child feels that he is,
+without being able to understand why. It feels the afflatus of the
+higher spirit dwelling in the parent, and out of this feeling is
+generated the sentiment of reverence. And there is no greater benefit
+which father or mother can confer on their offspring than to deepen this
+sentiment. It is by this means that they can most efficiently promote
+the development of the child's conscience, for out of this reverence
+will grow eventually respect for all rightly constituted authority,
+respect and reverence for law, human and divine. The essential form and
+defining quality of conscience is not, therefore, as Bain has it--fear
+of punishment. In my opinion such fear is abject and cowardly. The
+sentiment engendered by fear is totally different from the one we are
+contemplating, as the following consideration will serve to show: A
+child fears its father when he punishes it in anger; and the more
+violent his passion, the more does the child fear him. But, no matter
+how stern the penalty may be which he has to inflict, the child reveres
+its father in proportion as the traces of anger are banished from his
+mien and bearing, in proportion as the parent shows by his manner that
+he acts from a sense of duty, that he has his eye fixed on the sacred
+measures of right and wrong, that he himself stands in awe of the
+sublime commands of which he is, for the time being, the exponent.
+
+To recapitulate briefly the points which we have gone over: regular
+habits can be inculcated and obedience can be taught even in infancy. By
+obedience is meant the yielding of a wayward and ignorant will to a firm
+and enlightened one. The child between three and six years of age learns
+clearly to distinguish self from others, and to deliberate between
+alternative courses of action. It is highly important to control the
+elements which enter into the concept self. The desire to choose the
+good is promoted chiefly by the sentiment of reverence.
+
+We are thus prepared to describe in a general way the moral outfit of
+the child on entering school. We have, indeed, already described it. The
+moral acquirements of the child at the age of which we speak express
+themselves in habits. The normal child, under the influences of parental
+example and command, has acquired such habits as that of personal
+cleanliness, of temperance in eating, of respect for the truth. Having
+learned to use the pronouns I and thou, it also begins to understand the
+difference between _meum_ and _tuum_. The property sense begins to be
+developed. It claims its own seat at table, its own toys against the
+aggression of others. It has gained in an elementary way the notion of
+rights.
+
+This is a stock of acquirements by no means inconsiderable. The next
+step in the progress of conscience must be taken in the school. Until
+now the child has been aware of duties relating only or principally to
+persons whom it loves and who love it. The motive of love is now to
+become less prominent. A part of that reverence which the child has felt
+for the parents whom it loves is now to be transferred to the teacher. A
+part of that respect for the rights of equals which has been impressed
+upon it in its intercourse with brothers and sisters, to whom it is
+bound by the ties of blood, is now to be transferred to its school
+companions, who are at first strangers to it. Thus the conscience of the
+child will be expanded, thus it will be prepared for intercourse with
+the world. Thus it will begin to gain that higher understanding of
+morality, according to which authority is to be obeyed simply because it
+is rightful, and equals are to be treated as equals, even when they are
+not and can not be regarded with affection.
+
+I have in the above used the word habits advisedly. The morality of the
+young child assumes the concrete form of habits; abstract principles are
+still beyond its grasp. Habits are acquired by imitation and repetition.
+Good examples must be so persistently presented and so often copied that
+the line of moral conduct may become the line of least resistance. The
+example of parents and teachers is indeed specially important in this
+respect. But after all it is not sufficient. For the temptations of
+adults differ in many ways from those of children, and on the other
+hand in the lives of older persons occasions are often wanting for
+illustrating just the peculiar virtues of childhood. On this account it
+is necessary to set before the child ideal examples of the virtues of
+children and of the particular temptations, against which they need to
+be warned. Of such examples we find a large stock ready to hand in the
+literature of fairy tales, fables, and stories. In our next lecture
+therefore we shall begin to consider the use of fairy tales, fables, and
+stories as means of creating in children those habits which are
+essential to the safe guarding and unfolding of their moral life.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[7] So important is environment in supporting self-consciousness, that
+even adults, when suddenly transported into entirely new surroundings,
+often experience a momentary doubt as to their identity.
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY COURSE.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+THE USE OF FAIRY TALES.
+
+
+There has been and still is considerable difference of opinion among
+educators as to the value of fairy tales. I venture to think that, as in
+many other cases, the cause of the quarrel is what logicians call an
+_undistributed middle_--in other words, that the parties to the dispute
+have each a different kind of fairy tale in mind. This species of
+literature can be divided broadly into two classes--one consisting of
+tales which ought to be rejected because they are really harmful, and
+children ought to be protected from their bad influence, the other of
+tales which have a most beautiful and elevating effect, and which we can
+not possibly afford to leave unutilized.
+
+The chief pedagogic value they possess is that they exercise and
+cultivate the imagination. Now, the imagination is a most powerful
+auxiliary in the development of the mind and will. The familiar anecdote
+related of Marie Antoinette, who is said to have asked why the people
+did not eat cake when she was told that they were in want of bread,
+indicates a deficiency of imagination. Brought up amid the splendor of
+courts, surrounded by luxury, she could not put herself in the place of
+those who lack the very necessaries. Much of the selfishness of the
+world is due not to actual hard-heartedness, but to a similar lack of
+imaginative power. It is difficult for the happy to realize the needs of
+the miserable. Did they realize those needs, they would in many cases be
+melted to pity and roused to help. The faculty of putting one's self in
+the place of others is therefore of great, though indirect, service to
+the cause of morality, and this faculty may be cultivated by means of
+fairy tales. As they follow intently the progress of the story, the
+young listeners are constantly called upon to place themselves in the
+situations in which they have never been, to imagine trials, dangers,
+difficulties, such as they have never experienced, to reproduce in
+themselves, for instance, such feelings as that of being alone in the
+wide world, of being separated from father's and mother's love, of being
+hungry and without bread, exposed to enemies without protection, etc.
+Thus their sympathy in a variety of forms is aroused.
+
+In the next place, fairy tales stimulate the idealizing tendency. What
+were life worth without ideals! How could hope or even religion
+germinate in the human heart were we not able to confront the
+disappointing present with visions which represent the fulfillment of
+our desires. "Faith," says Paul, "is the confidence of things hoped for,
+the certainty of things not seen." Thus faith itself can not abide
+unless supported by a vivid idealism. It is true, the ideals of
+childhood are childish. In the story called Das Marienkind we hear of
+the little daughter of a poor wood-cutter who was taken up bodily into
+heaven. There she ate sweetmeats and drank cream every day and wore
+dresses made of gold, and the angels played with her. Sweetmeats and
+cream in plenty and golden dresses and dear little angels to play with
+may represent the ideals of a young child, and these are materialistic
+enough. But I hold nevertheless that something--nay, much--has been
+gained if a child has learned to take the wishes out of its heart, as it
+were, and to project them on the screen of fancy. As it grows up to
+manhood, the wishes will become more spiritual, and the ideals, too,
+will become correspondingly elevated. In speaking of fairy tales I have
+in mind chiefly the German _Maerchen_ of which the word fairy tale is but
+an inaccurate rendering. The _Maerchen_ are more than mere tales of
+helpful fairies. They have, as is well-known, a mythological background.
+They still bear distinct traces of ancient animism, and the myths which
+center about the phenomena of the storm, the battle of the sun with the
+clouds, the struggle of the fair spring god with the dark winter demons,
+are in them leading themes. But what originally was the outgrowth of
+superstition has now, to a great extent at least, been purified of its
+dross and converted into mere poetry. The _Maerchen_ come to us from a
+time when the world was young. They represent the childhood of mankind,
+and it is for this reason that they never cease to appeal to children.
+The _Maerchen_ have a subtile flavor all their own. They are pervaded by
+the poetry of forest life, are full of the sense of mystery and awe,
+which is apt to overcome one on penetrating deeper and deeper into the
+woods, away from human habitations. The _Maerchen_ deal with the
+underground life of nature, which weaves in caverns and in the heart of
+mountains, where gnomes and dwarfs are at work gathering hidden
+treasures. And with this underground life children have a marvelous
+sympathy. The _Maerchen_ present glowing pictures of sheltered firesides,
+where man finds rest and security from howling winds and nipping cold.
+But perhaps their chief attraction is due to their representing the
+child as living in brotherly fellowship with nature and all creatures.
+Trees, flowers, animals wild and tame, even the stars, are represented
+as the comrades of children. That animals are only human beings in
+disguise is an axiom in the fairy tales. Animals are humanized--i. e.,
+the kinship between animal and human life is still strongly felt, and
+this reminds us of those early animistic interpretations of nature,
+which subsequently led to doctrines of metempsychosis. Plants, too, are
+often represented as incarnations of human spirits. Thus the twelve
+lilies are inhabited by the twelve brothers, and in the story of
+Snow-white and Rose-red the life of the two maidens appears to be bound
+up with the life of the white and red rosebush. The kinship of all life
+whatsoever is still realized. This being so, it is not surprising that
+men should understand the language of animals, and that these should
+interfere to protect the heroes and heroines of the _Maerchen_ from
+threatened dangers. In the story of the faithful servant John, the
+three ravens flying above the ship reveal the secret of the red horse,
+the sulphurous shirt, and the three drops of blood, and John, who
+understands their communications, is thereby enabled to save his
+master's life. What, again, can be more beautiful than the way in which
+the tree and the two white doves co-operate to secure the happiness of
+the injured Cinderella! The tree rains down the golden dresses with
+which she appears at the ball, and the doves continue to warn the prince
+as he rides by that he has chosen the wrong bride until Cinderella
+herself passes, when they light on her shoulders, one on her right and
+the other on her left, making, perhaps, the loveliest picture to be
+found in all fairy lore. The child still lives in unbroken communion
+with the whole of nature; the harmony between its own life and the
+enveloping life has not yet been disturbed, and it is this harmony of
+the human with the natural world that reflects itself in the atmosphere
+of the _Maerchen_, and makes them so admirably suited to satisfy the
+heart of childhood.
+
+But how shall we handle these _Maerchen_ and what method shall we employ
+in putting them to account for our special purpose? I have a few
+thoughts on this subject, which I shall venture to submit in the form of
+counsels.
+
+My _first counsel_ is: Tell the story; do not give it to the child to
+read. There is an obvious practical reason for this. Children are able
+to benefit by hearing fairy tales before they can read. But that is not
+the only reason. It is the childhood of the race, as we have seen, that
+speaks in the fairy story to the child of to-day. It is the voice of an
+ancient, far-off past that echoes from the lips of the story-teller. The
+words "once upon a time" open up a vague retrospect into the past, and
+the child gets its first indistinct notions of history in this way. The
+stories embody the tradition of the childhood of mankind. They have on
+this account an authority all their own, not indeed that of literal
+truth, but one derived from their being types of certain feelings and
+longings which belong to childhood as such. The child as it listens to
+the _Maerchen_, looks up with wide-opened eyes to the face of the person
+who tells the story, and thrills responsive as the touch of the earlier
+life of the race thus falls upon its own. Such an effect, of course, can
+not be produced by cold type. Tradition is a living thing, and should
+use the living voice for its vehicle.
+
+My _second counsel_ is also of a practical nature, and I make bold to
+say quite essential to the successful use of the stories. Do not take
+the moral plum out of the fairy-tale pudding, but let the child enjoy it
+as a whole. Do not make the story taper toward a single point, the moral
+point. You will squeeze all the juice out of it if you try. Do not
+subordinate the purely fanciful and naturalistic elements of the story,
+such as the love of mystery, the passion for roving, the sense of
+fellowship with the animal world, in order to fix attention solely on
+the moral element. On the contrary, you will gain the best moral effect
+by proceeding in exactly the opposite way. Treat the moral element as
+an incident; emphasize, it indeed, but incidentally. Pluck it as a
+wayside flower. How often does it happen that, having set out on a
+journey with a distinct object in mind, something occurs on the way
+which we had not foreseen, but which in the end leaves the deepest
+impression on the mind. The object which we had in view is long
+forgotten, but the incident which happened by the way is remembered for
+years after. So the moral result of the _Maerchen_ will not be less sure
+because gained incidentally. An illustration will make plain what I
+mean. In the story of the Frog King we are told that there was once a
+young princess who was so beautiful that even the Sun, which sees a
+great many things, had never seen anything so beautiful as she was. A
+golden ball was her favorite plaything. One day, as she sat by a well
+under an old linden tree, she tossed the ball into the air and it fell
+into the well. She was very unhappy, and cried bitterly. Presently a
+frog put his ugly head out of the water, and offered to dive for the
+ball, on condition, however, that she would promise to take him for her
+playmate, to let him eat off her golden plate and drink out of her
+golden cup and sleep in her little snow-white bed. The princess promised
+everything. But no sooner had the frog brought her the ball than she
+scampered away, heedless of his cries. The next day as the royal family
+sat at dinner a knock was heard at the door. The princess opened and
+beheld the ugly toad claiming admittance. She screamed with fright and
+hastily shut the door in his face. But when the king, her father, had
+questioned her, he said, "What you have promised, you must keep"; and
+she obeyed her father, though it was sorely against her inclination to
+do so. That was right, children, was it not? One must always obey, even
+if one does not like what one is told to do. So the toad was brought in
+and lifted to the table, and he ate off the little golden plate and
+drank out of the golden cup. And when he had had enough, he said, "I am
+tired now, put me into your little snow-white bed." And again when she
+refused her father said: "What you have promised you must keep. Ugly
+though he is, he helped you when you were in distress, and you must not
+despise him now." And the upshot of the story is that the ugly toad,
+having been thrown against the wall, was changed into a beautiful
+prince, and of course some time after the prince and the princess were
+married.
+
+The naturalistic element of the story is the changing of the prince into
+a toad and back again from a toad into a prince. Children are very fond
+of disguises. It is one of their greatest pleasures to imagine things to
+be other than they are. And one of the chief attractions of such stories
+as the one we have related is that they cater to the fondness of the
+little folks for this sort of masquerading. The moral elements of the
+story are obvious. They should be touched on in such a manner as not to
+divert the interest from the main story.
+
+My _third counsel_ is to eliminate from the stories whatever is merely
+superstitious, merely a relic of ancient animism, and of course whatever
+is objectionable on moral grounds. For instance, such a story as that of
+the idle spinner, the purport of which seems to be that there is a
+special providence watching over lazy people. Likewise all those stories
+which turn upon the success of trickery and cunning. A special question
+arising under this head, and one which has been the subject of much
+vexed discussion, is in how far we should acquaint children with the
+existence of evil in the world, and to what extent we can use stories in
+which evil beings and evil motives are introduced. My own view is that
+we should speak in the child's hearing only of those lesser forms of
+evil, physical or moral, with which it is already acquainted, but
+exclude all those forms of evil which lie beyond its present experience.
+On this ground I should reject the whole brood of step-mother stories,
+or rather, as this might make too wide a swath, I should take the
+liberty of altering stories in which the typical bad step-mother occurs,
+but which are otherwise valuable. There is no reason why children should
+be taught to look on step-mothers in general as evilly disposed persons.
+The same applies to stories in which unnatural fathers are mentioned. I
+should also rule out such stories as that of The Wolf and The Seven
+Little Goats. The mother goat, on leaving the house, warns her little
+ones against the wolf, and gives them two signs by which they can
+detect him--his hoarse voice and black paws. The wolf knocks and finds
+himself discovered. He thereupon swallows chalk to improve his voice and
+compels the miller to whiten his paws. Then he knocks again, is
+admitted, leaps into the room, and devours the little goats one by one.
+The story, as used in the nursery, has a transparent purpose. It is
+intended to warn little children who are left at home alone against
+admitting strangers. The wolf represents evil beings in general--tramps,
+burglars, people who come to kidnap children, etc. Now I, for one,
+should not wish to implant this fear of strangers into the minds of the
+young. Fear is demoralizing. Children should look with confidence and
+trust upon all men. They need not be taught to fear robbers and
+burglars. Even the sight of wild animals need not awaken dread. Children
+naturally admire the beauty of the tiger's skin, and the lion in their
+eyes is a noble creature, of whose ferocity they have no conception. It
+is time enough for them later on to familiarize themselves with the fact
+that evil of a sinister sort exists within human society and outside of
+it. And it will be safe for them to face this fact then only, when they
+can couple with it the conviction that the forces of right and order in
+the world are strong enough to grapple with the sinister powers and hold
+them in subjection.
+
+And now let us review a number of the _Maerchen_ against which none of
+these objections lie, which are delicious food for children's minds, and
+consider the place they occupy in a scheme of moral training. It has
+been already stated that each period of human life has a set of duties
+peculiar to itself. The principal duties of childhood are: Obedience to
+parents, love and kindness toward brothers and sisters, a proper regard
+for the feelings of servants, and kindness toward animals. We can
+classify the fairy tales which we can use under these various heads. Let
+us begin with the topic last mentioned.
+
+
+_Tales illustrating Kindness toward Animals._
+
+The House in the Woods.--The daughter of a poor wood-cutter is lost in
+the woods, and comes at night to a lonely house. An old man is sitting
+within. Three animals--a cow, a cock, and a chicken--lie on the hearth.
+The child is made welcome, and is asked to prepare supper. She cooks for
+the old man and herself, but forgets the animals. The second daughter
+likewise goes astray in the woods, comes to the same house, and acts in
+the same way. The third daughter, a sweet, loving child, before sitting
+down to her own meal, brings in hay for the cow and barley for the cock
+and chicken, and by this act of kindness to animals breaks the spell
+which had been cast upon the house. The old man is immediately
+transformed into a prince, etc.
+
+The Story of the Dog Sultan.--Sultan is old, and about to be shot by his
+master. The wolf, seeing his cousin the dog in such distress, promises
+to help him. He arranges that on the morrow he will seize a sheep
+belonging to Sultan's master. The dog is to run after him, and he, the
+wolf, will drop the sheep and Sultan shall get the credit of the rescue.
+Everything passes off as prearranged, and Sultan's life is spared by his
+grateful owner. Some time after the wolf comes prowling around the
+house, and, reminding his friend that one good turn deserves another,
+declares that he has now come for mutton in good earnest. But the dog
+replies that nothing can tempt him to betray the interests of his
+master. The wolf persists, but Sultan gives the alarm and the thief
+receives his due in the shape of a sound beating.
+
+The point of special interest in the beautiful story of Snow-white and
+Rose-red above referred to is the incident of the bear. One cold
+winter's night some one knocks at the door. Snow-white and Rose-red go
+to open, when a huge black bear appears at the entrance and begs for
+shelter. He is almost frozen with the cold, he says, and would like to
+warm himself a bit. The two little girls are at first frightened, but,
+encouraged by their mother, they take heart and invite the bear into the
+kitchen. Soon a cordial friendship springs up between Bruin and the
+children. They brush the snow from his fur, tease, and caress him by
+turns. After this the bear returns every night, and finally turns out to
+be a beautiful prince.
+
+The Story of the Queen Bee tells about three brothers who wander through
+the world in search of adventures. One day they come to an ant-hill.
+The two older brothers are about to trample upon the ants "just for the
+fun of it." But the youngest pleads with them, saying: "Let them live;
+their life is as dear to them as ours is to us." Next they come to a
+pond in which many ducks are swimming about. The two older brothers are
+determined to shoot the ducks "just for the fun of it." The youngest
+again pleads as before, "Let them live," etc. Finally, he saves a
+bee-hive from destruction in the same manner. Thus they journey on until
+they come to an enchanted castle. To break the spell, it is necessary to
+find and gather up a thousand pearls which had fallen on the
+moss-covered ground in a certain wood. Five thousand ants come to help
+the youngest to find the pearls. The second task imposed is to find a
+golden key which had been thrown into a pond near the castle. The
+grateful ducks bring up the key from the bottom. The third task is the
+most difficult. In one of the interior chambers of the castle there are
+three marble images--three princesses, namely, who had been turned into
+stone. Before the spell took effect they had partaken, respectively, of
+sugar, sirup, and honey. To restore them to life it is necessary to
+discover which one had eaten the honey. The Queen Bee comes in with all
+her swarm and lights on the lips of the youngest and so solves the
+problem. The enchantment is immediately dissolved. All these stories
+illustrate kindness to animals.
+
+Among stories which illustrate the _respect due to the feelings of
+servants_ may be mentioned the tale of Faithful John, who understood the
+language of the ravens and saved his master from the dangers of the red
+horse, etc., a story which in addition impresses the lesson that we
+should confide in persons who have been found trustworthy, even if we do
+not understand their motives. In the popular tale of Cinderella the
+points especially to be noted are: The pious devotion of Cinderella to
+her mother's memory, and the fact that the poor kitchen drudge,
+underneath the grime and ashes which disfigure her, possesses qualities
+which raise her far above the proud daughters of the house. The lesson
+taught by this story that we should distinguish intrinsic worth from the
+accidents of rank and condition, is one which can not be impressed too
+early or too deeply.
+
+Under the heading of _brotherly and sisterly love_ belongs the lovely
+tale of Snow-white. The little dwarfs are to all intents and purposes
+her brothers. They receive and treat her as a sister, and she returns
+their affection in kind.
+
+The story of the Twelve Brothers, whom their sister redeems by seven
+years of silence at the peril of her own life, is another instance of
+tenderest sisterly devotion combined with self-control. This story,
+however, needs to be slightly altered. In place of the cruel father (we
+must not mention cruel fathers) who has got ready twelve coffins for his
+sons, in order that all the wealth of his kingdom may descend to his
+daughter, let us substitute the steward of the palace, who hopes by
+slaying the sons and winning the hand of the daughter, to become king
+himself.
+
+Finally the story of Red Riding Hood illustrates the cardinal virtue of
+childhood--_obedience to parents_. Children must not loiter on the way
+when they are sent on errands. And Riding Hood loiters, and hence all
+the mischief which follows. She is sent to bring wine and cake to her
+grandmother. The example of such attentions as this serves to quicken in
+children the sentiment of reverence for the aged. Children learn
+reverence toward their parents in part by the reverence which these
+display toward the grandparents. Another point is that Red Riding Hood,
+to quiet her conscience, when she strays from the straight path deceives
+herself as to her motives. She says, "I will also gather a bunch of wild
+flowers to please grandmother." But her real purpose is to enjoy the
+freedom of the woods, and the proof is that presently she forgets all
+about grandmother. There is one objection that has sometimes been urged
+against this story, viz., the part which the wolf plays in it. But the
+wolf is not really treated as a hostile or fearful being. He meets Red
+Riding Hood on the way, and they chat confidentially together. He
+appears rather in the light of a trickster. But, it is objected, that he
+devours the grandmother and, later on, Red Riding Hood herself. Very
+true; but the curious fact is that, when his belly is cut open, the
+grandmother and Red Riding Hood come out intact. They have evidently not
+been injured. Children have very defective notions of the human body,
+with the exception of such external parts as hands, feet, and face. In
+an examination recently conducted by Prof. G. Stanley Hall in regard to
+the contents of childrens' minds at the time they enter school, it was
+found that ninety per cent of those questioned had no idea where the
+heart is located, eighty-one per cent did not know anything about the
+lungs, ninety per cent could not tell where their ribs are situated,
+etc. Of the internal organs children have no idea. Hence when the story
+says that the grandmother is swallowed by the wolf, the impression
+created is that she has been forced down into a sort of dark hole, and
+that her situation, while rather uncomfortable, no doubt, is not
+otherwise distressing. The ideas of torn and mangled flesh are not
+suggested. Hence the act of devouring arouses no feeling of horror, and
+the story of Red Riding Hood, that prime favorite of all young children,
+may be related without any apprehension as to its moral effect.
+
+Then there are other stories, such as that of the man who went abroad to
+learn the art of shuddering--an excellent example of bravery; the story
+of the seven Suabians--a persiflage of cowardice; the story of the
+_Marienkind_ which contains a wholesome lesson against obstinacy, etc. I
+have not, of course, attempted to cover the whole ground, but only to
+mention a few examples sufficient to show along what lines the selection
+may be made. The ethical interests peculiar to childhood are the heads
+under which the whole material can be classified.
+
+The value of the fairy tales is that they stimulate the imagination;
+that they reflect the unbroken communion of human life with the life
+universal, as in beasts, fishes, trees, flowers, and stars; and that
+incidentally, but all the more powerfully on that account, they quicken
+the moral sentiments.
+
+Let us avail ourselves freely of the treasures which are thus placed at
+our disposal. Let us welcome _das Maerchen_ into our primary course of
+moral training, that with its gentle bands, woven of "morning mist and
+morning glory," it may help to lead our children into the bright realms
+of the ideal.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+THE USE OF FABLES.
+
+
+The collection of fables which figures under the name of AEsop has to a
+very remarkable degree maintained its popularity among children, and
+many of its typical characters have been adopted into current
+literature, such as the Dog in the Manger, the Wolf in Sheep's Clothing,
+King Log, and King Stork, and others. Recent researches have brought to
+light the highly interesting fact that these fables are of Asiatic
+origin. A collection of Indian and, it is believed, Buddhist fables and
+stories traveled at an early period into Persia, where it became known
+as the Pancha-Tantra. The Pancha-Tantra was translated into Arabic, and
+became the source of the voluminous Kalilah-wa-Dimnah literature. The
+Arabic tales in turn migrated into Europe at the time of the Crusades
+and were rendered into Greek, Hebrew, and Latin. In this form they
+became accessible to the nations of Europe, were extensively circulated,
+and a collection of them was wrongly, but very naturally, ascribed to a
+famous story-teller of the ancient Greeks--i. e., to AEsop. The arguments
+on which this deduction is based may be found in Rhys Davids's
+introduction to his English translation of the Jataka Tales.[8] This
+author speaks of AEsop's fables as a first moral lesson-book for our
+children in the West. We shall have to consider in how far this
+description is correct--that is to say, in how far we can use the fables
+for moral purposes. The point to be kept in mind is their Asiatic
+origin, as this will at once help us to separate the fables which we can
+use from those which must be rejected. A discrimination of this sort is
+absolutely necessary. I am of the opinion that it is a serious mistake
+to place the whole collection as it stands in the hands of children.
+
+To decide this question we must study the _milieu_ in which the fables
+arose, the spirit which they breathe, the conditions which they reflect.
+The conditions they reflect are those of an Oriental despotism. They
+depict a state of society in which the people are cruelly oppressed by
+tyrannical rulers, and the weak are helpless in the hands of the strong.
+The spirit which they breathe is, on the whole, one of patient and
+rather hopeless submission. The effect upon the reader as soon as he has
+caught this clew, this _Leitmotiv_, which occurs in a hundred
+variations, is very saddening. I must substantiate this cardinal point
+by a somewhat detailed analysis. Let us take first the fable of the Kite
+and the Pigeons. A kite had been sailing in the air for many days near a
+pigeon-house with the intention of seizing the pigeons; at last he had
+recourse to stratagem. He expressed his deep concern at their unjust and
+unreasonable suspicions of himself, as if he intended to do them an
+injury. He declared that, on the contrary, he had nothing more at heart
+than the defense of their ancient rights and liberties, and ended by
+proposing that they should accept him as their protector, their king.
+The poor, simple pigeons consented. The kite took the coronation oath in
+a very solemn manner. But much time had not elapsed before the good kite
+declared it to be a part of the king's prerogative to devour a pigeon
+now and then, and the various members of his family adhered to the same
+view of royal privilege. The miserable pigeons exclaimed: "Ah, we
+deserve no better. Why did we let him in!"
+
+The fable of the Wolf in Sheep's Clothing conveys essentially the same
+idea. The fable of the Lion and the Deer illustrates the exorbitant
+exactions practiced by despots. A fat deer was divided into four parts.
+His majesty the lion proposed that they be suitably apportioned. The
+first part he claimed for himself on account of his true hereditary
+descent from the royal family of Lion; the second he considered properly
+his own because he had headed the hunt; the third he took in virtue of
+his prerogative; and finally he assumed a menacing attitude, and dared
+any one to dispute his right to the fourth part also.
+
+In the fable of the Sick Lion and the Fox, the fox says: "I see the
+footprints of beasts who have gone into the cave, but of none that have
+come out." The fable of the Cat and the Mice expresses the same thought,
+namely, that it is necessary to be ever on one's guard against the
+mighty oppressors even when their power seems for the time to have
+deserted them. The cat pretends to be dead, hoping by this means to
+entice the mice within her reach. A cunning old mouse peeps over the
+edge of the shelf, and says: "Aha, my good friend, are you there? I
+would not trust myself with you though your skin were stuffed with
+straw."
+
+The fable of King Log and King Stork shows what a poor choice the people
+have in the matter of their kings. First they have a fool for their
+king, a mere log, and they are discontented. Then Stork ascends the
+throne, and he devours them. It would have been better if they had put
+up with the fool. The injustice of despotic rulers is exemplified in the
+fable of the Kite and the Wolf. The kite and the wolf are seated in
+judgment. The dog comes before them to sue the sheep for debt. Kite and
+wolf, without waiting for the evidence, give sentence for the plaintiff,
+who immediately tears the poor sheep into pieces and divides the spoil
+with the judges. The sort of thanks which the people get when they are
+foolish enough to come to the assistance of their masters, is
+illustrated by the conduct of the wolf toward the crane. The wolf
+happened to have a bone sticking in his throat, and, howling with pain,
+promised a reward to any one who should relieve him. At last the crane
+ventured his long neck into the wolf's throat and plucked out the bone.
+But when he asked for his reward, the wolf glared savagely upon him, and
+said: "Is it not enough that I refrained from biting off your head?" How
+dangerous it is to come at all into close contact with the mighty, is
+shown in the fable of the Earthen and the Brazen Pot. The brazen pot
+offers to protect the earthen one as they float down stream. "Oh,"
+replies the latter, "keep as far off as ever you can, if you please;
+for, whether the stream dashes you against me or me against you, I am
+sure to be the sufferer."
+
+The fables which we have considered have for their theme the character
+of the strong as exhibited in their dealings with the weak. A second
+group is intended to recommend a certain policy to be pursued by the
+weak in self-protection. This policy consists either in pacifying the
+strong by giving up to them voluntarily what they want, or in flight,
+or, if that be impossible, in uncomplaining submission. The first
+expedient is recommended in the fable of the Beaver. A beaver who was
+being hard pressed by a hunter and knew not how to escape, suddenly,
+with a great effort, bit off the part which the hunter desired, and,
+throwing it toward him, by this means escaped with his life. The
+expedient of flight is recommended in the fable of Reynard and the Cat.
+Reynard and the cat one day were talking politics in the forest. The fox
+boasted that though things might turn out never so badly, he had still a
+thousand tricks to play before they should catch him. The cat said: "I
+have but one trick, and if that does not succeed I am undone." Presently
+a pack of hounds came upon them full cry. The cat ran up a tree and hid
+herself among the top branches. The fox, who had not been able to get
+out of sight, was overtaken despite his thousand tricks and torn to
+pieces by the hounds. The fable of the Oak and the Reed teaches the
+policy of utter, uncomplaining submission. The oak refuses to bend, and
+is broken. The supple reed yields to the blast, and is safe. Is it not a
+little astonishing that this fable should so often be related to
+children as if it contained a moral which they ought to take to heart?
+To make it apply at all, it is usually twisted from its proper
+signification and explained as meaning that one should not be
+fool-hardy, not attempt to struggle against overwhelming odds. But this
+is not the true interpretation. The oak is by nature strong and firm,
+while it is the nature of the reed to bend to every wind. The fable
+springs out of the experience of a people who have found resistance
+against oppression useless. And this sort of teaching we can not, of
+course, wish to give to our children. I should certainly prefer that a
+child of mine should take the oak, and not the reed, for his pattern.
+The same spirit is again inculcated in the fable of the Wanton Calf. The
+wanton calf sneers at the poor ox who all day long bears the heavy yoke
+patiently upon his neck. But in the evening it turns out that the ox is
+unyoked, while the calf is butchered. The choice seems to lie between
+subserviency and destruction. The fable of the Old Woman and her Maids
+suggests the same conclusion, with the warning added that it is useless
+to rise against the agents of tyranny so long as the tyrants themselves
+can not be overthrown. The cock in the fable represents the agents of
+oppression. The killing of the cock serves only to bring the mistress
+herself on the scene, and the lot of the servants becomes in consequence
+very much harder than it had been before.
+
+We have now considered two groups of fables: those which depict the
+character of the mighty, and those which treat of the proper policy of
+the weak. The subject of the third group is, the consolations of the
+weak. These are, first, that even tyrannical masters are to a certain
+extent dependent upon their inferiors, and can be punished if they go
+too far; secondly, that the mighty occasionally come to grief in
+consequence of dissensions among themselves; thirdly, that fortune is
+fickle. A lion is caught in the toils, and would perish did not a little
+mouse come to his aid by gnawing asunder the knots and fastenings. The
+bear robs the bees of their honey, but is punished and rendered almost
+desperate by their stings. An eagle carries off the cub of a fox; but
+the fox, snatching a fire-brand, threatens to set the eagle's nest on
+fire, and thus forces him to restore her young one. This is evidently a
+fable of insurrection. The fable of the Viper and the File shows that it
+is not safe to attack the wrong person--in other words, that tyrants
+sometimes come to grief by singling out for persecution some one who is
+strong enough to resist them though they little suspect it. The fable of
+the four bulls shows the effect of dissensions among the mighty. Four
+bulls had entered into a close alliance, and agreed to keep always near
+one another. A lion fomented jealousies among them. The bulls grew
+distrustful of one another, and at last parted company. The lion had now
+obtained his end, and seized and devoured them singly. The fickleness of
+fortune is the theme of the fable of the Horse and the Ass. The horse,
+richly caparisoned and champing his foaming bridle, insults an ass who
+moves along under a heavy load. Soon after the horse is wounded, and,
+being unfit for military service, is sold to a carrier. The ass now
+taunts the proud animal with his fallen estate. The horse in this fable
+is the type of many an Eastern vizier, who has basked for a time in the
+sunshine of a despot's favor only to be suddenly and ignominiously
+degraded. The ass in the fable represents the people. There remains a
+fourth group of fables, which satirize certain mean or ridiculous types
+of characters, such as are apt to appear in social conditions of the
+kind we have described. Especially do the fables make a target of the
+folly of those who affect the manners of the aristocratic class, or who
+try to crowd in where they are not wanted, or who boast of their high
+connections. The frog puffs himself up so that he may seem as large as
+the ox, until he bursts. The mouse aspires to marry the young lioness,
+and is in fact well received; but the young lady inadvertently places
+her foot on her suitor and crushes him. The jackdaw picks up feathers
+which have fallen from the peacocks, sticks them among his own, and
+introduces himself into the assembly of those proud birds. They find him
+out, strip him of his plumes, and with their sharp bills punish him as
+he deserves. A fly boasts that he frequents the most distinguished
+company, and that he is on familiar terms with the king, the priests,
+and the nobility. Many a time, he says, he has entered the royal
+chamber, has sat upon the altar, and has even enjoyed the privilege of
+kissing the lips of the most beautiful maids of honor. "Yes," replies an
+ant, "but in what capacity are you admitted among all these great
+people? One and all regard you as a nuisance, and the sooner they can
+get rid of you the better they are pleased."
+
+Most of the fables which thus far have been mentioned we can not use.
+The discovery of their Asiatic origin sheds a new, keen light upon their
+meaning. They breathe, in many cases, a spirit of fear, of abject
+subserviency, of hopeless pessimism. Can we desire to inoculate the
+young with this spirit? The question may be asked why fables are so
+popular with boys. I should say, Because school-boy society reproduces
+in miniature to a certain extent the social conditions which are
+reflected in the fables. Among unregenerate school-boys there often
+exists a kind of despotism, not the less degrading because petty. The
+strong are pitted against the weak--witness the fagging system in the
+English schools--and their mutual antagonism produces in both the
+characteristic vices which we have noted above. The psychological study
+of school-boy society has been only begun, but even what lies on the
+surface will, I think, bear out this remark. Now it has come to be one
+of the commonplaces of educational literature, that the individual of
+to-day must pass through the same stages of evolution as the human race
+as a whole. But it should not be forgotten that the advance of
+civilization depends on two conditions: first, that the course of
+evolution be accelerated, that the time allowed to the successive stages
+be shortened; and, secondly, that the unworthy and degrading elements
+which entered into the process of evolution in the past, and at the time
+were inseparable from it, be now eliminated. Thus the fairy-tales which
+correspond to the myth-making epoch in human history must be purged of
+the dross of superstition which still adheres to them, and the fables
+which correspond to the age of primitive despotisms must be cleansed of
+the immoral elements they still embody.
+
+The fables which are fit for use may be divided into two classes: those
+which give illustrations of evil,[9] the effect of which on the young
+should be to arouse disapprobation, and those which present types of
+virtue. The following is a list of some of the principal ones in each
+category:
+
+_An Instance of Selfishness._ The porcupine having begged for
+hospitality and having been invited into a nest of snakes,
+inconveniences the inmates and finally crowds them out. When they
+remonstrate, he says, "Let those quit the place that do not like it."
+
+_Injustice._ The fable of the Kite and the Wolf, mentioned above.
+
+_Improvidence._ The fable of the Ant and the Grasshopper; also the fable
+entitled One Swallow does not make Summer, and the fable of the Man who
+Killed the Goose that laid the Golden Eggs.
+
+_Ingratitude._ The fable of the snake which bit the countryman who had
+warmed it in his breast.
+
+_Cowardice._ The fable of the Stag and the Fawn, and of the Hares in the
+Storm.
+
+_Vanity._ The fables of the Peacock and the Crane, and of the Crow who
+lost his Cheese by listening to the flattery of the fox.
+
+_Contemptuous Self-confidence._ The Hare and the Tortoise.
+
+_The Evil Influence of Bad Company._ The Husbandman and the Stork.
+
+_Cruelty to Animals._ The Fowler and the Ringdove; the Hawk and the
+Pigeons.
+
+_Greediness._ The Dog and the Shadow.
+
+_Lying._ The fable of the boy who cried "Wolf!"
+
+_Bragging._ The fable of the Ass in the Lion's Skin.
+
+_Deceit._ The fable of the Fox without a Tail.
+
+_Disingenuousness._ The fable of the Sour Grapes.
+
+_A Discontented Spirit._ The fable of the Peacock's Complaint.
+
+_Equal Graces are not given to all._ The fable of the Ass who leaped
+into his Master's Lap.
+
+_Borrowed Plumes._ The fable of the Jackdaw and the Peacocks, mentioned
+above.
+
+_Malice._ The fable of the Dog in the Manger, who would not eat, neither
+let others eat.
+
+_Breaking Faith._ The fable of the Traveler and the Bear.
+
+_To Fan Animosity is even Worse than to Quarrel._ The fable of the
+Trumpeter.
+
+The value of these fables, as has been said, consists in the reaction
+which they call forth in the minds of the pupils. Sometimes this
+reaction finds expression in the fable itself; sometimes the particular
+vice is merely depicted in its nakedness, and it becomes the business of
+the teacher distinctly to evoke the feeling of disapprobation, and to
+have it expressly stated in words. The words tend to fix the feeling.
+Often, when a child has committed some fault, it is useful to refer by
+name to the fable that fits it. As, when a boy has made room in his seat
+for another, and the other crowds him out, the mere mention of the fable
+of the Porcupine is a telling rebuke; or the fable of the Hawk and the
+Pigeons may be called to mind when a boy has been guilty of mean
+excuses. On the same principle that angry children are sometimes taken
+before a mirror to show them how ugly they look. The fable is a kind of
+mirror for the vices of the young.
+
+Of the fables that illustrate virtuous conduct, I mention that of
+Hercules and the Cart-driver, which teaches self-reliance. Hercules
+helps the driver as soon as the latter has put his own shoulders to the
+wheel. Also the fable of the Lark. So long as the farmer depends on his
+neighbors, or his kinsmen, the lark is not afraid; but when he proposes
+to buckle to himself, she advises her young that it is time to seek
+another field. The fable of the Wind and the Sun shows that kindness
+succeeds where rough treatment would fail. The fable of the Bundle of
+Sticks exemplifies the value of harmony. The fable of the Wolf, whom the
+dog tries to induce to enter civilization, expresses the sentiment that
+lean liberty is to be preferred to pampered servitude. The fable of the
+Old Hound teaches regard for old servants. Finally, the fable of the
+Horse and the Loaded Ass, and of the Dove and the Ant, show that
+kindness pays on selfish principles. The horse refuses to share the
+ass's burden; the ass falls dead under his load; in consequence, the
+horse has to bear the whole of it. On the other hand the dove rescues
+the ant from drowning, and the ant in turn saves the dove from the
+fowler's net.
+
+The last remark throws light on the point of view from which the fables
+contemplate good and evil. It is to be noted that a really moral spirit
+is wanting in them; the moral motives are not appealed to. The appeal
+throughout is to the bare motive of self-interest. Do not lie, because
+you will be found out, and will be left in the lurch when you depend for
+help on the confidence of others. Do not indulge in vanity, because you
+will make yourself ridiculous. Do not try to appear like a lion when you
+can not support the character, because people will find out that you are
+only an ass. Do not act ungratefully, because you will be thrust out of
+doors. Even when good conduct is inculcated, it is on the ground that it
+pays. Be self-reliant, because if you help yourself others will help
+you. Be kind, because by gentle means you can gain your purpose better
+than by harshness. Agree with your neighbors, because you can then, like
+the bundle of sticks, resist aggression from without. That lying is
+wrong on principle; that greediness is shameful, whether you lose your
+cheese or not; that kindness is blessed, even when it does not bring a
+material reward; that it is lovely for neighbors to dwell together in
+peace, is nowhere indicated. The beauty and the holiness of right
+conduct lie utterly beyond the horizon of the fable. Nevertheless, as we
+have seen when speaking of the efficient motives of conduct,
+self-interest as a motive should not be underrated, but should be
+allowed the influence which belongs to it as an auxiliary to the moral
+motive. It is well, it is necessary, for children to learn that lying,
+besides being in itself disgraceful, does also entail penalties of a
+palpable sort; that vanity and self-conceit, besides being immoral, are
+also punished by the contempt of one's fellows; that those who are
+unkind, as the horse was to the ass, may have to bear the ass's burden.
+The checks and curbs supplied by such considerations as these serve the
+purpose of strengthening the weak conscience of the young, and are not
+to be dispensed with, provided always they are treated not as
+substitutes for but as auxiliaries to the moral motives, properly
+speaking.
+
+As to the place in the primary course which I have assigned to the
+fables, I have the following remark to offer: In speaking of fairy
+tales, it was stated that the moral element should be touched on
+incidentally, and that it should not be separated from the other, the
+naturalistic elements. The pedagogical reason which leads me to assign
+to the fables the second place in the course, is that each fable deals
+exclusively with one moral quality, which is thus isolated and held up
+to be contemplated. In the stories which will occupy the third place a
+number of moral qualities are presented in combination. We have,
+therefore, what seems to be a logical and progressive order--first,
+fairy tales in which the moral is still blended with other elements;
+secondly, a single moral quality set off by itself; then, a combination
+of such qualities.
+
+The peculiar value of the fables is that they are instantaneous
+photographs, which reproduce, as it were, in a single flash of light,
+some one aspect of human nature, and which, excluding everything else,
+permit the entire attention to be fixed on that one.
+
+As to the method of handling them, I should say to the teacher: Relate
+the fable; let the pupil repeat it in his own words, making sure that
+the essential points are stated correctly. By means of questions elicit
+a clean-cut expression of the point which the fable illustrates; then
+ask the pupil to give out of his experience other instances illustrating
+the same point. This is precisely the method pursued in the so-called
+primary object lessons. The child, for instance, having been shown a red
+ball, is asked to state the color of the ball, and then to name other
+objects of the same color; or to give the shape of the ball, and then to
+name other objects having the same shape. In like manner, when the pupil
+has heard the fable of the Fox and the Wolf, and has gathered from it
+that compassion when expressed merely in words is useless, and that it
+must lead to deeds to be really praiseworthy, it will be easy for him
+out of his own experience to multiply instances which illustrate the
+same truth. The search for instances makes the point of the fable
+clearer, while the expression of the thought in precise language, on
+which the teacher should always insist, tends to drive it home. It will
+be our aim in the present course of lectures to apply the methods of
+object teaching, now generally adopted in other branches, to the
+earliest moral instruction of children--an undertaking, of course, not
+without difficulties.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] Buddhist Birth Stories; or Jataka Tales, translated by T. W. Rhys
+Davids.
+
+[9] I remarked above that fables should be excluded if the moral they
+inculcate is bad, not if they depict what is bad. In the latter case
+they often may serve a useful purpose.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON FABLES.
+
+
+Apart from the collection which figures under the name of AEsop, there
+are other fables, notably the so-called Jataka tales, which deserve
+attention. The Jataka tales contain deep truths, and are calculated to
+impress lessons of great moral beauty. The tale of the Merchant of Seri,
+who gave up all that he had in exchange for a golden dish, embodies much
+the same idea as the parable of the Priceless Pearl, in the New
+Testament. The tale of the Measures of Rice illustrates the importance
+of a true estimate of values. The tale of the Banyan Deer, which offered
+its life to save a roe and her young, illustrates self-sacrifice of the
+noblest sort. The Kulavaka-Jataka contains the thought that a forgiving
+spirit toward one's enemies disarms even the evil-minded. The tale of
+the Partridge, the Monkey, and the Elephant teaches that the best seats
+belong not to the nobles or the priests, to the rich or the learned, not
+even to the most pious, but that reverence and service and respect and
+civility are to be paid according to age, and for the aged the best
+seat, the best water, the best rice, are to be reserved. The tale of
+Nanda, or the Buried Gold, is a rebuke to that base insolence which
+vulgar natures often exhibit when they possess a temporary advantage.
+The tale of the Sandy Road is one of the finest in the collection. It
+pictures to us a caravan wandering through the desert under the
+starlight. The guide, whose duty it was to pilot them through this sea
+of sand, has, it appears, fallen asleep at his post from excessive
+weariness, and at dawn the travelers discover that they have gone
+astray, and that far and wide no water is in sight wherewith to quench
+their burning thirst. At this moment, however, the leader espies a small
+tuft of grass on the face of the desert, and, reasoning that water must
+be flowing somewhere underneath, inspires his exhausted followers to new
+exertions. A hole sixty feet deep is dug under his direction, but at
+length they come upon hard rock, and can dig no farther. But even then
+he does not yield to despair. Leaping down, he applies his ear to the
+rock. Surely, it is water that he hears gurgling underneath! One more
+effort, he cries, and we are saved! But of all his followers one only
+had strength or courage enough left to obey. This one strikes a heavy
+blow, the rock is split open, and lo! the living water gushes upward in
+a flood. The lesson is that of perseverance and presence of mind in
+desperate circumstances. The tale entitled Holding to the Truth narrates
+the sad fate of a merchant who suffered himself to be deceived by a
+mirage into the belief that water was near, and emptied the jars which
+he carried with him in order to reach the pleasant land the sooner. The
+Jataka entitled On True Divinity contains a very beautiful story about
+three brothers, the Sun prince, the Moon prince, and the future Buddha
+or Bodisat. The king, their father, expelled the Moon prince and the
+future Buddha in order to secure the succession to the Sun prince alone.
+But the Sun prince could not bear to be separated from his brothers, and
+secretly followed them into exile. They journeyed together until they
+came to a certain lake. This lake was inhabited by an evil spirit, to
+whom power had been given to destroy all who entered his territory
+unless they could redeem their lives by answering the question, "What is
+truly divine?" So the Sun prince was asked first, and he answered, "The
+sun and the moon and the gods are divine." But that not being the
+correct answer, the evil spirit seized and imprisoned him in his cave.
+Then the Moon prince was asked, and he answered, "The far-spreading sky
+is called divine." But he, too, was carried away to the same place to be
+destroyed. Then the future Buddha was asked, and he answered: "Give ear,
+then, attentively, and hear what divine nature is;" and he uttered the
+words--
+
+
+     "The pure in heart who fear to sin,
+     The good, kindly in word and deed,
+     These are the beings in the world
+     Whose nature should be called divine."
+
+
+And when the evil spirit heard these words, he bowed, and said: "I will
+give up to you one of your brothers." Then the future Buddha said, "Give
+me the life of my brother, the Sun prince, for it is on his account
+that we have been driven away from our home and thrust into exile." The
+evil spirit was overcome by this act of generosity, and said, "Verily, O
+teacher, thou not only knowest what is divine, but hast acted divinely."
+And he gave him the life of both his brothers, the Sun prince as well as
+the Moon prince.
+
+I could not resist the temptation of relating a few of these tales. They
+are, as every one must admit, nobly conceived, lofty in meaning, and
+many a helpful sermon might be preached from them as texts. But, of
+course, not all are fit to be used in a primary course. Some of them
+are, some are not. The teacher will have no difficulty in making the
+right selection. To the former class belongs also No. 28 of the
+collection,[10] which is excellently adapted to impress the lesson of
+kindness to animals. Long ago the Buddha came to life in the shape of a
+powerful bull. His master, a Brahman, asserted that this bull of his
+could move a hundred loaded carts ranged in a row and bound together.
+Being challenged to prove his assertion, he bathed the bull, gave him
+scented rice, hung a garland of flowers around his neck, and yoked him
+to the first cart. Then he raised his whip and called out, "Gee up, you
+brute. Drag them along, you wretch!" The bull said to himself, "He calls
+me wretch; I am no wretch." And keeping his forelegs as firm as steel,
+he stood perfectly still. Thereupon the Brahman, his master, was
+compelled to pay a forfeit of a thousand pieces of gold because he had
+not made good his boast. After a while the bull said to the Brahman, who
+seemed very much dispirited: "Brahman, I have lived a long time in your
+house. Have I ever broken any pots, or have I rubbed against the walls,
+or have I made the walks around the premises unclean?" "Never, my dear,"
+said the Brahman. "Then why did you call me wretch? But if you will
+never call me wretch again, you shall have two thousand pieces for the
+one thousand you have lost." The Brahman, hearing this, called his
+neighbors together, set up one hundred loaded carts as before, then
+seated himself on the pole, stroked the bull on the back, and called
+out, "Gee up, my beauty! Drag them along, my beauty!" And the bull, with
+a mighty effort, dragged along the whole hundred carts, heavily loaded
+though they were. The bystanders were greatly astonished, and the
+Brahman received two thousand pieces on account of the wonderful feat
+performed by the bull.
+
+The 30th Jataka corresponds to the fable of the Ox and the Calf in the
+AEsop collection. The 33d, like the fable of the Bundle of Sticks,
+teaches the lesson of unity, but in a form a little nearer to the
+understanding of children. Long ago, when Brahmadatta was reigning in
+Benares, the future Buddha came to life as a quail. At that time there
+was a fowler who used to go to the place where the quails dwelt and
+imitate their cry; and when they had assembled, he would throw his net
+over them. But the Buddha said to the quails: "In future, as soon as he
+has thrown the net over us, let each thrust his head through a mesh of
+the net, then all lift it together, carry it off to some bush, and
+escape from underneath it." And they did so and were saved. But one day
+a quail trod unawares on the head of another, and a disgraceful quarrel
+ensued. The next time the fowler threw his net over them, each of the
+quails pretended that the others were leaving him to bear the greatest
+strain, and cried out, "You others begin, and then I will help." The
+consequence was that no one began, and the net was not raised, and the
+fowler bagged them all. The 26th Jataka enforces the truth that evil
+communications corrupt good manners, and contains more particularly a
+warning against listening to the conversation of wicked people. Thus
+much concerning the Jataka tales.
+
+There exists also a collection of Hindu fairy tales and fables, gathered
+from oral tradition by M. Frere, and published under the title of Old
+Deccan Days. A few of these are very charming, and well adapted for our
+purpose. For example, the fable of King Lion and the Sly Little Jackals.
+The story is told with delightful _naivete_. Singh-Rajah, the lion-king,
+is very hungry. He has already devoured all the jackals of the forest,
+and only a young married couple, who are extremely fond of each other,
+remain. The little jackal-wife is terribly frightened when she hears in
+their immediate vicinity the roar of Singh-Rajah. But the young husband
+tries to comfort her, and to save their lives he hits on the following
+expedient: He makes her go with him straight to the cave of the terrible
+lion. Singh-Rajah no sooner sees them than he exclaims: "It is well you
+have arrived at last. Come here quickly, so that I may eat you." The
+husband says: "Yes, your Majesty, we are entirely ready to do as you bid
+us, and, in fact, we should have come long ago, as in duty bound, to
+satisfy your royal appetite, but there is another Singh-Rajah mightier
+than you in the forest, who would not let us come." "What!" says the
+lion, "another Singh-Rajah mightier than I! That is impossible." "Oh!
+but it is a fact," say the young couple in a breath; "and he is really
+much more terrible than you are." "Show him to me, then," says
+Singh-Rajah, "and I will prove to you that what you say is false--that
+there is no one to be compared with me in might." So the little jackals
+ran on together ahead of the lion, until they reached a deep well. "He
+is in there," they said, pointing to the well. The lion looked down
+angrily and saw his own image, the image of an angry lion glaring back
+at him. He shook his mane; the other did the same. Singh-Rajah
+thereupon, unable to contain himself, leaped down to fight his
+competitor, and, of course, was drowned. The fable clothes in childlike
+language the moral that anger is blind, and that the objects which
+excite our anger are often merely the outward reflections of our own
+passions. In the fable of the Brahman, the Tiger, and the Six Judges,
+we have a lesson against ingratitude, and also against useless
+destruction of animal life. In the fable of the Camel and the Jackal,
+the latter does not appear in the same favorable light as above. The
+jackal and the camel were good friends. One day the jackal said to his
+companion: "I know of a field of sugar-cane on the other side of the
+river, and near by there are plenty of crabs and small fishes. The crabs
+and fishes will do for me, while you can make a fine dinner off the
+sugar-cane. If there were only a way of getting across!" The camel
+offered to swim across, taking the jackal on his back, and in this way
+they reached the opposite bank. The jackal ate greedily, and had soon
+finished his meal; thereupon he began to run up and down, and to
+exercise his voice, screaming lustily. The camel begged him to desist,
+but in vain. Presently the cries of the jackal roused the villagers.
+They came with sticks and cudgels and cruelly beat the camel, and drove
+him out of the field before he had had time to eat more than a few
+mouthfuls. When the men were gone at last, the jackal said, "Let us now
+go home." "Very well," said the camel, "climb on my back." When they
+were midway between the two banks, the camel said to the jackal: "Why
+did you make such a noise and spoil my dinner, bringing on those cruel
+men, who beat me so that every bone in my body aches? Did I not beg you
+to stop?" "Oh," said the jackal, "I meant no harm. I was only singing a
+bit. I always sing after dinner, just for amusement." They had by this
+time reached the place where the water was deepest. "Well," said the
+camel, "I also like innocent amusements. For instance, it is my custom
+to lie on my back after dinner and to stretch myself a bit." With that
+he turned over, and the jackal fell into the stream. He swallowed
+pailfuls of water, and it was only with the utmost difficulty that he
+succeeded in reaching the bank. He had received a salutary lesson on the
+subject of inconsiderate selfishness--a fault very common with children,
+which such a story as this may help to correct.
+
+As to the modern fables, I fear they will yield us but a scanty harvest.
+The fables of La Fontaine, where they depart from AEsopian originals, are
+hardly suitable for children, and those of the German poet Gellert
+impress me, on the whole, in the same way, though a few of them may be
+added to our stock. For instance, the fable of the Greenfinch and the
+Nightingale. These two birds occupy the same cage before the window of
+Damon's house. Presently the voice of the nightingale is heard, and then
+ceases. The father leads his little boy before the cage and asks him
+which of the two he believes to have been the sweet musician, the
+brightly colored greenfinch or the outwardly unattractive nightingale.
+The child immediately points to the former, and is then instructed as to
+his error. The lesson, of course, is that fine clothes and real worth do
+not always go together. The fable of the Blind and the Lame Man teaches
+the advantages of co-operation. The Carriage Horse and the Cart Horse
+is a fable for the rich. Possibly the fable of the Peasant and his Son,
+which is directed against lies of exaggeration, may also be utilized,
+though I realize that there are objections to it.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[10] Buddhist Birth Stories; or Jataka Tales.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+STORIES FROM THE BIBLE.
+
+
+_Introduction._--It will have been noticed that in choosing our
+illustrative material we have confined ourselves to what may be called
+classical literature. The German _Maerchen_ has lived in the traditions
+of the German people for centuries, and is as fresh to-day as Snow-white
+herself when she woke from her trance. The fables, as has been shown,
+have been adopted into the language and literature of Persia, of Arabia,
+of the nations of Europe, and are still found in the hands of our own
+children. Let us continue to pursue the same method of selection.
+Instead of relying on juvenile literature just produced, or attempting
+to write moralizing stories specially adapted for the purpose in hand,
+let us continue, without excluding invention altogether, to rely mainly
+on that which has stood the test of time. In the third part of our
+primary course we shall use selected stories from the classical
+literature of the Hebrews, and later on from that of Greece,
+particularly the Odyssey and the Iliad. The stories to which I refer
+possess a perennial vitality, an indestructible charm. I am, I trust, no
+blind worshiper of antiquity. The mere fact that a thing has existed for
+a thousand or two thousand years is not always proof that it is worth
+preserving. But the fact that after having been repeated for two
+thousand years a story still possesses a perfectly fresh attraction for
+the child of to-day, does indeed prove that there is in it something of
+imperishable worth. How is this unique charm of the classical literature
+to be explained? What quality exists in Homer, in the Bible, enabling
+them, despite the changes of taste and fashion, to hold their own? The
+novels of the last century are already antiquated; few care to read
+them. The poetry of the middle ages is enjoyed only by those who
+cultivate a special taste for it. Historical and scientific works hardly
+have time to leave an impression before new books appear to crowd them
+out. But a few great masterpieces have survived, and the truth and
+beauty of these the lapse of ages, it seems, has left unaltered. Mr.
+Jebb remarks[11] that Homer aims at the lucid expression of primary
+motives, and refrains from multiplying individual traits which might
+interfere with their effect, and that this typical quality in Homer's
+portraiture has been one secret of its universal impressiveness. The
+Homeric outlines are in each case brilliantly distinct, while they leave
+to the reader a certain liberty of private conception, and he can fill
+them in so as to satisfy his own ideal. We may add that this is just as
+true of the Bible as of Homer. The biblical narrative, too, depicts a
+few essential traits of human nature, and refrains from multiplying
+minor traits which might interfere with the main effect. The Bible, too,
+draws its figures in outline, and leaves every age free to fill them in
+so as to satisfy its own ideal. Thus the biblical story, as conceived in
+the mind of Milton, reflects the Puritan ideal; the same story, narrated
+in a modern pulpit or Sunday-school, will inevitably reflect, to a
+greater or less degree, the modern humanitarian ideal, and this liberty
+of interpretation is one cause of the vitality of the Bible. But it may
+be asked further, How did Homer, how did the biblical writers, succeed
+in producing such universal types, in drawing their figures so correctly
+that, however the colors may thenceforth be varied, the outlines remain
+forever true? He who should attempt at the present day to give
+expression to the most universal traits of human nature, freed from the
+complex web of conditions, disengaged from the thousand-fold minor
+traits which modify the universal in particular instances, would find it
+difficult to avoid one or the other of two fatal errors. If he keeps his
+eyes fixed on the universal, he is in danger of producing a set of
+bloodless abstractions, pale shadows of reality, which will not live for
+a day, much less for a thousand years. If, on the other hand, he tries
+to keep close to reality he will probably produce more or less accurate
+copies of the types that surround him, but the danger will always be
+that the universal will be lost amid the particulars. By what quality in
+themselves or fortunate constellation of circumstances did Homer and the
+biblical writers succeed in avoiding both these errors, in creating
+types of the utmost universality and yet imparting to them the breath of
+life, the gait and accent of distinctive individuality? I imagine that
+they succeeded because they lived at a time when life was much less
+complex than it is at present, when the conversation, the manners, the
+thoughts, the motives of men were simple. They were enabled to
+individualize the universal because the most universal, the simplest
+motives, still formed the mainspring in the conduct of individuals. It
+was not necessary for them to enter into the barren region of
+abstraction and generalization to discover the universal. They pictured
+what they actually saw. The universal and the individual were still
+blended in that early dawn of human history.
+
+We have thus far spoken of Homer and the Bible jointly. But let us now
+give our particular attention to the biblical narrative. The narrative
+of the Bible is fairly saturated with the moral spirit; the moral issues
+are everywhere in the forefront. Duty, guilt and its punishment, the
+conflict of conscience with inclination, are the leading themes. The
+Hebrew people seem to have been endowed with what may be called "a moral
+genius," and especially did they emphasize the filial and fraternal
+duties to an extent hardly equaled elsewhere. Now it is precisely these
+duties that must be impressed on young children, and hence the biblical
+stories present us with the very material we require. They can not, in
+this respect, be replaced; there is no other literature in the world
+that offers what is equal to them in value for the particular object we
+have now in view. Before proceeding, however, to discuss the stories in
+detail, let me remind you that in studying them a larger tax is made on
+the attention of children, and a higher development of the moral
+judgment is presupposed, than in the previous parts of our course; for
+in them a succession of acts and their consequences are presented to the
+scholar, on each of which his judgment is to be exercised. Those who
+teach the biblical stories merely because it has been customary to
+regard the Bible as the text-book of morals and religion, without,
+however, being clear as to the place which belongs to it in a scheme of
+moral education, will always, I doubt not, achieve a certain result. The
+stories will never entirely fail of their beneficial effect, but I can
+not help thinking that this effect will be greatly heightened if their
+precise pedagogic value is distinctly apprehended, and if the
+preparatory steps have been taken in due course. It seems to me that the
+moral judgment should first be exercised on a single moral quality as
+exhibited in a single act before it is applied to a whole series of
+acts; and hence that the fable should precede the story.
+
+In making our selection from the rich material before us we need only
+keep in mind the principle already enunciated in the introductory
+lectures--that the moral teaching at any period should relate to the
+duties of that period.
+
+
+_Adam and Eve in Paradise._
+
+This is a wonderful story for children. It deserves to be placed at the
+head of all the others, for it inculcates the cardinal virtue of
+childhood--obedience. It is also a typical story of the beginning, the
+progress, and the culmination of temptation. Will you permit me to
+relate the story as I should tell it to little children? I shall
+endeavor to keep true to the outlines, and if I depart from the received
+version in other respects, may I not plead that liberty of
+interpretation to which I have referred above.
+
+Once upon a time there were two children, Adam and Eve. Adam was a fine
+and noble-looking lad. He was slender and well built, and fleet of foot
+as a young deer. Eve was as beautiful as the dawn, with long golden
+tresses, and blue eyes, and cheeks like the rose. They lived in the
+loveliest garden that you have ever heard of. There were tall trees in
+it, and open meadows where the grass was as smooth as on a lawn, and
+clear, murmuring brooks ran through the woods. And there were dense
+thickets filled with the perfume of flowers, and the flowers grew in
+such profusion, and there were so many different kinds, each more
+beautiful than the rest, that it was a perfect feast for the eyes to
+look at them. It was so warm that the children never needed to go
+in-doors, but at night they would just lie down at the foot of some
+great tree and look at the stars twinkling through the branches until
+they fell asleep. And when it rained they would find shelter in some
+beautiful cavern, spreading leaves and moss upon the ground for a bed.
+The garden where they lived was called Paradise. And there were ever so
+many animals in it--all kinds of animals--elephants, and tigers, and
+leopards, and giraffes, and camels, and sheep, and horses, and cows; but
+even the wild animals did them no harm. But the children were not alone
+in that garden: their Father lived with them. And every morning when
+they woke up their first thought was to go to him and to look up into
+his mild, kind face for a loving glance, and every evening before they
+went to sleep he would bend over them. And once, as they lay under the
+great tree, looking at a star shining through the branches, Adam said to
+Eve: "Our Father's eye shines just like that star."
+
+One day their Father said to them: "My children, there is one tree in
+this beautiful garden the fruit of which you must not eat, because it is
+hurtful to you. You can not understand why, but you know that you must
+obey your Father even when you do not understand. He loves you and knows
+best what is for your good." So they promised, and for a time
+remembered. But one day it happened that Eve was passing near the tree
+of the fruit of which she knew she must not eat, when what should she
+hear but a snake talking to her. She did not see it, but she heard its
+voice quite distinctly. And this is what the snake said: "You poor Eve!
+you must certainly have a hard time. Your Father is always forbidding
+you something. How stern he is! I am sure that other children can have
+all the fruit they want." Eve was frightened at first. She knew that her
+Father was kind and good, and that the snake was telling a falsehood. He
+did not always forbid things. But still he had forbidden her to eat of
+the fruit, and she thought that was a little hard; and she could not
+understand at all why he had done so. Then the snake spoke again:
+"Listen, Eve! He forbade you to eat only of it. It can do no harm just
+to look at it. Go up to it. See how it glistens among the branches! How
+golden it looks!" And the snake kept on whispering: "How good it must be
+to the taste! Just take one bite of it. Nobody sees you. Only one bite;
+that can do no harm." And Eve glanced around, and saw that no one was
+looking, and presently with a hasty movement she seized the fruit and
+ate of it. Then she said to herself: "Adam, too, must eat of it. I can
+never bear to eat it alone." So she ran hastily up to Adam, and said:
+"See, I have some of the forbidden fruit, and you, too, must eat." And
+he, too, looked at it and was tempted, and ate. But that evening they
+were very much afraid. They knew they had done wrong, and their
+consciences troubled them. So they hurried away into the wood where it
+was deepest, and hid themselves in the bushes. But soon they heard their
+Father calling to them; and it was strange, their Father's voice had
+never sounded so sad before. And in a few moments he found them where
+they were hiding. And he said to them: "Why do you hide from me?" And
+they were very much confused, and stammered forth all sorts of excuses.
+But he said: "Come hither, children." And he looked into their eyes, and
+said: "Have you eaten of the fruit of which I told you not to eat?" And
+Adam, who was thoughtless and somewhat selfish, spoke up, and said:
+"Yes, but it was Eve who gave me of it; she led me on." And Eve hung her
+head, and said: "It was the snake that made me eat." Now the snake, you
+know, was no real snake at all; she never saw it, she only heard its
+voice. And, you know, when we want to do anything wicked, there is
+within every one of us something bad, that seems to whisper: "Just look!
+Mere looking will do no harm"; and then: "Just taste; no one sees you."
+So the snake was the bad feeling in Eve's heart. And their Father took
+them by the hand, and said: "Tomorrow, when it is dawn, you will have to
+leave this place. In this beautiful Paradise no one can stay who has
+once disobeyed. You, Adam, must learn to labor; and, you, Eve, to be
+patient and self-denying for others. And, perhaps, after a long, long
+time, some day, you will come back with me into Paradise again."
+
+It is a free rendering, I admit. I have filled in the details so as to
+bring it down to the level of children's minds, but the outlines, I
+think, are there. The points I have developed are all suggested in the
+Bible. The temptation begins when the snake says with characteristic
+exaggeration: "Is it true that of _all_ the fruit you are forbidden to
+eat?" Exaggerating the hardships of the moral command is the first step
+on the downward road. The second step is Eve's approach to look at the
+fruit--"and she saw that it was good for food, and pleasant to the
+eyes." The third step is the actual enjoyment of what is forbidden. The
+fourth step is the desire for companionship in guilt, so characteristic
+of sin--"and she gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat."
+The next passage describes the working of conscience, the fear, the
+shame, the desire to hide, and then comes the moral verdict: You are
+guilty, both of you. You have lost your paradise. Try to win it back by
+labor and suffering.
+
+
+     NOTE.--I would add to what has been said in the text, that the
+     pupils are expected to return to the study of the Bible, to read
+     and re-read these stories, and to receive a progressively higher
+     interpretation of their meaning as they grow older. If in the above
+     I have spoken in a general way of a Father and his two children, it
+     will be easy for the Sunday-school teacher to add later on that the
+     Father in the story was God.
+
+
+
+_Cain and Abel._
+
+In teaching the story of the two brothers Cain and Abel the following
+points should be noted. The ancients believed that earthly prosperity
+and well-being depended on the favor of God, or the gods, and that the
+favor of the gods could be secured by sacrifice. If any one brought a
+sacrifice and yet prosperity did not set in, this was supposed to be a
+sign that his sacrifice had not been accepted. On the other hand, to say
+of any person that his sacrifice had been accepted, was tantamount to
+saying that he was happy and prosperous. Applying this to the story of
+Cain and Abel, we may omit all mention of the bringing of the
+sacrifices, which presents a great and needless difficulty to children's
+minds, and simply make the equivalent statement that Abel was prosperous
+and Cain was not.
+
+Again, Cain is not represented as an intentional murderer. The true
+interpretation of the story depends on our bearing this in mind. It is
+erroneous to suppose that a brand was fixed on Cain's forehead. The
+passage in question, correctly understood, means that God gave Cain a
+sign to reassure him that he should not be regarded by men as a common
+murderer. With these prefatory remarks the story may be told somewhat as
+follows:
+
+Long ago there lived two brothers. The name of the elder was Cain, and
+of the younger Abel. Cain was a farmer. He toiled in the sweat of his
+brow, tilling the stubborn ground, taking out stones, building fences.
+Winter and summer he was up before the sun, and yet, despite all his
+labor, things did not go well with him. His crops often failed through
+no fault of his. He never seemed to have an easy time. Moreover, Cain
+was of a proud disposition. Honest he was, and truthful, but taciturn,
+not caring much to talk to people whom he met, but rather keeping to
+himself. Abel, on the other hand, was a shepherd. He led, or seemed to
+lead, the most delightfully easy life. He followed his flocks from one
+pasture to another, watching them graze; and at noon he would often lie
+down in the shade of some leafy tree and play on his flute by the hour.
+He was a skillful musician, a bright, talkative companion, and
+universally popular. He was a little selfish too, as happy people
+sometimes are. He liked to talk about his successes, and, in a perfectly
+innocent way, which yet stung Cain to the quick, he would rattle on to
+his brother about the increase of his herds, about his plans and
+prospects, and the pleasant things that people were saying of him. Cain
+grew jealous of his brother Abel. He did not like to confess it to
+himself, but yet it was a fact. He kept comparing his own life of
+grinding toil with the easy, lazy life of the shepherd--it was not quite
+so lazy, but so it seemed to Cain--his own poverty with the other's
+wealth, his own loneliness with Abel's popularity. And a frown would
+often gather on his brow, and he grew more and more moody and silent. He
+knew that he was not in the right state of mind. There was a voice
+within him that said: "Sin is at thy door, but thou canst become master
+over it." Sin is like a wild beast crouching outside the door of the
+heart. Open the door ever so little, and it will force its way in, and
+will have you in its power. Keep the door shut, therefore; do not let
+the first evil thought enter into your heart. Thus only can you remain
+master of yourself. But Cain was already too far gone to heed the
+warning voice. One day he and Abel were walking together in the fields.
+Abel, no doubt, was chatting in his usual gay and thoughtless manner.
+The world was full of sunshine to him; and he did not realize in the
+least what dark shadows were gathering about his brother's soul. Perhaps
+the conversation ran somewhat as follows: He had just had an addition to
+his herd, the finest calf one could imagine: would not Cain come to
+admire it? And then, to-morrow evening he was to play for the dancers on
+the green, at the village feast: would not Cain join in the
+merry-making? When the solitary, embittered Cain heard such talk as this
+the angry feeling in his heart rose up like a flood. Overmastered by his
+passion, with a few wild, incoherent words of rage he turned upon his
+brother and struck him one fierce blow. Ah, that was a relief! The
+pent-up feeling had found vent at last. The braggart had received the
+chastisement he deserved! And Cain walked on; and for a time continued
+to enjoy his satisfaction. He had just noticed that Abel, when struck,
+had staggered and fallen, but he did not mind that. "Let him lie there
+for a while; he will pick himself up presently. He may be lame for a few
+days, and his milk-white face may not be so fair at the feast, but that
+will be all the better for him. It will teach him a lesson."
+Nevertheless, when he had walked on for some distance he began to feel
+uneasy. He looked around from time to time to see whether Abel was
+following him, and the voice of conscience began to be heard, saying,
+"Cain, where is thy brother?" But he silenced it by saying to himself,
+"Am I my brother's keeper? Is he such a child that he can not take care
+of himself--that he can not stand a blow?" But he kept looking back more
+and more often, and when he saw no one coming, he came at last to a dead
+halt. His heart was beating violently by this time; the beads of
+perspiration were gathered on his brow. He turned back to seek his
+missing brother. Then, as he did not meet him, he began to run, and
+faster and faster he ran, until at last, panting and out of breath, with
+a horrible fear hounding him on, he arrived at the place where he had
+struck the blow. And there he saw--a pool of blood, and the waxen face
+of his brother, and the glazed, broken eyes! And then he realized what
+he had done. And it is this situation which the Bible has in view in the
+words, "Behold, thy brother's blood cries up from the earth against
+thee." And then as he surveyed his deed in stony despair, he said to
+himself, "I am accursed from the face of the earth"--I am unworthy to
+live. The earth has no resting-place for such as I. But a sign was given
+him to show him that his life would not be required of him. He had not
+committed willful murder. He had simply given the reins to his violent
+passion. He must go into another land, where no one knew him, there
+through years of penance to try to regain his peace of soul. The moral
+of the story is: Do not harbor evil thoughts in the mind. If you have
+once given them entrance, the acts to which they lead are beyond your
+control. Cain's sin consisted in not crushing the feeling of envy in the
+beginning; in comparing his own lot with that of his more favored
+brother and dwelling on this comparison, until, in a fit of insane
+passion, he was led on to the unspeakable crime which, indeed, he had
+never contemplated, to which he had never given an inward assent. The
+story also illustrates the vain subterfuges with which we still seek to
+smother the consciousness of guilt after we have done wrong, until the
+time comes when our eyes are opened and we are compelled to face the
+consequences of our deeds and to realize them in all their bearings. The
+story of Cain and Abel is thus a further development of the theme
+already treated in simpler fashion in the story of Adam and Eve, only
+that, while in the latter case the filial duty of obedience to parents
+is in the foreground, attention is here directed to the duty which a
+brother owes to a brother. It is a striking tale, striking in the
+vividness with which it conjures up the circumstances before our minds
+and the clearness with which the principal motives are delineated; and
+it contains an awful warning for all time.
+
+The question here presents itself, whether we should arrange the
+biblical stories according to subjects--e. g., grouping together all
+those which treat of duty to parents, all those which deal with the
+relations of brothers to brothers, etc.--or whether we should adopt the
+chronological arrangement. On the whole, I am in favor of the latter. It
+is expected that the pupils, as they grow older, will undertake a more
+comprehensive study of the Bible, and for this they will be better
+prepared if they have been kept to the chronological order from the
+outset. Another more practical reason is, that children tire of one
+subject if it is kept before their minds too long. It is better,
+therefore, to arrange the stories in groups or cycles, each of which
+will afford opportunity to touch on a variety of moral topics. It will
+be impossible to continue to relate _in extenso_ the stories which I
+have selected, and I shall therefore content myself in the main with
+giving the points of each story upon which the teacher may lay stress.
+
+
+_The Story of Noah and his Sons._
+
+Describe the beauty of the vine, and of the purple grapes hanging in
+clusters amid the green leaves. How sweet is this fruit to the taste!
+But the juice of it has a dangerous property. Once there lived a man,
+Noah, who had three sons. He planted a vine, plucked the grapes, but did
+not know the dangerous property of the juice. The second son, on seeing
+his father in a state of intoxication, allowed his sense of the
+ridiculous to overcome his feeling of reverence. But the eldest and the
+youngest sons acted differently. They took a garment, covered their
+father with it, and averted their faces so as not to see his disgrace.
+The moral is quite important. An intelligent child can not help
+detecting a fault now and then even in the best of parents. But the
+right course for him to take is to throw the mantle over the fault, and
+to turn away his face. He should say to himself: Am I the one to judge
+my parents--I who have been the recipient of so many benefits at their
+hands, and who see in them so many virtues, so much superior wisdom? By
+such reasoning the feeling of reverence is even deepened. The momentary
+superiority which the child feels serves only to bring out his general
+inferiority.
+
+
+_The Abraham Cycle._
+
+There is a whole series of stories belonging to this group, illustrating
+in turn the virtues of brotherly harmony, generosity toward the weak,
+hospitality toward strangers, and maternal love. Abraham and Lot are
+near kinsmen. Their servants quarrel, and to avoid strife the former
+advises a separation. "If thou wilt go to the left," he says, "I will
+turn to the right; if thou preferrest the land to the right, I will take
+the left." Abraham, being the older, was entitled to the first choice,
+but he waived his claim. Lot chose the fairer portion, and Abraham
+willingly assented. "Let there be no strife between us, for we be
+brethren." The lesson is, that the older and wiser of two brothers or
+kinsmen may well yield a part of his rights for harmony's sake.
+
+Abraham's conduct toward the King of Sodom is an instance of generosity.
+The story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah may be introduced by
+describing the Dead Sea and the surrounding scene of desolation. The
+moral lies in the circumstance that ill treatment of strangers brought
+down the doom. Hospitality toward strangers is one of the shining
+virtues of the Old Testament heroes. Even at the present day strangers
+are still despised and ridiculed by the vulgar, their foreign manners,
+language, and habits seeming contemptible; the lesson of hospitality is
+not yet superfluous.
+
+The story of _Hagar and her Child_ I should recast in such a way as to
+exclude what in it is repellent, and retain the touching picture of
+maternal affection. I should relate it somewhat as follows: There was
+once a little lad whose name was Ishmael. He had lost his father and had
+only his mother to cling to. She was a tall, beautiful lady, with dark
+eyes which were often very sad, but they would light up, and there was
+always a sweet smile on her lips whenever she looked at her darling boy.
+Ishmael and his mother, Hagar, had never been separated; they were all
+in all to each other. One day it happened that they walked away from
+their home, which was near the great, sandy desert. Ishmael's mother was
+in deep distress, there was something troubling her, and every now and
+then a tear would steal down her cheeks. Ishmael was sad, too, because
+his mother was, but he did not dare to ask her what it was that grieved
+her, fearing to give her pain. So they walked on and on, holding each
+other's hands in silence. But at last they saw that they had lost their
+way; and they tried first one direction, and then another, thinking that
+it would bring them back toward home, but they only got deeper and
+deeper into the vast, lonely desert. And the sun burned hot and hotter
+above their heads, and little Ishmael, who had tried to keep up like a
+brave lad, at last became so parched with thirst, and so faint with want
+of food, and so tired with walking--for they had wandered about for
+many, many hours--that he could go on no farther. Then his mother took
+him up in her arms and laid him under a bush, where there was a little
+shade. And then, oh then, how her poor heart was wrung, and how she wept
+to see her darling in such suffering, and how she cried for help! Then
+she sat down on the glaring sand at some distance away, and turned her
+face in the direction opposite to where Ishmael was lying; for she said,
+"I can not bear to see my boy die." But just as she had given up all
+hope, suddenly she saw a noble-looking man, wearing the dress of the
+Bedouins, approach her. He had come from behind one of the sand hills,
+and it seemed to her as if he had come down straight from the sky. He
+asked her why she was in such grief, and when she told him, and pointed
+to her little son, he said: "It is fortunate that you have come to this
+place. There is a beautiful oasis close by." An oasis, children, is a
+spot of fruitful green earth right in the midst of the desert, like an
+island in the ocean. And the man took the boy up and carried him in his
+arms, and Hagar followed after him. And presently, when they came to the
+oasis, they found a cool, clear spring, full of the most delicious
+water, and palm-trees with ever so many dates on them, and all the
+people who lived there gathered around them. And the man who had been
+so kind proved to be the chief. And he took charge of Ishmael's
+education, showed him how to shoot with the bow and how to hunt, and was
+like a real father to him. And when Ishmael grew up he became a great
+chief of the Bedouins. But he always remained true to his mother, and
+loved her with all his heart.
+
+I am strongly in favor of omitting the story of the _Sacrifice of
+Isaac_. I do not think we can afford to tell young children that a
+father was prepared to draw the knife against his own son, even though
+he desisted in the end. I should not be willing to inform a child that
+so horrible an impulse could have been entertained even for a moment in
+a parent's heart. I regard the story, indeed, as, from an historical
+point of view, one of the most valuable in the Bible; it has a deep
+meaning; but it is not food fit for children. A great mistake has been
+made all along in supposing that whatever is true in religion must be
+communicated to children; and that if anything be very true and very
+important we ought to hasten to give it to children as early as
+possible; but there must be preparatory training. And the greatest
+truths are often of such a kind as only the mature mind, ripe in thought
+and experience, is fitted to assimilate.
+
+One of the most charming idyls of patriarchal times is the story of
+_Rebecca at the Well_. It illustrates positively, as the story of Sodom
+does negatively, the duty of hospitality toward strangers. "Drink, lord,
+and I will give thy camels drink also," is a pleasant phrase which is
+apt to stick in the memory. Moreover, the story shows the high place
+which the trusted servant occupied in the household of his master, and
+offers to the teacher an opportunity of dwelling on the respect due to
+faithful servants.
+
+
+_The Jacob Cycle._
+
+What treatment shall Jacob receive at our hands, he, the sly trickster,
+who cheats his brother of his birthright and steals a father's blessing?
+Yet he is one of the patriarchs, and is accorded the honorable title of
+"champion of God." To hold him up to the admiration of the young is
+impossible. To gloss over his faults and try to explain them away were a
+sorry business, and honesty forbids. The Bible itself gives us the right
+clew. His faults are nowhere disguised. He is represented as a person
+who makes a bad start in life--a very bad start, indeed--but who pays
+the penalty of his wrong-doing. His is a story of penitential
+discipline.
+
+In telling the story, all reference to the duplicity of Rebecca should
+be omitted, for the same reason that malicious step-mothers and cruel
+fathers have been excluded from the fairy tales.
+
+The points to be discussed may be summarized as follows:
+
+_Taking advantage of a brother in distress._--Jacob purchases the
+birthright for a mess of pottage.
+
+_Tender attachment to a helpless old father._--Esau goes out hunting to
+supply a special delicacy for his father's table. This is a point which
+children will appreciate. Unable to confer material benefits on their
+parents, they can only show their love by slight attentions.
+
+_Deceit._--Jacob simulates the appearance of his older brother and
+steals the blessing. In this connection it will be necessary to say that
+a special power was supposed to attach to a father's blessing, and that
+the words once spoken were deemed irrevocable.
+
+_Jacob's penitential discipline begins._--The deceiver is deceived, and
+made to feel in his own person the pain and disappointment which deceit
+causes. He is repeatedly cheated by his master Laban, especially in the
+matter which is nearest to him, his love for Rachel.
+
+_The forgiveness of injuries._--Esau's magnanimous conduct toward his
+brother.
+
+_The evil consequences of tale-bearing and conceit._--It is a
+significant fact that Joseph is not a mere coxcomb. He is a man of
+genius, as his later career proves, and the stirrings of his genius
+manifest themselves in his early dreams of future greatness. Persons of
+this description are not always pleasant companions, especially in their
+youth. They have not yet accomplished anything to warrant distinction,
+and yet they feel within themselves the presentiment of a destiny and of
+achievements above the ordinary. Their faults, their arrogance, their
+seemingly preposterous claims, are not to be excused, but neither is
+the envy they excite excusable. One of the hardest things to learn is to
+recognize without envy the superiority of a brother.
+
+_Moral cowardice._--Reuben is guilty of moral cowardice. He was an
+opportunist, who sought to accomplish his ends by diplomacy. If he, as
+the oldest brother, had used his authority and boldly denounced the
+contemplated crime, he might have averted the long train of miseries
+that followed.
+
+_Strength and depth of paternal love._--"Joseph is no more: an evil
+beast has devoured him. I will go mourning for my son Joseph into the
+grave." It is a piece of poetic justice that Jacob, who deceived his
+father in the matter of the blessing by covering himself with the skin
+of a kid, is himself deceived by the blood of a kid of the goats with
+which the coat of Joseph had been stained.
+
+In speaking of the temptation of Joseph in the house of Potiphar, it is
+enough to say that the wife conspired against her husband, and
+endeavored to induce Joseph to betray his master. A pretty addition to
+the story is to be found in the Talmud, to the effect that Joseph saw in
+imagination the face of his father before him in the moment of
+temptation, and was thereby strengthened to resist.
+
+_The light of a superior mind can not be hidden even in a
+prison._--Joseph wins the favor of his fellow-prisoners, and an
+opportunity is thus opened to him to exercise his talents on the largest
+scale.
+
+_Affliction chastens._--The famine had in the mean time spread to
+Palestine. The shadow of the grief for Joseph still lay heavily on the
+household of the patriarch. Joseph is lost; shall Benjamin, too, perish?
+It is pleasant to observe that the character of the brothers in the mean
+time has been changed for the better. There is evidently a lurking sense
+of guilt and a desire to atone for it in the manner in which Judah
+pledges himself for the safety of the youngest child. And the same
+marked change is visible in the conduct of all the brothers on the
+journey. The stratagem of the cup was cunningly devised to test their
+feelings. They might have escaped by throwing the blame on Benjamin.
+Instead of that, they dread nothing so much as that he may have to
+suffer, and are willing to sacrifice everything to save him. When this
+new spirit has become thoroughly apparent, the end to which the whole
+group of Jacob stories pointed all along is reached; the work of moral
+regeneration is complete. Jacob himself has been purified by affliction,
+and the brothers and Joseph have been developed by the same hard
+taskmaster into true men. The scene of recognition which follows, when
+the great vice-regent orders his attendants from the apartment and
+embraces those who once attempted his life, with the words, "I am
+Joseph, your brother: does my father still live?" is touching in the
+extreme, and the whole ends happily in a blaze of royal pomp, like a
+true Eastern tale.
+
+A word as to the _method_ which should be used in teaching these
+stories. If the fairy tale holds the moral element in solution, if the
+fable drills the pupil in distinguishing one moral trait at a time, the
+biblical stories exhibit a combination of moral qualities, or, more
+precisely, the interaction of moral causes and effects; and it is
+important for the teacher to give expression to this difference in the
+manner in which he handles the stories. Thus, in the fables we have
+simply one trait, like ingratitude, and its immediate consequences. The
+snake bites the countryman, and is cast out; there the matter ends. In
+the story of Joseph we have, first, the partiality of the father, which
+produces or encourages self-conceit in the son; Joseph's conceit
+produces envy in the brothers. This envy reacts on all concerned--on
+Joseph, who in consequence is sold into slavery; on the father, who is
+plunged into inconsolable grief; on the brothers, who nearly become
+murderers. The servitude of Joseph destroys his conceit and develops his
+nobler nature. Industry, fidelity, and sagacity raise him to high power.
+The sight of the constant affliction of their father on account of
+Joseph's loss mellows the heart of the brothers, etc. It is this
+interweaving of moral causes and effects that gives to the stories their
+peculiar value. They are true moral pictures; and, like the pictures
+used in ordinary object lessons, they serve to train the power of
+observation. Trained observation, however, is the indispensable
+preliminary of correct moral judgment.
+
+
+_The Moses Cycle._
+
+The figures of the patriarchs and the prophets appeal to us with a fresh
+interest the moment we regard them as human beings like ourselves, who
+were tempted as we are, who struggled as we are bound to do, and who
+acted, howsoever the divine economy might supervene, on their own
+responsibility. Looked at from this point of view, the figure of Moses,
+the Liberator, approaches our sympathies at the same time that he towers
+in imposing proportions above our level. Let us briefly review his
+career. Like Arminius at a later day, he is educated at the court of the
+enemies of his people. In dress, in manners, in speech, he doubtless
+resembles the grandees of Pharaoh's court. When he approaches the well
+in Midian, the daughter of Jethro exclaims, "Behold, an Egyptian is
+coming!" But at heart he remains a Hebrew, and is deeply touched by the
+cruel sufferings of his race. His first public intervention on their
+behalf takes place when he strikes down and kills a native overseer whom
+he detects in the act of maltreating a Hebrew slave. This is
+characteristic of the manner in which reformers begin. They direct their
+first efforts against the particular consequences of some great general
+wrong. Later on they perceive the uselessness of such a procedure and
+take heart to attack the evil at its source. Moses flees into the
+desert. The lonely life he leads there is necessary to the development
+of his ideas. Solitude is essential to the growth of genius. The
+burning bush is the outward symbol of an inward fact. The fire which can
+not be quenched is in his own breast, and out of that inward burning he
+hears more and more distinctly the voice which bids him go back and free
+his people. But when he considers the means at his disposal, when in
+fancy he sees his people, a miserable horde of slaves, pitted against
+the armed hosts of Pharaoh, he is ready to despair; until he hears the
+comforting voice, which says, "The Eternal is with thee; the
+unchangeable power of right is on thy side: it will prevail!" Like
+Jeremiah, like Isaiah, like all great reformers, Moses is profoundly
+imbued with the sense of his unfitness for the task laid upon him. He
+pleads that he is heavy of speech. He can only stammer forth the message
+of freedom. But he is reassured by the thought that a brother will be
+found, that helpers will arise, that the thought which he can barely
+formulate will be translated by other lesser men into a form suitable
+for the popular understanding. He returns to Egypt to find that the
+greatest obstacle in his way is the lethargy and unbelief of the very
+people whom he wishes to help. This again is a typical feature of his
+career. The greatest trials of the reformer are due not to the open
+enmity of the oppressor, but to the meanness, the distrust and jealousy,
+of those whom oppression has degraded. At last, however, the miracle of
+salvation is wrought, the weak prevail over the mighty, the cause of
+justice triumphs against all apparent odds to the contrary. The slaves
+rise against their masters, the flower of Egyptian chivalry is
+destroyed. Pharaoh rallies his army and sets out in pursuit. But the
+Hebrews, under Moses's guidance, have gained the start, and escape into
+the wilderness in safety.
+
+Freedom is a precious opportunity--no more. Its value depends on the use
+to which it is put. And therefore, no sooner was the act of liberation
+accomplished, than the great leader turned to the task of positive
+legislation, the task of developing a higher moral life among his
+people. But here a new and keener disappointment awaited him. When he
+descended from the mount, the glow of inspiration still upon his face,
+the tablets of the law in his hand, he saw the people dancing about the
+golden calf. It is at this moment that Michel Angelo, deeply realizing
+the human element in the biblical story, has represented the form of the
+liberator in the colossal figure which was destined for Pope Julius's
+tomb. "The right foot is slightly advanced; the long beard trembles with
+the emotion which quivers through the whole frame; the eyes flash
+indignant wrath; the right hand grasps the tablets of the law; in
+another moment, we see it plainly, he will leap from his sitting posture
+and shatter the work which he has made upon the rocks." This trait, too,
+is typical. Many a leader of a noble cause has felt, in moments of deep
+disappointment, as if he could shatter the whole work of his life. Many
+a man, in like situation, has said to himself: The people are willing
+enough to hail the message of the higher law to-day, but to-morrow they
+sink back into their dull, degraded condition, as if the vision from the
+mount had never been reported to them. Let me, then, leave them to their
+dreary ways, to dance about their golden calf. But a better and stronger
+mood prevailed in Moses. He ascended once more to the summit, and there
+prostrated himself in utter self-renunciation and self-effacement. He
+asked nothing for himself, only that the people whom he loved might be
+benefited ever so little, be raised ever so slowly above their low
+condition. And again the questioning spirit came upon him, and he said,
+as many another has said: The paths of progress are dark and twisted;
+the course of history seems so often to be in the wrong direction. How
+can I be sure that there is such a thing as eternal truth--that the
+right will prevail in the end? And then there came to him that grand
+revelation, the greatest, as I think, and the most sublime in the Old
+Testament, when the eternal voice answered his doubt, and said: "Thou
+wouldst know my ways, but canst not. No living being can see my face;
+only from the rearward canst thou know me." As a ship sails through the
+waters and leaves its wake behind, so the divine Power passes through
+the world and leaves behind the traces by which it can be known. And
+what are those traces? Justice and mercy. Cherish, therefore, the divine
+element in thine own nature, and thou wilt see it reflected in the world
+about thee. Wouldst thou be sure that there is such a thing as a divine
+Power? be thyself just and merciful. And so Moses descended again to his
+people, and became exceeding charitable in spirit. The Bible says: "The
+man Moses was exceeding humble; there was no one more humble than he on
+the face of the earth." He bore with resignation their complaints, their
+murmurings, their alternate cowardice and foolhardiness. He was made to
+feel, like many another in his place, that his foes were they of his own
+household. He had an only brother and an only sister. His brother and
+sister rose up against him. His kinsmen, too, revolted from him. He
+endured all their weakness, all their follies; he sought to lift them by
+slow degrees to the height of his own aims. He set the paths of life and
+death before them, and told them that the divine word can not be found
+by crossing the seas or by searching the heavens, but must be found in
+the human heart; and if men find it not there they will find it nowhere
+else. And so, at last, his pilgrimage drew to a close. He had reached
+the confines of Palestine. Once more he sought the mountain-top, and
+there beheld the promised land stretching far away--the land which his
+eyes were to see but which he was never to enter. Few great reformers,
+indeed few men who have started a great movement in history, and have
+been the means of producing deep and permanent changes in the ideas and
+institutions of society, have lived to see those changes consummated.
+The course of evolution is slow, and the reformer can hope at best to
+see the promised land from afar--as in a dream. Happy he if, like
+Moses, he retains the force of his convictions unabated, if his
+spiritual sight remains undimmed, if the splendid vision which attended
+him in the beginning inspires and consoles him to the end.
+
+The narrative which has thus been sketched touches on some of the
+weightiest problems of human existence, and deals with motives both
+complex and lofty. I have entered into the interpretation of these
+motives for the purpose of showing that they are too complex and too
+lofty to be within the comprehension of children, and that it is an
+error, though unfortunately a common one, to attempt to use the grand
+career of a reformer and liberator as a text for the moral edification
+of the very young. They are wholly unprepared to understand, and that
+which is not understood, if forced on the attention, awakens repugnance
+and disgust. Few of those who have been compelled to study the life of
+Moses in their childhood have ever succeeded in conquering this
+repugnance, or have drawn from it, even in later life, the inspiration
+and instruction which it might otherwise have afforded them. For our
+primary course, however, we can extract a few points interesting even to
+children, thus making them familiar with the name of Moses, and
+preparing the way for a deeper interest later on. The incidents of the
+story which I should select are these: The child Moses exposed on the
+Nile; the good sister watching over his safety; the kind princess
+adopting him as her son; the sympathy manifested by him for his
+enslaved brethren despite his exemption from their misfortunes. The
+killing of the Egyptian should be represented as a crime, palliated but
+not excused by the cruelty of the overseer. Special stress may be laid
+upon the chivalric conduct of Moses toward the young girls at the well
+of Midian. The teacher may then go on to say that Moses, having
+succeeded in freeing his people from the power of the Egyptian king,
+became their chief, that many wise laws are ascribed to him, etc. The
+story of the spies, and of the end of Moses, may also be briefly told.
+
+The mention of the laws of Moses leads me to offer a suggestion. I have
+remarked above that children should be taught to observe moral pictures
+before any attempt is made to deduce moral principles; but certain
+_simple rules_ should be given even to the very young--must, indeed, be
+given them for their guidance. Now, in the legislation ascribed to Moses
+we find a number of rules fit for children, and a collection of these
+rules might be made for the use of schools. They should be committed to
+memory by the pupils, and perhaps occasionally recited in chorus. I have
+in mind such rules as these:[12]
+
+1. Ye shall not lie. (Many persons who pay attention only to the
+Decalogue, and forget the legislation of which it forms a part, seem not
+to be aware that there is in the Pentateuch [Lev. xix, 11] a distinct
+commandment against lying.)
+
+2. Ye shall not deceive one another.
+
+3. Ye shall take no bribe.
+
+4. Honor thy father and thy mother.
+
+5. Every one shall reverence his mother and his father. (Note that the
+father is placed first in the one passage and the mother first in the
+other, to indicate the equal title of both to their children's
+reverence.)
+
+6. Thou shalt not speak disrespectfully of those in authority.
+
+7. Before the hoary head thou shalt rise and pay honor to the aged.
+
+10. Thou shalt not spread false reports.
+
+11. Thou shalt not go about as a tale-bearer among thy fellows.
+
+12. Thou shalt not hate thy neighbor in thy heart, but shalt warn him of
+his evil-doing.
+
+13. Thou shalt not bear a grudge against any, but thou shalt love thy
+neighbor as thyself.
+
+8. Thou shalt not speak evil of the deaf (thinking that he can not hear
+thee), nor put an obstacle in the way of the blind.
+
+9. If there be among you a poor man, thou shalt not harden thy heart,
+nor shut thy hand from thy poor brother, but thou shalt open thy hand
+wide unto him, and shalt surely lend him sufficient for his need.
+
+14. If thou seest the property of thine enemy threatened with
+destruction, thou shalt do thy utmost to save it.
+
+15. If thou findest what is not thine own, and the owner is not known
+to thee, guard it carefully, that thou mayest restore it to its rightful
+owner.
+
+16. Thou shalt not do evil because many others are doing the same evil.
+
+Bearing grudges, lying, mocking those who (like the deaf and blind) are
+afflicted with personal defects, appropriating what is found without
+attempting to discover the owner, seeking to excuse wrong on the plea
+that many others are guilty of it--all these are forms of moral evil
+with which children are perfectly familiar, and against which they need
+to be warned. It is more than strange that such commandments as the
+sixth and eighth of the Decalogue (the commandment against murder and
+against adultery, forsooth), which are inapplicable to little children,
+should be made so much of in primary moral instruction, while those
+other commandments which do come home to them are often overlooked. The
+theory here expounded, that moral teaching should keep pace with the
+experience and intelligence of the child, should save us from such
+mistakes.
+
+To proceed with the stories, the book of Joshua offers nothing that we
+can turn to account, nor do the stories of Jael, Deborah, and Gideon
+contain moral lessons fit for the young. Sour milk is not proper food
+for children, nor do those stories afford the proper moral food in
+which, so to speak, the milk of human kindness has turned sour. The
+labors of Samson, the Hebrew Hercules, are likewise unfit to be used at
+this stage, at least for the purpose of moral instruction. The story of
+the daughter of Jephtha, the Hebrew Iphigenia, is exquisitely pathetic,
+but it involves the horrible idea of human sacrifice, and therefore had
+better be omitted. The acts and speeches of Samuel mark an epoch in the
+history of the Hebrew religion, and are of profound interest to the
+scholar. But there are certain features, such as the killing of Agag,
+which would have to be eliminated in any case; then the theological and
+moral elements are so blended that it would be difficult if not
+impossible to separate them; and altogether the character of this mighty
+ancient seer, this Hebrew Warwick, this king-maker and enemy of kings,
+is above the comprehension of primary scholars. We shall therefore omit
+the whole intervening period, and pass at once from the Moses cycle to
+
+
+_The David Cycle._
+
+The first story of this group is that of _Naomi and Ruth_, the
+ancestress of David. Upon the matchless beauty of this tale it is
+unnecessary to expatiate. I wish to remark, however, in passing that it
+illustrates as well as any other--better perhaps than any other--the
+peculiar art of the biblical narrative to which we have referred above.
+If any one at the present day were asked to decide whether a woman
+placed in Ruth's situation would act rightly in leaving her home and
+following an aged mother-in-law to a distant country, how many pros and
+cons would he have to weigh before he would be able to say yes or no?
+Are her own parents still living, and are they so situated that she is
+justified in leaving them? Are there other blood relations who have a
+prior claim on her? Has she raised expectations at home which she ought
+not to disappoint, or undertaken duties which ought not to be set aside
+in deference to a sentiment no matter how noble? Of all such side issues
+and complications of duty which would render a decision like hers
+difficult in modern times, the story as we have it before us is cleared.
+All minor traits are suppressed. It is assumed that she has a right to
+go if she pleases, and the mind is left free to dwell, unimpeded by any
+counter-considerations, upon the beauty of her choice. This choice
+derives its excellence from the fact that it was perfectly free. There
+was no tie of consanguinity between Naomi and her. The two women were
+related in such a way that the bond might either be drawn more tightly
+or severed without blame. Orpah, too, pitied her mother-in-law. She
+wept, but she returned to her home. We can not, on that account, condemn
+her. It was not her bounden duty to go. Ruth, on the other hand, might
+perhaps have satisfied her more sensitive conscience by accompanying her
+mother-in-law as far as Bethlehem, and then returning to Moab. But she
+preferred instead exile and the hardships of a life among strangers. Not
+being a daughter, she freely took upon herself the duties of a daughter;
+and it is this that constitutes the singular merit of her action. In
+telling the story it is best to follow the original as closely as
+possible. "Entreat me not to leave thee, nor to desist from following
+after thee, for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I
+will lodge: thy people shall be my people: where thou diest will I die
+and there will I be buried." Where in universal literature shall we find
+words more eloquent of tender devotion than these? It will be noticed
+that I have left out the phrase "and thy God shall be my God" for two
+reasons. No matter how much we may love another person, religious
+convictions ought to be held sacred. We have no right to give up our
+convictions even for affection's sake. Moreover, the words correctly
+understood are really nothing but an amplification of what has preceded.
+The language of Ruth refers throughout to the proposed change of
+country. "Whither thou goest, I will go; where thou lodgest, I will
+lodge: thy folk shall be my folk; where thou diest, I will die." And the
+phrase "Thy God shall be my God" has the same meaning. The ancients
+believed that every country has its God, and to say "Thy God shall be my
+God" was tantamount to saying "Thy country shall be my country." It is
+better, therefore, to omit these words. Were we to retain them, the
+impression might be created that Ruth contemplated a change of religion
+merely to please the aged Naomi, and such a step from a moral point of
+view would be unwarrantable. It was this Gentile woman Ruth who became
+the ancestress of the royal house of David.
+
+The story of _David's life_ is replete with dramatic interest. It may
+be arranged in a series of pictures. First picture: David and
+Goliath--i. e., skill pitted against brute strength, or the deserved
+punishment of a bully. Every boy takes comfort in this story. Second
+picture: David and Jonathan, their arms twined about each other's neck,
+a beautiful example of youthful friendship. Especially should the
+unselfishness of Jonathan be noted. He, the Hebrew crown prince, so far
+from being jealous of his rival, recognized the superior qualities of
+the latter and served him with the most generous fidelity. Third
+picture: David the harper, playing before the gloomy, moody king, whom
+an evil spirit has possessed. It should be noted how difficult is the
+task incumbent upon Jonathan of combining his duty to his father and his
+affection for his friend. Yet he fails in neither. Fourth picture:
+David's loyalty manifest. He has the monarch in his power in the camp,
+in the cave, and proves that there is no evil intention in his mind. The
+words of Saul are very touching, "Is it thy voice I hear, my son David?"
+Fifth picture: the battle, the tragical end of Saul and Jonathan. The
+dirge of David floats above the field: "The beauty of Israel is slain
+upon the high places. How are the mighty fallen!" etc. A second series
+of pictures now begins. David is crowned king, first by his clansmen,
+then by the united tribes. David, while besieging Bethlehem, is athirst
+and there is no water. Three of his soldiers cut their way to the well
+near the gate, which is guarded by the enemy, and bring back a cup of
+water. He refuses it, saying: "It is not water, but the blood of the men
+who have risked their lives for me." Omitting the story of Bathsheba, we
+come next to the rebellion of Absalom. The incidents of this rebellion
+may be depicted as follows: First, Absalom in his radiant beauty at the
+feast of the sheep-shearer. Next, Absalom at the gate playing the
+demagogue, secretly inciting the people to revolt. Next, David ascending
+Mount Olivet weeping, the base Shimei, going along a parallel ridge,
+flinging stones at the king and reviling him. David remarks: "If my own
+son seek my life, how shall I be angry with this Benjamite?" Next, the
+death of Absalom in the wood. Finally, David at the gate receiving the
+news of Absalom's death, and breaking forth into the piercing cry: "O my
+son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee! O
+Absalom, my son, my son!" It is the story of a rebellious and undutiful
+child, and illustrates by contrast the unfathomable depth of a father's
+love, of a love that yearns even over the wicked, over the lost.
+
+The points of the stories included in the David cycle are: skill and
+courage triumphant over brute strength, unselfish friendship, loyalty, a
+leader's generosity toward his followers, and parental love. The
+arrangement of the words in the lament of David for his son deserves to
+be specially noted. It corresponds to and vividly describes the rhythmic
+movements of the emotions excited by great sorrow. From the life of
+Solomon we select only the judgment, related in I Kings, iii. We may
+compare with it a similar story, showing, however, interesting
+variations, in the Jataka tales.
+
+With this our selections from the Old Testament narrative come to an
+end. The ideal types are exhausted, and the figures which now appear
+upon the scene stand before us in the dry light of history.
+
+From the New Testament we select for the primary course the story of the
+Good Samaritan, as illustrative of true charity. Selected passages from
+the Sermon on the Mount may also be explained and committed to memory.
+The Beatitudes, however, and the parables lie outside our present
+limits, presupposing as they do a depth of spiritual experience which is
+lacking in children.
+
+
+     NOTE.--It should be remembered that the above selections have been
+     made with a view to their being included in a course of unsectarian
+     moral instruction. Such a course must not express the religious
+     tenets of any sect or denomination. Much that has here been
+     omitted, however, can be taught in the Sunday schools, the
+     existence of which alongside of the daily schools is, as I have
+     said, presupposed in these lectures. I have simply tried to cull
+     the moral meaning of the stories, leaving, as I believe, the way
+     open for divergent religious interpretations of the same stories.
+     But I realize that the religious teacher may claim the Bible wholly
+     for his own, and may not be willing to share even a part of its
+     treasure with the moral teacher. If this be so, then these
+     selections from the Bible, for the present, at all events, will
+     have to be omitted. They can, nevertheless, be used by judicious
+     parents, and some if not all of the suggestions they contain may
+     prove acceptable to teachers of Sunday schools.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] In his Introduction to Homer.
+
+[12] I have taken the liberty of altering the language here and there,
+for reasons that will be obvious in each case.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE ODYSSEY AND THE ILIAD.
+
+
+As we leave the field of biblical literature and turn to the classic
+epic of Greece, a new scene spreads out before us, new forms and faces
+crowd around us, we breathe a different atmosphere.
+
+The poems of Homer among the Greeks occupied a place in many respects
+similar to that of the Bible among the Hebrews. At Athens there was a
+special ordinance that the Homeric poems should be recited once every
+fourth year at the great Panathenaic festival. On this occasion the
+rhapsode, standing on an elevated platform, arrayed in rich robes, with
+a golden wreath about his head, addressed an audience of many thousands.
+The poems were made the subject of mystical, allegorical, and
+rationalistic interpretation, precisely as was the case with the text of
+the Bible. As late as the first century of our era, the first book
+placed in the hands of children, the book from which they learned to
+read and write, was Homer. Xenophon in the Symposium has one of the
+guests say: "My father, anxious that I should become a good man, made me
+learn all the poems of Homer, and now I could repeat the whole Iliad
+and Odyssey by heart."[13]
+
+We shall not go quite to the same length as Xenophon. We should hardly
+think it sufficient in order to make a good man of a boy to place Homer
+in his hands. But we do believe that the knowledge of the Homeric poems,
+introduced at the right time and in the right way, will contribute to
+such a result.
+
+Let us, however, examine more closely in what the value of these poems
+consists.
+
+Ulysses is the hero of the Odyssey, Achilles of the Iliad. Ulysses is
+pre-eminently the type of resourceful intelligence, Achilles of valor.
+In what way will these types appeal to our pupils? As the boy develops
+beyond the early period of childhood, there shows itself in him a spirit
+of adventure. This has been noticed by all careful educators. Now, there
+is a marked difference between the spirit of adventure and the spirit of
+play. Play consists in the free exercise of our faculties. Its
+characteristic mark is the absence of taxing effort. The child is said
+to be at play when it frolics in the grass, when it leaps or runs a
+race, or when it imitates the doings of its elders. As soon, however, as
+the exertion required in carrying on a game becomes appreciable, the
+game is converted into a task and loses its charm. The spirit of
+adventure, on the contrary, is called forth by obstacles; it delights in
+the prospect of difficulties to be overcome; it is the sign of a fresh
+and apparently boundless energy, which has not yet been taught its
+limitations by the rough contact with realities. The spirit of adventure
+begins to develop in children when the home life no longer entirely
+contents them, when they wish to be freed from the constraint of
+dependence on others, when it seems to them as if the whole world lay
+open to them and they could dare and do almost anything. It is at this
+time that children love to read tales of travel, and especially tales of
+the sea, of shipwreck, and hair-breadth escapes, of monsters slain by
+dauntless heroes, of rescue and victory, no matter how improbable or
+impossible the means. Now success in such adventures depends largely on
+courage. And it is good for children to have examples even of physical
+courage set before them, provided it be not brutal. The craven heart
+ought to be despised. Mere good intentions ought not to count. Unless
+one has the resolute will, the fearless soul, that can face difficulties
+and danger without flinching, he will never be able to do a man's work
+in the world. This lesson should be imprinted early. A second
+prerequisite of success is presence of mind, or what has been called
+above resourceful intelligence. And this quality is closely allied with
+the former. Presence of mind is the result of bravery. The mind will act
+even in perilous situations if it be not paralyzed by fear. It is fear
+that causes the wheels of thought to stop. If one can only keep off the
+clog of fear, the mind will go on revolving and often find a way of
+escape where there seemed none. Be not a coward, be brave and
+clear-headed in the midst of peril--these are lessons the force of which
+is appreciated by the growing pupil. The Iliad and Odyssey teach them on
+every page.
+
+Bravery and presence of mind, it is true, are commonly regarded as
+worldly, rather than as, in the strict sense, moral qualities. However
+that may be--and I, for one, am inclined to rank true courage and true
+presence of mind among the highest manifestations of the moral
+nature--these qualities when they show themselves in the young soon
+exert a favorable influence on the whole character, and serve especially
+to transform the attitude of the child toward its parents. Hitherto the
+young child has been content to be the mere recipient of favors; as soon
+as the new consciousness of strength, the new sense of independence and
+manliness has developed, the son begins to feel that he would like to
+give to his parents as well as to receive from them; to be of use to his
+father, and to confer benefits, as far as he is able, in the shape of
+substantial services. These remarks will find their application in the
+analysis of the Odyssey, which we shall presently attempt.
+
+The Odyssey is a tale of the sea. Ulysses is the type of sagacity, as
+well as of bravery, his mind teems with inventions. In the boy
+Telemachus we behold a son struggling to cut loose from his mother's
+leading-strings, and laudably ambitious to be of use to his parents. In
+the Odyssey we gain a distinct advance upon the moral results obtained
+from the study of the biblical stories. In the Bible it is chiefly the
+love of parents for their children which is dwelt upon, in the Odyssey
+the devotion of children to their parents; and this, of course, marks a
+later stage. In the Odyssey, too, the conjugal relation comes into the
+foreground. In the Bible, the love of the husband for his wife is
+repeatedly touched upon. But the love of the wife for the husband is not
+equally emphasized, and the relations between the two do not receive
+particular attention. The joint authority of both parents over their
+children is the predominant fact, the delicate bonds of feeling which
+subsist between the parents themselves are not in view. And this again
+corresponds to the earlier stage of childhood. The young child perceives
+the joint love which father and mother bear toward it, and feels the
+joint authority which they exercise over it. But as the child grows up,
+its eyes are opened to perceive more clearly the love which the parents
+bear to one another, and its affection for both is fed and the desire to
+serve them is strengthened by this new insight. Thus it is in the
+Odyssey. The yearning of Ulysses for his wife, the fidelity of Penelope
+during twenty years of separation, are the leading theme of the
+narrative, and the effect of this love upon their son is apparent
+throughout the poem.
+
+Let us now consider the ethical elements of the Odyssey in some detail,
+arranging them under separate heads.
+
+1. _Conjugal affection._ Ulysses has been for seven years a prisoner in
+the cave of Calypso. The nymph of the golden hair offers him the gift of
+immortality if he will consent to be her husband, but he is proof
+against her blandishments, and asks for nothing but to be dismissed, so
+that he may see his dear home and hold his own true wife once more in
+his arms.
+
+
+     "Apart upon the shore
+     He sat and sorrowed. And oft in tears
+     And sighs and vain repinings passed the hours,
+     Gazing with wet eyes on the barren deep."[14]
+
+
+I would remark that, as the poem is too long to be read through
+entirely, and as there are passages in it which should be omitted, it is
+advisable for the teacher to narrate the story, quoting, however, such
+passages as give point to the narrative or have a special beauty of
+their own. Read the description of Calypso's cave v, 73, ff. Penelope
+meantime is patiently awaiting her husband's return. Read the passages
+which describe her great beauty, especially that lovely word-picture in
+which she is described as standing by a tall column in the hall, a maid
+on either side, a veil hiding her lustrous face, while she addresses the
+suitors. The noblest princes of Ithaca and the surrounding isles entreat
+her hand in marriage, and, thinking that Ulysses will never return, hold
+high revels in his house, and shamelessly consume his wealth. Read the
+passage ii, 116-160, describing Penelope's device to put off the
+suitors, and at the same time to avert the danger which would have
+threatened her son in case she had openly broken with the chiefs. The
+love of Penelope is further set vividly before us by many delicate
+touches. Every stranger who arrives in Ithaca is hospitably entertained
+by the queen, and loaded with gifts, in the hope that he may bring her
+some news of her absent lord, and often she is deceived by wretches who
+speculate on her credulous grief. See the passage xiv, 155. During the
+day she is busy with her household cares, overseeing her maids, and
+seeking to divert her mind by busy occupation; but at night the silence
+and the solitude become intolerable, and she weeps her eyes out on her
+lonely couch. How the love of Penelope influences her boy, who was a
+mere babe when his father left for Troy, how the whole atmosphere of the
+house is charged with the sense of expectancy of the master's return, is
+shown in the passage ii, 439, where Telemachus says:
+
+
+     "Nurse, let sweet wine be drawn into my jars,
+     The finest next to that which thou dost keep,
+     Expecting our unhappy lord, if yet
+     The nobly born Ulysses shall escape
+     The doom of death and come to us again."
+
+
+The best cheer, the finest wine, the best of everything is kept ready
+against the father's home-coming, which may be looked for any day, if
+haply he has escaped the doom of death. There is one passage in which
+we might suspect that the poet has intended to show the hardening effect
+of grief on Penelope's character, xv, 479. Penelope does not speak to
+her old servants any more; she passes them by without a word, apparently
+without seeing them. She does not attend to their wants as she used to
+do, and they, in turn, do not dare to address her. But we may forgive
+this seeming indifference inasmuch as it only shows how completely she
+is absorbed by her sorrow.
+
+A companion picture to the love of Ulysses and Penelope is to be found
+in the conjugal relation of Alcinous, king of Phaeacia, and his wife
+Arete, as described in the sixth book and the following. This whole
+episode is incomparably beautiful. Was there ever a more perfect
+embodiment of girlish grace and modesty, coupled with sweetest
+frankness, than Nausicaa? And what a series of lovely pictures is made
+to pass in quick succession before our eyes as we read the story! First,
+Nausicaa, moved by the desire to prepare her wedding garments against
+her unknown lover's coming, not ashamed to acknowledge the motive to her
+own pure heart, but veiling it discreetly before her mother; then the
+band of maidens setting out upon their picnic party, Nausicaa holding
+the reins; next the washing of the garments, the bath, the game of ball,
+the sudden appearance of Ulysses, the flight of her companions, the
+brave girl being left to keep her place alone, with a courage born of
+pity for the stranger, and of virtuous womanhood.
+
+
+       "Alone
+     The daughter of Alcinous kept her place,
+     For Pallas gave her courage and forbade
+     Her limb to tremble. So she waited there."
+
+
+Who that has inhaled the fragrance of her presence from these pages can
+ever forget the white-armed Nausicaa! Then follows the picture of the
+palace, a feast for the imagination, the most magnificent description, I
+think, in the whole poem.
+
+
+     "For on every side beneath
+     The lofty roof of that magnanimous king
+     A glory shone as of the summer moons."
+
+
+Read from l. 100-128, book vii. Next we witness the splendid hospitality
+proffered to the stranger guest. For again and again in this poem the
+noble sentiment is repeated, that the stranger and the poor are sent
+from Jove. Then we see Ulysses engaged in the games, outdoing the rest,
+or standing aside and watching "the twinkle of the dancer's feet." The
+language, too, used on these occasions is strikingly noble, so courteous
+and well-chosen, so simple and dignified, conveying rich meanings in the
+fewest possible words. What can be finer, e. g., than Nausicaa's
+farewell to Ulysses?
+
+
+     "Now, when the maids
+     Had seen him bathed, and had anointed him
+     With oil, and put his sumptuous mantle on,
+     And tunic, forth he issued from the bath,
+     And came to those who sat before their wine.
+     Nausicaa, goddess-like in beauty, stood
+     Beside a pillar of that noble roof,
+     And, looking on Ulysses as he passed,
+     Admired, and said to him in winged words--
+     'Stranger, farewell, and in thy native land
+     Remember thou hast owed thy life to me.'"
+
+
+Nausicaa, it is evident, loves Ulysses; she stands beside a pillar, a
+favorite attitude for beautiful women with Homer, and as Ulysses passes,
+she addresses to him those few words so fraught with tenderness and
+renunciation. Ulysses's own speech to Arete, too, is a model of
+simplicity and dignity, possessing, it seems to me, something of the
+same quality which we admire in the speeches of Othello. But throughout
+this narrative, pre-eminent above all the other figures in it is the
+figure of the queen herself, of Arete. Such a daughter as Nausicaa could
+only come from such a mother. To her Ulysses is advised to address his
+supplication. She is the wise matron, the peace-maker who composes the
+angry feuds of the men. And she possesses the whole heart and devotion
+of her husband.
+
+
+       "Her Alcinous made his wife
+     And honored her as nowhere else on earth
+     Is any woman honored who bears charge
+     Over a husband's household. From their hearts
+     Her children pay her reverence, and the king
+     And all the people, for they look on her
+     As if she were a goddess. When she goes
+     Abroad into the streets, all welcome her
+     With acclamations. Never does she fail
+     In wise discernment, but decides disputes
+     Kindly and justly between man and man.
+     And if thou gain her favor there is hope
+     That thou mayst see thy friends once more."
+
+
+We have then as illustrations of conjugal fidelity: the main picture,
+Ulysses and Penelope; the companion picture, Alcinous and Arete; and, as
+a foil to set off both, there looms up every now and then in the course
+of the poem, that unhappy pair, Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, the latter,
+the type of conjugal infidelity, from which the soul of Homer revolts.
+This foil is very skillfully used. At the very end of the poem, when
+everything is hastening toward a happy consummation, Ulysses having
+slain the suitors and being about to be reunited with his wife, we are
+introduced into the world of shades, where the ghost of Agamemnon once
+more rehearses the story of Clytemnestra's treachery. At that moment the
+spirits of the suitors come flying down to Hades, and the happier
+destiny of Ulysses is thus brought into clearer relief by contrast.
+
+The next ethical element of which I have to speak is the _filial
+conduct_ of Telemachus. In him the spirit of adventure has developed
+into a desire to help his father. In the early part of the poem he
+announces that he is now a child no longer. He begins to assert
+authority. And yet in his home he continues to be treated as a child.
+The suitors laugh at him, his own mother can not bear to think that he
+should go out into the wide world alone, and the news of his departure
+is accordingly concealed from her. Very fine are the words in which her
+mother's love expresses itself when she discovers his absence:
+
+
+     "And her knees failed her and her heart
+     Sank as she heard. Long time she could not speak;
+     Her eyes were filled with tears, and her clear voice
+     Was choked; yet, finding words at length, she said:
+     'O herald! wherefore should my son have gone?'
+
+                               "... Now, my son,
+     My best beloved, goes to sea--a boy
+     Unused to hardship and unskilled to deal
+     With strangers. More I sorrow for his sake
+     Than for his father's. I am filled with fear."
+
+
+She lies outstretched upon the floor of her chamber overcome with grief
+(iv, 910). Telemachus, however, has gone forth in search of his sire. He
+finds a friend in Pisistratus, the son of Nestor, and the two youths
+join company on the journey. They come to the court of Menelaus, King of
+Sparta. There, as everywhere, Telemachus hears men speak of his great
+father in terms of the highest admiration and praise, and the desire
+mounts in his soul to do deeds worthy of such a parent. What better
+stimulation can we offer to growing children than this recital of
+Telemachus's development from boyhood into manhood? His reception at the
+court of Menelaus affords an opportunity to dwell again upon the
+generous and delicate hospitality of the ancient Greeks. First, the
+guest is received at the gates; then conducted to the bath and anointed;
+then, when he is seated on a silver or perchance a golden throne, a
+handmaiden advances with a silver ewer and a golden jug to pour water on
+his hands; then a noble banquet is set out for his delectation; and only
+then, after all these rites of hospitality have been completed, is
+inquiry made as to his name and his errand. "The stranger and the poor
+are sent from Jove." The stranger and the poor were welcome in the
+Grecian house. Telemachus returns to Ithaca, escapes the ambush which
+the murderous suitors had set for him, and arrives just in time to help
+his father in his last desperate struggle. It is he, Telemachus, who
+conveys the weapons from the hall, he who pinions the treacherous
+Melantheus and renders him harmless. He quits himself like a
+man--discreet, able to keep his counsel, and brave and quick in the
+moment of decisive action.
+
+The third element which attracts our attention is the resourceful
+intelligence of Ulysses, or his _presence of mind_ amid danger. This is
+exhibited on many occasions; for instance, in the cave of Polyphemus;
+where he saves his companions by concealing them in the fleece of the
+giant's flock, and at the time of the great shipwreck, before he reaches
+Phaeacia. His raft is shattered, and he is plunged into the sea. He
+clings to one of the fragments of the wreck, but from this too is
+dislodged. For two days and nights he struggles in the black, stormy
+waters. At last he approaches the shore, but is nearly dashed to pieces
+on the rocks. He swims again out to sea, until, finding himself opposite
+the mouth of a river, he strikes out for this and lands in safety.
+Pallas Athene has guided him. But Pallas Athene is only another name for
+his own courage and presence of mind. In the same connection may be
+related the story of Ulysses's escape from the Sirens and from the twin
+perils of Scylla and Charybdis. The Sirens, with their bewitching songs,
+seek to lure him and his companions to destruction. But he stops the
+ears of his companions with wax so that they can not hear, and causes
+himself to be bound with stout cords to the mast, so that, though he may
+hear, he can not follow. There is an obvious lesson contained in this
+allegory. When about to be exposed to temptation, if you know that you
+are weak, do not even listen to the seductive voices. But no matter how
+strong you believe yourself to be, at least give such pledges and place
+yourself in such conditions that you may be prevented from yielding.
+From the monster Charybdis, too, Ulysses escapes by extraordinary
+presence of mind and courage. He leaps upward to catch the fig-tree in
+the moment when his ship disappears beneath him in the whirlpool; then,
+when it is cast up again, lets go his hold and is swept out into safe
+waters.
+
+The fourth ethical element which we select from the poem is the
+_veneration shown to grandparents_. I have already remarked, in a former
+lecture, that if parents wish to retain the reverence of their children
+they can not do better than in their turn to show themselves reverent
+toward their own aged and enfeebled parents. Of such conduct the Odyssey
+offers us a number of choice examples. Thus Achilles, meeting Ulysses in
+the realm of shades, says that the hardest part of his lot is to think
+of his poor old father, who has no one now to defend him, and who,
+being weak, is likely to be neglected and despised. If only he, the
+strong son, could return to the light of day, how he would protect his
+aged parent and insure him the respect due to his gray hairs! Penelope
+is advised to send to Laertes, Telemachus's grandfather, to secure his
+aid against the suitors. But with delicate consideration she keeps the
+bad news from him, saying: "He has enough grief to bear on account of
+the loss of his son Ulysses; let me not add to his burden." Again, how
+beautiful is the account of the meeting of Laertes and Ulysses after the
+return and triumph of the latter. On the farm, at some distance from the
+town, Ulysses seeks his aged father. Laertes is busy digging. He, a
+king, wears a peasant's rustic garb and lives a life of austere
+self-denial, grieving night and day for his absent son. When Ulysses
+mentions his name, Laertes at first does not believe. Then the hero
+approaches the bent and decrepit old man, and becomes for the moment a
+child again. He brings up recollections of his earliest boyhood; he
+reminds his father of the garden-patch which he set aside for him long,
+long ago; of the trees and vines which he gave him to plant; and then
+the father realizes that the mighty man before him is indeed his son.
+
+The structural lines of the Odyssey are clearly marked, and can easily
+be followed. First, we are shown the house of Ulysses bereft of its
+master. The noisy crowd of suitors are carousing in the hall; the
+despairing Penelope weaves her web in an upper chamber; the resolve to
+do and dare for his father's sake awakens in Telemachus's heart. Next
+Ulysses on the way home, dismissed by Calypso, arrives at Phaeacia, from
+which port without further misadventures he reaches Ithaca. The stay in
+the palace of the Phaeacian king gives an opportunity for a rehearsal of
+the previous sufferings and adventures of the hero. Then follow the
+preparations for the conflict with the suitors; the appearance of
+Ulysses in his own palace in the guise of a beggar; the insults and
+blows which he receives at the hands of his rivals and their menials;
+the bloody fight, etc. In relating the story I should follow the course
+of the poem, laying stress upon the ethical elements enumerated above.
+The fight which took place in the palace halls with closed doors should
+be merely mentioned, its bloody details omitted. The hanging of the
+maidens, the trick of Vulcan related in a previous book, and other minor
+episodes, which the teacher will distinguish without difficulty, should
+likewise be passed over. The recognition scenes are managed with
+wonderful skill. The successive recognitions seem to take place
+inversely in the order of previous connection and intimacy with Ulysses.
+The son, who was a mere babe when his father left and did not know him
+at all, recognizes him first. This, moreover, is necessary in order that
+his aid may be secured for the coming struggle. Next comes Argus, the
+dog.
+
+
+     "While over Argus the black night of death
+     Came suddenly as he had seen
+     Ulysses, absent now for twenty years."
+
+
+Next comes the nurse Eurycleia, who recognizes him by a scar inflicted
+by the white tusk of a boar whom he hunted on Parnassus's heights; then
+his faithful followers; last of all, and slowly and with difficulty, the
+wife who had so yearned for him. Her impetuous son could not understand
+her tardiness. Vehemently he chid her: "Mother, unfeeling mother, how
+canst thou remain aloof, how keep from taking at my father's side thy
+place to talk with him and question him? Mother, thy heart is harder
+than a stone." But she only sat opposite to Ulysses and gazed and gazed
+and wondered. Ulysses himself, at last, in despair at her impenetrable
+silence, exclaimed, "An iron heart is hers." But it was only that she
+could not believe. It seemed so incredible to her that the long waiting
+should be over; that the desire of her heart should really be fulfilled;
+that this man before her should be indeed the husband, the long-lost
+husband, and not a mocking dream. But when at last it dawned upon her,
+when he gave her the token of the mystery known only to him and to her,
+then indeed the ice of incredulity melted from her heart, and her knees
+faltered and the tears streamed from her eyes, "and she rose and ran to
+him and flung her arm about his neck and kissed his brow, and he, too,
+wept as in his arms he held his dearly loved and faithful wife." "As
+welcome as the land to those who swim the deep, tossed by the billow
+and the blast, and few are those who from the hoary ocean reach the
+shore, their limbs all crested with the brine, these gladly climb the
+sea-beach and are safe--so welcome was her husband to her eyes, nor
+would her fair white arms release his neck."
+
+And so with the words uttered by the shade of Agamemnon we may fitly
+close this retrospect of the poem:
+
+
+     "Son of Laertes, fortunate and wise,
+     Ulysses! thou by feats of eminent might
+     And valor dost possess thy wife again.
+     And nobly minded is thy blameless queen,
+     The daughter of Icarius, faithfully
+     Remembering him to whom she gave her troth
+     While yet a virgin. Never shall the fame
+     Of his great valor perish, and the gods
+     Themselves shall frame, for those who dwell on earth,
+     Sweet strains in praise of sage Penelope."
+
+
+Well might the rhapsodes in the olden days, clad in embroidered robes,
+with golden wreaths about their brows, recite such verses as these to
+the assembled thousands and ten thousands. Well might the Hellenic race
+treasure these records of filial loyalty, of maiden purity, of wifely
+tenderness and fidelity, of bravery, and of intelligence. And well may
+we, too, desire that this golden stream flowing down to us from ancient
+Greece shall enter the current of our children's lives to broaden and
+enrich them.
+
+I have not space at my command to attempt a minute analysis of the
+Iliad, and shall content myself with mentioning the main significant
+points. The Iliad is full of the noises of war, the hurtling of arrows,
+the flashing of swords, the sounding of spears on metal shields, the
+groans of the dying, "whose eyes black darkness covers." The chief
+virtues illustrated are valor, hospitality, conjugal affection, respect
+for the aged. I offer the following suggestions to the teacher. After
+describing the wrath of Achilles, relate the meeting of Diomedes and
+Glaucus, their hostile encounter, and their magnanimous embrace on
+discovering that they are great friends. Read the beautiful passage
+beginning with the words, "Even as the generations of leaves, such are
+those likewise of men." Dwell on the parting of Hector and Andromache.
+Note that she has lost her father, her lady mother, and her seven
+brothers. Hector is to her father, mother, brother, and husband, all in
+one. Note also Hector's prayer for his son that the latter may excel him
+in bravery. As illustrative of friendship, tell the story of Achilles's
+grief for Patroclus, how he lies prone upon the ground, strewing his
+head with dust; how he follows the body lamenting; how he declares that
+though the dead forget their dead in Hades, even there he would not
+forget his dear comrade. Next tell of the slaying of Hector, and how
+Achilles honors the suppliant Priam and restores to him the body of his
+son. It is the memory of his own aged father, which the sight of Priam
+recalls, that melts Achilles's heart, and they weep together, each for
+his own dead. Finally, note the tribute paid to Hector's delicate
+chivalry in the lament of Helen.[15]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] See Jebb's Introduction to Homer.
+
+[14] The quotations are taken from Bryant's translation of the Odyssey.
+
+[15] In connection with the Homeric poems selections from Greek
+mythology may be used, such as the story of Hercules, of Theseus, of
+Perseus, the story of the Argonauts, and others. These, too, breathe the
+spirit of adventure and illustrate the virtues of courage, perseverance
+amid difficulties, chivalry, etc.
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMAR COURSE.
+
+LESSONS ON DUTY.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE DUTY OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE.
+
+
+In setting out on a new path it is well to determine beforehand the goal
+we hope to reach. We are about to begin the discussion of the grammar
+course, which is intended for children between twelve and fifteen years
+of age, and accordingly ask: What result can we expect to attain? One
+thing is certain, we must continue to grade our teaching, to adapt each
+successive step to the capacities of the pupils, to keep pace with their
+mental development.
+
+The due gradation of moral teaching is all-important. Whether the
+gradations we propose are correct is, of course, a matter for
+discussion; but, at all events, a point will be gained if we shall have
+brought home forcibly to teachers the necessity of a graded, of a
+progressive system.
+
+In the primary course we have set before the pupils examples of good and
+bad conduct, with a view to training their powers of moral perception.
+We are now ready to advance from percepts to concepts. We have
+endeavored to cultivate the faculty of observation, we can now attempt
+the higher task of generalization. In the primary course we have tried
+to make the pupils perceive moral distinctions; in the grammar course we
+shall try to make them reason about moral distinctions, help them to
+gain notions of duty, to arrive at principles or maxims of good conduct.
+The grammar course, therefore, will consist in the main of lessons on
+duty.
+
+What has just been said, however, requires further explanation to
+prevent misapprehension. I have remarked that the pupil is now to reach
+out toward concepts of duty, and to establish for himself maxims or
+principles of conduct. But of what nature shall these maxims be? The
+philosopher Kant has proposed the following maxim: "So act that the
+maxim underlying thy action may justify itself to thy mind as a
+universal law of conduct." According to him, the note of universality is
+the distinctive characteristic of all ethical conduct. The school of
+Bentham proposes a different maxim: "So act that the result of thy
+action shall tend to insure the greatest happiness of the greatest
+number." Theologians tell us so to act that our will may harmonize with
+the will of God. But pupils of the grammar grade are not ripe to
+understand such metaphysical and theological propositions. And,
+moreover, as was pointed out in our first lecture, it would be a grave
+injustice to teach in schools supported by all ethical first principles
+which are accepted only by some. We are not concerned with first
+principles. We exclude the discussion of them, be they philosophical or
+theological, from the school. But there are certain secondary
+principles, certain more concrete rules of behavior, which nevertheless
+possess the character of generalizations, and these will suffice for
+our purpose. And with respect to these there is really no difference of
+opinion among the different schools and sects, and on them as a
+foundation we can build.
+
+It is our business to discover such secondary principles, and in our
+instruction to lead the pupil to the recognition of them. The nature of
+the formulas of duty which we have in mind--formulas which shall express
+the generalized moral experience of civilized mankind, will appear more
+plainly if we examine the processes by which we arrive at them. An
+example will best elucidate: Suppose that I am asked to give a lesson on
+the duty of truthfulness. At the stage which we have now reached it will
+not be enough merely to emphasize the general commandment against lying.
+The general commandment leaves in the pupil's mind a multitude of doubts
+unsolved. Shall I always tell the truth--that is to say, the whole
+truth, as I know it, and to everybody? Is it never right to withhold the
+truth, or even to say what is the contrary of true, as, e. g., to the
+sick or insane. Such questions as these are constantly being asked. What
+is needed is a rule of veracity which shall leave the general principle
+of truth-speaking unshaken, and shall yet cover all these exceptional
+cases. How to arrive at such a rule? I should go about it in the
+following manner, and the method here described is the one which is
+intended to be followed throughout the entire course of lessons on duty.
+I should begin by presenting a concrete case. A certain child had broken
+a precious vase. When asked whether it had done so, it answered, "No."
+How do you characterize such a statement? As a falsehood. The active
+participation of the pupils in the discussion is essential. Properly
+questioned, they will join in it heart and soul. There must be constant
+give and take between teacher and class. Upon the fulfillment of this
+condition the value of this sort of teaching entirely depends. The
+teacher then proceeds to analyze the instance above given, or any other
+that he may select from those which the pupils offer him. The child says
+no when it should have said yes, or a person says black when he should
+have said white. In what does the falsehood of such statements consist?
+In the circumstance that the words spoken do not correspond to the
+facts. Shall we then formulate the rule of veracity as follows: Make thy
+words correspond to the facts; and shall we infer that any one whose
+words do not correspond to the facts is a liar? But clearly this is not
+so. The class is asked to give instances tending to prove the
+insufficiency of the proposed formula. Before the days of Copernicus it
+was generally asserted that the sun revolves around the earth. Should we
+be justified in setting down the many excellent persons who made such
+statements as liars? Yet their words did not correspond to the facts.
+Very true; but they did not intend to deviate from the facts--they did
+not know better. Shall we then change the formula so as to read: Intend
+that thy words shall conform to the facts? But the phrase "correspond to
+the facts" needs to be made more explicit. Cases occur in which a
+statement does correspond to the facts, or, at least, seems to do so,
+and yet a contemptible falsehood is implied. The instance of the truant
+boy is in point who entered the school-building five minutes before the
+close of the exercises, and on being asked at home whether he had been
+at school, promptly answered "Yes"; and so he had been for five minutes.
+But in this case the boy suppressed a part of the facts--and, moreover,
+the essential part--namely, that he had been absent from school for five
+hours and fifty-five minutes. Cases of mental reservation and the like
+fall under the same condemnation. The person who took an oath in court,
+using the words, "As truly as I stand on this stone," but who had
+previously filled his shoes with earth, suppressed the essential
+fact--viz., that he had filled his shoes with earth.
+
+Shall we then formulate the rule in this wise: Intend to make thy words
+correspond to the essential facts? But even this will not entirely
+satisfy. For there are cases, surely, in which we deliberately frame our
+words in such a way that they shall not correspond to the essential
+facts--for instance, if we should meet a murderer who should ask us in
+which direction his intended victim had fled, or in the case of an
+insane person intent on suicide, or of the sick in extreme danger, whom
+the communication of bad news would kill. How can we justify such a
+procedure? We can justify it on the ground that language as a means of
+communication is intended to further the rational purposes of human
+life, and not conversely are the rational purposes of life to be
+sacrificed to any merely formal principle of truth-telling. A person
+who, like the murderer, is about to use the fact conveyed to him by my
+words as a weapon with which to kill a fellow-being has no right to be
+put in possession of the fact. An insane person, who can not use the
+truthful communications of others except for irrational ends, is also
+outside the pale of those to whom such tools can properly be intrusted.
+And so are the sick, when so enfeebled that the shock of grief would
+destroy them. For the rational use of grief is to provoke in us a moral
+reaction, to rouse in us the strength to bear our heavy burdens, and, in
+bearing, to learn invaluable moral lessons. But those who are physically
+too weak to rally from the first shock of grief are unable to secure
+this result, and they must therefore be classed, for the time being, as
+persons not in a condition to make rational use of the facts of life. It
+is not from pain and suffering that we are permitted to shield them.
+Pain and suffering we must be willing both to endure and also to inflict
+upon those whom we love best, if necessary. Reason can and should
+triumph over pain. But when the reasoning faculty is impaired, or when
+the body is too weak to respond to the call of reason, the obligation of
+truth-_telling_ ceases. I am not unaware that this is a dangerous
+doctrine to teach. I should always take the greatest pains to impress
+upon my pupils that the irrational condition, which alone justifies the
+withholding of the truth, must be so obvious that there can be no
+mistake about it, as in the case of the murderer who, with knife in
+hand, pursues his victim, or of the insane, or of the sick, in regard to
+whom the physician positively declares that the shock of bad news would
+endanger life. But I do think that we are bound to face these
+exceptional cases, and to discuss them with our pupils. For the latter
+know as well as we that in certain exceptional situations the best men
+do not tell the truth, that in such situations no one tells the truth,
+except he be a moral fanatic. And unless these exceptional cases are
+clearly marked off and explained and justified, the general authority of
+truth will be shaken, or at least the obligation of veracity will become
+very much confused in the pupil's mind. In my opinion, the confusion
+which does exist on this subject is largely due to a failure to
+distinguish between inward truthfulness and truthfulness as reflected in
+speech. The law of inward truthfulness tolerates no exceptions. We
+should always, and as far as possible, be absolutely truthful, in our
+thinking, in our estimates, in our judgments. But language is a mere
+vehicle for the communication of thoughts and facts to others, and in
+communicating thoughts and facts we _are_ bound to consider in how far
+others are fit to receive them. Shall we then formulate the rule of
+veracity thus: Intend to communicate the essential facts to those who
+are capable of making a rational use of them. I think that some such
+formula as this might answer. I am not disposed to stickle for this
+particular phraseology. But the formula as stated illustrates my
+thought, and also the method by which the formulas, which we shall have
+to teach in the grammar course are to be reached. It is the inductive
+method. First a concrete case is presented, and a rule of conduct is
+hypothetically suggested, which fits this particular case. Then other
+cases are adduced. It is discovered that the rule as it stands thus far
+does not fit them. It must therefore be modified, expanded. Then, in
+succession, other and more complex cases, to which the rule may possibly
+apply are brought forward, until every case we can think of has been
+examined; and when the rule is brought into such shape that it fits them
+all, we have a genuine moral maxim, a safe rule for practical guidance,
+and the principle involved in the rule is one of those secondary
+principles in respect to which men of every sect and school can agree.
+It needs hardly to be pointed out how much a casuistical discussion of
+this sort tends to stimulate interest in moral problems, and to quicken
+the moral judgment. I can say, from an experience of over a dozen years,
+that pupils between twelve and fifteen years of age are immensely
+interested in such discussions, and are capable of making the subtilest
+distinctions. Indeed, the directness with which they pronounce their
+verdict on fine questions of right and wrong often has in it something
+almost startling to older persons, whose contact with the world has
+reconciled them to a somewhat less exacting standard.
+
+But here a caution is necessary. Some children seem to be too fond of
+casuistry. They take an intellectual pleasure in drawing fine
+distinctions, and questions of conscience are apt to become to them mere
+matter of mental gymnastics. Such a tendency must be sternly repressed
+whenever it shows itself. In fact, reasoning about moral principles is
+always attended with a certain peril. After all, the actual morality of
+the world depends largely on the moral habits which mankind have formed
+in the course of many ages, and which are transmitted from generation to
+generation. Now a habit acts a good deal like an instinct. Its force
+depends upon what has been called unconscious cerebration. As soon as we
+stop to reason about our habits, their hold on us is weakened, we
+hesitate, we become uncertain, the interference of the mind acts like a
+brake. It is for this reason that throughout the primary course, we have
+confined ourselves to what the Germans call _Anschauung_, the close
+observation of examples with a view of provoking imitation or
+repugnance, and thus strengthening the force of habit. Why, then,
+introduce analysis now, it may be asked. Why not be content with still
+further confirming the force of good habits? My answer is that the force
+of habit must be conserved and still further strengthened, but that
+analysis, too, becomes necessary at this stage. And why? Because habits
+are always specialized. A person governed by habits falls into a certain
+routine, and moves along easily and safely as long as the conditions
+repeat themselves to which his habits are adjusted. But when confronted
+by a totally new set of conditions, he is often quite lost and helpless.
+Just as a person who is solely guided by common sense in the ordinary
+affairs of life, is apt to be stranded when compelled to face
+circumstances for which his previous experience affords no precedent. It
+is necessary, therefore, to extract from the moral habits the latent
+rules of conduct which underlie them, and to state these in a general
+form which the mind can grasp and retain, and which it will be able to
+apply to new conditions as they arise. To this end analysis and the
+formulation of rules are indispensable. But in order, at the same time,
+not to break the force of habit, the teacher should proceed in the
+following manner: He should always take the moral habit for granted. He
+should never give his pupils to understand that he and they are about to
+examine whether, for instance, it is wrong or not wrong to lie. The
+commandment against lying is assumed, and its obligation acknowledged at
+the outset. The only object of the analysis is to discern more exactly
+what is meant by lying, to define the rule of veracity with greater
+precision and circumspectness, so that we may be enabled to fulfill the
+commandment more perfectly. It is implied in what I have said that the
+teacher should not treat of moral problems as if he were dealing with
+problems in arithmetic. The best thing he can do for his pupils--better
+than any particular lesson he can teach--will be to communicate to them
+the spirit of moral earnestness. And this spirit he can not communicate
+unless he be full of it himself. The teacher should consecrate himself
+to his task; he should be penetrated by a sense of the lofty character
+of the subject which he teaches. Even a certain attention to externals
+is not superfluous. The lessons, in the case of the younger children,
+may be accompanied by song; the room in which the classes meet may be
+hung with appropriate pictures, and especially is it desirable that the
+faces of great and good men and women shall look down upon the pupils
+from the walls. The instruction should be given by word of mouth; for
+the right text-books do not yet exist, and even the best books must
+always act as a bar to check that flow of moral influence which should
+come from the teacher to quicken the class. To make sure that the pupils
+understand what they have been taught, they should be required from time
+to time to reproduce the subject matter of the lessons in their own
+language, and using their own illustrations, in the form of essays.
+
+And now, after this general introduction, let us take up the lessons on
+the duties in their proper order. What is the proper order? This
+question, you will remember, was discussed in the lecture on the
+classification of duties. It was there stated that the life of man from
+childhood upward, may be divided into periods, that each period has its
+special duties, and that there is in each some one central duty around
+which the others may be grouped. During the school age the paramount
+duty of the pupil is to study. We shall therefore begin with the duties
+which are connected with the pursuit of knowledge. We shall then take up
+the duties which relate to the physical life and the feelings; next, the
+duties which arise in the family; after that the duties which we owe to
+all men; and lastly we will consider in an elementary way the civic
+duties.
+
+_The Duty of acquiring Knowledge._--In starting the discussion of any
+particular set of duties, it is advisable, as has been said, to present
+some concrete case, and biographical or historical examples are
+particularly useful. I have sometimes begun the lesson on the duty of
+acquiring knowledge by telling the story of Cleanthes and that of
+Hillel. Cleanthes, a poor boy, was anxious to attend the school of Zeno.
+But he was compelled to work for his bread, and could not spend his days
+in study as he longed to do. He was, however, so eager to learn that he
+found a way of doing his work by night. He helped a gardener to water
+his plants, and also engaged to grind corn on a hand-mill for a certain
+woman. Now the neighbors, who knew that he was poor, and who never saw
+him go to work, were puzzled to think how he obtained the means to live.
+They suspected him of stealing, and he was called before the Judge to
+explain. The Judge addressed him severely, and commanded him to tell the
+truth. Cleanthes requested that the gardener and the woman might be sent
+for, and they testified that he had been in the habit of working for
+them by night. The Judge was touched by his great zeal for knowledge,
+acquitted him of the charge, and offered him a gift of money. But Zeno
+would not permit him to take the gift. Cleanthes became the best pupil
+of Zeno, and grew up to be a very wise and learned man, indeed one of
+the most famous philosophers of the Stoic school. The story of Hillel
+runs as follows: There was once a poor lad named Hillel. His parents
+were dead, and he had neither relatives nor friends. He was anxious to
+go to school, but, though he worked hard, he did not earn enough to pay
+the tuition fee exacted at the door. So he decided to save money by
+spending only half his earnings for food. He ate little, and that little
+was of poor quality, but he was perfectly happy, because with what he
+laid aside he could now pay the door-keeper and find a place inside,
+where he might listen and learn. This he did for some time, but one day
+he was so unlucky as to lose his situation. He had now no money left to
+buy bread, but he hardly thought of that, so much was he grieved at the
+thought that he should never get back to his beloved school. He begged
+the door-keeper to let him in, but the surly man refused to do so. In
+his despair a happy thought occurred to him. He had noticed a skylight
+on the roof. He climbed up to this, and to his delight found that
+through a crack he could hear all that was said inside. So he sat there
+and listened, and did not notice that evening was coming on, and that
+the snow was beginning to fall. Next morning when the teachers and
+pupils assembled as usual, every one remarked how dark the room seemed.
+The sun too was shining again by this time quite brightly outside.
+Suddenly some one happened to look up and with an exclamation of
+surprise pointed out the figure of a boy against the skylight. Quickly
+they all ran outside, climbed to the roof, and there, covered with snow,
+quite stiff and almost dead, they found poor Hillel. They carried him
+indoors, warmed his cold limbs, and worked hard to restore him to life.
+He was at last resuscitated, and from this time on was allowed to attend
+the school without paying. Later he became a great teacher. He lived in
+Palestine at about the time of Jesus. He was admired for his learning,
+but even more for his good deeds and his unfailing kindness to every
+one. The question is now raised, Why did Cleanthes work at night instead
+of seeking rest, and why did Hillel remain outside in the bitter cold
+and snow? The pupils will readily answer, Because they loved knowledge.
+But why is knowledge so desirable? With this interrogatory we are fairly
+launched on the discussion of our subject. The points to be developed
+are these:
+
+First, knowledge is indispensable as a means of making one's way in the
+world. Show the helplessness of the ignorant. Compare the skilled
+laborer with the unskilled. Give instances of merchants, statesmen,
+etc., whose success was due to steady application and superior
+knowledge. Knowledge is power (namely, in the struggle for existence).
+
+Secondly, knowledge is honor. An ignorant person is despised. Knowledge
+wins us the esteem of our fellow-men.
+
+Thirdly, knowledge is joy in a twofold sense. As the perception of light
+to the eye of the body, so is the perception of truth to the eye of the
+mind. The mind experiences an intrinsic pleasure in seeing things in
+their true relations. Furthermore, mental growth is accompanied by the
+joy of successful effort. This can be explained even to a boy or girl of
+thirteen. Have you ever tried hard to solve a problem in algebra?
+Perhaps you have spent several hours over it. It has baffled you. At
+last, after repeated trials, you see your way clear, the solution is
+within your grasp. What a sense of satisfaction you experience then. It
+is the feeling of successful mental effort that gives you this
+satisfaction. You rejoice in having triumphed over difficulties, and the
+greater the difficulty, the more baffling and complex the problems, the
+greater is the satisfaction in solving them.
+
+Fourthly, knowledge enables us to do good to others. Speak of the use
+which physicians make of their scientific training to alleviate
+suffering and save life. Refer to the manifold applications of science
+which have changed the face of modern society, and have contributed so
+largely to the moral progress of the world. Point out that all true
+philanthropy, every great social reform, implies a superior grasp of the
+problems to be solved, as well as devotion to the cause of humanity. In
+accordance with the line of argument just sketched the rule for the
+pursuit of knowledge may be successively expanded as follows:
+
+Seek knowledge that you may succeed in the struggle for existence.
+
+Seek knowledge that you may gain the esteem of your fellow-men.
+
+Seek knowledge for the sake of the satisfaction which the attainment of
+it will give you.
+
+Seek knowledge that you may be able to do good to others.
+
+These points suffice for the present. In the advanced course we shall
+return to the consideration of the intellectual duties. I would also
+recommend that the moral teacher, not content with dwelling on the uses
+of knowledge in general, should go through the list of subjects which
+are commonly taught in school, such as geography, history, language,
+etc., and explain the value of each. This is too commonly neglected.
+
+Having stationed the duty of acquiring knowledge in the center, connect
+with it the various lesser duties of school life, such as punctual
+attendance, order, diligent and conscientious preparation of home
+lessons, etc. These are means to an end, and should be represented as
+such. He who desires the end will desire the means. Get your pupils to
+love knowledge, and the practice of these minor virtues will follow of
+itself. Other matters might be introduced in connection with what has
+been mentioned, but enough has been said to indicate the point of view
+from which the whole subject of intellectual duty should, as I think, be
+treated in the present course.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO THE PHYSICAL LIFE.
+
+
+Of the duties which relate to the physical life, the principal one is
+that of self-preservation, and this involves the prohibition of suicide.
+When one reflects on the abject life which many persons are forced to
+lead, on their poverty in the things which make existence desirable and
+the lack of moral stamina which often goes together with such
+conditions, the wonder is that the number of suicides is not much
+greater than it actually is. It is true most people cling to life
+instinctively, and have an instinctive horror of death. Nevertheless,
+the force of instinct is by no means a sufficient deterrent in all
+cases, and the number of suicides is just now alarmingly on the
+increase. If we were here considering the subject of suicide in general
+we should have to enter at large into the causes of this increase; we
+should have to examine the relations subsisting between the increase of
+suicide and the increase of divorce, and inquire into those pathological
+conditions of modern society of which both are the symptoms; but our
+business is to consider the ethics of the matter, not the causes. The
+ethics of suicide resolves itself into the question, Is it justifiable
+under any circumstances to take one's life? You may object that this is
+not a fit subject to discuss with pupils of thirteen or fourteen. Why
+not? They are old enough to understand the motives which ordinarily lead
+to suicide, and also the reasons which forbid it--especially the most
+important reason, namely, that we live not merely or primarily to be
+happy, but to help on as far as we can the progress of things, and
+therefore that we are not at liberty to throw life away like an empty
+shell when we have ceased to enjoy it. The discussion of suicide is
+indeed of the greatest use because it affords an opportunity early in
+the course of our lessons on duty to impress this cardinal truth, to
+describe upon the moral globe this great meridian from which all the
+virtues take their bearings. However, in accordance with the inductive
+method, we must approach this idea by degrees. The first position I
+should take is that while suffering is often temporary, suicide is
+final. It is folly to take precipitately a step which can not be
+recalled. Very often in moments of deep depression the future before us
+seems utterly dark, and in our firmament there appears not one star of
+hope; but presently from some wholly unexpected quarter help comes.
+Fortune once more takes us into her good graces, and we are scarcely
+able to understand our past downheartedness in view of the new happiness
+to which we have fallen heirs. Preserve thy life in view of the brighter
+chances which the future may have in store. This is a good rule as far
+as it goes, but it does not fit the more trying situations. For there
+are cases where the fall from the heights of happiness is as complete as
+it is sudden, and the hope of recovering lost ground is really shut out.
+
+Take from actual life the case of a husband who fairly idolized his
+young wife and lost her by death three months after marriage. We may
+suppose that in the course of years he will learn to submit to his
+destiny. We may even hope that peace will come back to his poor heart,
+but we can not imagine that he will ever again be happy. Another case is
+that of a person who has committed a great wrong, the consequences of
+which are irreparable, and of which he must carry the agonizing
+recollection with him to the grave. Time may assuage the pangs of
+remorse, and religion may comfort him, but happiness can never be the
+portion of such as he.
+
+Still another instance--less serious, but of more frequent
+occurrence--is that of a merchant who has always occupied a commanding
+position in the mercantile community, and who, already advanced in
+years, is suddenly compelled to face bankruptcy. The thought of the
+hardships to which his family will be exposed, of his impending
+disgrace, drives him nearly to distraction. The question is, would the
+merchant, would those others, be justified in committing suicide?
+Certainly not. The merchant, if he has the stuff of true manhood in him,
+will begin over again, at the bottom of the ladder if need be, will work
+to support his family, however narrowly. It would be the rankest
+selfishness in him to leave them to their fate. The conscience-stricken
+sinner must be willing to pay the penalty of his crime, to the end that
+he may be purified even seven times in the fire of repentance. And even
+the lover who has lost his bride will find, if he opens his eyes, that
+there is still work for him to do in life. The world is full of evils
+which require to be removed, full of burdens which require to be borne.
+If our own burden seems too heavy for us, there is a way of lightening
+it. We may add to it the burden of some one else, and ours will become
+lighter. Physically, this would be impossible, but morally it is true.
+The rule of conduct, therefore, thus far reads, Preserve thy life in
+order to perform thy share of the work of the world. But the formula,
+even in this shape, is not yet entirely adequate, for there are those
+who can not take part in the work of the world, who can only
+suffer--invalids, e. g., who are permanently incapacitated, and whose
+infirmities make them a constant drag on the healthy lives of their
+friends. Why should not these be permitted to put an end to their
+miseries? I should say that so long as there is the slightest hope of
+recovery, and even where this hope is wanting, so long as the physical
+pain is not so intense or so protracted as to paralyze the mental life
+altogether, they should hold out. They are not cut off from the true
+ends of human existence. By patient endurance, by the exercise of a
+sublime unselfishness, they may even attain on their sick-beds a height
+of spiritual development which would otherwise be impossible; and, in
+addition, they may become by their uncomplaining patience the sweetest,
+gentlest helpers of their friends, not useless, assuredly, but shining
+examples of what is best and noblest in human nature. The rule,
+therefore, should read: Preserve thy life in order to fulfill the duties
+of life, whether those duties consist in doing or in patiently
+suffering. As has been said long ago, we are placed on guard as
+sentinels. The sentinel must not desert his post. I think it possible to
+make the pupil in the grammar grade understand that suicide is selfish,
+that we are bound to live, even though life has ceased to be attractive,
+in order that we may perform our share of the world's work and help
+others and grow ourselves in moral stature. This does not, of course,
+imply any condemnation of that vast number of cases in which suicide is
+committed in consequence of mental aberration.
+
+In the advanced course we shall have to return to this subject, and
+shall there refer _in extenso_ to the views of the Stoics. The morality
+of the Stoic philosophers in general is so high, and their influence
+even to this day so great, that their defense, or rather enthusiastic
+praise of suicide,[16] needs to be carefully examined. I am of the
+opinion that we have here a case in which metaphysical speculation has
+had the effect of distorting morality. Metaphysics in this respect
+resembles religion. On the one hand the influence of religion on
+morality has been highly beneficial, on the other it has been hurtful in
+the extreme--instance human sacrifices, religious wars, the
+Inquisition, etc. In like manner, philosophy, though not to the same
+extent, has both aided morality and injured it. I regard the Stoic
+declamations on suicide as an instance of the latter sort. The Stoic
+philosophy was pantheistic. To live according to Nature was their
+principal maxim, or, more precisely, according to the reason in Nature.
+They maintained that in certain circumstances a man might find it
+impossible to live up to the rational standard; he might, for instance,
+discover himself to be morally so weak as to be unable to resist
+temptation, and in that case it would be better for him to retire from
+the scene and to seek shelter in the Eternal Reason, just as, to use
+their own simile, one who found the room in which he sat filled to an
+intolerable degree with smoke would not be blamed for withdrawing from
+it. It was their pantheism that led them to favor suicide, and in this
+respect it is my belief that the modern conscience, trained by the Old
+and New Testaments, has risen to a higher level than theirs. We moderns
+feel it impossible to admit that to the sane mind temptation can ever be
+so strong as to be truly irresistible. We always can resist if we will.
+We can, because we ought; as Kant has taught us to put it. We always can
+because we always ought.
+
+
+     NOTE.--Despite the rigorous disallowance of suicide in general
+     plainly indicated in the above, I should not wish to be understood
+     as saying that there are no circumstances whatever in which the
+     taking of one's life is permissible. In certain rare and
+     exceptional cases I believe it to be so. In the lecture as
+     delivered I attempted a brief description of these exceptional
+     cases, too brief, it appeared, to prevent most serious
+     misconception. I deem it best, therefore, to defer the expression
+     of my views on this delicate matter until an occasion arrives when
+     I shall be able to articulate my thought in full detail, such as
+     would here be impossible.
+
+
+From the commandment "Preserve thy life" it follows not only that we
+should not lay violent hands upon ourselves, but that we should do all
+in our power to develop and invigorate the body, in order that it may
+become an efficient instrument in the service of our higher aims. The
+teacher should inform himself on the subject of the gymnastic ideal of
+the Greeks and consider in how far this ideal is applicable to modern
+conditions. In general, the teacher should explore as fully as possible
+the ethical problems on which he touches. He should not be merely "one
+lesson ahead" of his pupils. Really it is necessary to grasp the whole
+of a subject before we can properly set forth its elements. A very
+thorough normal training is indispensable to those who would give moral
+instruction to the young.
+
+The duties of cleanliness and temperance fall under the same head as the
+above. In speaking of cleanliness, there are three motives--the
+egoistic, the aesthetic, and the moral--to which we may appeal. Be
+scrupulously clean for the sake of health, be clean lest you become an
+object of disgust to others, be clean in order to retain your
+self-respect. Special emphasis should be laid on secret cleanliness.
+Indolent children are sometimes neat in externals, but shockingly
+careless in what is concealed from view. The motive of self-respect
+shows itself particularly in secret cleanliness.
+
+The duty of temperance is supported by the same three motives.
+Intemperance undermines health, the glutton or the drunkard awakens
+disgust, intemperance destroys self-respect. To strengthen the
+repugnance of the pupils against intemperance in eating, contrast the
+way in which wild beasts eat with that in which human beings partake of
+their food. The beast is absorbed in the gratification of its appetite,
+eats without the use of implements, eats unsocially. The human way of
+eating is in each particular the opposite. Show especially that the act
+of eating is spiritualized by being made subservient to friendly
+intercourse and to the strengthening of the ties of domestic affection.
+The family table becomes the family altar. Call attention also to the
+effects of drunkenness; point out the injuries which the drunkard
+inflicts on wife and children by his neglect to provide for them, by the
+outbursts of violence to which he is subject under the influence of
+strong drink; describe his physical, mental, and moral degradation; lay
+stress on the fact that liquor deprives him of the use of his reason.
+With respect to temperance in food, there are one or two points to be
+noted. I say to my pupils if you are particularly fond of a certain
+dish, sweetmeats, for instance, make it a rule to partake less of that
+than if you were not so fond of it. This is good practice in
+self-restraint. I make out as strong a case as possible against the
+indulgence of the candy habit. Young people are not, as a rule, tempted
+to indulge in strong drink; but they are tempted to waste their money
+and injure their health by an excessive consumption of sweets. It is
+well to apply the lesson of temperance to the things in which they are
+tempted. For the teacher the following note may be added: Of the senses,
+some, like that of taste, are more nearly allied to the physical part of
+us; others, like sight and hearing, to our rational nature. This
+antithesis of the senses may be used in the interest of temperance.
+Appeal to the higher senses in order to subdue the lower. A band of
+kindergarten children, having been invited on a picnic, were given the
+choice between a second plate of ice cream, for which many of them were
+clamoring, and a bunch of flowers for each. Most of them were
+sufficiently interested in flowers to prefer the latter. In the case of
+young children, the force of the physical appetite may also be weakened
+by appealing to their affection. During the later stage of adolescence,
+when the dangers which arise from the awakening life of the senses
+become great and imminent, the attention should be directed to high
+intellectual aims, the social feelings should be cultivated, and a taste
+for the pleasures of the senses of sight and hearing--namely, the
+pleasures of music, painting, sculpture, etc.--should be carefully
+developed. Artistic, intellectual, and social motives should be brought
+into play jointly to meet the one great peril of this period of life.
+
+
+DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO THE FEELINGS.
+
+Under this head let me speak first of fear. There is a distinction to be
+drawn between physical and moral cowardice. Physical cowardice is a
+matter of temperament or organization. Perhaps it can hardly ever be
+entirely overcome, but the exhibition of it can be prevented by moral
+courage. Moral cowardice, on the other hand, is a fault of character. In
+attempting to formulate the rule of conduct, appeal as before to the
+egoistic motive, then to the social--i. e., the desire for the good
+opinion of others--and lastly to the moral motive, properly speaking.
+Fear paralyzes; it fascinates its victim like the fabled basilisk.
+Nothing is more common than a sense of helpless immobility under the
+influence of fear. There is a way of escape. You might run or leap for
+your life, but you can not stir a limb. What you need to do is to turn
+away your attention by a powerful effort of the will from the object
+which excites fear. So long as that object is before you the mind can
+not act; the mind is practically absent. What you need is presence of
+mind. Let the teacher adduce some of the many striking instances in
+which men in apparently desperate straits have been saved by presence of
+mind. The rule thus far would read: Be brave and suppress fear, because
+by so doing you may escape out of danger. In the next place, by so doing
+you will escape the reproaches of your fellow-men, for cowardice is
+universally condemned as shameful. Cite from Spartan history examples
+showing in the strongest light the feeling of scorn and contempt for the
+coward. There are, however, cases where death is certain, and where
+there is no support like that of public opinion to sustain courage. What
+should be the rule of duty in such cases? Take the case of a person who
+has been shipwrecked. He swims the sea alone, he is still clinging to a
+spar, but realizes that in a few minutes he must let go, his strength
+being well-nigh spent. What should be his attitude of mind in that
+supreme moment. The forces of nature are about to overwhelm him. What
+motive can there be strong enough to support bravery in that moment? The
+rule of duty for him would be: Be brave, because as a human being you
+are superior to the forces of nature, because there is something in
+you--your moral self--over which the forces of nature have no power,
+because what happens to you in your private character is not important,
+but it is important that you assert the dignity of humanity to the last
+breath.
+
+After having discussed courage, define fortitude. Point out the
+importance of strength of will. Contrast the strong will with the
+feeble, with the wayward, the irresolute, and also the obstinate will,
+for obstinacy is often the sign of weakness rather than of strength.
+See, for useful hints on this subject, Bain's The Emotions and the Will.
+
+What happens to thy little self is not important. This is the leading
+thought which shall also guide us in the discussion of _Anger_. In
+entering on the subject of anger begin by describing the effects of it.
+Quote the passage from Seneca's treatise on anger, showing how it
+disfigures the countenance. Point out that anger provokes anger in
+return, and is therefore contrary to self-interest. Call to your aid the
+social motive by showing that under the influence of anger we often
+overshoot the mark and inflict injuries on others which we had not
+intended. Finally, show that indulgence in anger is immoral. In what
+sense is it immoral? Anger is an emotional reaction against injury. When
+a child hurts its foot against a stone, it is often so unreasonably
+angry at the stone as to strike it. When an adult person receives a
+blow, his first impulse is to return it. This desire to return injury
+for injury is one of the characteristic marks of anger. Another mark is
+that anger is proportional to the injury received, and not to the fault
+implied. Every one knows that a slight fault in another may occasion a
+great injury to ourselves, while, on the other hand, a serious fault may
+only cause us a slight inconvenience. The angry person measures his
+resentment by the injury, and not by the fault. Anger is selfish. It is
+fed and pampered by the delusion that our pleasures and pains are of
+chief importance. Contrast with anger the moral feeling of indignation.
+Anger is directed against the injury received, indignation solely
+against the wrong done. The immoral feeling prompts us to hate wrong
+because it has been inflicted on us. The moral feeling prompts us to
+hate wrong because it is wrong. Now, to the extent that we sincerely
+hate wrong we shall be stirred up to diminish its power over others as
+well as over ourselves; we shall, for instance, be moved to save the
+evil doer who has just injured us from the tyranny of his evil nature;
+we shall aspire to become the moral physicians of those who have hurt
+us. And precisely because they have hurt us, they have a unique claim on
+us. We who know better than others the extent of their disease are
+called upon more than others to labor with a view to their cure. In this
+connection the rule of returning good for evil should be explained. This
+rule does not apply alike in all cases, though the spirit of it should
+always inspire our actions. If a pickpocket should steal our purse, it
+would be folly to hand him a check for twice the amount he has just
+stolen. If a hardened criminal should draw his knife and wound us in the
+back, it would be absurd to request him kindly to stab us in the breast
+also. We should in this case not be _curing_ him, but simply confirming
+him in his evil doing. The rule is: Try to free the sinner from the
+power of sin. In some cases this is best accomplished by holding his
+hand, as it were, and preventing him from carrying out the intended
+wrong. In other cases by depriving him of his liberty for a season,
+subjecting him to wholesome discipline, and teaching him habits of
+industry. Only in the case of those who have already attained a higher
+moral plane, and whose conscience is sensitive, does the rule of
+returning good for evil apply literally. If a brother has acted in an
+unbrotherly way toward you, do you on the next occasion act wholly in a
+brotherly way toward him. You will thereby show him how he ought to have
+acted and awaken the better nature in him.
+
+Certain practical rules for the control of anger may be given to the
+pupil. Suppress the signs of anger; you will thereby diminish its force.
+Try to gain time: "When you are angry, count ten before you speak; when
+you are very angry, count a hundred." Having gained time, examine
+rigorously into your own conduct. Ask yourself whether you have not been
+partly to blame. If you find that you have, then, instead of venting
+your wrath on your enemy, try rather to correct the fault which has
+provoked hostility. But if, after honest self-scrutiny, you are able to
+acquit yourself, then you can all the more readily act the part of the
+moral physician, for it is the innocent who find it easiest to forgive.
+It is also useful to cite examples of persons who, like Socrates, have
+exhibited great self-control in moments of anger; and to quote proverbs
+treating of anger, to explain these proverbs and to cause them to be
+committed to memory. I advise, indeed, that proverbs be used in
+connection with all the moral lessons. Of the manner in which they are
+to be used I shall speak later on.
+
+The last of the present group of duties which we shall discuss relates
+to the feelings of vanity, pride, humility. Vanity is a feeling of
+self-complacency based on external advantages. A person is vain of his
+dress or of his real or supposed personal charms. The peacock is the
+type of vanity. Though the admiration of others ministers to vanity, yet
+it is possible to be vain by one's self--before a mirror, for instance.
+The feeling of pride, on the other hand, depends upon a comparison
+between self and others. Pride implies a sense of one's own superiority
+and of the inferiority of others. Both feelings are anti-moral. They
+spring, like moral cowardice and anger, from the false belief that this
+little self of ours is of very great importance. There is no such thing
+as proper pride or honest pride. The word pride used in this connection
+is a misnomer. Vanity is spurious self-esteem based on external
+advantages. Pride is spurious self-esteem based on comparison with
+others. Genuine self-esteem is based on the consciousness of a
+distinction which we share with all humanity--namely, the capacity and
+the duty of rational development. This genuine self-esteem has two
+aspects--the one positive, the other negative. The positive aspect is
+called dignity, the negative humility. True dignity and true humility
+always go together. The sense of dignity arises within us when we
+remember the aims to which as human beings we are pledged; the sense of
+humility can not fail to arise when we consider how infinitely in
+practice we all fall below those aims. Thus while pride depends on a
+comparison of ourselves with others, the genuinely moral feeling is
+excited when we consider our relation to the common ends of mankind. On
+the one hand, we are indeed privileged to pursue those ends, and are
+thereby exalted above all created things and above the whole of the
+natural world with all its stars and suns. Upon this consideration is
+founded the sense of dignity. On the other hand, we can not but own how
+great is the distance which separates even the best of us from the goal,
+and this gives rise to a deep sense of humility. The rule of conduct
+which we are considering is a rule of proper self-estimation. Estimate
+thy worth not by external advantages nor by thy pre-eminence above
+others, but by the degree of energy with which thou pursuest the moral
+aims. To mark off the distinction between vanity and pride on the one
+hand and dignity on the other, the teacher may contrast in detail the
+lives of Alcibiades and Socrates.
+
+In connection with the discussion of anger and of pride, define such
+terms as hate, envy, malice. Hatred is anger become chronic. Or we may
+also say the state of mind which leads to passionate paroxysms in the
+case of anger is called hate when it has turned into a settled inward
+disposition. In other respects the characteristic marks of both are the
+same. Envy is the obverse of pride. Pride is based on real or fancied
+superiority to others. Envy is due to real or fancied inferiority. Pride
+is the vice of the strong, envy of the weak. Malice is pleasure in the
+loss of others irrespective of our gain.
+
+I have observed on a previous occasion that the feelings considered by
+themselves have no moral value. Nevertheless, we have now repeatedly
+spoken of moral feelings. The apparent contradiction disappears if we
+remember that all feelings of the higher order presuppose, and are the
+echo of complex systems of ideas. The moral feelings are those in which
+moral ideas have their resonance; and those feelings are valuable in
+virtue of the ideas which they reflect. The feeling of moral courage
+depends on the idea that the injuries we receive at the hands of fortune
+are not important, but that it is important for us to do credit to our
+rational nature. The feeling of moral indignation depends on the idea
+that the injuries we receive from our fellow-men are not important, but
+that it is important that the right be done and the wrong abated. The
+feelings of moral dignity and humility combined depend on the idea that
+it does not signify whether the shadow we cast in the world of men be
+long or short, but only that we live in the light of the moral aims.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[16] See, e. g., the famous passage in Seneca, De Ira, iii, 15.
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+DUTIES WHICH RELATE TO OTHERS.
+
+
+FILIAL DUTIES.
+
+We began our course of moral instruction with the self-regarding duties,
+and assigned the second place to the duties which relate to others.
+There is an additional reason besides the one already given for keeping
+to this order.
+
+If we were to begin with the commandments or prohibitions which relate
+to others--e. g., the sixth, eighth, and ninth commandments of the
+Decalogue--the pupil might easily get the impression that these things
+are forbidden solely because they involve injuries to others, but that
+in cases where the injury is inconsiderable, or not apparent, the
+transgression of moral commandments is more or less excusable. There are
+many persons who seem unable to understand that it is really sinful to
+defraud the custom-house or to neglect paying one's fare in a horse-car.
+And why? Because the injury inflicted seems so insignificant. Now, it is
+of the utmost consequence to impress upon the pupil that every action
+which involves a violation of duty to others at the same time produces a
+change in the moral quality of the agent, that he suffers as well as the
+one whom he wrongs. The subjective and objective sides of transgression
+can not in point of principle and ought not in actual consciousness to
+be separated. If, therefore, we begin by enforcing such duties as
+temperance the pupil will at once feel that the violation of the law
+changes his inward condition, degrades him in his own eyes, lowers him
+in the scale of being. The true standpoint from which all moral
+transgression should be regarded will thus be gained at the outset, and
+it will be comparatively easy to maintain the same point of view when we
+come to speak of the social duties.
+
+To start discussion on the subject of the filial duties, relate the
+story of AEneas carrying his aged father, Anchises, out of burning Troy;
+also the story of Cleobis and Bito (Herodotus, i, 31). Recall the
+devotion of Telemachus to Ulysses. Tell the story of Lear and his
+daughters, contrasting the conduct of Regan and Goneril with that of
+Cordelia. An excellent story to tell, especially to young children, is
+that of Dama. AEneas and Telemachus illustrate the filial spirit as
+expressed in services rendered to parents, but opportunity to be of real
+service to parents is not often offered to the very young. The story of
+Dama exhibits the filial spirit as displayed in acts of delicacy and
+consideration, and such acts are within the power of all children. The
+story is located in Palestine, and is supposed to have occurred at the
+time when the temple at Jerusalem was still standing. Dama was a dealer
+in jewels, noted for possessing the rarest and richest collection
+anywhere to be found. It happened that it became necessary to replace a
+number of the precious stones on the breastplate of the high priest, and
+a deputation was sent from Jerusalem to wait on Dama and to select from
+his stock what was needed. Dama received his distinguished visitors with
+becoming courtesy, and on learning their mission spread out before them
+a large number of beautiful stones. But none of these were satisfactory.
+The stones must needs be of extraordinary size and brilliancy. None but
+such might be used. When Dama was informed of this he reflected a
+moment, then said that in a room occupied by his old father there was a
+cabinet in which he kept his most precious gems, and that among them he
+was sure he could find what his visitors wanted. He bade them delay a
+few moments, while he made the necessary search. But presently he
+returned without the jewels. He expressed the greatest regret, but
+declared that it was impossible to oblige them. They were astonished,
+and, believing it to be a mere trader's trick, offered him an immense
+price for the stones. He answered that he was extremely sorry to miss so
+profitable a transaction, but that it was indeed beyond his power to
+oblige them now--if they would return in an hour or two he could
+probably suit them. They declared that their business admitted of no
+delay; that the breastplate must be repaired at once, so that the priest
+might not be prevented from discharging his office. And so he allowed
+them to depart. It appears that when Dama opened the door of the room
+he saw his old father asleep on the couch. He tried to enter
+noiselessly, but the door creaked on its hinges, and the old man started
+in his sleep. Dama checked himself, and turned back. He said, "I will
+forego the gain which they offer me, but I will not disturb the slumbers
+of my father." The sleep of the old father was sacred to Dama. Children
+are often thoughtless in breaking noisily into a room where father or
+mother is resting. Such a story tends to instill the lesson of
+consideration and of reverence.
+
+Reverence is the key-note of filial duty. You will remember that Goethe,
+in Wilhelm Meister, in those chapters in which he sketches his
+pedagogical ideal, bases the entire religious and moral education of the
+young on a threefold reverence. He applies the following symbolism: The
+pupils of the ideal pedagogical institution are required to take, on
+different occasions, three different attitudes. Now they fold their arms
+on their breast, and look with open countenance upward; again they fold
+their arms on their backs, and their bright glances are directed toward
+the earth; and again they stand in a row, and their faces are turned to
+the right, each one looking at his neighbor. These three attitudes are
+intended to symbolize reverence toward what is above us, toward what is
+beneath us, and toward our equals. These three originate and culminate
+in the true self-reverence. In speaking of filial duty, we are concerned
+with reverence toward what is above us. The parent is the physical,
+mental, and moral superior of the child. It is his duty to assist the
+child's physical, mental, and moral growth; to lift it by degrees out of
+its position of inferiority, so that it may attain the fullness of its
+powers, and help to carry on the mission of mankind when the older
+generation shall have retired from the scene. The duty of the superior
+toward the inferior is to help him to rise above the plane of
+inferiority. The receptive and appreciative attitude of one who is thus
+helped is called reverence. But we must approach the nature of parental
+duty more closely, and the following reflections may put us in the way:
+No man can attain the intellectual aims of life without assistance. A
+scientist inhabiting a desert island and limited to his own mental
+resources could make little headway. The scientist of to-day utilizes
+the accumulated labors of all the generations of scientists that have
+preceded him, and depends for the value of his results on the
+co-operation and the sifting criticism of his contemporaries. And as no
+one can get much knowledge without the help of others, so no one is
+justified in seeking knowledge for his own private pleasure, or in
+seeking the kind of knowledge that happens to pique his vanity. For
+instance, it is a violation of intellectual duty to spend one's time in
+acquiring out-of-the way erudition which is useful only for display. The
+pursuit of knowledge is a public not a private end. Every scholar and
+man of science is bound to enlarge as far as he can the common stock of
+truth, to add to the scientific possessions of the human race. But in
+order to do this he must question himself closely, that he may discover
+in what direction his special talent lies, and may apply himself
+sedulously to the cultivation of that. For it is by specializing his
+efforts that he can best serve the general interests of truth. The same
+holds good with respect to the pursuit of social ends--e. g., the
+correction of social abuses and the promotion of social justice. The
+reformer of to-day stands on the shoulders of all the reformers of the
+past, and would have little prospect of success in any efforts he may
+make without the co-operation and criticism of numerous co-workers. Nor,
+again, is it right for him to take up any and every project of reform
+that may happen to strike his fancy. He ought rather to consider what
+particular measures under existing circumstances are most likely to
+advance the cause of progress, and in what capacity he is specially
+fitted to promote such measures. Justice and truth are public, not
+private ends. The highest aim of life for each one is to offer that
+contribution which he, as an individual, is peculiarly fitted to make
+toward the attainment of the public ends of mankind. The individual when
+living only for himself, absorbed in his private pleasures and pains, is
+a creature of little worth; and his existence is of little more account
+in the scheme of things than that of the summer insects, who have their
+day and perish. But the individual become the organ of humanity acquires
+a lasting worth, and his individuality possesses an inviolable sanctity.
+The sacredness of individuality in the sense just indicated is a
+leading idea of ethics--perhaps it would not be too much to say, the
+leading idea.
+
+And now we can state more exactly the nature of parental duty. It is the
+duty of the parent, remembering that he is the guardian of the permanent
+welfare of his child, to respect, to protect, to develop its
+individuality--above all, to discover its individual bent; for that is
+often latent, and requires to be persistently searched out. It is the
+duty and the privilege of the parent to put the child, as it were, in
+possession of its own soul.
+
+And upon this relationship filial reverence is founded, and from it the
+principal filial duties may be deduced. Because the child does not know
+what is best for it, in view of its destiny, as described above, it is
+bound to obey. Obedience is the first of the filial duties. Secondly,
+the child is bound to show gratitude for the benefits received at the
+hands of its parents. The teacher should discuss with his pupils the
+principal benefits conferred by parents. The parents supply the child
+with food, shelter, and raiment; they nurse it in sickness, often
+sacrificing sleep, comfort, and health for its sake. They toil in order
+that it may want nothing; they give it, in their fond affection, the
+sweet seasoning of all their other gifts. It is well to bring these
+facts distinctly before the pupil's mind. The teacher can do it with a
+better grace than the parent himself. The teacher can strengthen and
+deepen the home feeling, and it is his office to do so. The pupil
+should go home from his moral lesson in school and look upon his parents
+with a new realization of all that he owes them, with a new and deeper
+tenderness. But the duty of gratitude should be based, above all, upon
+the greatest gift which the child obtains from his parents, the help
+which it receives toward attaining the moral aim of its existence.
+
+I do not include the commandment "Love thy parents" among the rules of
+filial duty, for I do not think that love can be commanded. Love follows
+of itself if the right attitude of reverence, obedience, gratitude be
+observed. Love is the sense of union with another. And the peculiarity
+of filial love, whereby it is distinguished from other kinds of love, is
+that it springs from union with persons on whom we utterly depend, with
+moral superiors, to whom we owe the fostering of our spiritual as well
+as of our physical existence.
+
+But how shall the sentiment of filial gratitude express itself?
+Gratitude is usually displayed by a return of the kindness received. But
+the kindness which we receive from parents is such that we can never
+repay it. It is of the nature of a debt which we can never hope fully to
+cancel. We can do this much--when our parents grow old, we can care for
+them, and smooth the last steps that lead to the grave. And when we
+ourselves have grown to manhood and womanhood, and have in turn become
+parents, we can bestow upon our own offspring the same studious and
+intelligent care which our parents, according to the light they had,
+bestowed on us, and thus ideally repay them by doing for others what
+they did for us. But this is a point which concerns only adults. As for
+young children, they can show their gratitude in part by slight
+services, delicacies of behavior, the chief value of which consists in
+the sentiment that inspires them, but principally by a willing
+acceptance of parental guidance, and by earnest efforts in the direction
+of their own intellectual and moral improvement. There is no love so
+unselfish as parental love. There is nothing which true parents have
+more at heart than the highest welfare of their children. There is no
+way in which a child can please father and mother better than by doing
+that which is for its own highest good. The child's progress in
+knowledge and in moral excellence are to every parent the most
+acceptable tokens of filial gratitude. And this leads me to an important
+point, to which reference has already been made. It has been stated that
+each period of life has its distinct set of duties; furthermore, that in
+each period there is one paramount duty, around which the others may be
+grouped; and, lastly, that at each successive stage it is important to
+reach backward and to bring the ethical system of the preceding period
+into harmony with the new system. Of this last point we are now in a
+position to give a simple illustration. The paramount duty of the school
+period is to acquire knowledge; the paramount duty of the previous
+period is to reverence parents. But, as has just been shown, reverence
+toward parents at this stage is best exhibited by conscientious study,
+and thus the two systems are merged into one.[17]
+
+
+THE FRATERNAL DUTIES.
+
+Thus much concerning the filial relations. We pass on to speak of the
+fraternal duties; the duties of brothers to brothers and sisters to
+sisters; of brothers to sisters and conversely; of older to younger
+brothers and sisters and conversely. The fraternal duties are founded
+upon the respect which equals owe to equals. The brotherly relation is
+of immense pedagogic value, inasmuch as it educates us for the
+fulfillment later on of our duties toward all equals, be they kinsmen or
+not. As between brothers, the respect of each for the rights of the
+other is made comparatively easy by natural inclination. The tie of
+blood, close and constant association in the same house, common
+experience of domestic pleasures and sorrows--all this tends to link the
+hearts of the brothers together, and thus the first lessons in one of
+the hardest duties are given by Love, the gentlest of school-masters.
+But the word equality must not be misconceived. Equality is not to be
+taken in its mathematical sense. One brother is gifted and may
+eventually rise to wealth and fame, another is Nature's step-child; one
+sister is beautiful, another the opposite. If the idea of equality be
+pressed to a literal meaning, it is sure to give rise to ugly feelings
+in the hearts of the less fortunate. How, then, shall we define equality
+in the moral sense? A superior, as we have seen, renders services which
+the inferior can not adequately return. Equals are those who are so far
+on the same level as to be capable of rendering mutual services, alike
+in importance, though not necessarily the same in kind. Equals are
+correlative to one another. The services of each are complementary to
+those of the other. The idea of _mutual service_, therefore, is
+characteristic of the relation of brothers, and the rule of duty may be
+formulated simply, Serve one another. From this follow all the minor
+commands and prohibitions which are usually impressed upon children,[18]
+and also the far loftier counsels which apply only to adults.
+
+It will be perceived that the rule of mutual service, when carried to
+its highest applications, presupposes the principle of individual
+differentiation, to which we have already attached so much weight. This
+principle is fundamental to fraternal as well as to paternal and filial
+duty. For precisely to the extent that brothers are distinctly
+individualized can they supplement each other and correlate their
+mutual services. One can not indeed overlook the patent fact that
+brothers who are unlike in nature frequently repel each other, and that
+in such cases the very closeness of the relation often becomes a source
+of extreme irritation, and even of positive agony. But, on the other
+hand, there is no surer sign of moral ripeness than the ability to enter
+into, to understand, to appreciate a nature totally unlike one's own,
+and thus to some extent to appropriate its excellences. The very fact,
+therefore, that we at first feel ourselves repelled should be taken as a
+hint that this natural repulsion is to be overcome. For every type of
+character needs its opposite to correct it. The idealist, for instance,
+needs the realist, if he would keep his balance. And our uncongenial
+brothers, precisely because they are at first uncongenial, if we will
+but remember that they are, after all, our brothers, and that it is our
+duty to come into harmonious relations with them, can best help us to
+this fine self-conquest, this true enrichment and enlargement of our
+moral being.
+
+A word may be added as a caution to parents and teachers. The way to
+create brotherly feeling among the young is to treat them impartially,
+to love them with an equal love. Those who love and are beloved by the
+same person are strongly induced to love one another. In the next place,
+when disputes arise, as is perhaps unavoidable, the parent or teacher
+should, as a rule, enter patiently into the cause and not cut off
+inquiry because the whole matter seems trivial. The subject matter of
+the dispute may be insignificant enough, but the satisfaction of the
+sense of justice of the young is of the greatest significance. When the
+sense of justice is outraged, be the cause never so trivial, a feeling
+of distrust against the parent is generated, and of incipient hatred
+against the brother who may have provoked the unjust decision.
+
+I have yet to speak of the duties of older to younger brothers and
+sisters. If it is difficult to serve two masters, it is hardly pleasant
+to be asked to serve half a dozen. The youngest children in a large
+family are often placed in this position. There is, in the first place,
+the authority of the parents, which must be respected; then, in
+addition, each of the grown-up sons and daughters is apt to try to
+exercise a little authority on his or her own account. The younger ones
+naturally resent this petty despotism, and disobedience and angry
+recriminations are the unpleasant consequences. It is often necessary
+that elder sons and daughters should have partial charge of the younger.
+They can in all cases make their authority acceptable by representing it
+as delegated, by having it understood that they regard themselves merely
+as substitutes in the parents' place. There must be unity of influence
+in the home, or else the moral development of the young will be sadly
+interfered with. There must be only a single center of authority,
+represented by the parents, and all minor exercise of authority should
+be referred back to that center. "Father and mother wish me to help
+you"; "Father and mother will be pleased if you do so and so; let me
+try to show you how"--if the method of management implied in such words
+as these be adopted, the younger children will look upon the elder as
+their friends and be glad to accept advice and direction.
+
+Lastly, a word about the relation between brothers and sisters, and
+conversely. This relationship is qualified by the difference of sex. A
+certain chivalry characterizes the attitude of the brother toward the
+sister, a certain motherliness that of the sister toward the brother.
+The relation may be and often is a very beautiful one. The peculiar
+moral responsibility connected with it is that the sister is usually the
+first woman whom the brother knows at all intimately and as an equal,
+and that his notions of womanhood are largely influenced by the traits
+which he sees in her, while the brother is usually the first man whom
+the sister knows as a companion, and her ideas of men are colored by
+what she sees in him.
+
+To illustrate the fraternal relation I have been in the habit of
+recalling the stories from the Old Testament which bear upon this
+subject. I have also given an account of the life of the brothers Jacob
+and William Grimm. There was only a year's difference between them.
+Jacob Grimm, in the eulogy on William, which he delivered before the
+Berlin Academy in the year 1860, says: "During the slowly creeping years
+of our school life we slept in the same bed and occupied the same room.
+There we sat at one and the same table studying our lessons. Later on
+there were two tables and two beds in the same room; and later still,
+during the entire period of our riper manhood, we still continued to
+occupy two adjoining rooms, always under the same roof." All their
+property, and even their books, they held in common; what belonged to
+the one belonged to the other. They visited the university together in
+the same year; they both took up, in deference to their mother's wish,
+the same study, that of the law, which they alike hated, and then they
+turned in common to the study of philology, in which both delighted and
+both achieved such great distinction. They published their first
+important works in the same year; and as they slept together in the same
+bed when they were children, so now they sleep side by side in the
+grave.
+
+I refer to the story of Lear and his daughters to show that the common
+love for the parents is necessary to sustain the love of brothers and
+sisters toward one another. Lear had estranged the affection of Goneril
+and Regan through his partiality for Cordelia. The two women, who had no
+love for their father, hated each other; and Goneril, who was the first
+to cast him out, poisoned her sister.
+
+To illustrate the relations of brothers to sisters, I give an account of
+the beautiful lives of Charles and Mary Lamb. To show the redeeming
+power of womanhood as represented in a sister, I explain to older
+pupils the story which underlies Goethe's drama of Iphigenia. Orestes is
+sick; and what is his malady? His soul has been poisoned by remorse.
+Believing himself to be the executive arm of justice, he committed a
+great crime, and now he is torn by the pangs of conscience, and his mind
+is forever dwelling on that scene in which he was a fatal actor. And how
+does Iphigenia heal him? She heals him by the clear truthfulness of her
+nature, which the play is designed to bring out. With the light of
+genuine womanhood which emanates from her she illuminates anew his
+darkened path. By the force of the good which he learns to recognize in
+her he is led to a new trust in the redeeming power of the good in
+himself, and thus to start out afresh in a life of courage, hope, and
+active effort. The teacher should analyze and cause to be committed to
+memory the various beautiful proverbs which bear upon the subject of
+fraternal duty.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] It may also be pointed out to the pupil that a part of the task of
+intellectual and moral training, which originally belongs entirely to
+the parents, has by them been intrusted to the teachers, and that
+something of the reverence which belongs to the former is now due to the
+latter.
+
+[18] Do not quarrel over your respective rights; rather be more eager to
+secure the rights of your brother than your own. Do not triumph in your
+brother's disgrace or taunt him with his failings, but rather seek to
+build up his self-respect. Help one another in your tasks, etc.
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+DUTIES TOWARD ALL MEN.
+
+
+JUSTICE AND CHARITY.
+
+JUSTICE.--The subject of justice is a difficult one to treat. Justice in
+the legal sense is to be distinguished from justice in the moral sense.
+We are concerned only with the latter. How much of it can we hope to
+include in such a course of instruction as this? We can, I think,
+explain the essential principle and give a few of its most important
+applications. What is this principle? Human society is an organism, and
+the perfection of it depends upon the degree to which the parts related
+are differentiated. Unity of organization is the end, differentiation is
+the means. The serving of universal ends is the aim, the emphasizing of
+individuality the means. The principle which underlies the laws of
+justice I take to be respect for individuality of others. And this may
+be expressed in the rule, Respect the individuality of every human
+being. It might, indeed, appear at first sight as if justice had to do
+only with those points in which all men are alike, and took no notice of
+the differences that subsist between them. Thus justice enjoins respect
+for the life of others; and in regard to this all men are exactly on a
+par, all men are equally entitled to live. But justice also commands us
+to respect the convictions of others, however different they may be from
+our own. And it is but a finer sense of justice which keeps us from
+intruding on the privacy of others, which leads us to show a proper
+consideration for the ways and idiosyncrasies of others, and in general
+to refrain from encroaching on the personality of others. The principle
+of justice may also be expressed in the rule, Do not interfere with the
+individual development of any one.
+
+
+APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE.--
+
+1. _Do not kill._ By taking away the life of a human being we should of
+course cut off all chance of that person's further development. This
+requires no comment. But certain casuistical questions arise in
+connection with this command. Is it right to kill another in
+self-defense? The difficulty involved might be put in this way: A
+burglar breaks into your house by night and threatens to kill you. You
+have a weapon at hand and can save yourself by killing him. Now it is
+evident that one of two lives must be taken. But would it not be more
+moral on your part to say: I, at least, will not break the commandment.
+I would rather be killed than kill? This question serves to show to what
+absurdities a purely formal principle in ethics can lead, as we have
+already seen in the discussion of truthfulness. The problem of the duel
+and that of the taking of the life of others in war also belong under
+this head, but will be reserved for the advanced course.
+
+2. _Respect the personal liberty of others._ Slavery, under whatever
+form, is an outrage on justice. The slave is degraded to be the mere
+instrument of his master's profit or pleasure. Let the teacher point out
+in what particulars the slave is wronged, and show the evil effects of
+the institution of slavery on the character of the master as well as of
+the slave. Question--Is it right to speak of wage-slavery, for instance,
+in cases where the hours of labor are so prolonged as to leave no time
+for higher interests, or where the relations of the laborer to his
+employer are such as to impair his moral independence?
+
+3. _Respect the property of others._ Unless we are careful we may at
+this point commit a grave wrong. Upon what moral considerations shall
+the right of property be based? The school, especially the moral lessons
+which are imparted in it, should certainly not be placed in the service
+of vested interests. On the other hand, the school should not fill the
+pupils' minds with economic theories, which they are incapable of
+understanding, and of which the truth, the justice, the feasibility are
+still hotly disputed. We are therefore taking a very responsible step in
+introducing the idea of property at all into our moral lessons. And yet
+it is too great and important to be ignored. Some writers have advanced
+the theory that the right in question rests on labor, and they regard it
+as a self-evident proposition, one which, therefore, might safely be
+taught to the young, that every person is entitled to the products of
+his labor. Jules Simon says (see Paul Janet, Elements of Morals, English
+translation, p. 66): "This earth was worth nothing and produced
+nothing. I dug the soil, I brought from a distance fertilizing earth; it
+is now fertile. This fertility is my work; by fertilizing it, I made it
+mine." American writers have eloquent passages to the same effect. But
+this proposition certainly does not appear to me self-evident, nor even
+true. Chiefly for the reason that "my labor" and "my skill" are not
+original, but derivative factors in production. They are very largely
+the result of the labor and the skill of generations that have preceded
+me, that have built up in me this brain, this skill, this power of
+application. The products of my labor would indeed belong to me if my
+labor were really mine, if it were not to an incalculable extent the
+consequent of social antecedents, in regard to which I can not claim the
+least merit. The attempt to found the rewards of labor upon the merit of
+the laborer seems to me a perfectly hopeless one.
+
+Let me add that it is one thing to say that he who will not work shall
+not eat, and a very different thing to say that he who works shall enjoy
+what he has produced. The former statement merely signifies that he who
+will not contribute his share toward sustaining and improving human
+society is not entitled to any part in the advantages of the social
+order, though the charity of his fellow-men may grant him, under certain
+conditions and in the hope of changing his disposition, what he is not
+entitled to as of right. But the question what the share of the laborer
+ought to be is one that can not be settled in the rough-and-ready
+manner above suggested, and the considerations involved are, in truth,
+far too numerous and complex to be introduced at this stage. The whole
+question will be reopened later on. For the present it must suffice to
+state certain purely moral considerations on which the right of property
+may be made to rest. The following are the ideas which I should seek to
+develop: Property is justified by its uses. Its uses are to support the
+existence and promote the mental and moral growth of man. The physical
+life itself depends on property. Even in a communistic state the food
+any one eats must be his property in the sense that every one else is
+debarred from using it. The moral life of men depends on property. The
+moral life is rooted in the institution of the family, and the family
+could not exist without a separate domicile of its own and the means of
+providing for its dependent members. The independence and the growth of
+the intellect depend on property. In short, property is an indispensable
+adjunct of _personality_. This I take to be its moral basis. What I here
+indicate, however, is an ideal right which the existing state of society
+by no means reflects. By what methods we may best approach this ideal,
+whether by maintaining and improving the system of private property in
+land or by state ownership, whether by capitalistic or socialistic
+production, etc., are questions of means, not of ends, and raise
+problems in social science with which here we have not to deal.
+
+Question--If the present social arrangements are not morally
+satisfactory, if e. g., certain persons possess property to which on
+moral grounds they are not entitled, should not the commandment against
+stealing be suspended so far as they are concerned? The present system
+of rights, imperfect as it is, is the result of social evolution, and
+denotes the high-water mark of the average ethical consciousness of the
+world up to date. Respect for the existing system of rights, however,
+imperfect as it is, is the prime condition of obtaining a better system.
+
+4. _Respect the mental liberty of others._ Upon this rule of justice is
+founded the right to freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and what
+is called the freedom of conscience. Point out the limitations of these
+various rights which follow from the fact of their universality.
+
+5. _Respect the reputation of your fellow-men._ Refrain from backbiting
+and slander. Bridle your tongue. This undoubtedly is a rule of justice.
+"Who steals my purse steals trash," etc. The respect of our fellow-men
+is in itself a source of happiness and a moral prop, and, besides, the
+greatest help in achieving the legitimate purposes of life. He who has
+the confidence of others has wings to bear him along. He who is
+suspected for any reason, true or false, strikes against invisible
+barriers at every step. Nothing is so sensitive as character--a mere
+breath may tarnish it. It is therefore the gravest kind of injury to our
+neighbors to disseminate damaging rumors, to throw out dark hints and
+suggestions with respect to them, to impugn their motives. But is it
+not a duty to denounce evil and evil-doers and to put the innocent on
+their guard against wolves in sheep's clothing? Yes, if we are sure that
+our own motives are perfectly disinterested, that we are not in the
+least prompted by personal spite or prejudice. For if we dislike a
+person, as every one knows, we can not judge him fairly, we are prone to
+attribute to him all manner of evil qualities and evil intents which
+exist only in our own jaundiced imagination. Very often a person against
+whom we had at first conceived a distinct dislike proves on nearer
+acquaintance to be one whom we can esteem and even love. We should be
+warned by such experiences to hold our judgments in suspense, and not to
+allow injurious words to pass the lips. The vast moral importance of
+being able to hold one's tongue, the golden resources of silence, should
+be emphasized by the teacher.
+
+A series of lessons on good manners may be introduced at this point. The
+ceremonies of social intercourse, the various forms in which refined
+people show their deference for each other, the rule not to obtrude self
+in conversation, and the like, are so many illustrations of the respect
+which we owe to the personality of our fellow-men. Good manners are the
+aesthetic counterpart of good morals, and the connection between the two
+can easily be made plain.
+
+6. _Speak the truth._ Inward truthfulness is a self-regarding duty;
+social truthfulness is a form of justice. Words represent facts. The
+words we speak to our neighbor are used by him as building-stones in
+the architecture of his daily conduct. We have no right to defeat the
+purposes of his life, to weaken the dwelling he is erecting, by
+supplying him with worthless building material.
+
+Upon exactly the same ground is based the duty of keeping one's
+promises, viz., that our fellow-men build on our promises. Promises made
+in a legal form are called contracts and can be enforced. Promises not
+made in legal form are equally binding from a moral point of view. It
+should be borne in mind, however, that conditional promises are canceled
+when the stipulated conditions do not occur, and, furthermore, that
+there are certain tacit conditions implied in all promises whatsoever. A
+person who has promised to visit a friend on a certain day and dies in
+the interval is not supposed to have broken his promise; nor if any one
+makes a similar promise and a heavy snowstorm should block the roads or
+if he should be confined to his bed by sickness is he likely to be
+accused of breaking his promise. The physical possibility of fulfilling
+them is a tacit condition in all promises. It is also a tacit condition
+in all promises that it shall be morally possible or consistent with
+morality to keep them. A young man who has promised to join a gang of
+burglars in an attack on a bank and who repents at the last moment is
+morally justified in refusing to keep his pledge. His crime consisted in
+having made the promise in the first place, not in refusing to fulfill
+it at the last moment. A person, however, who promises to pay usurious
+interest on a loan of money and who then takes advantage of the laws
+against usury to escape payment is a double-dyed rogue, for his
+intention is to cheat, and he uses the cloak of virtue as a screen in
+order to cheat with impunity. Let the teacher discuss the casuistical
+question whether it is right to keep a promise made to robbers--e. g.,
+if we should fall into the hands of brigands, and they should make it a
+condition of our release that we shall not betray their hiding-place.
+
+Justice is based on positive respect for the individuality of others,
+but its commands may all be expressed in the negative form: Do not kill,
+do not infringe the liberty, the property of others, do not slander, do
+not lie, etc. It is often held, however, that there is a positive as
+well as a negative side to justice, and the two sides are respectively
+expressed in the formulas: Neminem laede and suum cuique--Hurt no one
+and give every one his due. Of positive or distributive justice we meet
+with such examples as the following: In awarding a prize the jury is
+bound in justice to give the award in favor of the most deserving
+competitor. The head of a department in filling a vacancy is bound in
+justice to avoid favoritism, to promote that one of his subordinates who
+deserves promotion, etc. But it seems to me that this distinction is
+unimportant. Give to each one his due is tantamount to Do not deprive
+any one of what is due him. If the prize or the place belongs to A we
+should, by withholding it from him, invade the rights of A as much as
+if we took money out of his purse. The commands are negative, but the
+virtue implied is positive enough, because it depends on positive
+respect for human nature. Do not infringe upon the sacred territory of
+another's personality is the rule of justice in all cases.
+
+CHARITY.--How shall we distinguish charity from justice? It is said that
+every one is justified in claiming from others what belongs to him as a
+matter of right, but that no one can exact charity. The characteristic
+mark of charity is supposed to be that it is freely given. But if I
+happen to be rich and can afford to supply the need of another am I not
+morally bound to do so, and has not my indigent neighbor a real claim
+upon me? Again, it has been said that the term justice is applied to
+claims which are capable of being formulated in general rules and
+imposed alike on all men in their dealings with one another, while in
+the case of charity both the measure and the object of it are to be
+freely determined by each one. We are free, according to this view, to
+decide whether a claim upon us exists or not; but, the claim once having
+been admitted, it is as binding upon us as any of the demands of
+justice. But, while this is true, I hold that nevertheless there exists
+a clear distinction between the virtues of justice and charity. We owe
+justice to our equals, charity to our inferiors. The word "inferior" is
+to be understood in a carefully limited sense. An employer owes his
+workmen, as a matter of justice, the wages he has agreed to pay. Though
+they may be socially his inferiors, in regard to this transaction they
+are his equals. They have agreed to render him certain services and he
+has agreed to return them an equivalent.
+
+Justice says Do not hinder the development of others; Charity says
+Assist the development of others. The application of the rule of charity
+will make its meaning clear.
+
+1. Justice says do not destroy life; Charity says save life. Rescue from
+the flames the inmates of a burning house; leap into the waves to save a
+drowning fellow-creature. Such persons are dependent on your help. They
+are therefore with respect to you in an inferior position.
+
+Discuss with the class the limitations of this duty. I am not bound to
+jump into the water, for instance, when I see a person drowning unless I
+can swim. In fact, it would be culpable foolhardiness in me to do so.
+Discuss the following casuistical case: A child is lying on the railroad
+track and a locomotive is rapidly approaching. Am I bound to make the
+attempt to draw it away from the track? Does it make any difference
+whether I am single or the father of a family and have others dependent
+on me? In general, the attempt to save should not be made unless there
+is a distinct chance of succeeding without the sacrifice of one's own
+life; but we are justified in taking great risks, and courage and
+self-reliance are evinced in the degree of risk we are willing to take.
+There are cases, however, in which the deliberate sacrifice of one life
+for another is in the highest degree praiseworthy when, namely, the
+life to be saved is regarded as far more precious than our own. Instance
+the soldier who intercepts the thrust which is aimed at the life of his
+general. Instance the parent who in the Johnstown flood was seen to push
+his child to a place of safety and was then swept away by the current.
+
+2. _Assist the needy._ This may be done by giving bread to the hungry,
+clothing to the naked, shelter to the homeless, by caring for the sick,
+advancing loans to those who are struggling toward self-support, etc.
+The rule of charity is based on respect for the personality of others.
+We are required to assist those who are too weak to hold their own, with
+a view of putting them on their feet again. The aim of all charity
+should be to make those who are dependent on it independent of it. From
+this point of view all mere almsgiving, all that so-called charity which
+only serves to make the dependent classes more dependent, stands
+condemned. But the true test of charity, upon which the greatest stress
+should be laid, is to be found in the way it reacts upon the charitable
+themselves. Right relations, whatever their nature, are always mutually
+beneficial. Does the deed of charity react beneficially on the doer? is
+the test question to be asked in every instance. Take the case of a
+person who gives large sums to the poor in the hope of seeing his name
+favorably mentioned in the newspapers. The motive in this case is
+vanity, and the effect of this spurious sort of charity is to increase
+the vanity of the donor. The reaction upon him, therefore, is morally
+harmful. Again, take the case of a person who gives capriciously, at the
+bidding of impulse, without considering whether his gifts are likely to
+be of lasting benefit to the recipients. He is confirmed in his habit of
+yielding to impulse, and the reaction is likewise morally injurious. On
+the other hand, the retroactive effects of true charity are most
+beneficial. In the first place, a reaction will take place in the
+direction of greater simplicity in our own lives. A person can not be
+seriously and deeply interested in the condition of the poor, can not
+truly realize the hardships which they suffer, without being moved to
+cut off superfluous expenditure. Secondly, true charity will teach us to
+enter into the problems of others, often so unlike our own; to put
+ourselves in their places; to consider how we should act in their
+circumstances; to fight their battles for them; and by this means our
+moral experience will be enlarged, and from being one, we become, as it
+were, many men. True charity will also draw closer the bond of
+fellowship between the poor and us, for we shall often discover virtues
+in them which we do not possess ourselves; and sometimes, at least, we
+shall have occasion to look up with a kind of awe to those whom we are
+aiding. In connection with the discussion of charity, let the teacher
+relate the biographies of John Howard, Sister Dora, Florence
+Nightingale, Elizabeth Fry, and others, who have been distinguished for
+their devotion to the suffering.
+
+3. _Cheer up the sad._ Explain that a bright smile may often have the
+value of an act of charity. In general, emphasize the duty of
+suppressing irritability, ill humor, and moodiness, and of contributing
+to the sunshine of our households.[19]
+
+4. _Console the bereaved._ The afflicted are for the moment weak and
+dependent; it is the office of loving charity to make them independent.
+Here the same train of reasoning is applicable as above in the case of
+the poor. It serves no useful purpose merely to sit down by the side of
+the sorrowful and to weep with them. They do need sympathy, but they
+also need, at least after the first paroxysms of grief have subsided, to
+be roused.
+
+The true cure for suffering is action. Those who suffer need to be
+nerved to action; they need to be shown, above all, the new duties which
+their situation entails. He who can point out to them the way of duty,
+and can give them of his own strength to walk in that way, is their best
+friend--he is the true consoler.
+
+5. I have yet to speak of mental charity and of moral charity. Mental
+charity is practiced by the wise teacher, who puts his pupils on the
+road to knowledge, who helps them to discover their true vocation, and
+who, when they are involved in doubt and difficulty, succeeds in giving
+them the clew by which they can find an exit into mental clearness and
+light.
+
+6. Moral charity is practiced by those who bend down to the sinful and
+the fallen, and awaken in them a new hope and trust in the good and in
+themselves. The charity which effects moral regeneration is perhaps the
+highest type of all, and of this I know no more fitting nor more sublime
+example than the dealing of Jesus with the outcasts of society.
+
+
+     NOTE.--Without attempting to forestall further philosophical
+     analysis, we may perhaps assume, as a working hypothesis, as a
+     provisional principle of deduction in ethics, the principle of
+     organization. The individual is an organ of humanity. It is his
+     duty to discharge, as perfectly as possible, his special functions;
+     hence the need of insisting on respect for individuality
+     throughout. Even the self-regarding duties would have no meaning
+     were not the complex whole in view, in the economy of which each
+     member is required to perform his part. As in every organism, so in
+     this, each separate organ serves, and is served in turn by all the
+     others, and can attain its highest development only through this
+     constant interaction. To complete the thought, it would be
+     necessary to add that certain organs are more closely connected
+     than others, and form lesser organisms within and subservient to
+     the whole. This, however, is merely thrown out as a suggestion
+     addressed to the student of ethics.
+
+
+THE DUTY OF GRATITUDE.--Upon this subject much might be said, did not
+the fact that the time at our command is nearly exhausted warn us to use
+even greater brevity than heretofore in dealing with the topics that
+remain. To bring out the right relations between benefactor and
+beneficiary, let the teacher put the question, Why is it wrong to cast
+up the benefits we have conferred to the one who has received them? And
+why, on the other hand, is it so base in the latter to show himself
+ungrateful. The reason is to be found in the respect due to the
+personality of others, to which we have so often alluded. Kant says that
+every human being is to be treated as an end in himself, and not merely
+as a means or a tool. In effect, the person who ignores benefits says to
+his benefactor: You are my tool. It is unnecessary for me to recognize
+your services, because you are not an independent person to be
+respected, but a creature to be made use of at pleasure. Ingratitude is
+a slur on the moral personality of others. On the other hand, he who
+casts up benefits practically says you have forfeited your independence
+through the favors you have accepted. I have made your personality
+tributary to mine.
+
+An excellent rule is that of Seneca. The benefactor should immediately
+forget what he has given; the beneficiary should always remember what he
+has received. True gratitude is based on the sense of our moral
+fellowship with others. The gifts received and returned are mere tokens
+of this noble relationship (as all gifts should be). You have just given
+to me. I will presently give to you twice as much again, or half as
+much, it matters not which, when occasion arises. We will further each
+other's aims as best we can, for the ends of each are sacred to the
+other.
+
+DUTIES TO SERVANTS.--Having spoken of the duties which we owe to all
+men, I may here refer to certain special duties, such as the duties
+toward servants. These may also be introduced in connection with the
+duties of the family, after the filial and fraternal duties have been
+considered. I have space only to mention the following points:
+
+1. Servants are laborers. The same respect is due to them as to all
+other laborers.
+
+2. They are not only laborers, but in a special sense helpers. They are
+members of the household in a subordinate capacity, and in many cases
+identify themselves closely with the interests of the family. They are,
+as it were, lay brothers and lay sisters of the family. From these
+considerations may be deduced the duties which we owe toward servants.
+
+DUTIES WITH REGARD TO ANIMALS.--I can not admit that we have duties
+toward animals. We can not very well speak of duties toward creatures on
+which we in part subsist; but there are duties with respect to animals.
+Man is a rational being, and as such takes a natural delight in that
+orderly arrangement and interdependence of parts which are the visible
+counterpart of the rational principle in his own nature. We ought not to
+step on or heedlessly crush under our feet even a single flower. Much
+less should we ruthlessly destroy the more perfect organism which we see
+in animals. Add to this that animals are sentient creatures, and that
+the useless infliction of pain tends to develop cruelty in us. As a
+practical means of fostering kindness toward animals, I suggest the
+following: Get your pupils interested in the habits of animals.
+Familiarity in this case will breed sympathy. Speak of the building
+instincts of bees; of the curious structures raised by those wonderful
+engineers, the beavers. Give prominence to the love for their young by
+which the brute creation is brought into closer connection with the
+human family. Mention especially the fidelity which some animals show
+toward man (the saving of human lives by St. Bernard dogs, etc.), and
+the uses which we derive from the various members of the animal
+creation. As to the fact that we use animals for our sustenance, the
+highest point of view to take, I think, is this, that man is, so to
+speak, the crucible in which all the utilities of nature are refined to
+higher spiritual uses. Man puts the whole of nature under contribution
+to serve his purposes. He takes trees from the forest in order to build
+his house, and to fashion the table at which he takes his meals; he
+brings up metal from the depths of the earth and converts it into tools;
+he takes clay and forms it into vessels. He also is permitted to pluck
+flowers wherewith to garnish his feasts, and to make them the tokens of
+his love; and in the same manner he may actually absorb the life of the
+lower animals, in order to transform and transfigure it, as it were,
+into that higher life which is possible only in human society. But it
+follows that he is a mere parasite and an interloper in nature, unless
+he actually leads the truly human life.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[19] For the teacher I add point 4. The duties mentioned under 5 and 6
+may be practiced in a simple way by the young in the form of aiding
+their backward schoolmates, and observing the right attitude toward
+those of their companions who are in disgrace.
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+THE ELEMENTS OF CIVIC DUTY.
+
+
+It should be the aim of the school not only to connect the system of
+school duties with the duties of the previous period, but also to
+prepare the pupils morally for the period which follows. The school is
+the intermediate link between life in the family and life in society and
+the state. The course of moral instruction, therefore, culminates for
+the present in the chapter on civic duties. Needless to say that at this
+stage the subject can be considered in its elements only.
+
+The claims of the state upon the moral attachment of the citizen can
+hardly be presented too warmly. Life in the state as well as in the
+family is indispensable to the full development of character. Man, in
+his progress from childhood to old age, passes successively through
+ever-widening circles of duty, and new moral horizons open upon him as
+he grows out of one into the other. One of the largest of these circles,
+and, in respect to moral opportunities, one of the richest and most
+glorious, is the state. It may be said that the whole state exists
+ideally in every true citizen, or, what amounts to the same, that the
+true citizen embraces the interests of the state, as if they were his
+own, and acts from the point of view of the total body politic.
+Increased breadth of view and elevation of purpose are the moral
+benefits which accrue to every one who even honestly attempts to be a
+citizen in this sense.
+
+Much attention is paid in some schools to the machinery of our
+government. The pupils are expected to learn the exact functions of
+mayors, city councils, and legislative bodies, the provisions relative
+to the election of the President, etc. But while these things ought to
+be known, they relate, after all, only to the externals of government;
+and it is far more important to familiarize the pupils with the
+animating spirit of political institutions, with the great ideas which
+underlie the state. There are especially three political ideas to which
+I should give prominence; these are, the idea of the supremacy of the
+law; the true idea of punishment; and the idea of nationality. After we
+have instilled these ideas, it will be time enough to dwell with greater
+particularity on the machinery by which it is sought to carry them into
+effect.
+
+What method shall we use for instilling these ideas? The same which
+modern pedagogy applies in every branch of instruction. The rule is,
+Proceed from the known to the unknown; in introducing a new notion,
+connect it with some analogous notion already in the pupil's possession.
+The school offers excellent opportunities for developing the two ideas
+of law and punishment. In every school there exists a body of rules and
+regulations, or school laws. It should be made plain to the scholars
+that these laws are enacted for their own good. The government of the
+school should be made to rest as far as possible on the consent and
+co-operation of the governed. That school which does not secure on the
+part of the scholars a willing acceptance of the system of restraints
+which is necessary for the good of the whole, is a failure. In such an
+institution the law-abiding spirit can never be fostered.
+
+The play-ground, too, affords a preliminary training for future
+citizenship. On the play-ground the scholars learn to select and to obey
+their own leaders, to maintain the rules of the game, and to put down
+any infraction of them, whether in the shape of violence or fraud. They
+also learn to defer to the will of the majority--a most important
+lesson, especially in democratic communities--and to bear defeat
+good-humoredly.[20]
+
+The true idea of punishment should be brought home to the scholars
+through the discipline of the school. The ends of punishment are the
+protection of the community and the reformation of the offender. Nowhere
+better than in the little commonwealth of the school can these moral
+aspects of punishment be impressed; nowhere better can the foundation be
+laid for the changes which are so urgently needed in the dealings of the
+state with the criminal class. Everything, of course, depends upon the
+character of the teacher. His reputation for strict justice, the moral
+earnestness he displays in dealing with offenses, his readiness to
+forbear and forgive upon the least sign of genuine repentance--these are
+the means by which he can instill right notions as to what discipline
+should be. It has been suggested that, when a particularly serious case
+of transgression occurs, the teacher can sometimes produce a profound
+moral effect on the class by submitting the case to them as a jury and
+asking for their verdict.
+
+The idea of nationality I regard as fundamental in political ethics.
+There is such a thing as national character, national genius, or
+national individuality. When we think of the Greeks, we think of them as
+pre-eminent for their achievements in art and philosophy; of the
+Hebrews, as the people of the Bible; of the Romans, as the founders of
+jurisprudence, etc. And on turning to the modern nations we find that
+the talents of the English, the Germans, the French, the Italians, etc.,
+are no less diversified. Morally speaking, it is the mission of each
+nation in correlation with others to contribute to the universal work of
+civilization its own peculiar gifts. The state may be regarded as that
+organization of the public life which is designed _to develop the
+national individuality_; to foster the national genius in whatever
+direction it may seek to express itself, whether in industry, art,
+literature, or science; to clarify its aims, and to raise it to the
+highest pitch of beneficent power.
+
+Doubtless this idea, as stated, is too abstract to be grasped by the
+young; but it can be brought down to their level in a tangible way. For
+the national genius expresses itself in the national history, and more
+especially is it incorporated in those great leaders, who arise at
+critical periods to guide the national development into new channels. It
+is at this point that we realize anew the important support which the
+teaching of history may give to the moral teaching.[21] Thus the
+political history of the United States, if I may be permitted to use
+that as an illustration of my thought, may be divided into three great
+periods. The struggle with nature occupied the earliest period--that of
+colonization; in this period we see the American man engaged in subduing
+a continent. The struggle for political freedom fills the period of the
+Revolution. The struggle for a universal moral idea lends grandeur to
+our civil war. The story of these three great struggles should be
+related with such clearness that the idea which dominated each may stand
+out in relief, and with such fervor that the pupils may conceive a more
+ardent love for their country which, at the same time that it holds out
+immeasurable prospects for the future, already possesses such glorious
+traditions. There is, however, always a great danger that patriotism may
+degenerate into Chauvinism. Against this, universal history, when taught
+in the right spirit, is the best antidote. A knowledge of universal
+history is an admirable check on spurious patriotism. In teaching it,
+it is especially desirable that the contribution which each nation has
+made to the progress of the world be noted and emphasized. Let the
+teacher speak of the early development of the literature and of the
+inventive spirit of the despised Chinese; of the high civilization which
+once flourished on the banks of the Nile; of the immortal debt we owe to
+Greece and Rome and Judea. Let the young be made acquainted with the
+important services which Ireland rendered to European culture in the
+early part of the middle ages. Let them learn, however briefly, of the
+part which France played in the overthrow of feudalism, of the wealth of
+German science and literature and philosophy; let them know how much
+mankind owes to the Parliaments of England, and to the stout heart and
+strong sense which made parliaments possible. It is not by underrating
+others, but by duly estimating and appreciating their achievements, that
+we shall find ourselves challenged to bring forth what is best in
+ourselves.
+
+There is still another reason why, especially in American schools, the
+teaching of universal history should receive far greater attention than
+hitherto has been accorded to it. The American people are imbued with
+the belief that they have a problem to solve for all mankind. They have
+set out to demonstrate in the face of doubt and adverse criticism the
+possibility of popular self-government. They have thus consecrated their
+national life to a sublime humanitarian idea. And the sense of this
+consecration, echoing in the utterances of many of their leading
+statesmen, has more or less permeated the whole people. But the mission
+thus assumed, like the burden on the shoulders of Christophorus, is
+becoming heavier at every step. The best citizens recognize that the
+problem of popular self-government, so far from being solved, is but
+beginning to disclose itself in all its vast complexity, and they
+realize more than ever how necessary it is to get every possible help
+from the example and experience of older nations. The political lessons
+of the past can not indeed be mastered in the public schools. But a
+preliminary interest in European history may be created, which will pave
+the way for profitable study later on.
+
+Furthermore, the American people have extended a most liberal invitation
+to members of other nationalities (with few restrictions, and these of
+recent origin) to come and join in working out the destinies of the new
+continent. Not only is an asylum granted to the oppressed--this were the
+lesser boon--but the gates of citizenship have been opened wide to the
+new-comers. What does this mean, if not that the foreigners who come,
+unless indeed they belong to the weak and dependent classes, are wanted;
+and wanted not only in their capacity as workers to aid in developing
+the material resources of the country, but as citizens, to help in
+perfecting what is still imperfect, to assist in building up in time, on
+American soil, the true republic.
+
+In return for this privilege the citizens of foreign birth owe it to
+their adopted country to place the best of their racial gifts at its
+service. Much that the citizens of foreign birth bring with them,
+indeed, will have to be eliminated, but, on the other hand, many of
+their traits will probably enter as constituent elements into the
+national character. The Anglo-Saxon race has now the lead, and will
+doubtless keep it. But in the melting-pot of the American commonwealths
+the elements of many diverse nationalities are being mixed anew, and a
+new nationality distinctively American is likely to be the final outcome
+of the process. Thus both the humanitarian ideal and the actual make-up
+of the people betray a cosmopolitan tendency, and it is this tendency
+which, more perhaps than anything else, gives to American political life
+its characteristic physiognomy. If this be so, if the foreign elements
+are so numerous and likely to be so influential, it is surely important
+that the foreign races, their character and their history, be studied
+and understood.
+
+Besides explaining the political ideas, I should briefly describe the
+actual functions of government. Government protects the life and
+property of its citizens against foreign aggression and violence at
+home. Government maintains the binding force of contracts. Government
+reserves to itself the coinage of money, carries the mails, supports
+public education, etc. In a word, government assumes those functions
+which can be discharged more satisfactorily or more economically by the
+joint action of the community than if left to private individuals or
+corporations. But government also undertakes the duty of protecting the
+weaker classes against oppression by the stronger, as is shown by
+factory legislation in the interest of women and minors. How far this
+function may profitably be extended is open to discussion; but that it
+has been assumed in all civilized countries is a fact which should be
+noted.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] _Vide_ Dole, "The American Citizen."
+
+[21] See remarks on this subject in the third lecture.
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+THE USE OF PROVERBS AND SPEECHES.
+
+
+For the use of my classes I have made a collection of proverbs from the
+Bible, from Buddha's Dhammapada, from the Encheiridion of Epictetus, the
+Imitation of Christ, and other ancient and modern sources. Some of these
+belong to the advanced course, others can be used in the grammar course.
+I have time to mention only a few, in order to illustrate the method of
+using them.
+
+The habit of committing proverbs or golden sayings to memory without a
+previous analysis of their meaning serves no good purpose whatever.
+Proverbs are the condensed expression of the moral experience of
+generations. The teacher should search out the experiences to which the
+proverbs refer. Proverbs may be compared to those delicate Eastern
+fabrics which can be folded up into the smallest compass, but which,
+when unfolded, are seen to cover a large space. The teacher should
+explore the territory covered by the proverb. Take, for example, such a
+saying as this, "Blessed be he who has the good eye." What is the good
+eye? The eye that sees the good in others. Is it easy to see the good in
+others? Yes, if we are fond of them; but if we are not, we are likely to
+see only the evil. But suppose there is no good to be seen, at least
+not on the surface; why, then the good eye is that which sees the good
+beneath the surface, which, like the divining-rod, shows where in human
+character gold lies buried, and helps us to penetrate to it. But even
+this does not exhaust the meaning of the proverb. The good eye is that
+which, as it were, sees the good into others, sends its good influence
+into them, makes them good by believing them to be so. The good eye is a
+creative eye. Or take the proverb, "A falsehood is like pebbles in the
+mouth." Why not say a falsehood is like a pebble? No, one falsehood is
+like many pebbles. For every falsehood tends to multiply itself, and
+each separate falsehood is like a pebble--not like bread, which we can
+assimilate, but like a stone, a foreign body, alien to our nature.
+Moreover, the proverb says, A falsehood is like pebbles in the mouth;
+which means that these stony falsehoods will choke us, choke the better
+life in us, unless we cast them out. Again, take such sayings as these
+from the Dhammapada: "As rain breaks through an ill-thatched house,
+passion will break through an unreflecting mind." Explain what kind of
+reflection is needed to keep off passion. "He who is well subdued may
+subdue others." Show what kind of self-control is meant, and in what
+sense others are to be subdued. "He who holds back anger like a rolling
+chariot, him I call a real driver; other people are but holding the
+reins." "Let a man overcome anger by love; let him overcome evil by
+good; let him overcome the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth."
+Describe the sort of brake by means of which the rolling chariot of
+anger may be checked in mid-course, and the efficacy of goodness in
+overcoming evil. From the Encheiridion it occurs to me to mention the
+saying, "Everything has two handles: the one by which it can be borne,
+the other by which it can not be borne." Epictetus himself gives an
+illustration: "If your brother acts unjustly toward you, do not lay hold
+of the act by that handle wherein he acts unjustly, for that is the
+handle by which it can not be borne; but lay hold of the other, that he
+is your brother, and you will lay hold of the thing by that handle by
+which it can be borne." There are also many other illustrations of this
+noble maxim. Disappointment has two handles, the one by which it can be
+borne, the other by which it can not. Affliction has two handles.
+Illustrate profusely; search out the meaning in detail.
+
+There is a mine of practical wisdom in these sayings. There exist
+proverbs relating to all the various duties which have been discussed in
+our course; proverbs relating to the pursuit of knowledge; many and
+beautiful proverbs on the filial and fraternal duties, on courage, on
+humility, on the importance of keeping promises, on kindness to animals,
+on the moral end of civil society. Proverbs should be classified under
+their proper heads and used as occasion offers. Permit me, however, to
+add one word of caution. It is a mistake to teach too many proverbs at a
+time, to overload the pupil's mind with them. The proverbs selected
+should be brief, pithy, and profoundly significant. But there should not
+be too many at a time. It is better to return to the same proverb often,
+and to penetrate deeper into its meaning every time. The value of the
+proverbs is that they serve as pegs in the memory, to which long chains
+of moral reflection can be attached. They are guide-posts pointing with
+their short arms to the road of duty; they are voices of mankind
+uttering impressive warnings, and giving clear direction in moments when
+the promptings of self-interest or the mists of passion would be likely
+to lead us astray.
+
+It may also be well to select a number of speeches which embody high
+moral sentiments, like some of the speeches of Isaiah, the speech of
+Socrates before his judges, and others, and, after having explained
+their meaning, to cause them to be recited by the pupils. Just as the
+delivery of patriotic speeches is found useful for inculcating patriotic
+sentiments, so such speeches as these will tend to quicken the moral
+sentiments. He who repeats the speech of another for the time being puts
+on the character of the other. The sentiments which are uttered by the
+lips live for the moment in the heart, and leave their mark there.
+
+
+
+
+XVII.
+
+THE INDIVIDUALIZATION OF MORAL TEACHING.
+
+
+This subject is of the greatest importance. It really requires extended
+and careful treatment, but a few hints must suffice. The teacher should
+remember that he is educating not boys and girls in general, but
+particular boys and girls, each of whom has particular faults needing to
+be corrected and actual or potential virtues to be developed and
+encouraged. Therefore a conscientious study of the character of the
+pupils is necessary. This constitutes an additional reason why moral
+instruction should be given in a daily school rather than in a Sunday
+school, the opportunities for the study of character being vastly better
+in the former than they can possibly be in the latter. The teacher who
+gives the moral lessons, in undertaking this study, should solicit the
+co-operation of all the other teachers of the school. He should request
+from time to time from each of his fellow-teachers reports stating the
+good and bad traits observed in each pupil, or rather the facts on which
+the various teachers base their estimates of the good and bad qualities
+of the scholars; for the opinions of teachers are sometimes unreliable,
+are sometimes discolored by prejudice, while facts tell their own
+story. These facts should be collated by the moral teacher, and, with
+them as a basis, he may endeavor to work out a kind of chart of the
+character of each of his pupils. It goes without saying, that he should
+also seek the co-operation of the parents, for the purpose of
+discovering what characteristic traits the pupil displays at home; and
+if the reputation which a pupil bears among his companions, can be
+ascertained without undue prying, this, too, will be found of use in
+forming an estimate of his disposition. The teacher who knows the
+special temptations of his pupils will have many opportunities, in the
+course of the moral lessons, to give them pertinent warnings and advice,
+without seeming to address them in particular or exposing their faults
+to the class. He will also be able to exercise a helpful surveillance
+over their conduct in school, and to become in private their friend and
+counselor. Moreover, the material thus collected will in time prove
+serviceable in helping us to a more exact knowledge of the different
+varieties of human character--a knowledge which would give to the art of
+ethical training something like a scientific basis.[22]
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[22] See some remarks on types of character in my lecture on the
+Punishment of Children.
+
+
+
+
+RECAPITULATION.
+
+
+Let us now briefly review the ground we have gone over in the present
+course. In the five introductory lectures we discussed the problem of
+unsectarian moral teaching, the efficient motives of good conduct, the
+opportunities of moral influence in schools, the classification of
+duties, and the moral status of the child on entering school.
+
+In mapping out the primary course we assumed as a starting-point the
+idea that the child rapidly passes through the same stages of evolution
+through which the human race has passed, and hence we endeavored to
+select our material for successive epochs in the child's life from the
+literature of the corresponding epochs in the life of the race.
+
+In regard to the method of instruction, we observed that in the fairy
+tales the moral element should be touched on incidentally; that in
+teaching the fables isolated moral qualities should be presented in such
+a way that the pupil may always thereafter be able to recognize them;
+while the stories display a number of moral qualities in combination and
+have the value of moral pictures.
+
+In the primary course the object has been to train the moral
+perceptions; in the grammar course, to work out moral concepts and to
+formulate rules of conduct. The method of getting at these rules may
+again be described as follows: Begin with some concrete case, suggest a
+rule which apparently fits that case or really fits it, adduce other
+cases which the rule does not fit, change the rule, modify it as often
+as necessary, until it has been brought into such shape that it will fit
+every case you can think of.
+
+In planning the lessons on duty which make up the subject matter of the
+grammar course, we took the ground that each period of life has its
+specific duties, that in each period there is one paramount duty around
+which the others may be grouped, and that each new system of duties
+should embrace and absorb the preceding one.
+
+It remains for me to add that the illustrations which I have used in the
+grammar course are intended merely to serve as specimens, and by no
+means to exclude the use of different illustrative matter which the
+teacher may find more suitable. Furthermore, I desire to express the
+hope that it may be possible, without too much difficulty, to eliminate
+whatever subjective conceptions may be found to have crept into these
+lessons, and that, due deduction having been made, there may remain a
+substratum of objective truth which all can accept. It should be
+remembered that these lectures are not intended to take the place of a
+text-book, but to serve as a guide to the teacher in preparing his
+lessons.
+
+I hope hereafter to continue the work which has thus been begun. In the
+advanced course, which is to follow the present one, we shall have to
+reconsider from a higher point of view many of the subjects already
+treated, and in addition to take up such topics as the ethics of the
+professions, the ethics of friendship, conjugal ethics, etc., which have
+here been omitted.
+
+I shall also attempt to indicate the lines for a systematic study of
+biographies, and to lay out a course of selected readings from the best
+ethical literature of ancient and modern times.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF MANUAL TRAINING ON CHARACTER.[23]
+
+
+Manual training has recently been suggested as one of the means of
+combating the criminal tendency in the young, and this suggestion is
+being received with increasing favor. But until now the theory of manual
+training has hardly begun to be worked out. The confidence which is
+expressed in it is based, for the most part, on unclassified experience.
+But experience without theory is altogether insufficient. Theory, it is
+true, without experience is without feet to stand. But experience
+without the guiding and directing help of theory is without eyes to see.
+I shall now offer, in a somewhat tentative way, a few remarks intended
+to be a contribution to the philosophy of manual training as applied to
+the reformation of delinquent children. I shall confine myself, however,
+to one type of criminality in children--a not uncommon type--that of
+moral deterioration arising from weakness of the will.
+
+In the first place, let us distinguish between feeling, desiring, and
+willing. A person who is without food feels hunger. A person who, being
+hungry, calls up in his mind images of food, will experience a desire. A
+person who adopts means to obtain food performs an act of the will. A
+Russian prisoner in Siberia who suffers from the restraints of
+confinement is in a state of feeling. The same person, when he recalls
+images of home and friends, is in a state of desire; but when he sets
+about adopting the means to effect his escape, concerts signals with his
+fellow-prisoners, undermines the walls of his dungeon, etc., he is
+performing acts of the will. Permit me to call particular attention to
+the fact that the will is characterized at its birth by the intellectual
+factor which enters into it; for the calculation of means to ends is an
+intellectual process, and every conscious act of volition involves such
+a process. If the will is thus characterized at its birth, we can at
+once anticipate the conclusion that any will will be strong in
+proportion as the intellectual factor in it predominates. It was said by
+one of the speakers that "an ounce of affection is better than a ton of
+intellect." Give me a proper mixture of the two. Give me at least an
+ounce of intellect together with an ounce of affection. There is great
+danger lest we exaggerate the importance of the emotions for morality.
+The opinion is widely entertained that good feeling, kind feeling,
+loving feeling, is the whole of morality, or, at least, the essential
+factor in it. But this opinion is surely erroneous. The will may be
+compared to the power which propels a ship through the waves. Feeling is
+the rudder. The intellect is the helmsman.
+
+Let me give illustrations to bring into view the characteristics of a
+strong and of a weak will. Great inventors, great statesmen, great
+reformers, illustrate strength of will. We note in them especially
+tenacity of purpose and a marvelous faculty for adjusting and
+readjusting means to ends. Persons who are swayed by the sensual
+appetites illustrate weakness of will. We note in them vacillation of
+purpose, and the power of adjusting means to ends only in its
+rudimentary form. The ideas of virtue are complex. No one can illustrate
+virtue on a high plane unless he is capable of holding in mind long
+trains and complex groups of ideas. The lowest vices, on the other hand,
+are distinguished by the circumstance that the ends to which they look
+are simple, and the means employed often of the crudest kind. Thus,
+suppose that a person of weak will is hungry. He knows that gold will
+buy food. He adopts the readiest way to get gold. Incapable of that long
+and complex method of attaining his end, which is exhibited, for
+instance, by the farmer who breaks the soil, plants the corn, watches
+his crops, and systematizes his labors from the year's beginning to its
+end, he takes the shortest road toward the possession of gold--he
+stretches forth his hand and takes it where he finds it. The man of weak
+will, who has a grudge against his rival, is not capable of putting
+forth a sustained and complex series of efforts toward obtaining
+satisfaction, for instance, by laboring arduously to outstrip his rival.
+He is, furthermore, incapable of those larger considerations, those
+complex groups of ideas relating to society and its permanent interests,
+which check the angry passions in the educated. He gives free and
+immediate rein to the passion as it rises. He takes the readiest means
+of getting satisfaction: he draws the knife and kills. The man of weak
+will, who burns with sensual desire, assaults the object of his desire.
+The virtues depend in no small degree on the power of serial and complex
+thinking. Those vices which are due to weakness of will are
+characterized by the crudeness of the aim and the crudeness of the
+means.
+
+To strengthen the will, therefore, it is necessary to give to the person
+of weak will the power to think connectedly, and especially to reach an
+end by long and complex trains of means.
+
+Let us pause here for a moment to elucidate this point by briefly
+considering a type of criminality which is familiar to all guardians of
+delinquent children. This type is marked by a group of salient traits,
+which may be roughly described as follows: Mental incoherency is the
+first. The thoughts of the child are, as it were, slippery, tending to
+glide past one another without mutual attachments. A second trait is
+indolence. A third, deficiency in the sense of shame; to which may be
+added that the severest punishments fail to act as deterrents.
+
+Mental incoherency is the leading trait, and supplies the key for the
+understanding of the others. Lack of connectedness between ideas is the
+radical defect. Each idea, as it rises, becomes an impulse, and takes
+effect to the full limit of its suggestions. A kind thought rises in the
+mind of such a child, and issues in a demonstrative impulse of
+affection. Shortly after, a cruel thought may rise in the mind of the
+same child; and the cruel thought will, in like manner, take effect in a
+cruel act. Children answering to this type are alternately kind,
+affectionate, and cruel. The child's indolence is due to the same
+cause--lack of connectedness between ideas. It is incapable of sustained
+effort, because every task implies the ability to pass from one idea to
+related ideas. The child is deficient in shame, because the sense of
+shame depends on a vivid realization of the idea of self. The idea of
+self, however, is a complex idea, which is not distinctly and clearly
+present to such a child. Lastly, the most severe punishments fail to act
+as deterrents for the same reason. The two impressions left in the mind,
+"I did a wrong," "I suffered a pain," lie apart. The memory of one does
+not excite the recollection of the other. The thought of the wrong does
+not lift permanently into consciousness the thought of the pain which
+followed. The punishment, as we say, is quickly forgotten. If,
+therefore, we wish to remedy a deep-seated defect of this kind, if we
+wish to cure a weak will, in such and all similar cases we must seek to
+establish a closer connection between the child's ideas.
+
+The question may now be asked, Why should we not utilize to this end the
+ordinary studies of the school curriculum--history, geography,
+arithmetic, etc.? All of these branches exercise and develop the faculty
+of serial and complex thinking. Any sum in multiplication gives a
+training of this kind. Let the task be to multiply a multiplicand of
+four figures by a multiplier of three. First the child must multiply
+every figure in the multiplicand by the units of the multiplier and
+write down the result; then by the tens, and then by the hundreds, and
+combine these results. Here is a lesson in combination, in serial, and,
+for a young child, somewhat complex thinking. Let the task be to bound
+the State of New York. The child must see the mental picture of the
+State in its relation to other States and parts of States, to lakes and
+rivers and mountains--a complex group of ideas. Or, let it be required
+to give a brief account of the American Revolution. Here is a whole
+series of events, each depending on the preceding ones. Why, then, may
+we not content ourselves with utilizing the ordinary studies of the
+school curriculum? There are two reasons.
+
+First, because history, geography, and arithmetic are not, as a rule,
+interesting to young children, especially not to young children of the
+class with which we are now dealing. These listless minds are not easily
+roused to an interest in abstractions. Secondly, it is a notorious fact
+that intellectual culture, pure and simple, is quite consistent with
+weakness of the will. A person may have very high intellectual
+attainments, and yet be morally deficient. I need hardly warn my
+reflective hearers that, when emphasizing the importance for the will of
+intellectual culture, I had in mind the intellectual process as applied
+to acts. To cultivate the intellect in its own sphere of contemplation
+and abstraction, apart from action, may leave the will precisely as
+feeble as it was before.
+
+And now, all that has been said thus far converges upon the point that
+has been in view from the beginning--the importance of manual training
+as an element in disciplining the will. Manual training fulfills the
+conditions I have just alluded to. It is interesting to the young, as
+history, geography, and arithmetic often are not. Precisely those pupils
+who take the least interest or show the least aptitude for literary
+study are often the most proficient in the workshop and the
+modeling-room. Nature has not left these neglected children without
+beautiful compensations. If they are deficient in intellectual power,
+they are all the more capable of being developed on their active side.
+Thus, manual training fulfills the one essential condition--it is
+interesting. It also fulfills the second. By manual training we
+cultivate the intellect in close connection with action. Manual training
+consists of a series of actions which are controlled by the mind, and
+which react on it. Let the task assigned be, for instance, the making of
+a wooden box. The first point to be gained is to attract the attention
+of the pupil to the task. A wooden box is interesting to a child, hence
+this first point will be gained. Lethargy is overcome, attention is
+aroused. Next, it is important to keep the attention fixed on the task:
+thus only can tenacity of purpose be cultivated. Manual training enables
+us to keep the attention of the child fixed upon the object of study,
+because the latter is concrete. Furthermore, the variety of occupations
+which enter into the making of the box constantly refreshes this
+interest after it has once been started. The wood must be sawed to line.
+The boards must be carefully planed and smoothed. The joints must be
+accurately worked out and fitted. The lid must be attached with hinges.
+The box must be painted or varnished. Here is a sequence of means
+leading to an end, a series of operations all pointing to a final object
+to be gained, to be created. Again, each of these means becomes in turn
+and for the time being a secondary end; and the pupil thus learns, in an
+elementary way, the lesson of subordinating minor ends to a major end.
+And, when finally the task is done, when the box stands before the boy's
+eyes a complete whole, a serviceable thing, sightly to the eyes, well
+adapted to its uses, with what a glow of triumph does he contemplate his
+work! The pleasure of achievement now comes in to crown his labor; and
+this sense of achievement, in connection with the work done, leaves in
+his mind a pleasant after-taste, which will stimulate him to similar
+work in the future. The child that has once acquired, in connection with
+the making of a box, the habits just described, has begun to master the
+secret of a strong will, and will be able to apply the same habits in
+other directions and on other occasions.
+
+Or let the task be an artistic one. And let me here say that manual
+training is incomplete unless it covers art training. Many otherwise
+excellent and interesting experiments in manual training fail to give
+satisfaction because they do not include this element. The useful must
+flower into the beautiful, to be in the highest sense useful. Nor is it
+necessary to remind those who have given attention to the subject of
+education how important is the influence of the beautiful is in
+refining the sentiments and elevating the nature of the young. Let the
+task, then, be to model a leaf, a vase, a hand, a head. Here again we
+behold the same advantages as in the making of the box. The object is
+concrete, and therefore suitable for minds incapable of grasping
+abstractions. The object can be constantly kept before the pupil's eyes.
+There is gradual approximation toward completeness, and at last that
+glow of triumph! What child is not happy if he has produced something
+tangible, something that is the outgrowth of his own activity,
+especially if it be something which is charming to every beholder?
+
+And now let me briefly summarize certain conclusions to which reflection
+has led me in regard to the subject of manual training in reformatory
+institutions. Manual training should be introduced into every
+reformatory. In New York city we have tested a system of work-shop
+lessons for children between six and fourteen. There is, I am persuaded,
+no reason why manual training should not be applied to the youngest
+children in reformatories. Manual training should always include art
+training. The labor of the children of reformatories should never be let
+to contractors. I heartily agree with what was said on that subject this
+morning. The pupils of reformatories should never make heads of pins or
+the ninetieth fraction of a shoe. Let there be no machine work. Let the
+pupils turn out complete articles, for only thus can the full
+intellectual and moral benefits of manual training be reaped.
+Agriculture, wherever the opportunities are favorable, offers, on the
+whole, the same advantages as manual training, and should be employed
+if possible, in connection with it.
+
+I have thus far attempted to show how the will can be made strong. But a
+strong will is not necessarily a good will. It is true, there are
+influences in manual training, as it has been described, which are
+favorable to a virtuous disposition. Squareness in things is not without
+relation to squareness in action and in thinking. A child that has
+learned to be exact--that is, truthful--in his work will be predisposed
+to be scrupulous and truthful in his speech, in his thought, in his
+acts. The refining and elevating influence of artistic work I have
+already mentioned. But, along with and over and above all these
+influences, I need hardly say to you that, in the remarks which I have
+offered this evening, I have all along taken for granted the continued
+application of those tried and excellent methods which prevail in our
+best reformatories. I have taken for granted that isolation from
+society, which shuts out temptation; that routine of institutional life,
+which induces regularity of habit; that strict surveillance of the whole
+body of inmates and of every individual, which prevents excesses of the
+passions, and therefore starves them into disuse. I have taken for
+granted the cultivation of the emotions, the importance of which I am
+the last to undervalue. I have taken for granted the influence of good
+example, good literature, good music, poetry, and religion. All I have
+intended to urge is that between good feeling and the realization of
+good feeling there exists, in persons whose will-power is weak, a
+hiatus, and that manual training is admirably adapted to fill that
+hiatus.
+
+There is another advantage to be noted in connection with manual
+training--namely, that it develops the property sense. What, after all,
+apart from artificial social convention, is the foundation of the right
+of property? On what basis does it rest? I have a proprietary right in
+my own thoughts. I have a right to follow my tastes in the adornment of
+my person and my house. I have a right to the whole sphere of my
+individuality, my selfhood; and I have a right in _things_ so far as I
+use them to express my personality. The child that has made a wooden box
+has put a part of himself into the making of that box--his thought, his
+patience, his skill, his toil--and therefore the child feels that that
+box is in a certain sense his own. And as only those who have the sense
+of ownership are likely to respect the right of ownership in others, we
+may by manual training cultivate the property sense of the child; and
+this, in the case of the delinquent child, it will be admitted, is no
+small advantage.
+
+I have confined myself till now to speaking of the importance of manual
+training in its influence on the character of delinquent children. I
+wish to add a few words touching the influence of manual training on
+character in general, and its importance for children of all classes of
+society. I need not here speak of the value of manual training to the
+artisan class. That has been amply demonstrated of late by the many
+technical and art schools which the leading manufacturing nations of
+Europe have established and are establishing. I need not speak of the
+value of manual training to the future surgeon, dentist, scientist, and
+to all those who require deftness of hand in the pursuit of their
+vocations. But I do wish to speak of the value of manual training to the
+future lawyer and clergyman, and to all those who will perhaps never be
+called upon to labor with their hands. Precisely because they will not
+labor with their hands is manual training so important for them--in the
+interest of an all-round culture--in order that they may not be entirely
+crippled on one side of their nature. The Greek legend says that the
+giant Antaeus was invincible so long as his feet were planted on the
+solid earth. We need to have a care that our civilization shall remain
+planted on the solid earth. There is danger lest it may be developed too
+much into the air--that we may become too much separated from those
+primal sources of strength from which mankind has always drawn its
+vitality. The English nobility have deliberately adopted hunting as
+their favorite pastime. They follow as a matter of physical exercise, in
+order to keep up their physical strength, a pursuit which the savage man
+followed from necessity. The introduction of athletics in colleges is a
+move in the same direction. But it is not sufficient to maintain our
+physical strength, our brute strength, the strength of limb and muscle.
+We must also preserve that spiritualized strength which we call
+skill--the tool-using faculty, the power of impressing on matter the
+stamp of mind. And the more machinery takes the place of human labor,
+the more necessary will it be to resort to manual training as a means of
+keeping up skill, precisely as we have resorted to athletics as a means
+of keeping up strength.
+
+There is one word more I have to say in closing. Twenty-five years ago,
+as the recent memories of Gettysburg recall to us, we fought to keep
+this people a united nation. Then was State arrayed against State.
+To-day class is beginning to be arrayed against class. The danger is not
+yet imminent, but it is sufficiently great to give us thought. The chief
+source of the danger, I think, lies in this, that the two classes of
+society have become so widely separated by difference of interests and
+pursuits that they no longer fully understand one another, and
+misunderstanding is the fruitful source of hatred and dissension. This
+must not continue. The manual laborer must have time and opportunity for
+intellectual improvement. The intellectual classes, on the other hand,
+must learn manual labor; and this they can best do in early youth, in
+the school, before the differentiation of pursuits has yet begun. Our
+common schools are rightly so named. The justification of their support
+by the State is not, I think, as is sometimes argued, that the State
+should give a sufficient education to each voter to enable him at least
+to read the ballot which he deposits. This is but a poor equipment for
+citizenship at best. The justification for the existence of our common
+schools lies rather in the bond of common feeling which they create
+between the different classes of society. And it is this bond of common
+feeling woven in childhood that has kept and must keep us a united
+people. Let manual training, therefore, be introduced into the common
+schools; let the son of the rich man learn, side by side with the son of
+the poor man, to labor with his hands; let him thus practically learn to
+respect labor; let him learn to understand what the dignity of manual
+labor really means, and the two classes of society, united at the root,
+will never thereafter entirely grow asunder.
+
+A short time ago I spent an afternoon with a poet whose fame is familiar
+to all. There was present in the company a gentleman of large means,
+who, in the course of conversation, descanted upon the merits of the
+protective system, and spoke in glowing terms of the growth of the
+industries of his State and of the immense wealth which is being
+accumulated in its large cities. The aged poet turned to him, and said:
+"That is all very well. I like your industries and your factories and
+your wealth; but, tell me, do they turn out men down your way?" That is
+the question which we are bound to consider. _Is this civilization of
+ours turning out men_--manly men and womanly women? Now, it is a
+cheering and encouraging thought that technical labor, which is the
+source of our material aggrandizement, may also become, when employed in
+the education of the young, the means of enlarging their manhood,
+quickening their intellect, and strengthening their character.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[23] An address delivered before the National Conference of Charities
+and Correction, at Buffalo, July, 1888.
+
+
+
+
+D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS WORKS OF HERBERT SPENCER.
+
+
+_EDUCATION: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical._ 12mo. Paper, 50 cents;
+cloth, $1.25.
+
+     CONTENTS: What Knowledge is of most Worth?--Intellectual
+     Education.--Moral Education.--Physical Education.
+
+
+_SOCIAL STATICS._ By HERBERT SPENCER. New and revised edition, including
+"The Man _versus_ the State," a series of essays on political tendencies
+heretofore published separately. 12mo. 420 pages. Cloth, $2.00.
+
+     Having been much annoyed by the persistent quotation from the old
+     edition of "Social Statics," in the face of repeated warnings, of
+     views which he had abandoned, and by the misquotation of others
+     which he still holds, Mr. Spencer some ten years ago stopped the
+     sale of the book in England and prohibited its translation. But the
+     rapid spread of communistic theories gave new life to these
+     misrepresentations; hence Mr. Spencer decided to delay no longer a
+     statement of his mature opinions on the rights of individuals and
+     the duty of the state.
+
+     CONTENTS: Happiness as an Immediate Aim.--Unguided Expediency.--The
+     Moral-Sense Doctrine.--What is Morality?--The Evanescence
+     [? Diminution] of Evil.--Greatest Happiness must be sought
+     indirectly.--Derivation of a First Principle.--Secondary Derivation
+     of a First Principle.--First Principle.--Application of this First
+     Principle.--The Right of Property.--Socialism.--The Right of
+     Property in Ideas.--The Rights of Women.--The Rights of
+     Children.--Political Rights.--The Constitution of the State.--The
+     Duty of the State.--The Limit of State-Duty.--The Regulation of
+     Commerce.--Religious Establishments.--Poor-Laws.--National
+     Education.--Government Colonization.--Sanitary
+     Supervision.--Currency Postal Arrangements, etc.--General
+     Considerations.--The New Toryism.--The Coming Slavery.--The Sins of
+     Legislators.--The Great Political Superstition.
+
+
+_THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY._ The fifth volume in the International
+Scientific Series. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.
+
+     CONTENTS: Our Need of it--Is there a Social Science?--Nature of the
+     Social Science.--Difficulties of the Social Science.--Objective
+     Difficulties.--Subjective Difficulties, Intellectual.--Subjective
+     Difficulties, Emotional.--The Educational Bias--The Bias of
+     Patriotism.--The Class-Bias.--The Political Bias.--The Theological
+     Bias.--Discipline.--Preparation in Biology.--Preparation in
+     Psychology.--Conclusion.
+
+
+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+     "This work marks an epoch in the history-writing of this
+     country."--_St. Louis Post-Dispatch._
+
+[Illustration: COLONIAL COURT-HOUSE. PHILADELPHIA, 1707.]
+
+_THE HOUSEHOLD HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS PEOPLE._ FOR YOUNG
+AMERICANS. By EDWARD EGGLESTON. Richly illustrated with 350 Drawings, 75
+Maps, etc. Square 8vo. Cloth, $2.50.
+
+
+_FROM THE PREFACE._
+
+The present work is meant, in the first instance, for the young--not
+alone for boys and girls, but for young men and women who have yet to
+make themselves familiar with the more important features of their
+country's history. By a book for the young is meant one in which the
+author studies to make his statements clear and explicit, in which
+curious and picturesque details are inserted, and in which the writer
+does not neglect such anecdotes as lend the charm of a human and
+personal interest to the broader facts of the nation's story. That
+history is often tiresome to the young is not so much the fault of
+history as of a false method of writing by which one contrives to relate
+events without sympathy or imagination, without narrative connection or
+animation. The attempt to master vague and general records of kiln-dried
+facts is certain to beget in the ordinary reader a repulsion from the
+study of history--one of the most important of all studies for its
+widening influence on general culture.
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN'S TRAP.]
+
+     "Fills a decided gap which has existed for the past twenty years in
+     American historical literature. The work is admirably planned and
+     executed, and will at once take its place as a standard record of
+     the life, growth, and development of the nation. It is profusely
+     and beautifully illustrated."--_Boston Transcript._
+
+     "The book in its new dress makes a much finer appearance than
+     before, and will be welcomed by older readers as gladly as its
+     predecessor was greeted by girls and boys. The lavish use the
+     publishers have made of colored plates, woodcuts, and photographic
+     reproductions, gives an unwonted piquancy to the printed page,
+     catching the eye as surely as the text engages the mind."--_New
+     York Critic._
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL PUTNAM.]
+
+     "The author writes history as a story. It can never be less than
+     that. The book will enlist the interest of young people, enlighten
+     their understanding, and by the glow of its statements fix the
+     great events of the country firmly in the mind."--_San Francisco
+     Bulletin._
+
+
+New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Moral Instruction of Children, by Felix Adler
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